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[ [ "Dose" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dose''' or '''Dosage''' may refer to:" ], [ "Music", "* ''Dose'' (Gov't Mule album), 1998* ''Dose'' (Latin Playboys album)* ''Dosage'' (album), by the band Collective Soul* \"Dose\" (song), a 2018 song by Ciara * \"Dose\", song by Filter from the album ''Short Bus''" ], [ "Science", "* Dose (biochemistry), a measured quantity of a medicine, nutrient, or pathogen which is delivered as a unit.", "* Dosage form, a mixture of active and inactive components used to administer a medication* Dosing, feeding chemicals or medicines when used in small quantities* Effective dose (pharmacology), a dose or concentration of a drug that produces a biological responseAbsorbed dose, a measure of energy deposited in matter from ionizing radiation Equivalent dose, a measure of cancer/heritable health risk in tissue from ionizing radiationEffective dose (radiation), a measure of cancer/heritable health risk to the whole body from ionizing radiationMedian lethal dose, a measure of the lethal dose of a chemical agent, toxin, adiation, or pathogen* DOSE, an acronym for dopamine, oxytocin, serotonin, and endorphins, the four main chemicals associated with happiness in humans" ], [ "Other", "* Dosa or dose, a thin pancake or crepe originating from South India* ''Dose'' (magazine), a free daily Canadian magazine* Döse, town in Lower Saxony, Germany* Gerd Dose (1942–2010), professor of English literature at the University of Hamburg" ], [ "See also", "* Double Dose (disambiguation)* Effective dose (disambiguation)* Overdose (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dilbert" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dilbert''''' is an American comic strip written and illustrated by Scott Adams, first published on April 16, 1989.It is known for its satirical office humor about a white-collar, micromanaged office with engineer Dilbert as the title character.", "It has led to dozens of books, an animated television series, a video game, and hundreds of themed merchandise items.", "''Dilbert Future'' and ''The Joy of Work'' are among the best-selling books in the series.", "In 1997, Adams received the National Cartoonists Society Reuben Award and the Newspaper Comic Strip Award for his work.", "''Dilbert'' appears online and as of 2013 was published daily in 2,000 newspapers in 65 countries and 25 languages.In 2023, ''Dilbert'' was dropped by numerous independent newspapers as well as its distributor, Andrews McMeel Syndication (which owns GoComics, from where the comic was also removed), after Adams published a video that called Black Americans a \"hate group\" and saying white Americans should \"get the hell away from Black people\".", "The video was widely described by sources such as ''The Economist'' and ''Reuters'' as containing \"racist comments\" and being a \"racist rant.\"", "The following month, Adams relaunched the strip as a webcomic on Locals under the name ''Daily Dilbert Reborn''." ], [ "Publication history", "''Dilbert'' began syndication by United Feature Syndicate (a division of United Media) in April 1989.On June 3, 2010, United Media sold its licensing arm, along with the rights to ''Dilbert'', to Iconix Brand Group.", "This led to ''Dilbert'' leaving United Media.", "In late December 2010, it was announced that Dilbert would move to Universal Uclick (a division of Andrews McMeel Universal, known as Andrews McMeel Syndication) beginning in June 2011, where it remained until 2023.In September 2022, Lee Enterprises ceased running the strip in what Scott Adams reported as 77 newspapers as the publisher declined to include the strip in a new comics page that was instituted throughout the company.", "He said that he had received complaints about Dilbert mocking the environmental, social, and corporate governance movement, but that he was not sure if that was the reason for the cancellation.", "The ''San Francisco Chronicle'', owned by Hearst Media dropped ''Dilbert'' in October 2022 saying the move came after strips joked that reparations for slavery could be claimed by underperforming office workers.In February 2023, hundreds of newspapers owned by media conglomerates including Andrews McMeel Syndication dropped the comic in response to a YouTube video published by Adams on February 22, 2023, during which he advised white people to \"get the hell away from black people\" following publication of a Rasmussen Reports poll which Adams said showed that African-American people collectively form a \"hate group\".", "The poll found that 53% of African-Americans agree with the statement \"It's okay to be White\", while 26% disagreed, and 21% responded they were \"not sure\".", "Gannett, including its USA Today network (including the ''Detroit Free Press,'' ''The Indianapolis Star,'' ''The Cincinnati Enquirer'', and ''The Arizona Republic)'' also dropped the strip following Adams's comments.", "Such major newspapers as ''The Washington Post'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', ''The Seattle Times'', ''The Atlanta Journal-Constitution'', and ''The Plain Dealer'' all ceased to syndicate Dilbert and published editorials denouncing Adams.", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' also stated it had removed four ''Dilbert'' cartoons from its pages in the preceding nine months when they did not meet the newspaper's standards.", "In response, Adams announced that on March 16, 2023, he would launch ''Dilbert Reborn'' on the subscription website Locals, describing it as \"spicier than the original\"." ], [ "Themes", "The comic strip originally revolved around the character Dilbert and his \"pet\" dog Dogbert in their home.", "Many early plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature, bizarre inventions, and megalomaniacal ambitions.", "Later, the setting of most of the strips was changed to Dilbert's workplace and the strip began to satirize technology, workplace, and company issues.", "The strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience.", "Adams said that switching the setting from Dilbert's home to his office was \"when the strip really started to take off\".", "The workplace location is Silicon Valley.", "''Dilbert'' portrays corporate culture as a Kafkaesque world of bureaucracy for its own sake, where office politics preclude productivity, employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and busy work is praised.", "Much of the humor involves characters making ridiculous decisions in reaction to mismanagement." ], [ "Characters", "=== Dilbert ===The strip's central character, Dilbert is depicted as a technically-minded engineer.", "Until October 2014, he was usually depicted wearing a white dress shirt, black trousers and a red-and-black striped tie that inexplicably curved upward.", "After October 13, 2014, his standard apparel changed to a red polo shirt with a name badge on a lanyard around his neck.", "He is a skilled engineer but has poor social and romantic lives.=== Pointy-Haired Boss (PHB) ===Dilbert's boss, known only as the Pointy-Haired Boss, is the unnamed, oblivious manager of the engineering division of Dilbert's company.", "Adams states that he never named him so that people can imagine him to be their boss.", "In earlier strips he was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager with jowls; it was not until later that he developed his signature pointy hair and the jowls disappeared.", "He is hopelessly incompetent at management, and he often tries to compensate for his lack of skills with countless group therapy sessions and business strategies that rarely bear fruit.", "He does not understand technical issues but always tries to disguise this ineptitude, usually by using buzzwords he also does not understand.", "The Boss treats his employees alternately with enthusiasm or neglect; he often uses them to his own ends regardless of the consequences to them.", "Adams himself wrote that \"he's not sadistic, just uncaring\".", "His level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs.", "His utter lack of consistent business ethics, however, is perfectly consistent.", "His brother is a demon named \"Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light\", and according to Adams, the pointy hair is intended to remind one of devil horns.=== Wally ===One of the longest-serving engineers, Wally was originally a worker trying to get fired to obtain a large severance package.", "He hates work and avoids it whenever he can.", "He often carries a cup of coffee, calmly sipping from it even in the midst of chaos or office-shaking revelations.", "Wally is extremely cynical.", "He is even more socially inept than Dilbert (though far less self-aware of the fact), and references to his lack of personal hygiene are not uncommon.", "Like the Pointy-Haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work.", "Until the change to \"business dorky\" wear of a polo shirt, Wally was invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie.", "Adams has stated that Wally was based on a Pacific Bell coworker of his who was interested in a generous employee buy-out program—for the company's worst employees.", "This had the effect of causing this man—whom Adams describes as \"one of the more brilliant people I've met\"—to work hard at being incompetent, rude, and generally poor at his job to qualify for the buy-out program.", "Adams has said that this inspired the basic laziness and amorality of Wally's character.", "Despite these personality traits, Wally is accepted as part of Dilbert, Ted, Alice, and Asok's clique.", "Although his relationship with Alice is often antagonistic and Dilbert occasionally denies being his friend, their actions show at least a certain acceptance of him.", "For Asok, Wally serves as something of a guru of counterintuitive \"wisdom\".", "Wally exasperates Dilbert at times but is also sometimes the only other co-worker who understands Dilbert's frustrations with company idiocy and bureaucracy.", "While Dilbert rages at the dysfunction of the policies of the company, Wally has learned to use the dysfunction to cloak, even justify, his laziness.=== Alice ===One of the more competent and highest paid engineers.", "She is often frustrated at work because she does not get proper recognition, which she believes is because she is female.", "She has a quick, often violent temper, sometimes putting her \"Fist of Death\" to use, even with the Pointy-haired Boss.", "Alice is based on a woman that Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's \"pink suit, fluffy hair, technical proficiency, coffee obsession, and take-no-crap attitude.", "\"=== Dogbert ===Dilbert's anthropomorphic pet dog is the smartest dog on Earth.", "Dogbert is a megalomaniac intellectual dog, planning to one day conquer the world.", "He once succeeded, but became bored with the ensuing peace, and quit.", "Often seen in high-ranking consultant or technical support jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company, though considering the intelligence of the company's management in general and Dilbert's boss in particular, this is not very hard to do.", "He also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting and usually dull customers to steal their money.", "However, despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams.", "Dogbert's nature as a pet was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common, although he still wags his tail when he perpetrates his scams.", "When an older Dilbert arrives while time-traveling from the future, he refers to Dogbert as \"majesty\", indicating that Dogbert will one day indeed rule the world again, and make worshipping him retroactive so he could boss around time travelers.=== Catbert ==='''Catbert''' is the \"evil director of human resources\" in the ''Dilbert'' comic strip.", "He was supposed to be a one-time character but resonated with readers so well that Adams brought him back as the HR director.", "Catbert's origins with the company are that he was hired by Dogbert.", "Dogbert hired him because he wanted an H.R.", "Director that appeared cute while secretly downsizing employees.=== Asok ===A young intern, Asok works very hard but does not always get proper recognition.", "He is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his optimistic illusions becomes frequent comic fodder.", "He is Indian and graduated from the Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT).", "The other workers, especially the Boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs.", "On the occasions when Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored.", "His test scores (a perfect 1600 on the old SAT) and his IQ of 240 show that he is the smartest member of the engineering team.", "Nonetheless, he is often called upon by the Boss to do odd jobs, and in meetings his ideas are usually left hanging.", "He is also seen regularly at the lunch table with Wally and Dilbert, experiencing jarring realizations of the nature of corporate life.", "There are a few jokes about his psychic powers, which he learned at the IIT.", "Yet despite his intelligence, ethics, and mystical powers, Asok sometimes takes advice from Wally in the arts of laziness, and from Dilbert in surviving the office.", "As of February 7, 2014, Asok is officially gay, which never affects any storylines but merely commemorates a decision by the Indian Supreme Court to uphold a British-era anti-gay law, a decision which was overturned on September 6, 2018.=== The CEO ===The CEO of the company is bald and has an extremely tall, somewhat pointed cranium.", "He is only slightly less clueless than the Pointy-Haired Boss.=== Ted ===An engineer who is often seen hanging out with Wally.", "He is referenced by name more often in older comics, but he is still seen occasionally.", "He has been accepted into Dilbert's clique.", "He has been fired and killed numerous times (for example, being pushed down a flight of stairs and becoming possessed), in which case a new Ted is apparently hired.", "In addition to this, he is often promoted and given benefits over the other employees.", "Ted has a wife and children who are referenced multiple times and seen on at least one occasion.", "Adams refers to him as ''Ted the Generic Guy'', because whenever he needs to fire or kill someone he uses Ted, but slowly over time Ted has become his own character.=== Tina ===Also known as Tina the Tech Writer.", "She has a less forceful personality than Alice and often seems to get taken advantage of by the other employees.", "Her job of writing technical directions for her company's software cannot be an easy one as none of their products work as designed.=== Carol ===Carol is the long-suffering secretary (she prefers the title Executive Assistant) to the Pointy-haired Boss.", "Her hair style is a much smaller triangle than that of Alice.", "She hates her job, but once told Dilbert that spending time with her family of a husband and two children is like fighting porcupines in a salt mine, although when the job gets to be too much she is glad to get back to them.=== Dave ===Introduced in 2022, Dave is the strip's first black character, although he identifies as white, messing up the company's ESG and diversity scores, possibly deliberately, as it is not clear whether he is serious or not.", "Dave has proved controversial, with at least one newspaper chain deciding not to run the strips featuring him.=== Elbonia ===Elbonia is a fictional non-specific under-developed country used when Adams wants \"to involve a foreign country without hurting overseas sales\".", "He says \"People think I have some specific country in mind when I write about Elbonia, but I don't.", "It represents the view that Americans have of any country that doesn't have cable television—we think they all wear fur hats and wallow around waist-deep in mud\".", "The entire country wears the same clothing and hats, and all men and womenhave full beards.", "They are occasionally bitter towards their wealthier western neighbors, but are quite happy to trade with them.", "The whole country is covered in mud, and has limited technology.Elbonia is located somewhere in the former Eastern Bloc: a strip dated April 2, 1990, refers to the \"Tiny East European country of Elbonia.\"", "It is an extremely poor, fourth-world country that \"has abandoned Communism\".", "The national bird of Elbonia is the Frisbee.=== Phil ===The Pointy-Haired Boss's brother Phil.", "His full title is Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light & Supreme Ruler of Heck.", "His job, one step down from Satan, is to punish those who commit minor sins.", "His 'Pitch-Spoon' is feared by those who do.", "He is known to 'Darn to Heck' people who do things like using cell phones in the bathroom, steal office supplies, or those who simply do something annoying.", "In one strip, it was mentioned that being in Heck is not as bad as being in a cubicle.=== Ratbert ===Ratbert is an escaped lab rat who lives in Dilbert's house.", "Ratbert was not originally intended to be a regular, instead being part of a series of strips featuring a lab scientist's cruel experiments.", "The character is often seen in strips set in Dilbert's home and is frequently a foil / co-conspirator in Dogbert's machinations." ], [ "Legacy", "The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector led to the Dilbert character being used in many business magazines and publications, including several appearances on the cover of ''Fortune Magazine''.", "Many newspapers ran the comic in their business section rather than in the regular comics section—similar to the way that ''Doonesbury'' is often featured in the editorial section, due to its pointed commentary.===Criticism and parody===Media analyst Norman Solomon and cartoonist Tom Tomorrow claim that Adams's caricatures of corporate culture seem to project empathy for white-collar workers, but the satire ultimately plays into the hands of upper corporate management itself.", "Solomon describes the characters of ''Dilbert'' as dysfunctional time-wasters, none of whom occupies a position higher than middle management, and whose inefficiencies detract from corporate values such as productivity and growth.", "Dilbert and his coworkers often find themselves baffled or victimized by the whims of managerial behavior, but they never seem to question it openly.", "Solomon cites the Xerox corporation's use of ''Dilbert'' strips and characters in internally distributed pamphlets:Adams responded in the February 2, 1998, strip and in his book ''The Joy of Work'' with a sarcastic reiteration.In 1997, Tom Vanderbilt wrote in a similar vein in ''The Baffler'' magazine:In 1998, Bill Griffith, creator of ''Zippy the Pinhead'', chided ''Dilbert'' for crude drawings and simplistic humor.", "He wrote,Adams responded by creating two comic strips called ''Pippy the Ziphead'', in which Dogbert creates a comic by \"cramming as much artwork in it as possible so no one will notice there's only one joke\", and it's \"on the reader\".", "Dilbert says that the strip is \"nothing but a clown with a small head who says random things\", and Dogbert responds that he is \"maintaining his artistic integrity by creating a comic that no one will enjoy.\"", "In September of the same year, Griffith mocked Adams's ''Pippy the Ziphead'' with a strip of the same name drawn in a simplistic, stiff, ''Dilbert''-like style set in an office setting and featuring the characters Zippy and Griffy retorting, \"I sense a joke was delivered.\"", "\"Yes.", "It was.", "My one joke.", "Ha.", "\"In the late 1990s, amateur cartoonist Karl Hörnell began submitting a comic strip to ''Savage Dragon'' creator Erik Larsen that parodied both ''Dilbert'' and the Image Comics series ''The Savage Dragon''.", "This became a regular feature in the ''Savage Dragon'' comic book, titled ''The Savage Dragonbert and Hitler's Brainbert''—\"Hitler's Brainbert\" being a loose parody of both Dogbert and the ''Savage Dragon'' villain identified as Adolf Hitler's disembodied, superpowered brain.", "The strip began as a specific parody of the comic book itself, set loosely within the office structure of ''Dilbert'', with Hörnell doing an emulation of Adams's cartooning style.=== Language ===Adams has invited readers to invent words that have become popular among fans in describing their own office environments, such as ''induhvidual''.", "This term is based on the American English slang expression \"duh!\"", "The conscious misspelling of ''individual'' as ''induhvidual'' is a pejorative term for people who are not in Dogbert's New Ruling Class (DNRC).", "Its coining is explained in ''Dilbert Newsletter'' #6.The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms ''cow-orker'' and ''PHB''.===Management===In 1997, Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to Logitech executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman.", "He acted in much the way that he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing mission statements to broccoli soup.", "He convinced the executives to change their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group from \"provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas\" to \"scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission-inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings\".To demonstrate what can be achieved with the most mundane objects if planned correctly and imaginatively, Adams has worked with companies to develop \"dream\" products for Dilbert and company.", "In 2001, he collaborated with design company IDEO to come up with the \"perfect cubicle\", a fitting creation since many of the ''Dilbert'' strips make fun of the standard cubicle desk and the environment that it creates.", "The result was both whimsical and practical.This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH).", "An energy-efficient building was the result, designed to prevent many of the little problems that seem to creep into a normal building.", "For instance, to save time spent buying and decorating a Christmas tree every year, the house has a large (yet unapparent) closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored from year to year.===Webcomics===In 1995, ''Dilbert'' was the first syndicated comic strip to be published for free on the Internet.", "Putting his email address in each ''Dilbert'' strip, Adams created a \"direct channel to his customers\", allowing him to modify the strip based on their feedback.", "Joe Zabel stated that ''Dilbert'' had a large influence on many of the webcomics that followed it, establishing the \"nerdcore\" genre as it found its audience.In April 2008, United Media instituted an interactive feature on Dilbert.com, allowing fans to write speech bubbles.", "Adams has spoken positively about the change, saying, \"This makes cartooning a competitive sport.\"" ], [ "Awards", "Adams was named best international comic strip artist of 1995 in the Adamson Awards given by the Swedish Academy of Comic Art.", "''Dilbert'' won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1997, and was also named the best syndicated strip of 1997 in the Harvey Awards.", "In 1998, ''Dilbert'' won the Max & Moritz Prize as best international comic strip." ], [ "Media", "===Comic strip compilations=======Chronological==== Title Strips collected Date published Pages ISBN Notes ''Always Postpone Meetings with Time-Wasting Morons'' April 16, 1989 – October 21, 1989 October 1992 112 ''Shave the Whales'' October 22, 1989 – August 4, 1990 April 1994 128 ''Bring Me the Head of Willy the Mailboy!''", "August 5, 1990 – May 18, 1991 March 1995 128 The strip dated March 31, 1991, was not included.", "''It's Obvious You Won't Survive by Your Wits Alone'' May 19, 1991 – December 13, 1992 August 1995 224 ''Still Pumped from Using the Mouse'' December 14, 1992 – September 27, 1993 March 1996 128 ''Fugitive From the Cubicle Police'' September 28, 1993 – February 4, 1995 September 1996 224 ''Casual Day Has Gone Too Far'' February 5, 1995 – November 19, 1995 March 1997 128 ''I'm Not Anti-Business, I'm Anti-Idiot'' November 20, 1995 – August 31, 1996 March 1998 128 ''Journey to Cubeville'' September 1, 1996 – January 4, 1998 August 1998 224 ''Don't Step in the Leadership'' January 12, 1998 – October 18, 1998 March 1999 128 ''Random Acts of Management'' October 19, 1998 – July 25, 1999 March 2000 128 ''Excuse Me While I Wag'' July 26, 1999 – April 30, 2000 April 2001 128 ''When Did Ignorance Become a Point of View?''", "May 1, 2000 – February 4, 2001 September 2001 128 ''Another Day in Cubicle Paradise'' February 5, 2001 – November 11, 2001 March 2002 128 ''When Body Language Goes Bad'' November 12, 2001 – August 18, 2002 March 2003 128 ''Words You Don't Want to Hear During Your Annual Performance Review'' August 19, 2002 – May 25, 2003 October 2003 128 ''Don't Stand Where the Comet is Assumed to Strike Oil'' May 26, 2003 – February 29, 2004 May 2004 128 ''The Fluorescent Light Glistens Off Your Head'' March 1, 2004 – December 5, 2004 May 2005 128 ''Thriving on Vague Objectives'' December 6, 2004 – September 11, 2005 November 2005 128 ''Try Rebooting Yourself'' September 12, 2005 – June 18, 2006 October 2006 128 ''Positive Attitude'' June 19, 2006 – March 25, 2007 July 2007 128 ''This is the Part Where You Pretend to Add Value'' March 26, 2007 – January 5, 2008 May 2008 128 ''Freedom's Just Another Word for People Finding Out You're Useless'' January 6, 2008 – October 12, 2008 April 2009 128 ''14 Years of Loyal Service in a Fabric-Covered Box'' October 13, 2008 – July 25, 2009 October 2009 128 ''I'm Tempted to Stop Acting Randomly'' July 26, 2009 – May 2, 2010 December 2010 128 ''How's That Underling Thing Working Out for You?''", "May 3, 2010 – February 12, 2011 November 2011 128 ''Teamwork Means You Can't Pick the Side that's Right'' February 13, 2011 – November 20, 2011 April 2012 128 ''Your New Job Title Is \"Accomplice\"'' November 21, 2011 – August 26, 2012 May 2013 128 Strips from August 27, 2012, to October 7, 2012, were not collected.", "''I Sense a Coldness to Your Mentoring'' October 8, 2012 – July 14, 2013 October 2013 128 ''Go Add Value Someplace Else'' July 15, 2013 – July 20, 2014 October 2014 168 ''Optimism Sounds Exhausting'' July 21, 2014 – August 1, 2015 November 2015 168 ''I'm No Scientist, But I Think Feng Shui Is Part of the Answer'' August 2, 2015 – July 23, 2016 November 2016 208 ''Dilbert Gets Re-accommodated'' July 24, 2016 – June 10, 2017 November 2017 144 ''Cubicles That Make You Envy the Dead'' June 11, 2017 – April 29, 2018 November 2018 144 ''Dilbert Turns 30'' April 30, 2018 – February 24, 2019 October 2019 159 Features the top 50 Dilbert comics of the last decade.", "''Eagerly Awaiting Your Irrational Response'' February 25, 2019 – January 12, 2020 October 2020 144 ''The Office Is a Beautiful Place When Everyone Else Works from Home'' January 13, 2020 – November 29, 2020 December 2021 144 ''Not Remotely Working'' November 30, 2020 – October 17, 2021 December 2022 144 The October 18, 2021 through March 12, 2023 strips will not be published in collection by Andrews McMeel.====Special==== Title Date published Pages ISBN Notes ''Build a Better Life by Stealing Office Supplies: Dogbert's Big Book of Business'' November 1991 112 ''Dogbert's Clues for the Clueless'' August 1993 112 ''Seven Years of Highly Defective People'' August 1997 256 strips from 1989 to 1995 with handwritten notes by Adams ''Dilbert Gives You the Business'' August 1999 224 collection of favorites before 1999 ''A Treasury of Sunday Strips: Version 00'' August 2000 224 color version of all Sunday strips from 1995 to 1999 ''What Do You Call a Sociopath in a Cubicle?", "Answer: A Coworker'' August 2002 224 compilation of strips featuring Dilbert's coworkers ''It's Not Funny If I Have to Explain It'' October 2004 240 strips from 1997 to 2004 with more of Adams's handwritten notes ''What Would Wally Do?''", "June 2006 224 strips focused on Wally ''Cubes and Punishment'' November 2007 224 collection of comic strips on workplace cruelty ''Problem Identified: And You're Probably Not Part of the Solution'' July 2010 224 ''Your Accomplishments Are Suspiciously Hard to Verify'' August 2011 208 ''I Can't Remember If We're Cheap or Smart'' October 2012 208 ===Business books===* ''The Dilbert Principle''* ''Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook''* ''The Dilbert Future''* ''The Joy of Work''* ''Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel''* ''Slapped Together: The Dilbert Business Anthology'' (''The Dilbert Principle'', ''The Dilbert Future'', and ''The Joy of Work'', published together in one book)===Other books===* ''Telling It Like It Isn't'' — 1996; * ''You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude'' — 1996; * ''Access Denied: Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties'' — 1996; * ''Conversations With Dogbert'' — 1996; * ''Work is a Contact Sport'' — 1997; * ''The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless'' — 1997; * ''The Dilbert Bunch'' — 1997; * ''No You'd Better Watch Out'' — 1997* ''Please Don't Feed The Egos'' — 1997; * ''Random Acts of Catness'' — 1998; * ''You Can't Schedule Stupidity'' — 1998; * ''Dilbert Meeting Book Exceeding Tech Limits'' — 1998; * ''Trapped In A Dilbert World – Book Of Days'' — 1998; * ''Work—The Wally Way'' — 1999; * ''Alice in Blunderland'' — 1999; * ''All Dressed Down And Nowhere To Go'' — 2002; * ''Dilbert's Guide to the Rest of Your Life: Dispatches from Cubicleland'' — 2007; * ''Dilbert Sudoku Comic Digest: 200 Puzzles Plus 50 Classic Dilbert Cartoons'' — 2008; * ''Dilbert 2.0: 20 Years of Dilbert'' — 2008; 576 pages, ≈6500 strips, and Adams's notes from 1989 to 2008.===Merchandise===* ''Young Dilbert in Hi-Tech Hijinks'' — 1997; A Dilbert-branded computer game aimed at teaching young children about technology.", "* ''Corporate Shuffle'' by Richard Garfield — 1997; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizards of the Coast's ''The Great Dalmuti'' and the drinking game President.", "* The Dilberito, a vegan microwave burrito offered in four flavors: Barbecue with barbecue sauce, Garlic & Herb with sauce, Indian with mango chutney, and Mexican with salsa.", "* ''Totally Nuts'' — 1998; A limited edition Ben & Jerry's ice cream flavor whose description was listed as: \"Butter almond ice cream with roasted hazelnuts, praline pecans & white fudge coated almonds\".", "* A line of Dilbert mints that possessed the names Accomplish-mints, Appease-mints, Appoint-mints, Empower-mints, Harass-mints, Improve-mints, Invest-mints, Manage-mints, Pay-mints, Perform-mints, and Postpone-mints.", "* Dilbert: the Board Game — 2006; by Hyperion Games; A Dilbert-branded board game that was named one of ''Games'' magazine's Top 100 Games* Day-by-Day calendars featuring the comic strip are available every year.", "* ''Dilbert: Escape From Cubeville'' — 2010; A Dilbert-branded board game released in the Dilbert store section of dilbert.com.", "* ''Dilbert's Desktop Games'', a video game designed for the PC.===Animated series===''Dilbert'' was adapted into a UPN animated television series starring Daniel Stern as Dilbert, Chris Elliott as Dogbert, and Kathy Griffin as Alice.", "The series ran for two seasons from January 25, 1999, to July 25, 2000.The first season centered around the creation of a new product called the \"Gruntmaster 6000\".", "It was critically acclaimed and won an Emmy Award, leading to its renewal for a second season.", "The second season did away with the serial format and was composed entirely of standalone episodes, many of which shifted focus away from the workplace and involved absurdist plots such as Wally being mistaken for a religious leader (\"The Shroud of Wally\") and Dilbert being accused of mass murder (\"The Trial\").", "The second season's two-episode finale included Dilbert getting pregnant with the child of a cow, a hillbilly, robot DNA, \"several dozen engineers\", an elderly billionaire, and an alien, eventually ending up in a custody battle with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the Judge.When UPN declined to renew the series for its third season, Adams stated, \"I lost my TV show for being white when UPN decided it would focus on an African-American audience.\"", "Adams wrote on Twitter in 2020.", "\"That was the third job I lost for being white.", "The other two in corporate America.\"", "The four-disc DVD called \"Dilbert: The Complete Series\" was released and contains thirty episodes.", "The first disc contains episodes 1–7, the second disc contains episodes 8–13, the third disc contains episodes 14–21, and the fourth disc contains episodes 22–30.===Animated web shorts===On April 7, 2008, dilbert.com presented its first Dilbert animation.", "The new Dilbert animations are animated versions of original comic strips produced by RingTales and animated by Powerhouse Animation Studios.", "The animation videos run for around 30 seconds each and are added every weekday.", "The comic shorts have a different voice cast than the television series, with Washington-based radio personality Dan Roberts providing the voice of the title character.", "On December 10, 2009, the RingTales produced animations were made available as a calendar application for mobile devices.===Cancelled film adaptation===As early as 2006, Adams and United Media had been struggling to get a film adaptation of the comic strip off the ground.", "Adams envisioned the idea as a live-action film, with Dogbert and Catbert as computer-animated characters.", "Film director Chris Columbus was in talks to direct the film in 2007, with Tariq Jalil on board as producer.In May 2010, it was announced that a live-action ''Dilbert'' film was in development.", "Ken Kwapis was announced as director, fresh off the heels of ''He's Just Not That Into You'' and directing several episodes for NBC's ''The Office''.", "Jahil remained as producer, with Phoenix Entertainment and Intrigue Entertainment joining the producing team.But in December 2017, in an interview by ''The Mercury News'', Adams said that it would be impossible to make the film after his public support of Donald Trump." ], [ "\"Drunken lemurs\" case", "In October 2007, the Catfish Bend Casino in Burlington, Iowa notified its staff that the casino would soon be closing for business.", "David Steward, an employee of seven years, then posted on an office bulletin board the ''Dilbert'' strip of October 26, 2007, that compared management decisions to those of \"drunken lemurs\".", "The casino called this \"very offensive\"; they identified him from a surveillance tape, fired him, and tried to prevent him from receiving unemployment benefits.", "However, an administrative law judge ruled in December 2007 that he would receive benefits, as his action was deemed as justified protest and not intentional misbehavior.", "Adams stated that it might be the first confirmed case of an employee being fired for posting a ''Dilbert'' cartoon.", "On February 20, 2008, the first of a series of ''Dilbert'' strips showed Wally being caught posting a comic strip that \"compares managers to drunken lemurs\".", "Adams later stated that fans of his work should \"stick to posting ''Garfield'' strips, as no one gets fired for that.\"" ], [ "Guest artists", "On February 29, 2016, Adams posted on his blog that he would be taking a six-week vacation.", "During that time, strips would be written by him but drawn by guest artists who work for Universal Uclick.", "Jake Tapper drew the strip on the week of May 23.The other guest artists were John Glynn, Eric Scott, Josh Shipley, Joel Friday, Donna Oatney and Brenna Thummler.", "Jake Tapper also drew the cartoon strip the week of September 23–28, 2019." ], [ "See also", "* Dilbert principle* Peter principle, the opposite (and original basis) of the Dilbert principle* ''Plop: The Hairless Elbonian'', another comic series by Adams" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dialect" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dialect''' (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') refers to two distinctly different types of linguistic relationships.", "The more common usage of the term refers to a variety of a language that is a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers.", "The dialects or varieties of a particular language are closely related and, despite their differences, are most often largely mutually intelligible, especially if geographically close to one another in a dialect continuum.", "The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity.", "A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect, a dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect, and a geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect').", "Any variety of a given language can be classified as a \"dialect\", including any standardized varieties.The other usage, which is specific to colloquial settings in a few countries like Italy, such as ''dialetto'', ''patois'' in France, much of East Central Europe, and the Philippines, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language.", "In this case, these \"dialects\" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from one dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties since they evolved in a separate and parallel way.", "While they may be historically cognate with and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter, \"dialects\" under this second definition may be better defined as separate languages from the standard or national language.", "Under this definition, the standard or national language would not itself be considered a dialect, as it is the dominant language in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g.", "official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above.", "''Dialect'' used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to \"low-prestige\" languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as \"unsuitable for writing\".", "The designation ''dialect'' is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term \"vernacular language\" would be preferred by linguists.Features that distinguish dialects from each other can be found in lexicon (vocabulary) and grammar, as well as in pronunciation (phonology, including prosody).", "In instances where the salient distinctions are only or mostly to be observed in pronunciation, the more specific term ''accent'' may be used instead of ''dialect''.", "Differences that are largely concentrated in lexicon may be classified as creoles.", "When lexical differences are mostly concentrated in the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other organization, they are jargons.", "Differences in vocabulary that are deliberately cultivated to exclude outsiders or to serve as shibboleths are known as cryptolects or cant, and include slangs and argots.", "The particular speech patterns used by an individual are referred to as that person's idiolect.", "Languages are classified as dialects based on linguistic distance.", "The dialects of a language with a writing system will operate at different degrees of distance from the standardized written form.", "Some dialects of a language are not mutually intelligible in spoken form, leading to debate as to whether they are regiolects or separate languages." ], [ "Standard and nonstandard dialects", "A ''standard dialect'' also known as a \"standardized language\" is supported by institutions.", "Such institutional support may include any or all of the following: government recognition or designation; formal presentation in schooling as the \"correct\" form of a language; informal monitoring of everyday usage; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a normative spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature (be it prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.)", "that uses it.", "An example of a standardized language is the French language which is supported by the institution.", "A nonstandard dialect also has a complete grammar and vocabulary, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support.The distinction between the \"standard\" dialect and the \"nonstandard\" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence.", "In a similar way, the definitions of the terms \"language\" and \"dialect\" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives, and the term \"dialect\" is sometimes restricted to mean \"non-standard variety\", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions.==Dialect as linguistic variety of a language== The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class or ethnicity.", "A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect.", "A dialect that is associated with a particular ethnic group can be termed an ethnolect.A geographical/regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (alternative terms include 'regionalect', 'geolect', and 'topolect').", "According to this definition, any variety of a given language can be classified as \"a dialect\", including any standardized varieties.", "In this case, the distinction between the \"standard language\" (i.e.", "the \"standard\" dialect of a particular language) and the \"nonstandard\" (vernacular) dialects of the same language is often arbitrary and based on social, political, cultural, or historical considerations or prevalence and prominence.", "In a similar way, the definitions of the terms \"language\" and \"dialect\" may overlap and are often subject to debate, with the differentiation between the two classifications often grounded in arbitrary or sociopolitical motives.", "The term \"dialect\" is however sometimes restricted to mean \"non-standard variety\", particularly in non-specialist settings and non-English linguistic traditions.", "Conversely, some dialectologists have reserved the term \"dialect\" for forms that they believed (sometimes wrongly) to be purer forms of the older languages, as in how early dialectologists of English did not consider the Brummie of Birmingham or the Scouse of Liverpool to be real dialects, as they had arisen fairly recently in time and partly as a result of influences from Irish migrants.=== Difference between dialects and languages ===There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e.", "varieties) of the same language.", "A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results.", "The distinction between dialect and language is therefore subjective (arbitrary) and depends upon the user's preferred frame of reference.", "For example, there has been discussion about whether or not the Limón Creole English should be considered \"a kind\" of English or a different language.", "This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendants of Jamaican people.", "The position that Costa Rican linguists' support depends upon which university they represent.", "Another example is Scanian, which even, for a time, had its own ISO code.=== Linguistic distance ===An important criterion for categorizing varieties of language is linguistic distance.", "For a variety to be considered a dialect, the linguistic distance between the two varieties must be low.", "Linguistic distance between spoken or written forms of language increases as the differences between the forms are characterized.", "For example, two languages with completely different syntactical structures would have a high linguistic distance, while a language with very few differences from another may be considered a dialect or a sibling of that language.", "Linguistic distance may be used to determine language families and language siblings.", "For example, languages with little linguistic distance, like Dutch and German, are considered siblings.", "Dutch and German are siblings in the West-Germanic language group.", "Some language siblings are closer to each other in terms of linguistic distance than to other linguistic siblings.", "French and Spanish, siblings in the Romance Branch of the Indo-European group, are closer to each other than they are to any of the languages of the West-Germanic group.", "When languages are close in terms of linguistic distance, they resemble one another, hence why dialects are not considered linguistically distant to their parent language.=== Mutual intelligibility ===One criterion, which is often considered to be purely linguistic, is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety has sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other dialect; otherwise, they are said to be different languages.", "However, this definition has often been criticized, especially in the case of a dialect continuum (or dialect chain), which contains a sequence of varieties, where each mutually intelligible with the next, but may not be mutually intelligible with distant varieties.Others have argued that mutual intelligibility occurs in varying degrees, and the potential difficulty in distinguishing between intelligibility and prior familiarity with the other variety.", "However, recent research suggests that there is some empirical evidence in favor of using some form of the intelligibility criterion to distinguish between languages and dialects, though mutuality may not be as relevant as initially thought.", "The requirement for mutuality is abandoned by the ''Language Survey Reference Guide'' of SIL International, publishers of the ''Ethnologue'' and the registration authority for the ISO 639-3 standard for language codes.", "They define a ''dialect cluster'' as a central variety together with all those varieties whose speakers understand the central variety at a specified threshold level or higher.", "If the threshold level is high, usually between 70% and 85%, the cluster is designated as a ''language''.=== Sociolinguistic definitions ===Local varieties in the West Germanic dialect continuum are oriented towards either Standard Dutch or Standard German depending on which side of the border they are spoken.Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is the sociolinguistic notion of linguistic authority.", "According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language.", "For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Westphalian and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject.", "Thus these varieties are said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, Standard German, which is said to be autonomous.In contrast, speakers in the Netherlands of Low Saxon varieties similar to Westphalian would instead consult a dictionary of Standard Dutch, and hence is categorized as a dialect of Dutch instead.", "Similarly, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the High German group of languages and has some degree of mutual intelligibility with German, a Yiddish speaker would consult a Yiddish dictionary rather than a German dictionary in such a case, and is classified as its own language.Within this framework, W. A. Stewart defined a ''language'' as an autonomous variety in addition to all the varieties that are heteronomous with respect to it, noting that an essentially equivalent definition had been stated by Charles A. Ferguson and John J. Gumperz in 1960.A heteronomous variety may be considered a ''dialect'' of a language defined in this way.", "In these terms, Danish and Norwegian, though mutually intelligible to a large degree, are considered separate languages.", "In the framework of Heinz Kloss, these are described as languages by ''ausbau'' (development) rather than by ''abstand'' (separation).=== Dialect and language clusters ===In other situations, a closely related group of varieties possess considerable (though incomplete) mutual intelligibility, but none dominates the others.", "To describe this situation, the editors of the ''Handbook of African Languages'' introduced the term ''dialect cluster'' as a classificatory unit at the same level as a language.", "A similar situation, but with a greater degree of mutual unintelligibility, has been termed a ''language cluster''.In the ''Language Survey Reference Guide'' issued by SIL International, who produce ''Ethnologue'', a ''dialect cluster'' is defined as a central variety together with a collection of varieties whose speakers can understand the central variety at a specified threshold level (usually between 70% and 85%) or higher.", "It is not required that peripheral varieties be understood by speakers of the central variety or of other peripheral varieties.", "A minimal set of central varieties providing coverage of a dialect continuum may be selected algorithmically from intelligibility data.=== Political factors ===In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the \"standard\" or \"proper\" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction and is contrasted with other varieties.", "As a result of this, in some contexts, the term \"dialect\" refers specifically to varieties with low social status.", "In this secondary sense of \"dialect\", language varieties are often called ''dialects'' rather than ''languages'':* if they have no standard or codified form,* if they are rarely or never used in writing (outside reported speech),* if the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own,* if they lack prestige with respect to some other, often standardised, variety.The status of \"language\" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development.", "Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects and classical Latin.", "An opposite example is Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages in China, despite their mutual unintelligibility.National boundaries sometimes make the distinction between \"language\" and \"dialect\" an issue of political importance.", "A group speaking a separate \"language\" may be seen as having a greater claim to being a separate \"people\", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a \"dialect\" may be seen as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, ''A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot'' (: \"A language is a dialect with an army and navy\") in ''YIVO Bleter'' 25.1, 1945, p. 13.The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question \"what is a language?\"", "is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible.", "This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.=== Terminology ===By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a \"dialect\" of ''some'' language—\"everybody speaks a dialect\".", "According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the ''same'' language or dialects of ''different'' languages.The terms \"language\" and \"dialect\" are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although they are often perceived to be.", "Thus there is nothing contradictory in the statement \"the ''language'' of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German\".There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language.", "Perhaps the most common is \"variety\"; \"lect\" is another.", "A more general term is \"'''languoid'''\", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not." ], [ "Colloquial meaning of dialect", "The colloquial meaning of dialect can be understood by example, e.g.", "in Italy (see ''dialetto''), France (see ''patois'') and the Philippines, carries a pejorative undertone and underlines the politically and socially subordinated status of a non-national language to the country's single official language.", "In other words, these \"dialects\" are not actual dialects in the same sense as in the first usage, as they do not derive from the politically dominant language and are therefore not one of its varieties, but instead they evolved in a separate and parallel way and may thus better fit various parties' criteria for a separate language.Despite this, these \"dialects\" may often be historically cognate and share genetic roots in the same subfamily as the dominant national language and may even, to a varying degree, share some mutual intelligibility with the latter.", "In this sense, unlike in the first usage, the national language would not itself be considered a \"dialect\", as it is the dominant language in a particular state, be it in terms of linguistic prestige, social or political (e.g.", "official) status, predominance or prevalence, or all of the above.", "The term \"dialect\" used this way implies a political connotation, being mostly used to refer to low-prestige languages (regardless of their actual degree of distance from the national language), languages lacking institutional support, or those perceived as \"unsuitable for writing\".", "The designation \"dialect\" is also used popularly to refer to the unwritten or non-codified languages of developing countries or isolated areas, where the term \"vernacular language\" would be preferred by linguists." ], [ "Dialect and accent", "John Lyons writes that \"Many linguists ... subsume differences of accent under differences of dialect.\"", "In general, ''accent'' refers to variations in pronunciation, while ''dialect'' also encompasses specific variations in grammar and vocabulary." ], [ "Examples", "=== Arabic ===There are three geographical zones in which Arabic is spoken (Jastrow 2002).", "Zone I is categorized as the area in which Arabic was spoken before the rise of Islam.", "It is the Arabian Peninsula, excluding the areas where southern Arabian was spoken.", "Zone II is categorized as the areas to which Arabic speaking peoples moved as a result of the conquests of Islam.", "Included in Zone II are the Levant, Egypt, North Africa, Iraq, and some parts of Iran.", "The Egyptian, Sudanese, and Levantine dialects (including the Syrian dialect) are well documented, and widely spoken and studied.", "Zone III comprises the areas in which Arabic is spoken outside of the continuous Arabic Language area.Spoken dialects of the Arabic language share the same writing system and share Modern Standard Arabic as their common prestige dialect used in writing.=== German ===When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties.", "That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German.", "The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation.", "Some of them are not mutually intelligible.", "German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South.", "In cities, dialects are less common than in the countryside.", "In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries.", "The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is only spoken in education, partially in media, and with foreigners not possessing knowledge of Swiss German.", "Most Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.The Low German and Low Franconian varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects.", "This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German.", "This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.The Frisian languages spoken in Germany and the Netherlands are excluded from the German dialects.===Italy===Italy is an often quoted example of a country where the second definition of the word \"dialect\" (''dialetto'') is most prevalent.", "Italy is in fact home to a vast array of separate languages, most of which lack mutual intelligibility with one another and have their own local varieties; twelve of them (Albanian, Catalan, German, Greek, Slovene, Croatian, French, Franco-Provençal, Friulian, Ladin, Occitan and Sardinian) underwent Italianization to a varying degree (ranging from the currently endangered state displayed by Sardinian and southern Italian Greek to the vigorous promotion of Germanic Tyrolean), but have been officially recognized as minority languages (''minoranze linguistiche storiche''), in light of their distinctive historical development.", "Yet, most of the regional languages spoken across the peninsula are often colloquially referred to in non-linguistic circles as Italian ''dialetti'', since most of them, including the prestigious Neapolitan, Sicilian and Venetian, have adopted vulgar Tuscan as their reference language since the Middle Ages.", "However, all these languages evolved from Vulgar Latin in parallel with Italian, long prior to the popular diffusion of the latter throughout what is now Italy.During the ''Risorgimento'', Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak Italian.", "Proponents of Italian nationalism, like the Lombard Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity.", "With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the other ones came to be institutionally regarded as \"dialects\" subordinate to Italian, and negatively associated with a lack of education.In the early 20th century, the conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with having facilitated the diffusion of Italian among the less educated conscripted soldiers, as these men, who had been speaking various regional languages up until then, found themselves forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military.", "With the popular spread of Italian out of the intellectual circles, because of the mass-media and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to Italian.", "While dialect levelling has increased the number of Italian speakers and decreased the number of speakers of other languages native to Italy, Italians in different regions have developed variations of standard Italian specific to their region.", "These variations of standard Italian, known as \"regional Italian\", would thus more appropriately be called dialects in accordance with the first linguistic definition of the term, as they are in fact derived from Italian, with some degree of influence from the local or regional native languages and accents.The most widely spoken languages of Italy, which are not to be confused with regional Italian, fall within a family of which even Italian is part, the Italo-Dalmatian group.", "This wide category includes:the complex of the Tuscan and Central Italian dialects, such as Romanesco in Rome, with the addition of some distantly Corsican-derived varieties (Gallurese and Sassarese) spoken in Northern Sardinia;the Neapolitan group (also known as \"Intermediate Meridional Italian\"), which encompasses not only Naples' and Campania's speech but also a variety of related neighboring varieties like the Irpinian dialect, Abruzzese and Southern Marchegiano, Molisan, Northern Calabrian or Cosentino, and the Bari dialect.", "The Cilentan dialect of Salerno, in Campania, is considered significantly influenced by the Neapolitan and the below-mentioned language groups;the Sicilian group (also known as \"Extreme Meridional Italian\"), including Salentino and centro-southern Calabrian.Modern Italian is heavily based on the Florentine dialect of Tuscan.", "The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century, and it first spread outside the Tuscan linguistic borders through the works of the so-called ''tre corone'' (\"three crowns\"): Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio.", "Florentine thus gradually rose to prominence as the ''volgare'' of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula and Sicily as the ''lingua franca'' among the Italian educated class as well as Italian travelling merchants.", "The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among the educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people.Aside from the Italo-Dalmatian languages, the second most widespread family in Italy is the Gallo-Italic group, spanning throughout much of Northern Italy's languages and dialects (such as Piedmontese, Emilian-Romagnol, Ligurian, Lombard, Venetian, Sicily's and Basilicata's Gallo-Italic in southern Italy, etc.", ").Finally, other languages from a number of different families follow the last two major groups: the Gallo-Romance languages (French, Occitan and its Vivaro-Alpine dialect, Franco-Provençal); the Rhaeto-Romance languages (Friulian and Ladin); the Ibero-Romance languages (Sardinia's Algherese); the Germanic Cimbrian, Southern Bavarian, Walser German and the Mòcheno language; the Albanian Arbëresh language; the Hellenic Griko language and Calabrian Greek; the Serbo-Croatian Slavomolisano dialect; and the various Slovene languages, including the Gail Valley dialect and Istrian dialect.", "The language indigenous to Sardinia, while being Romance in nature, is considered to be a specific linguistic family of its own, separate from the other Neo-Latin groups; it is often subdivided into the Centro-Southern and Centro-Northern dialects.Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which all the Italian languages are mutually unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages; some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum are more or less mutually intelligible.", "For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a Sicilian-speaking individual.", "Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with an Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than with an Italian or Sicilian speaker.", "Meanwhile, a Sicilian-speaking person would have a greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.Today, the majority of Italian nationals are able to speak Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region.=== The Balkans ===The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent.", "Serbo-Croatian illustrates this point.", "Serbo-Croatian has two major formal variants (Serbian and Croatian).", "Both are based on the ''Shtokavian'' dialect and therefore mutually intelligible with differences found mostly in their respective local vocabularies and minor grammatical differences.", "Certain dialects of Serbia (''Torlakian'') and Croatia (''Kajkavian'' and ''Chakavian''), however, are not mutually intelligible even though they are usually subsumed under Serbo-Croatian.", "How these dialects should be classified in relation to Shtokavian remains a matter of dispute.Macedonian, although largely mutually intelligible with Bulgarian and certain dialects of Serbo-Croatian (Torlakian), is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the view in North Macedonia, which regards it as a language in its own right.", "Before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the South Slavic dialect continuum covering the area of today's North Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects.", "Sociolinguists agree that the question of whether Macedonian is a dialect of Bulgarian or a language is a political one and cannot be resolved on a purely linguistic basis.===Lebanon===In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers \"Lebanese\" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect thereof.", "During the civil war, Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic.", "All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.===North Africa===In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas translated as literally meaning Dialect in Arabic (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects.", "Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an.", "Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries.", "Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names.===Ukraine===The Books of Genesis of the Ukrainian Nation by Mykola KostomarovThe Modern Ukrainian language has been in common use since the late 17th century, associated with the establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate.", "In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian (or Little Russian, per official name) was merely a dialect of Russian (or Polonized dialect) and not a language on its own (same concept as for Belarusian language).", "That concepted was enrooted soon after the partitions of Poland.", "According to these claims, the differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.", "However, in reality the dialects in Ukraine were developing independently from the dialects in the modern Russia for several centuries, and as a result they differed substantially.Following the Spring of Nations in Europe and efforts of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, across the so called \"Southwestern Krai\" of Russian Empire started to spread cultural societies of Hromada and their Sunday schools.", "Themselves \"hromadas\" acted in same manner as Orthodox fraternities of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth back in 15th century.", "Around that time in Ukraine becoming popular political movements Narodnichestvo (Narodniks) and Khlopomanstvo.===Moldova===There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes.", "One example is Moldovan.", "In 1996, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of \"Romanian expansionism\", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages.", "Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated \"absurdity\".===Greater China===Unlike languages that use alphabets to indicate their pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to their pronunciation.", "Although the written characters have remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions have developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible.", "As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Gan, Xiang, Wu, Min, Yue and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese.", "From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties.", "With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing.", "Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as ''fangyan'' (regional speech).", "Cantonese is still the most commonly-used language in Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Hokkien has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language alongside Mandarin." ], [ "Interlingua", "Interlingua was developed so that the languages of Western civilization would act as its dialects.", "Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific vocabulary and Standard Average European, researchers at the International Auxiliary Language Association extracted words and affixes to be part of Interlingua's vocabulary.", "In theory, speakers of the Western languages would understand written or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study, since their own languages were its dialects.", "Interlingua could be used to assist in the learning of other languages.", "The vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the Western language families." ], [ "Selected list of articles on dialects", "Varieties of ArabicBengali dialectsCatalan dialectsVarieties of ChineseCypriot GreekCypriot TurkishDanish dialectsDutch dialectsEnglish dialectsFinnish dialectsVarieties of FrenchGeorgian dialectsGerman dialectsMalayalam languagesVarieties of MalayConnacht Irish, Munster Irish, Ulster IrishItalian dialectsJapanese dialectsKorean dialectsNorwegian dialectsNguni languagesDialects of PolishPortuguese dialectsRomanian dialectsRussian dialectsSlavic microlanguagesSlovenian dialectsSpanish dialectsSwedish dialectsSri Lankan Tamil dialectsYiddish dialects" ], [ "See also", "Accent perceptionChronolectColloquialismCreole languageDialect levellingDialectologyDialectometryEthnolectEye dialectIdiolectIsoglossKoiné languageRegister (sociolinguistics)Literary languageNation languageRegional languageSprachbund" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Sounds Familiar?", "– Listen to regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website* International Dialects of English Archive Since 1997* thedialectdictionary.com – Compilation of Dialects from around the globe* A site for announcements and downloading the SEAL System*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digitalis" ], [ "Introduction", "''Digitalis lutea''Pink common foxglove with bee'''''Digitalis''''' ( or ) is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennial plants, shrubs, and biennials, commonly called '''foxgloves'''.", "''Digitalis'' is native to Europe, Western Asia, and northwestern Africa.", "The flowers are tubular in shape, produced on a tall spike, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white, and yellow.", "The scientific name means \"finger\".", "The genus was traditionally placed in the figwort family, Scrophulariaceae, but phylogenetic research led taxonomists to move it to the Veronicaceae in 2001.More recent phylogenetic work has placed it in the much enlarged family Plantaginaceae.The best-known species is the common foxglove, ''Digitalis purpurea''.", "This biennial is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers, which range in colour from various purple tints through pink and purely white.", "The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings.", "Other garden-worthy species include ''D.", "ferruginea'', ''D.", "grandiflora'', ''D.", "lutea'', and ''D.", "parviflora''.The term ''digitalis'' is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus.", "Foxglove has medicinal uses but is also very toxic to humans and other animals, and consumption can even lead to death." ], [ "Etymology", "Hendrik Goltzius, A Foxglove in Bloom, 1592, National Gallery of Art, NGA 94900The generic epithet ''Digitalis'' is from the Latin ''digitus'' (finger).", "Leonhart Fuchs first invented the name for this plant in his 1542 book ''De historia stirpium commentarii insignes'' (''Notable comments on the history of plants''), based upon the German vernacular name ''Fingerhut'', which translates literally as 'finger hat', but actually means 'thimble'.The name is recorded in Old English as 'foxes glofe/glofa' or 'fox's glove'.", "Over time, folk myths obscured the literal origins of the name, insinuating that foxes wore the flowers on their paws to silence their movements as they stealthily hunted their prey.", "The woody hillsides where the foxes made their dens were often covered with the toxic flowers.", "Some of the more menacing names, such as \"witch's glove\", reference the toxicity of the plant.Henry Fox Talbot (1847) proposed 'folks' glove', where 'folk' means fairy.", "Similarly, R. C. A.", "Prior (1863) suggested an etymology of 'foxes-glew', meaning 'fairy music'.", "However, neither of these suggestions account for the Old English form ''foxes glofa''." ], [ "Taxonomy", "===Species===The ''Flora Europaea'' originally recognised a number of species now seen as synonyms of ''Digitalis purpurea'', or others: ''D.", "dubia'', ''D.", "leucophaea'', ''D.", "micrantha'' and ''D.", "trojana''.", "As of 2017, ''Plants of the World Online'' recognises the following 27 species (and a number of hybrids):''Digitalis atlantica'' Pomel''Digitalis canariensis'' L.''Digitalis cariensis'' Boiss.", "ex Jaub.", "& Spach''Digitalis cedretorum'' (Emb.)", "Maire''Digitalis chalcantha'' (Svent.", "& O'Shan.)", "Albach, Bräuchler & Heubl''Digitalis ciliata'' Trautv.", "''Digitalis davisiana'' Heywood''Digitalis ferruginea'' L.''Digitalis fuscescens'' Waldst.", "& Kit.", "''Digitalis grandiflora'' Mill.", "''Digitalis ikarica'' (P.H.Davis) Strid''Digitalis isabelliana'' (Webb) Linding.", "''Digitalis laevigata'' Waldst.", "& Kit.", "''Digitalis lamarckii'' Ivanina''Digitalis lanata'' Ehrh.", "''Digitalis lutea'' L.''Digitalis mariana'' Boiss.", "''Digitalis minor'' L.''Digitalis nervosa'' Steud.", "& Hochst.", "ex Benth.", "''Digitalis obscura'' L.''Digitalis parviflora'' Jacq.", "''Digitalis purpurea'' L.''Digitalis sceptrum'' L.f.''Digitalis subalpina'' Braun-Blanq.", "''Digitalis thapsi'' L.''Digitalis transiens'' Maire''Digitalis viridiflora'' Lindl.===Hybrids===''Digitalis × coutinhoi'' Samp.", "''Digitalis × fulva'' Lindl.", "''Digitalis × macedonica'' Heywood''Digitalis × media'' Roth''Digitalis × pelia'' Zerbst & Bocquet''Digitalis × purpurascens'' Roth''Digitalis'' × ''sibirica'' (Lindley) Werner had been considered a valid species since it was first described by the English botanist and gardener John Lindley in 1821, but it was considered a hybrid of ''D.", "grandiflora'' and ''D.", "laevigata'' by the German botanist in 1960.===Systematics===The first full monograph regarding this genus was written by Lindley in 1821.He included two sections, a section ''Isoplexis'' including two species, and the main section ''Digitalis'' with three subsections, including 2Y species, a number of which are now seen as synonyms or hybrids.In the last full monograph of the genus in 1965, Werner classified the 19 recognised species in five sections (four species from Macaronesia were separated in the genus ''Isoplexis'' at the time):In the section ''Digitalis'', along with the type species ''D.", "purpurea'', four other species (as recognised as the time) were placed: ''D.", "thapsi'', ''D.", "dubia'', ''D.", "heywoodii'' and ''D.", "mariana''.", "The monotypic section ''Frutescentes'' contained only ''D.", "obscura''.", "The section ''Grandiflorae'', which was also called section ''Macranthae'' by Vernon Hilton Heywood.", "It included, along with the type species ''D.", "grandiflora'', also ''D.", "atlantica'', ''D.", "ciliata'' and ''D.", "davisiana''.", "''Globiflorae'' included five species: ''D.", "laevigata'', ''D.", "nervosa'', ''D.", "ferruginea'', ''D.", "cariensis'' and ''D.", "lanata''.", "''Tubiflorae'' included four species: ''D.", "subalpina'', ''D.", "lutea'', ''D.", "viridiflora'' and ''D.", "parviflora''.In their 2000 book about ''Digitalis'', Luckner and Wichtl continued to uphold Werner's classification of the 19 species, but molecular studies into the phylogeny of the genus published in 2004 found that although four of Werner's sections were supported by the genetics, the section ''Tubiflorae'' was polyphyletic, and that the species ''D.", "lutea'' and ''D.", "viridiflora'' should be placed in the section ''Grandiflorae''.", "This study, as well as a number of other studies published around that time, reunited the genus ''Isoplexis'' with ''Digitalis'', increasing the number of species to 23.Peter Hadland Davis, an expert on the flora of Turkey, had used a different circumscription than Werner in his works, and recognised eight species in the country.", "A 2016 molecular phylogenetic study into the relationships of the Turkish species in the section ''Globiflorae'' aimed to reconcile this discrepancy, finding that the classification as proposed by Davis was largely correct: ''Globiflorae'' contained as distinct species ''D.", "cariensis'', ''D.", "ferruginea'', ''D.", "lamarckii'', ''D.", "lanata'' and ''D.", "nervosa'', and ''D.", "trojana'' was subsumed at the infraspecific rank as ''D.", "lanata'' subsp.", "''trojana''.", "This study listed 23 species: ''D.", "transiens'', ''D.", "cedretorum'', ''D.", "ikarica'' and ''D.", "fuscescens'' were not mentioned.", "''D.", "parviflora'' and ''D.", "subalpina'' were not tested in this study, but the 2004 study found these two species situated within the section ''Globiflorae''." ], [ "Ecology", "A patch of ''Digitalis purpurea'' in SeattleLarvae of the foxglove pug, a moth, consume the flowers of the common foxglove for food.", "Other species of Lepidoptera eat the leaves, including the lesser yellow underwing." ], [ "Uses", "===Historical uses===Nicholas Culpeper included Foxglove in his 1652 herbal medicine guide, ''The English Physician''.", "He cited its use for healing wounds (both fresh and old), as a purgative, for \"the King's Evil\" ( mycobacterial cervical lymphadenitis), for \"the falling sickness\" (epilepsy), and for \"a scabby head\".", "There is no empirical evidence for these claims, and it is not used for these conditions in modern medicine, only for slowing excessive heart rate in certain circumstances and/or strengthening heart muscle contraction in heart failure.===Medicinal uses===Digitalis is an example of a drug derived from a plant that was formerly used by herbalists; herbalists have largely abandoned its use because of its narrow therapeutic index and the difficulty of determining the amount of active drug in herbal preparations.", "Once the usefulness of digitalis in regulating the human pulse was understood, it was employed for a variety of purposes, including the treatment of epilepsy and other seizure disorders, which are now considered to be inappropriate treatments.A group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin.", "The use of ''D.", "purpurea'' extract containing cardiac glycosides for the treatment of heart conditions was first described in the English-speaking medical literature by William Withering, in 1785, which is considered the beginning of modern therapeutics.", "In contemporary medicine, digitalis (usually digoxin) is obtained from ''D.", "lanata''.", "It is used to increase cardiac contractility (it is a positive inotrope) and as an antiarrhythmic agent to control the heart rate, particularly in the irregular (and often fast) atrial fibrillation.", "Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with congestive heart failure.", "Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and clinical trials.", "It was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation.", "American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association guidelines recommend digoxin for symptomatic chronic heart failure for patients with reduced systolic function, preservation of systolic function, and/or rate control for atrial fibrillation with a rapid ventricular response.", "Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations.", "Despite its relatively recent approval by the Food and Drug Administration and the guideline recommendations, the therapeutic use of digoxin is declining in patients with heart failure—likely the result of several factors.", "The main factor is the more recent introduction of several drugs shown in randomised controlled studies to improve outcomes in heart failure.", "Safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality seen in observational studies may have contributed to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin, however a systematic review of 75 studies including four million patient years of patient follow-up showed that in properly designed randomised controlled studies, mortality was no higher in patients given digoxin than in those given placebo.====Variations====Digitalis purpurea -- light purpleA group of pharmacologically active compounds are extracted mostly from the leaves of the second year's growth, and in pure form are referred to by common chemical names, such as digitoxin or digoxin, or by brand names such as Crystodigin and Lanoxin, respectively.", "The two drugs differ in that digoxin has an additional hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring (adjacent to the pentane).", "This results in digoxin having a half-life of about one day (and increasing with impaired kidney function), whereas digitoxin's is about 7 days and not affected by kidney function.", "Both molecules include a lactone and a triple-repeating sugar called a glycoside.====Mechanism of action====Digitalis works by inhibiting sodium-potassium ATPase.", "This results in an increased intracellular concentration of sodium ions and thus a decreased concentration gradient across the cell membrane.", "This increase in intracellular sodium causes the Na/Ca exchanger to reverse potential, i.e., transition from pumping sodium into the cell in exchange for pumping calcium out of the cell, to pumping sodium out of the cell in exchange for pumping calcium into the cell.", "This leads to an increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration, which improves cardiac contractility.", "Under normal physiological conditions, the cytoplasmic calcium used in cardiac contractions originates from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an intracellular organelle that stores calcium.", "Human newborns, some animals, and patients with chronic heart failure lack well developed and fully functioning sarcoplasmic reticula and must rely on the Na/Ca exchanger to provide all or a majority of the cytoplasmic calcium required for cardiac contraction.", "For this to occur, cytoplasmic sodium must exceed its typical concentration to favour a reversal in potential, which naturally occurs in human newborns and some animals primarily through an elevated heart rate; in patients with chronic heart failure it occurs through the administration of digitalis.", "As a result of increased contractility, stroke volume is increased.", "Ultimately, digitalis increases cardiac output (cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate).", "This is the mechanism that makes this drug a popular treatment for congestive heart failure, which is characterized by low cardiac output.Digitalis also has a vagal effect on the parasympathetic nervous system, and can be used to slow the ventricular rate during atrial fibrillation (unless there's an accessory pathway, when it can paradoxically increase the heart rate).", "The dependence on the vagal effect means digitalis is not effective when a patient has a high sympathetic nervous system drive, which is the case with acutely ill persons, and also during exercise.===Molecular probes===Digoxigenin (DIG) is a steroid found in the flowers and leaves of ''Digitalis'' species, and is extracted from ''D.", "lanata''.", "Digoxigenin can be used as a molecular probe to detect mRNA in situ and label DNA, RNA, and oligonucleotides.", "It can easily be attached to nucleotides such as uridine by chemical modifications.", "DIG molecules are often linked to nucleotides; DIG-labelled uridine can then be incorporated into RNA via ''in vitro'' transcription.", "Once hybridisation occurs, RNA with the incorporated DIG-U can be detected with anti-DIG antibodies conjugated to alkaline phosphatase.", "To reveal the hybridised transcripts, a chromogen can be used which reacts with the alkaline phosphatase to produce a coloured precipitate." ], [ "Toxicity", "Franz KöhlerDepending on the species, the digitalis plant may contain several deadly physiological and chemically related cardiac and steroidal glycosides.", "Thus, the digitalis plants have earned several, more sinister, names: dead man's bells and witch's gloves.", "The toxins can be absorbed via the skin or ingestion.", "Digitalis intoxication, known as ''digitalism'', results from an overdose of digitalis and can cause gastrointestinal, cardiac and neurological effects.", "The former include appetite loss, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea; the cardiac symptoms include both tachycardia, and bradycardia (either of which, if severe enough, can result in syncope—see below); and the neurological effects include fatigue, delirium, and rarely xanthopsia (jaundiced or yellow vision).", "Other oculotoxic effects of digitalis include generalized blurry vision, as well as the appearance of blurred outlines ('halos').", "Other things mentioned are dilated pupils, drooling, weakness, collapse, seizures, and even death.Digitalis poisoning can cause indirect inhibition of the atrioventricular node via a direct effect on the vagal nucleus.", "This results in bradycardia (decreased heart rate) or if severe enough, heart block.", "The direct effect of cardiac glycosides on heart muscle cells is to increase contraction of the cells, both in force and frequency, tending to produce tachycardia (increased heart rate), depending on the dose, the condition of one's heart, and the prevailing chemistry of the blood (specifically any of: low potassium, high calcium and low magnesium).", "Electrical cardioversion (to \"shock\" the heart) is generally not indicated in ventricular fibrillation in digitalis toxicity, as it can make the rhythm disturbance more complicated or sustained.", "Furthermore, the classic drug of choice for ventricular fibrillation in emergency setting, amiodarone, can worsen the dysrhythmia caused by digitalis, therefore, the second-choice drug lidocaine is more commonly used.", "Mild toxicity is treated by stopping the medication and general supportive measures; severe toxicity is treated with anti-digoxin antibody fragments.The entire plant is toxic (including the roots and seeds).", "Mortality is rare, but case reports do exist.", "Most plant exposures occur in children younger than six years and are usually unintentional and without associated significant toxicity.", "More serious toxicity occurs with intentional ingestion by adolescents and adults.In some instances, people have confused foxglove with the relatively harmless comfrey (''Symphytum'') plant, which is sometimes brewed into a tea, with fatal consequences.", "Other fatal accidents involve children drinking the water in a vase containing digitalis plants.", "Drying does not reduce the toxicity of the plant.", "The plant is toxic to animals, including all classes of livestock and poultry, as well as felines and canines." ], [ "In popular culture", "According to 1981 speculation, Vincent van Gogh's \"Yellow Period\" may have been influenced by digitalis, because it had been proposed as a therapy to control epilepsy around this time, and there are two paintings by the artist where the plant is present.", "Other studies immediately questioned this: there are a large number of other possible explanations for van Gogh's choice of palette, there is no evidence that van Gogh was ever given the drug or that his physician prescribed it, he was tested and had no xanthopsia, and in his many letters of the time he makes it clear that he simply liked using the colour yellow, but it has remained a popular concept." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Molecule of the Month - Digitalis* eMedicine link*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dendrite" ], [ "Introduction", "The neuron contains dendrites that receives information, a cell body called the soma, and an axon that sends information.", "Schwann cells make activity move faster down axon.", "Synapses allow neurons to activate other neurons.", "The dendrites receive a signal, the axon hillock funnels the signal to the initial segment and the initial segment triggers the activity (action potential) that is sent along the axon towards the synapse.", "Please see learnbio.org for interactive version.A '''dendrite''' (from Greek δένδρον ''déndron'', \"tree\") or '''dendron''' is a branched protoplasmic extension of a nerve cell that propagates the electrochemical stimulation received from other neural cells to the cell body, or soma, of the neuron from which the dendrites project.", "Electrical stimulation is transmitted onto dendrites by upstream neurons (usually via their axons) via synapses which are located at various points throughout the dendritic tree.Dendrites play a critical role in integrating these synaptic inputs and in determining the extent to which action potentials are produced by the neuron." ], [ "Structure and function", "The extensive dendritic tree of two hippocampal pyramidal neurons (magenta) with all incoming synapses genetically labeled (green spots).Dendrites are one of two types of protoplasmic protrusions that extrude from the cell body of a neuron, the other type being an axon.", "Axons can be distinguished from dendrites by several features including shape, length, and function.", "Dendrites often taper off in shape and are shorter, while axons tend to maintain a constant radius and can be very long.", "Typically, axons transmit electrochemical signals and dendrites receive the electrochemical signals, although some types of neurons in certain species lack specialized axons and transmit signals via their dendrites.", "Dendrites provide an enlarged surface area to receive signals from axon terminals of other neurons.", "The dendrite of a large pyramidal cell receives signals from about 30,000 presynaptic neurons.", "Excitatory synapses terminate on dendritic spines, tiny protrusions from the dendrite with a high density of neurotransmitter receptors.", "Most inhibitory synapses directly contact the dendritic shaft.Synaptic activity causes local changes in the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of the dendrite.", "This change in membrane potential will passively spread along the dendrite, but becomes weaker with distance without an action potential.", "To generate an action potential, many excitatory synapses have to be active at the same time, leading to strong depolarization of the dendrite and the cell body (soma).", "The action potential, which typically starts at the axon hillock, propagates down the length of the axon to the axon terminals where it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, but also backwards into the dendrite (retrograde propagation), providing an important signal for spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP).", "Most synapses are axodendritic, involving an axon signaling to a dendrite.", "There are also dendrodendritic synapses, signaling from one dendrite to another.", "An autapse is a synapse in which the axon of one neuron transmits signals to its own dendrite.The general structure of the dendrite is used to classify neurons into multipolar, bipolar and unipolar types.", "Multipolar neurons are composed of one axon and many dendritic trees.", "Pyramidal cells are multipolar cortical neurons with pyramid-shaped cell bodies and large dendrites that extend towards the surface of the cortex (apical dendrite).", "Bipolar neurons have two main dendrites at opposing ends of the cell body.", "Many inhibitory neurons have this morphology.", "Unipolar neurons, typical for insects, have a stalk that extends from the cell body that separates into two branches with one containing the dendrites and the other with the terminal buttons.", "In vertebrates, sensory neurons detecting touch or temperature are unipolar.", "Dendritic branching can be extensive and in some cases is sufficient to receive as many as 100,000 inputs to a single neuron." ], [ "History", "The term ''dendrites'' was first used in 1889 by Wilhelm His to describe the number of smaller \"protoplasmic processes\" that were attached to a nerve cell.", "German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites.Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930s by Kenneth S. Cole and Howard J. Curtis.", "Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axonal initial segment.", "Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model.", "Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963.The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations.", "Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the Nodes of Ranvier.", "Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons.", "He also proposed that neurons were discrete cells that communicated with each other via specialized junctions, or spaces, between cells, now known as a synapse.", "Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process known as Golgi's method, which had been developed by his rival, Camillo Golgi." ], [ "Dendrite development", "277pxDuring the development of dendrites, several factors can influence differentiation.", "These include modulation of sensory input, environmental pollutants, body temperature, and drug use.", "For example, rats raised in dark environments were found to have a reduced number of spines in pyramidal cells located in the primary visual cortex and a marked change in distribution of dendrite branching in layer 4 stellate cells.", "Experiments done in vitro and in vivo have shown that the presence of afferents and input activity per se can modulate the patterns in which dendrites differentiate.Little is known about the process by which dendrites orient themselves in vivo and are compelled to create the intricate branching pattern unique to each specific neuronal class.", "One theory on the mechanism of dendritic arbor development is the Synaptotropic Hypothesis.", "The synaptotropic hypothesis proposes that input from a presynaptic to a postsynaptic cell (and maturation of excitatory synaptic inputs) eventually can change the course of synapse formation at dendritic and axonal arbors.This synapse formation is required for the development of neuronal structure in the functioning brain.", "A balance between metabolic costs of dendritic elaboration and the need to cover receptive field presumably determine the size and shape of dendrites.", "A complex array of extracellular and intracellular cues modulates dendrite development including transcription factors, receptor-ligand interactions, various signaling pathways, local translational machinery, cytoskeletal elements, Golgi outposts and endosomes.", "These contribute to the organization of the dendrites on individual cell bodies and the placement of these dendrites in the neuronal circuitry.", "For example, it was shown that β-actin zipcode binding protein 1 (ZBP1) contributes to proper dendritic branching.Other important transcription factors involved in the morphology of dendrites include CUT, Abrupt, Collier, Spineless, ACJ6/drifter, CREST, NEUROD1, CREB, NEUROG2 etc.", "Secreted proteins and cell surface receptors includes neurotrophins and tyrosine kinase receptors, BMP7, Wnt/dishevelled, EPHB 1–3, Semaphorin/plexin-neuropilin, slit-robo, netrin-frazzled, reelin.", "Rac, CDC42 and RhoA serve as cytoskeletal regulators and the motor protein includes KIF5, dynein, LIS1.Important secretory and endocytic pathways controlling the dendritic development include DAR3 /SAR1, DAR2/Sec23, DAR6/Rab1 etc.", "All these molecules interplay with each other in controlling dendritic morphogenesis including the acquisition of type specific dendritic arborization, the regulation of dendrite size and the organization of dendrites emanating from different neurons." ], [ "Types of dendritic patterns", "Dendritic arborization, also known as dendritic branching, is a multi-step biological process by which neurons form new dendritic trees and branches to create new synapses.", "Dendrites in many organisms assume different morphological patterns of branching.", "The morphology of dendrites such as branch density and grouping patterns are highly correlated to the function of the neuron.", "Malformation of dendrites is also tightly correlated to impaired nervous system function.", "Branching morphologies may assume an ''adendritic'' structure (not having a branching structure, or not tree-like), or a tree-like radiation structure.", "Tree-like arborization patterns can be ''spindled'' (where two dendrites radiate from opposite poles of a cell body with few branches, ''see bipolar neurons'' ), ''spherical'' (where dendrites radiate in a part or in all directions from a cell body, ''see cerebellar granule cells''), ''laminar'' (where dendrites can either radiate planarly, offset from cell body by one or more stems, or multi-planarly, see retinal horizontal cells, retinal ganglion cells, retinal amacrine cells respectively), ''cylindrical'' (where dendrites radiate in all directions in a cylinder, disk-like fashion, see pallidal neurons), ''conical'' (dendrites radiate like a cone away from cell body, see pyramidal cells), or fanned (where dendrites radiate like a flat fan as in Purkinje cells)." ], [ "Electrical properties", "The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites, as well as the availability and variation of voltage-gated ion conductance, strongly influences how the neuron integrates the input from other neurons.", "This integration is both temporal, involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession, as well as spatial, entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches.Dendrites were once thought to merely convey electrical stimulation passively.", "This passive transmission means that voltage changes measured at the cell body are the result of activation of distal synapses propagating the electric signal towards the cell body without the aid of voltage-gated ion channels.", "Passive cable theory describes how voltage changes at a particular location on a dendrite transmit this electrical signal through a system of converging dendrite segments of different diameters, lengths, and electrical properties.", "Based on passive cable theory one can track how changes in a neuron's dendritic morphology impacts the membrane voltage at the cell body, and thus how variation in dendrite architectures affects the overall output characteristics of the neuron.Action potentials initiated at the axon hillock propagate back into the dendritic arbor.", "These back-propagating action potentials depolarize the dendritic membrane and provide a crucial signal for synapse modulation and long-term potentiation.", "Back-propagation is not completely passive, but modulated by the presence of dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels.", "Furthermore, in certain types of neurons, a train of back-propagating action potentials can induce a calcium action potential (a dendritic spike) at dendritic initiation zones." ], [ "Plasticity", "Dendrites themselves appear to be capable of plastic changes during the adult life of animals, including invertebrates.", "Neuronal dendrites have various compartments known as functional units that are able to compute incoming stimuli.", "These functional units are involved in processing input and are composed of the subdomains of dendrites such as spines, branches, or groupings of branches.", "Therefore, plasticity that leads to changes in the dendrite structure will affect communication and processing in the cell.", "During development, dendrite morphology is shaped by intrinsic programs within the cell's genome and extrinsic factors such as signals from other cells.", "But in adult life, extrinsic signals become more influential and cause more significant changes in dendrite structure compared to intrinsic signals during development.", "In females, the dendritic structure can change as a result of physiological conditions induced by hormones during periods such as pregnancy, lactation, and following the estrous cycle.", "This is particularly visible in pyramidal cells of the CA1 region of the hippocampus, where the density of dendrites can vary up to 30%.", "Recent experimental observations suggest that adaptation is performed in the neuronal dendritic trees, where the timescale of adaptation was observed to be as low as several seconds only.", "Certain machine learning architectures based on dendritic trees have shown to simplify the learning algorithm without affecting performance." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* - \"Slide 3 Spinal cord\"* Dendritic Tree - Cell Centered Database* Stereo images of dendritic trees in ''Kryptopterus'' electroreceptor organs" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dalai Lama" ], [ "Introduction", "''' Dalai Lama''' (, ; ) is a title given by the Tibetan people to the foremost spiritual leader of the Gelug or \"Yellow Hat\" school of Tibetan Buddhism, the newest and most dominant of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.", "The 14th and incumbent Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, who lives in exile as a refugee in India.", "The Dalai Lama is also considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion.Since the time of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, his personage has always been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet, where he has represented Buddhist values and traditions.", "The Dalai Lama was an important figure of the Geluk tradition, which was politically and numerically dominant in Central Tibet, but his religious authority went beyond sectarian boundaries.", "While he had no formal or institutional role in any of the religious traditions, which were headed by their own high lamas, he was a unifying symbol of the Tibetan state, representing Buddhist values and traditions above any specific school.", "The traditional function of the Dalai Lama as an ecumenical figure, holding together disparate religious and regional groups, has been taken up by the fourteenth Dalai Lama.", "He has worked to overcome sectarian and other divisions in the exiled community and has become a symbol of Tibetan nationhood for Tibetans both in Tibet and in exile.From 1642 until 1705 and from 1750 to the 1950s, the Dalai Lamas or their regents headed the Tibetan government (or Ganden Phodrang) in Lhasa, which governed all or most of the Tibetan Plateau with varying degrees of autonomy.", "This Tibetan government enjoyed the patronage and protection of firstly Mongol kings of the Khoshut and Dzungar Khanates (1642–1720) and then of the emperors of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1720–1912).", "In 1913, several Tibetan representatives including Agvan Dorzhiev signed a treaty between Tibet and Mongolia, proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China.", "The legitimacy of the treaty and declared independence of Tibet was rejected by both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China.", "The Dalai Lamas headed the Tibetan government until 1951." ], [ "Names", "The name \"Dalai Lama\" is a combination of the Mongolic word meaning \"ocean\" or \"great\" (coming from Mongolian title or , translated as ''Gyatso'' or ''rgya-mtsho'' in Tibetan) and the Tibetan word () meaning \"master, guru\".The Dalai Lama is also known in Tibetan as the ''Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che'' (\"Precious Conqueror\") or simply as the ''Rgyal-ba''." ], [ "History", "In Central Asian Buddhist countries, it has been widely believed for the last millennium that Avalokiteśvara, the bodhisattva of compassion, has a special relationship with the people of Tibet and intervenes in their fate by incarnating as benevolent rulers and teachers such as the Dalai Lamas.", "This is according to ''The Book of Kadam'', the main text of the Kadampa school, to which the 1st Dalai Lama, Gendun Drup, first belonged.This text is said to have laid the foundation for the Tibetans' later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara.It traces the legend of the bodhisattva's incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songtsen Gampo and later as Dromtönpa (1004–1064).This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas.=== Origins in myth and legend ===Thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than Gendun Drub.", "''The Book of Kadam'', the compilation of Kadampa teachings largely composed around discussions between the Indian sage Atiśa (980–1054) and his Tibetan host and chief disciple Dromtönpa and '''Tales of the Previous Incarnations of Arya Avalokiteśvara''', nominate as many as sixty persons prior to Gendun Drub who are enumerated as earlier incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and predecessors in the same lineage leading up to him.In brief, these include a mythology of 36 Indian personalities plus 10 early Tibetan kings and emperors, all said to be previous incarnations of Dromtönpa, and fourteen further Nepalese and Tibetan yogis and sages in between him and the 1st Dalai Lama.", "In fact, according to the \"Birth to Exile\" article on the 14th Dalai Lama's website, he is \"the seventy-fourth in a lineage that can be traced back to a Brahmin boy who lived in the time of Buddha Shakyamuni.", "\"=== Avalokiteśvara's \"Dalai Lama master plan\" ===According to the 14th Dalai Lama, long ago Avalokiteśvara had promised the Buddha to guide and defend the Tibetan people.", "In the late Middle Ages, his master plan to fulfill this promise was the stage-by-stage establishment of the Dalai Lama theocracy in Tibet.First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in the province of Ü before he died in 1419.The 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung, and developed a large popular power base in Ü.", "He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a fourth great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo, at Shigatse.", "The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, where he became Abbot of Drepung.", "Having reactivated the 1st's large popular followings in Tsang and Ü, the 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel.", "He established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the \"oracle lake\", Lhamo Lhatso.The 3rd built on his predecessors' fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera.", "The stage was set for the great Mongol King Altan Khan, hearing of his reputation, to invite the 3rd to Mongolia where he converted the King and his followers to Buddhism, as well as other Mongol princes and their followers covering a vast tract of central Asia.", "Thus, most of Mongolia was added to the Dalai Lama's sphere of influence, founding a spiritual empire which largely survives to the modern age.", "After being given the Mongolian name 'Dalai', he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet.The 4th was then born in Mongolia as the great-grandson of Altan Khan, thus cementing strong ties between Central Asia, the Dalai Lamas, the Gelugpa and Tibet.", "In fulfilment of Avalokiteśvara's master plan, the 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors.", "By 1642, a strategy that was planned and carried out by his resourceful ''chagdzo'' or manager Sonam Rapten with the military assistance of his devoted disciple Gushri Khan, Chieftain of the Khoshut Mongols, enabled the 'Great 5th' to found the Dalai Lamas' religious and political reign over more or less the whole of Tibet that survived for over 300 years.Thus the Dalai Lamas became pre-eminent spiritual leaders in Tibet and 25 Himalayan and Central Asian kingdoms and countries bordering Tibet and their prolific literary works have \"for centuries acted as major sources of spiritual and philosophical inspiration to more than fifty million people of these lands\".", "Overall, they have played \"a monumental role in Asian literary, philosophical and religious history\".=== Establishment of the Dalai Lama lineage ===Gendun Drup (1391–1474), a disciple of the founder Je Tsongkapa, was the ordination name of the monk who came to be known as the 'First Dalai Lama', but only from 104 years after he died.There had been resistance, since first he was ordained a monk in the Kadampa tradition and for various reasons, for hundreds of years the Kadampa school had eschewed the adoption of the ''tulku'' system to which the older schools adhered.", "Tsongkhapa largely modelled his new, reformed Gelugpa school on the Kadampa tradition and refrained from starting a tulku system.", "Therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be a very important Gelugpa lama, after he died in 1474 there was no question of any search being made to identify his incarnation.Despite this, when the Tashilhunpo monks started hearing what seemed credible accounts that an incarnation of Gendun Drup had appeared nearby and repeatedly announced himself from the age of two, their curiosity was aroused.", "It was some 55 years after Tsongkhapa's death when eventually, the monastic authorities saw compelling evidence that convinced them the child in question was indeed the incarnation of their founder.", "They felt obliged to break with their own tradition and in 1487, the boy was renamed Gendun Gyatso and installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's tulku, albeit informally.Gendun Gyatso died in 1542 and the lineage of Dalai Lama tulkus finally became firmly established when the third incarnation, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), came forth.", "He made himself known as the ''tulku'' of Gendun Gyatso and was formally recognised and enthroned at Drepung in 1546.When Gendun Gyatso was given the titular name \"Dalai Lama\" by the Tümed Altan Khan in 1578, his two predecessors were accorded the title posthumously and he became known as the third in the lineage.=== 1st Dalai Lama ===The Dalai Lama title was posthumously given to Gedun Drupa after 1578.The Dalai Lama lineage started from humble beginnings.", "'Pema Dorje' (1391–1474), the boy who was to become the first in the line, was born in a cattle pen in Shabtod, Tsang in 1391.His nomad parents kept sheep and goats and lived in tents.", "When his father died in 1398 his mother was unable to support the young goatherd so she entrusted him to his uncle, a monk at Narthang, a major Kadampa monastery near Shigatse, for education as a Buddhist monk.", "Narthang ran the largest printing press in Tibet and its celebrated library attracted scholars and adepts from far and wide, so Pema Dorje received an education beyond the norm at the time as well as exposure to diverse spiritual schools and ideas.He studied Buddhist philosophy extensively.", "In 1405, ordained by Narthang's abbot, he took the name of Gendun Drup.", "Soon recognised as an exceptionally gifted pupil, the abbot tutored him personally and took special interest in his progress.", "In 12 years he passed the 12 grades of monkhood and took the highest vows.", "After completing his intensive studies at Narthang he left to continue at specialist monasteries in Central Tibet, his grounding at Narthang was revered among many he encountered.In 1415 Gendun Drup met Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelugpa school, and became his student; their meeting was of decisive historical and political significance as he was later to be known as the 1st Dalai Lama.", "When eventually Tsongkhapa's successor the Panchen Lama Khedrup Je died, Gendun Drup became the leader of the Gelugpa.", "He rose to become Abbot of Drepung, the greatest Gelugpa monastery, outside Lhasa.It was mainly due to Gendun Drup's energy and ability that Tsongkhapa's new school grew into an expanding order capable of competing with others on an equal footing.", "Taking advantage of good relations with the nobility and a lack of determined opposition from rival orders, on the very edge of Karma Kagyu-dominated territory he founded Tashilhunpo Monastery at Shigatse.", "He was based there, as its Abbot, from its founding in 1447 until his death.", "Tashilhunpo, 'Mountain of Blessings', became the fourth great Gelugpa monastery in Tibet, after Ganden, Drepung and Sera had all been founded in Tsongkhapa's time.", "It later became the seat of the Panchen Lamas.By establishing it at Shigatse in the middle of Tsang, he expanded the Gelugpa sphere of influence, and his own, from the Lhasa region of Ü to this province, which was the stronghold of the Karma Kagyu school and their patrons, the rising Tsangpa dynasty.", "Tashilhunpo was destined to become 'Southern Tibet's greatest monastic university' with a complement of 3,000 monks.Gendun Drup was said to be the greatest scholar-saint ever produced by Narthang Monastery and became 'the single most important lama in Tibet'.", "Through hard work he became a leading lama, known as 'Perfecter of the Monkhood', 'with a host of disciples'.", "Famed for his Buddhist scholarship he was also referred to as ''Panchen Gendun Drup'', 'Panchen' being an honorary title designating 'great scholar'.", "By the great Jonangpa master Bodong Chokley Namgyal he was accorded the honorary title ''Tamchey Khyenpa'' meaning \"The Omniscient One\", an appellation that was later assigned to all Dalai Lama incarnations.At the age of 50, he entered meditation retreat at Narthang.", "As he grew older, Karma Kagyu adherents, finding their sect was losing too many recruits to the monkhood to burgeoning Gelugpa monasteries, tried to contain Gelug expansion by launching military expeditions against them in the region.", "This led to decades of military and political power struggles between Tsangpa dynasty forces and others across central Tibet.", "In an attempt to ameliorate these clashes, from his retreat Gendun Drup issued a poem of advice to his followers advising restraint from responding to violence with more violence and to practice compassion and patience instead.", "The poem, entitled ''Shar Gang Rima'', \"The Song of the Eastern Snow Mountains\", became one of his most enduring popular literary works.Although he was born in a cattle pen to be a simple goatherd, Gendun Drup rose to become one of the most celebrated and respected teachers in Tibet and Central Asia.", "His spiritual accomplishments brought him substantial donations from devotees which he used to build and furnish new monasteries, to print and distribute Buddhist texts and to maintain monks and meditators.", "At last, at the age of 84, older than any of his 13 successors, in 1474 he went on foot to visit Narthang Monastery on a final teaching tour.", "Returning to Tashilhunpo he died 'in a blaze of glory, recognised as having attained Buddhahood'.His mortal remains were interred in a bejewelled silver stupa at Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, which survived the Cultural Revolution and can still be seen.=== 2nd Dalai Lama ===Like the Kadampa, the Gelugpa eschewed the ''tulku'' system.", "After Gendun Drup died, however, a boy called Sangyey Pel born to Nyngma adepts at Yolkar in Tsang, declared himself at 3 to be \"Gendun Drup\" and asked to be 'taken home' to Tashilhunpo.", "He spoke in mystical verses, quoted classical texts out of the blue and said he was Dromtönpa, an earlier incarnation of the Dalai Lamas.", "When he saw monks from Tashilhunpo he greeted the disciples of the late Gendun Drup by name.", "The Gelugpa elders had to break with tradition and recognised him as Gendun Drup's ''tulku''.He was then 8, but until his 12th year his father took him on his teachings and retreats, training him in all the family Nyingma lineages.", "At 12 he was installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's incarnation, ordained, enthroned and renamed Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (1475–1542).Tutored personally by the abbot he made rapid progress and from 1492 at 17 he was requested to teach all over Tsang, where thousands gathered to listen and give obeisance, including senior scholars and abbots.", "In 1494, at 19, he met some opposition from the Tashilhunpo establishment when tensions arose over conflicts between advocates of the two types of succession, the traditional abbatial election through merit, and incarnation.", "Although he had served for some years as Tashilhunpo's abbot, he therefore moved to central Tibet, where he was invited to Drepung and where his reputation as a brilliant young teacher quickly grew.He was accorded all the loyalty and devotion that Gendun Drup had earned and the Gelug school remained as united as ever.", "This move had the effect of shifting central Gelug authority back to Lhasa.", "Under his leadership, the sect went on growing in size and influence and with its appeal of simplicity, devotion and austerity its lamas were asked to mediate in disputes between other rivals.", "Gendun Gyatso's popularity in Ü-Tsang grew as he went on pilgrimage, travelling, teaching and studying from masters such as the adept Khedrup Norzang Gyatso in the Olklha mountains.", "He also stayed in Kongpo and Dagpo and became known all over Tibet.", "He spent his winters in Lhasa, writing commentaries and the rest of the year travelling and teaching many thousands of monks and lay people.In 1509 he moved to southern Tibet to build Chokorgyel Monastery near the 'Oracle Lake', Lhamo Latso, completing it by 1511.That year he saw visions in the lake and 'empowered' it to impart clues to help identify incarnate lamas.", "All Dalai Lamas from the 3rd on were found with the help of such visions granted to regents.", "By now widely regarded as one of Tibet's greatest saints and scholars he was invited back to Tashilhunpo.", "On his return in 1512, he was given the residence built for Gendun Drup, to be occupied later by the Panchen Lamas.", "He was made abbot of Tashilhunpo and stayed there teaching in Tsang for 9 months.Gendun Gyatso continued to travel widely and teach while based at Tibet's largest monastery, Drepung and became known as 'Drepung Lama', his fame and influence spreading all over Central Asia as the best students from hundreds of lesser monasteries in Asia were sent to Drepung for education.Throughout Gendun Gyatso's life, the Gelugpa were opposed and suppressed by older rivals, particularly the Karma Kagyu and their Ringpung clan patrons from Tsang, who felt threatened by their loss of influence.", "In 1498 the Ringpung army captured Lhasa and banned the Gelugpa annual New Year Monlam Prayer Festival started by Tsongkhapa for world peace and prosperity.", "Gendun Gyatso was promoted to abbot of Drepung in 1517 and that year Ringpung forces were forced to withdraw from Lhasa.Gendun Gyatso then went to the ''Gongma'' (King) Drakpa Jungne to obtain permission for the festival to be held again.", "The next New Year, the ''Gongma'' was so impressed by Gendun Gyatso's performance leading the Festival that he sponsored construction of a large new residence for him at Drepung, 'a monastery within a monastery'.", "It was called the Ganden Phodrang, a name later adopted by the Tibetan Government, and it served as home for Dalai Lamas until the Fifth moved to the Potala Palace in 1645.In 1525, already abbot of Chokhorgyel, Drepung and Tashilhunpo, he was made abbot of Sera monastery as well, and seeing the number of monks was low he worked to increase it.Based at Drepung in winter and Chokorgyel in summer, he spent his remaining years in composing commentaries, regional teaching tours, visiting Tashilhunpo from time to time and acting as abbot of these four great monasteries.", "As abbot, he made Drepung the largest monastery in the whole of Tibet.", "He attracted many students and disciples 'from Kashmir to China' as well as major patrons and disciples such as ''Gongma'' Nangso Donyopa of Droda who built a monastery at Zhekar Dzong in his honour and invited him to name it and be its spiritual guide.", "''Gongma'' Gyaltsen Palzangpo of Khyomorlung at Tolung and his Queen Sangyey Paldzomma also became his favorite devoted lay patrons and disciples in the 1530s and he visited their area to carry out rituals as 'he chose it for his next place of rebirth'.", "He died in meditation at Drepung in 1542 at 67 and his reliquary stupa was constructed at Khyomorlung.", "It was said that, by the time he died, through his disciples and their students, his personal influence covered the whole of Buddhist Central Asia where 'there was nobody of any consequence who did not know of him'.", "The Dalai Lama title was posthumously granted to Gedun Gyatso after 1578.=== 3rd Dalai Lama ===The Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) was born in Tolung, near Lhasa,as predicted by his predecessor.", "Claiming he was Gendun Gyatso and readily recalling events from his previous life, he was recognised as the incarnation, named 'Sonam Gyatso' and installed at Drepung, where 'he quickly excelled his teachers in knowledge and wisdom and developed extraordinary powers'.", "Unlike his predecessors, he came from a noble family, connected with the Sakya and the Phagmo Drupa (Karma Kagyu affiliated) dynasties, and it is to him that the effective conversion of Mongolia to Buddhism is due.A brilliant scholar and teacher, he had the spiritual maturity to be made Abbot of Drepung, taking responsibility for the material and spiritual well-being of Tibet's largest monastery at the age of nine.", "At 10 he led the Monlam Prayer Festival, giving daily discourses to the assembly of all Gelugpa monks.", "His influence grew so quickly that soon the monks at Sera Monastery also made him their Abbot and his mediation was being sought to prevent fighting between political power factions.", "At 16, in 1559, he was invited to Nedong by King Ngawang Tashi Drakpa, a Karma Kagyu supporter, and became his personal teacher.At 17, when fighting broke out in Lhasa between Gelug and Kagyu parties and efforts by local lamas to mediate failed, Sonam Gyatso negotiated a peaceful settlement.", "At 19, when the Kyichu River burst its banks and flooded Lhasa, he led his followers to rescue victims and repair the dykes.", "He then instituted a custom whereby on the last day of Monlam, all the monks would work on strengthening the flood defences.", "Gradually, he was shaping himself into a national leader.", "His popularity and renown became such that in 1564 when the Nedong King died, it was Sonam Gyatso at the age of 21 who was requested to lead his funeral rites, rather than his own Kagyu lamas.Required to travel and teach without respite after taking full ordination in 1565, he still maintained extensive meditation practices in the hours before dawn and again at the end of the day.", "In 1569, at age 26, he went to Tashilhunpo to study the layout and administration of the monastery built by his predecessor Gendun Drup.", "Invited to become the Abbot he declined, already being Abbot of Drepung and Sera, but left his deputy there in his stead.", "From there he visited Narthang, the first monastery of Gendun Drup and gave numerous discourses and offerings to the monks in gratitude.Meanwhile, Altan Khan, chief of all the Mongol tribes near China's borders, had heard of Sonam Gyatso's spiritual prowess and repeatedly invited him to Mongolia.", "By 1571, when Altan Khan received a title of Shunyi Wang (King) from the Ming dynasty of China and swore allegiance to Ming, Although he remained de facto quite independent, he had fulfilled his political destiny and a nephew advised him to seek spiritual salvation, saying that \"in Tibet dwells Avalokiteshvara\", referring to Sonam Gyatso, then 28 years old.", "China was also happy to help Altan Khan by providing necessary translations of holy scripture, and also lamas.At the second invitation, in 1577–78 Sonam Gyatso travelled 1,500 miles to Mongolia to see him.", "They met in an atmosphere of intense reverence and devotion and their meeting resulted in the re-establishment of strong Tibet-Mongolia relations after a gap of 200 years.To Altan Khan, Sonam Gyatso identified himself as the incarnation of Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, and Altan Khan as that of Kubilai Khan, thus placing the Khan as heir to the Chingizid lineage whilst securing his patronage.Altan Khan and his followers quickly adopted Buddhism as their state religion, replacing the prohibited traditional Shamanism.Mongol law was reformed to accord with Tibetan Buddhist law.", "From this time Buddhism spread rapidly across Mongolia and soon the Gelugpa had won the spiritual allegiance of most of the Mongolian tribes.As proposed by Sonam Gyatso, Altan Khan sponsored the building of Thegchen Chonkhor Monastery at the site of Sonam Gyatso's open-air teachings given to the whole Mongol population.", "He also called Sonam Gyatso \"Dalai\", Mongolian for 'Gyatso' (Ocean).In October 1587, as requested by the family of Altan Khan, Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso was promoted to Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (Chinese:朵儿只唱) by the emperor of China, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted.The name \"Dalai Lama\", by which the lineage later became known throughout the non-Tibetan world, was thus established and it was applied to the first two incarnations retrospectively.In 1579, the Ming allowed the third Dalai Lama to pay regular tribute.", "Returning eventually to Tibet by a roundabout route and invited to stay and teach all along the way, in 1580 Sonam Gyatso was in Hohhot or Ningxia, not far from Beijing, when the Chinese Emperor summoned him to his court.By then he had established a religious empire of such proportions that it was unsurprising the Emperor wanted to summon him and grant him a diploma.Through Altan Khan, the 3rd Dalai Lama requested to pay tribute to the Emperor of China in order to raise his State Tutor ranking, and the Ming imperial court of China agreed with the request.", "In 1582, he heard Altan Khan had died and invited by his son Dhüring Khan he decided to return to Mongolia.", "Passing through Amdo, he founded a second great monastery, Kumbum, at the birthplace of Tsongkhapa near Kokonor.", "Further on, he was asked to adjudicate on border disputes between Mongolia and China.", "It was the first time a Dalai Lama had exercised such political authority.Arriving in Mongolia in 1585, he stayed 2 years with Dhüring Khan, teaching Buddhism to his people and converting more Mongol princes and their tribes.", "Receiving a second invitation from the Emperor in Beijing he accepted, but died en route in 1588.As he was dying, his Mongolian converts urged him not to leave them, as they needed his continuing religious leadership.", "He promised them he would be incarnated next in Mongolia, as a Mongolian.=== 4th Dalai Lama ===The Fourth Dalai Lama, Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617) was a Mongol, the great-grandson of Altan Khan who was a descendant of Kublai Khan and leader of the Tümed Mongols who had already been converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588).", "This strong connection caused the Mongols to zealously support the Gelugpa sect in Tibet, strengthening their status and position but also arousing intensified opposition from the Gelugpa's rivals, particularly the Tsang Karma Kagyu in Shigatse and their Mongol patrons and the Bönpo in Kham and their allies.", "Being the newest school, unlike the older schools the Gelugpa lacked an established network of Tibetan clan patronage and were thus more reliant on foreign patrons.At the age of 10 with a large Mongol escort he travelled to Lhasa where he was enthroned.", "He studied at Drepung and became its abbot but being a non-Tibetan he met with opposition from some Tibetans, especially the Karma Kagyu who felt their position was threatened by these emerging events; there were several attempts to remove him from power.", "Seal of authority was granted in 1616 by Wanli Emperor of Ming.", "Yonten Gyatso died at the age of 27 under suspicious circumstances and his chief attendant Sonam Rapten went on to discover the 5th Dalai Lama, became his ''chagdzo'' or manager and after 1642 he went on to be his regent, the Desi.=== 5th Dalai Lama ===The death of the Fourth Dalai Lama in 1617 led to open conflict breaking out between various parties.", "Firstly, the Tsangpa dynasty, rulers of Central Tibet from Shigatse, supporters of the Karmapa school and rivals to the Gelugpa, forbade the search for his incarnation.", "However, in 1618 Sonam Rabten, the former attendant of the 4th Dalai Lama who had become the Ganden Phodrang treasurer, secretly identified the child, who had been born to the noble Zahor family at Tagtse castle, south of Lhasa.", "Then, the Panchen Lama, in Shigatse, negotiated the lifting of the ban, enabling the boy to be recognised as Lobsang Gyatso, the 5th Dalai Lama.Also in 1618, the Tsangpa King, Karma Puntsok Namgyal, whose Mongol patron was Choghtu Khong Tayiji of the Khalkha Mongols, attacked the Gelugpa in Lhasa to avenge an earlier snub and established two military bases there to control the monasteries and the city.", "This caused Sonam Rabten who became the 5th Dalai Lama's ''changdzo'' or manager, to seek more active Mongol patronage and military assistance for the Gelugpa while the Fifth was still a boy.", "So, in 1620, Mongol troops allied to the Gelugpa who had camped outside Lhasa suddenly attacked and destroyed the two Tsangpa camps and drove them out of Lhasa, enabling the Dalai Lama to be brought out of hiding and publicly enthroned there in 1622.In fact, throughout the 5th's minority, it was the influential and forceful Sonam Rabten who inspired the Dzungar Mongols to defend the Gelugpa by attacking their enemies.", "These enemies included other Mongol tribes who supported the Tsangpas, the Tsangpa themselves and their Bönpo allies in Kham who had also opposed and persecuted Gelugpas.", "Ultimately, this strategy led to the destruction of the Tsangpa dynasty, the defeat of the Karmapas and their other allies and the Bönpos, by armed forces from the Lhasa valley aided by their Mongol allies, paving the way for Gelugpa political and religious hegemony in Central Tibet.Apparently by general consensus, by virtue of his position as the Dalai Lama's ''changdzo'' (chief attendant, minister), after the Dalai Lama became absolute ruler of Tibet in 1642 Sonam Rabten became the \"''Desi''\" or \"Viceroy\", in fact, the ''de facto'' regent or day-to-day ruler of Tibet's governmental affairs.", "During these years and for the rest of his life (he died in 1658), \"there was little doubt that politically Sonam Chophel Rabten was more powerful than the Dalai Lama\".", "As a young man, being 22 years his junior, the Dalai Lama addressed him reverentially as \"''Zhalngo''\", meaning \"the Presence\".During the 1630s Tibet was deeply entangled in rivalry, evolving power struggles and conflicts, not only between the Tibetan religious sects but also between the rising Manchus and the various rival Mongol and Oirat factions, who were also vying for supremacy amongst themselves and on behalf of the religious sects they patronised.", "For example, Ligdan Khan of the Chahars, a Mongol subgroup who supported the Tsang Karmapas, after retreating from advancing Manchu armies headed for Kokonor intending destroy the Gelug.", "He died on the way, in 1634.His vassal Choghtu Khong Tayiji, continued to advance against the Gelugpas, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed sides, submitted to the Dalai Lama and become a Gelugpa monk.", "By the mid-1630s, thanks again to the efforts of Sonam Rabten, the 5th Dalai Lama had found a powerful new patron in Güshi Khan of the Khoshut Mongols, a subgroup of the Dzungars, who had recently migrated to the Kokonor area from Dzungaria.", "He attacked Choghtu Khong Tayiji at Kokonor in 1637 and defeated and killed him, thus eliminating the Tsangpa and the Karmapa's main Mongol patron and protector.Next, Donyo Dorje, the Bönpo king of Beri in Kham was found writing to the Tsangpa king in Shigatse to propose a co-ordinated 'pincer attack' on the Lhasa Gelugpa monasteries from east and west, seeking to utterly destroy them once and for all.", "The intercepted letter was sent to Güshi Khan who used it as a pretext to invade central Tibet in 1639 to attack them both, the Bönpo and the Tsangpa.", "By 1641 he had defeated Donyo Dorje and his allies in Kham and then he marched on Shigatse where after laying siege to their strongholds he defeated Karma Tenkyong, broke the power of the Tsang Karma Kagyu in 1642 and ended the Tsangpa dynasty.Güshi Khan's attack on the Tsangpa was made on the orders of Sonam Rapten while being publicly and robustly opposed by the Dalai Lama, who, as a matter of conscience, out of compassion and his vision of tolerance for other religious schools, refused to give permission for more warfare in his name after the defeat of the Beri king.", "Sonam Rabten deviously went behind his master's back to encourage Güshi Khan, to facilitate his plans and to ensure the attacks took place; for this defiance of his master's wishes, Rabten was severely rebuked by the 5th Dalai Lama.After Desi Sonam Rapten died in 1658, the following year the 5th Dalai Lama appointed his younger brother Depa Norbu (aka Nangso Norbu) as his successor.", "However, after a few months, Norbu betrayed him and led a rebellion against the Ganden Phodrang Government.", "With his accomplices he seized Samdruptse fort at Shigatse and tried to raise a rebel army from Tsang and Bhutan, but the Dalai Lama skilfully foiled his plans without any fighting taking place and Norbu had to flee.", "Four other Desis were appointed after Depa Norbu: Trinle Gyatso, Lozang Tutop, Lozang Jinpa and Sangye Gyatso.==== Re-unification of Tibet ====Having thus defeated all the Gelugpa's rivals and resolved all regional and sectarian conflicts Güshi Khan became the undisputed patron of a unified Tibet and acted as a \"Protector of the Gelug\", establishing the Khoshut Khanate which covered almost the entire Tibetan plateau, an area corresponding roughly to 'Greater Tibet' including Kham and Amdo, as claimed by exiled groups (see maps).", "At an enthronement ceremony in Shigatse he conferred full sovereignty over Tibet on the Fifth Dalai Lama, unified for the first time since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire exactly eight centuries earlier.", "Güshi Khan then retired to Kokonor with his armies and according to Smith ruled Amdo himself directly thus creating a precedent for the later separation of Amdo from the rest of Tibet.In this way, Güshi Khan established the Fifth Dalai Lama as the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet.", "'The Great Fifth' became the temporal ruler of Tibet in 1642 and from then on the rule of the Dalai Lama lineage over some, all or most of Tibet lasted with few breaks for the next 317 years, until 1959, when the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India.", "In 1645, the Great Fifth began the construction of the Potala Palace in Lhasa.Güshi Khan died in 1655 and was succeeded by his descendants Dayan, Tenzin Dalai Khan and Tenzin Wangchuk Khan.", "However, Güshi Khan's other eight sons had settled in Amdo but fought amongst themselves over territory so the Fifth Dalai Lama sent governors to rule them in 1656 and 1659, thereby bringing Amdo and thus the whole of Greater Tibet under his personal rule and Gelugpa control.", "The Mongols in Amdo became absorbed and Tibetanised.==== Visit to Beijing ====In 1636 the Manchus proclaimed their dynasty as the Qing dynasty and by 1644 they had completed their conquest of China under the prince regent Dorgon.", "The following year their forces approached Amdo on northern Tibet, causing the Oirat and Khoshut Mongols there to submit in 1647 and send tribute.", "In 1648, after quelling a rebellion of Tibetans of Gansu-Xining, the Qing invited the Fifth Dalai Lama to visit their court at Beijing since they wished to engender Tibetan influence in their dealings with the Mongols.", "The Qing were aware the Dalai Lama had extraordinary influence with the Mongols and saw relations with the Dalai Lama as a means to facilitate submission of the Khalka Mongols, traditional patrons of the Karma Kagyu sect.Similarly, since the Tibetan Gelugpa were keen to revive a priest-patron relationship with the dominant power in China and Inner Asia, the Qing invitation was accepted.", "After five years of complex diplomatic negotiations about whether the emperor or his representatives should meet the Dalai Lama inside or outside the Great Wall, when the meeting would be astrologically favourable, how it would be conducted and so on, it eventually took place in Beijing in 1653.The Shunzhi Emperor was then 16 years old, having in the meantime ascended the throne in 1650 after the death of Dorgon.", "For the Qing, although the Dalai Lama was not required to kowtow to the emperor, who rose from his throne and advanced 30 feet to meet him, the significance of the visit was that of nominal political submission by the Dalai Lama since Inner Asian heads of state did not travel to meet each other but sent envoys.", "For Tibetan Buddhist historians, however, it was interpreted as the start of an era of independent rule of the Dalai Lamas, and of Qing patronage alongside that of the Mongols.When the 5th Dalai Lama returned, he was granted by the emperor of China a golden seal of authority and golden sheets with texts written in Manchu, Tibetan and Han Chinese languages.", "The 5th Dalai Lama wanted to use the golden seal of authority right away.", "However, Lobzang Gyatsho noted that \"The Tibetan version of the inscription of the seal was translated by a Mongol translator but was not a good translation\".", "After correction, it read: \"The one who resides in the Western peaceful and virtuous paradise is unalterable Vajradhara, Ocen Lama, unifier of the doctrines of the Buddha for all beings under the sky\".", "The words of the diploma ran: \"Proclamation, to let all the people of the western hemisphere know\".", "Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain points out that based on the texts written on golden sheets, Dalai Lama was only a subordinate of the Emperor of China.However, despite such patronising attempts by Chinese officials and historians to symbolically show for the record that they held political influence over Tibet, the Tibetans themselves did not accept any such symbols imposed on them by the Chinese with this kind of motive.", "For example, concerning the above-mentioned 'golden seal', the Fifth Dalai Lama comments in ''Dukula'', his autobiography, on leaving China after this courtesy visit to the emperor in 1653, that \"the emperor made his men bring a golden seal for me that had three vertical lines in three parallel scripts: Chinese, Mongol and Tibetan\".", "He also criticised the words carved on this gift as being faultily translated into Tibetan, writing that \"The Tibetan version of the inscription of the seal was translated by a Mongol translator but was not a good translation\".", "Furthermore, when he arrived back in Tibet, he discarded the emperor's famous golden seal and made a new one for important state usage, writing in his autobiography: \"Leaving out the Chinese characters that were on the seal given by the emperor, a new seal was carved for stamping documents that dealt with territorial issues.", "The first imprint of the seal was offered with prayers to the image of Lokeshvara ...\".==== Relations with the Qing dynasty ====The 17th-century struggles for domination between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the various Mongol groups spilled over to involve Tibet because of the Fifth Dalai Lama's strong influence over the Mongols as a result of their general adoption of Tibetan Buddhism and their consequent deep loyalty to the Dalai Lama as their guru.", "Until 1674, the Fifth Dalai Lama had mediated in Dzungar Mongol affairs whenever they required him to do so, and the Kangxi Emperor, who had succeeded the Shunzhi Emperor in 1661, would accept and confirm his decisions automatically.For the Kangxi Emperor, the alliance between the Dzungar Mongols and the Tibetans was unsettling because he feared it had the potential to unite all the other Mongol tribes together against the Qing Empire, including those tribes who had already submitted.", "Therefore, in 1674, the Kangxi Emperor, annoyed by the Fifth's less than full cooperation in quelling a rebellion against the Qing in Yunnan, ceased deferring to him as regards Mongol affairs and started dealing with them directly.In the same year, 1674, the Dalai Lama, then at the height of his powers and conducting a foreign policy independent of the Qing, caused Mongol troops to occupy the border post of Dartsedo between Kham and Sichuan, further annoying the Kangxi Emperor who (according to Smith) already considered Tibet as part of the Qing Empire.", "It also increased Qing suspicion about Tibetan relations with the Mongol groups and led him to seek strategic opportunities to oppose and undermine Mongol influence in Tibet and eventually, within 50 years, to defeat the Mongols militarily and to establish the Qing as sole 'patrons and protectors' of Tibet in their place.==== Cultural development ====The time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, who reigned from 1642 to 1682 and founded the government known as the Ganden Phodrang, was a period of rich cultural development.", "His reign and that of Desi Sangye Gyatso are noteworthy for the upsurge in literary activity and of cultural and economic life that occurred.", "The same goes for the great increase in the number of foreign visitors thronging Lhasa during the period as well as for the number of inventions and institutions that are attributed to the 'Great Fifth', as the Tibetans refer to him.", "The most dynamic and prolific of the early Dalai Lamas, he composed more literary works than all the other Dalai Lamas combined.", "Writing on a wide variety of subjects he is specially noted for his works on history, classical Indian poetry in Sanskrit and his biographies of notable personalities of his epoch, as well as his own two autobiographies, one spiritual in nature and the other political (see Further Reading).", "He also taught and travelled extensively, reshaped the politics of Central Asia, unified Tibet, conceived and constructed the Potala Palace and is remembered for establishing systems of national medical care and education.==== Death of the fifth Dalai Lama ====The Fifth Dalai Lama died in 1682.Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain points out that the written wills from the fifth Dalai Lama before he died explicitly said his title and authority were from the Emperor of China, and he was subordinate of the Emperor of China.The Fifth Dalai Lama's death in 1682 was kept secret for fifteen years by his regent Desi Sangye Gyatso.", "He pretended the Dalai Lama was in retreat and ruled on his behalf, secretly selecting the 6th Dalai Lama and presenting him as someone else.", "Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain points out that Desi Sangye Gyatso wanted to consolidate his personal status and power by not reporting the death of the fifth Dalai Lama to the Emperor of China, and also collude with the rebellion group of the Qing dynasty, Mongol Dzungar tribe in order to counter influence from another Mongol Khoshut tribe in Tibet.", "Being afraid of prosecution by the Kangxi Emperor of China, Desi Sangye Gyatso explained with fear and trepidation the reason behind his action to the Emperor.In 1705, Desi Sangye Gyatso was killed by Lha-bzang Khan of the Mongol Khoshut tribe because of his actions including his illegal action of selecting the 6th Dalai Lama.", "Since the Kangxi Emperor was not happy about Desi Sangye Gyatso's action of not reporting, the Emperor gave Lha-bzang Khan additional title and golden seal.", "The Kangxi Emperor also ordered Lha-bzang Khan to arrest the 6th Dalai Lama and send him to Beijing, the 6th Dalai Lama died when he was en route to Beijing.", "Journalist Thomas Laird argues that it was apparently done so that construction of the Potala Palace could be finished, and it was to prevent Tibet's neighbors, the Mongols and the Qing, from taking advantage of an interregnum in the succession of the Dalai Lamas.=== 6th Dalai Lama ===The Sixth Dalai Lama (1683–1706) was born near Tawang, now in India, and picked out in 1685 but not enthroned until 1697 when the death of the Fifth was announced.", "After 16 years of study as a novice monk, in 1702 in his 20th year he rejected full ordination and gave up his monk's robes and monastic life, preferring the lifestyle of a layman.In 1703 Güshi Khan's ruling grandson Tenzin Wangchuk Khan was murdered by his brother Lhazang Khan who usurped the Khoshut's Tibetan throne, but unlike his four predecessors he started interfering directly in Tibetan affairs in Lhasa; he opposed the Fifth Dalai Lama's regent, Desi Sangye Gyatso for his deceptions and in the same year, with the support of the Kangxi Emperor, he forced him out of office.", "Then in 1705, he used the Sixth's escapades as an excuse to seize full control of Tibet.", "Most Tibetans, though, still supported their Dalai Lama despite his behaviour and deeply resented Lhazang Khan's interference.When Lhazang was requested by the Tibetans to leave Lhasa politics to them and to retire to Kokonor like his predecessors, he quit the city, but only to gather his armies in order to return, capture Lhasa militarily and assume full political control of Tibet.", "The regent was then murdered by Lhazang or his wife, and, in 1706 with the compliance of the Kangxi Emperor the Sixth Dalai Lama was deposed and arrested by Lhazang who considered him to be an impostor set up by the regent.", "Lhazang Khan, now acting as the only outright foreign ruler that Tibet had ever had, then sent him to Beijing under escort to appear before the emperor but he died mysteriously on the way near Lake Qinghai, ostensibly from illness.Having discredited and deposed the Sixth Dalai Lama, whom he considered an impostor, and having removed the regent, Lhazang Khan pressed the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to endorse a new Dalai Lama in Tsangyang Gyatso's place as the true incarnation of the Fifth.", "They eventually nominated one Pekar Dzinpa, a monk but also rumored to be Lhazang's son, and Lhazang had him installed as the 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, endorsed by the Panchen Lama and named Yeshe Gyatso in 1707.This choice was in no way accepted by the Tibetan people, however, nor by Lhazang's princely Mongol rivals in Kokonor who resented his usurpation of the Khoshut Tibetan throne as well as his meddling in Tibetan affairs.The Kangxi Emperor concurred with them, after sending investigators, initially declining to recognize Yeshe Gyatso.", "He recognized him in 1710, after sending a Qing official party to assist Lhazang in 'restoring order'.", "These were the first Chinese representatives of any sort to officiate in Tibet.", "At the same time, while this puppet 'Dalai Lama' had no political power, the Kangxi Emperor secured from Lhazang Khan in return for this support the promise of regular payments of tribute; this was the first time tribute had been paid to the Manchu by the Mongols in Tibet and the first overt acknowledgment of Qing supremacy over Mongol rule in Tibet.=== 7th Dalai Lama ===In 1708, in accordance with an indication given by the 6th Dalai Lama when quitting Lhasa, a child called Kelzang Gyatso had been born at Lithang in eastern Tibet who was soon claimed by local Tibetans to be his incarnation.", "After going into hiding out of fear of Lhazang Khan, he was installed in Lithang monastery.", "Along with some of the Kokonor Mongol princes, rivals of Lhazang, in defiance of the situation in Lhasa the Tibetans of Kham duly recognised him as the Seventh Dalai Lama in 1712, retaining his birth-name of Kelzang Gyatso.", "For security reasons he was moved to Derge monastery and eventually, in 1716, now also backed and sponsored by the Kangxi Emperor of China.The Tibetans asked Dzungars to bring a true Dalai Lama to Lhasa, but the Manchu Chinese did not want to release Kelsan Gyatso to the Mongol Dzungars.", "The Regent Taktse Shabdrung and Tibetan officials then wrote a letter to the Manchu Chinese Emperor that they recognized Kelsang Gyatso as the Dalai Lama.", "The Emperor then granted Kelsang Gyatso a golden seal of authority.", "The Sixth Dalai Lama was taken to Amdo at the age of 8 to be installed in Kumbum Monastery with great pomp and ceremony.According to Smith, the Kangxi Emperor now arranged to protect the child and keep him at Kumbum monastery in Amdo in reserve just in case his ally Lhasang Khan and his 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, were overthrown.", "According to Mullin, however, the emperor's support came from genuine spiritual recognition and respect rather than being politically motivated.==== Dzungar invasion ====In any case, the Kangxi Emperor took full advantage of having Kelzang Gyatso under Qing control at Kumbum after other Mongols from the Dzungar tribes led by Tsewang Rabtan who was related to his supposed ally Lhazang Khan, deceived and betrayed the latter by invading Tibet and capturing Lhasa in 1717.These Dzungars, who were Buddhist, had supported the Fifth Dalai Lama and his regent.", "They were secretly petitioned by the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to invade with their help in order to rid them of their foreign ruler Lhazang Khan and to replace the unpopular Sixth Dalai Lama pretender with the young Kelzang Gyatso.", "This plot suited the devious Dzungar leaders' ambitions and they were only too happy to oblige.", "Early in 1717, after conspiring to undermine Lhazang Khan through treachery they entered Tibet from the northwest with a large army, sending a smaller force to Kumbum to collect Kelzang Gyatso and escort him to Lhasa.By the end of the year, with Tibetan connivance they had captured Lhasa, killed Lhazang and all his family and deposed Yeshe Gyatso.", "Their force sent to fetch Kelzang Gyatso, however, was intercepted and destroyed by Qing armies alerted by Lhazang.", "In Lhasa, the unruly Dzungar not only failed to produce the boy but also went on the rampage, looting and destroying the holy places, abusing the populace, killing hundreds of Nyingma monks, causing chaos and bloodshed and turning their Tibetan allies against them.", "The Tibetans were soon appealing to the Kangxi Emperor to rid them of the Dzungars.When the Dzungars had first attacked, the weakened Lhazang sent word to the Qing for support and they quickly dispatched two armies to assist, the first Chinese armies ever to enter Tibet, but they arrived too late.", "In 1718 they were halted not far from Lhasa to be defeated and then ruthlessly annihilated by the triumphant Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River.==== Enthronement in Lhasa ====This humiliation only determined the Kangxi Emperor to expel the Dzungars from Tibet once and for all and he set about assembling and dispatching a much larger force to march on Lhasa, bringing the emperor's trump card the young Kelzang Gyatso with it.", "On the imperial army's stately passage from Kumbum to Lhasa with the boy being welcomed adoringly at every stage, Khoshut Mongols and Tibetans were happy (and well paid) to join and swell its ranks.By the autumn of 1720, the marauding Dzungar Mongols had been vanquished from Tibet.", "Qing imperial forces had entered Lhasa triumphantly with the 12-year-old, acting as patrons of the Dalai Lama, liberators of Tibet, allies of the Tibetan anti-Dzungar forces led by Kangchenas and Polhanas, and allies of the Khoshut Mongol princes.", "The delighted Tibetans enthroned him as the Seventh Dalai Lama at the Potala Palace.A new Tibetan government was established consisting of a Kashag or cabinet of Tibetan ministers headed by Kangchenas.", "Kelzang Gyatso, too young to participate in politics, studied Buddhism.", "He played a symbolic role in government, and, being profoundly revered by the Mongols, he exercised much influence with the Qing who now had now taken over Tibet's patronage and protection from them.==== Exile to Kham ====Having vanquished the Dzungars, the Qing army withdrew leaving the Seventh Dalai Lama as a political figurehead and only a Khalkha Mongol as the Qing ''amban'' or representative and a garrison in Lhasa.", "After the Kangxi Emperor died in 1722 and was succeeded by his son, the Yongzheng Emperor, these were also withdrawn, leaving the Tibetans to rule autonomously and showing the Qing were interested in an alliance, not conquest.", "In 1723, after brutally quelling a major rebellion by zealous Tibetan patriots and disgruntled Khoshut Mongols from Amdo who attacked Xining, the Qing intervened again, splitting Tibet by putting Amdo and Kham under their own more direct control.Continuing Qing interference in Central Tibetan politics and religion incited an anti-Qing faction to quarrel with the Qing-sympathising Tibetan nobles in power in Lhasa, led by Kanchenas who was supported by Polhanas.", "This led eventually to the murder of Kanchenas in 1727 and a civil war that was resolved in 1728 with the canny Polhanas, who had sent for Qing assistance, the victor.", "When the Qing forces did arrive they punished the losers and exiled the Seventh Dalai Lama to Kham, under the pretence of sending him to Beijing, because his father had assisted the defeated, anti-Qing faction.", "He studied and taught Buddhism there for the next seven years.==== Return to Lhasa ====In 1735 he was allowed back to Lhasa to study and teach, but still under strict control, being mistrusted by the Qing, while Polhanas ruled Central Tibet under nominal Qing supervision.", "Meanwhile, the Qing had promoted the Fifth Panchen Lama to be a rival leader and reinstated the ''ambans'' and the Lhasa garrison.", "Polhanas died in 1747.He was succeeded by his son Gyurme Namgyal, the last dynastic ruler of Tibet, who was far less cooperative with the Qing.", "He built a Tibetan army and started conspiring with the Dzungars to rid Tibet of Qing influence.", "In 1750, when the ''ambans'' realised this, they invited him and personally assassinated him.", "Despite the Dalai Lama's attempts to calm the angered populace, a vengeful Tibetan mob assassinated the ''ambans'', along with most of their escort.==== Restoration as Tibet's political leader ====The Qing sent yet another force 'to restore order' but when it arrived the situation had already been stabilised under the leadership of the 7th Dalai Lama who was now seen to have demonstrated loyalty to the Qing.", "Just as Güshi Khan had done with the Fifth Dalai Lama, they therefore helped reconstitute the government with the Dalai Lama presiding over a Kashag of four Tibetans, reinvesting him with temporal power in addition to his already established spiritual leadership.", "This arrangement, with a Kashag under the Dalai Lama or his regent, outlasted the Qing dynasty which collapsed in 1912.The ''ambans'' and their garrison were reinstated to observe and to some extent supervise affairs.", "Their influence generally waned with the power of their empire, which gradually declined after 1792 along with its influence over Tibet, a decline aided by a succession of corrupt or incompetent ''ambans''.", "Moreover, there was soon no reason for the Qing to fear the Dzungar; by the time the Seventh Dalai Lama died in 1757 at the age of 49, the entire Dzungar people had been practically exterminated through years of genocidal campaigns by Qing armies, and deadly smallpox epidemics, with the survivors being forcibly transported into China.", "Their emptied lands were then awarded to other peoples.According to Mullin, despite living through such violent times Kelzang Gyatso was perhaps 'the most spiritually learned and accomplished of any Dalai Lama', his written works comprising several hundred titles including 'some of Tibet's finest spiritual literary achievements'.", "Despite his apparent lack of zeal in politics, Kelzang Gyatso is credited with establishing in 1751 the reformed government of Tibet headed by the Dalai Lama, which continued over 200 years until the 1950s, and then in exile.", "Construction of the Norbulingka, the 'Summer Palace' of the Dalai Lamas in Lhasa was started during Kelzang Gyatso's reign.=== 8th Dalai Lama ===The Eighth Dalai Lama, Jamphel Gyatso was born in Tsang in 1758 and died aged 46 having taken little part in Tibetan politics, mostly leaving temporal matters to his regents and the ''ambans''.", "The 8th Dalai Lama was approved by the Emperor of China to be exempted from the lot-drawing ceremony of using Chinese Golden Urn.", "Qianlong Emperor officially accept Gyiangbai as the 8th Dalai Lama when the 6th Panchen Erdeni came to congratulate the Emperor on his 70th birthday in 1780.The 8th Dalai Lama was granted a jade seal of authority and jade sheets of confirmation of authority by the Emperor of China.", "The jade sheets of confirmation of authority saysThe Dalai Lama, his later generations and the local government cherished both the jade seal of authority, and the jade sheets of authority.", "They were properly preserved as the root to their ruling power.Although the 8th Dalai Lama lived almost as long as the Seventh he was overshadowed by many contemporary lamas in terms of both religious and political accomplishment.", "According to Mullin, the 14th Dalai Lama has pointed to certain indications that Jamphel Gyatso might not have been the incarnation of the 7th Dalai Lama but of Jamyang Chojey, a disciple of Tsongkhapa and founder of Drepung monastery who was also reputed to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara.", "In any case, he mainly lived a quiet and unassuming life as a devoted and studious monk, uninvolved in the kind of dramas that had surrounded his predecessors.Nevertheless, Jamphel Gyatso was also said to possess all the signs of being the true incarnation of the Seventh.", "This was also claimed to have been confirmed by many portents clear to the Tibetans and so, in 1762, at the age of 5, he was duly enthroned as the Eighth Dalai Lama at the Potala Palace.", "At the age of 23 he was persuaded to assume the throne as ruler of Tibet with a Regent to assist him and after three years of this, when the Regent went to Beijing as ambassador in 1784, he continued to rule solo for a further four years.", "Feeling unsuited to worldly affairs, however, and unhappy in this role, he then retired from public office to concentrate on religious activities for his remaining 16 years until his death in 1804.He is also credited with the construction of the Norbulingka 'Summer Palace' started by his predecessor in Lhasa and with ordaining some ten thousand monks in his efforts to foster monasticism.=== 9th to 12th Dalai Lamas ===Hugh Richardson's summary of the period covering the four short-lived, 19th-century Dalai Lamas:Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the 14th Dalai Lama, described these unfortunate events as follows, although there are few, if any, indications that any of the four were said to be 'Chinese-appointed imposters':According to Mullin, on the other hand, it is improbable that the Manchus would have murdered any of these four for being 'unmanageable' since it would have been in their best interests to have strong Dalai Lamas ruling in Lhasa, he argues, agreeing with Richardson that it was rather \"the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans\" that might have caused the Lamas' early deaths.", "Further, if Tibetan nobles murdered any of them, it would more likely have been in order to protect or enhance their family interests rather than out of suspicion that the Dalai Lamas were seen as Chinese-appointed imposters as suggested by Norbu.", "They could also have died from illnesses, possibly contracted from diseases to which they had no immunity, carried to Lhasa by the multitudes of pilgrims visiting from nearby countries for blessings.", "Finally, from the Buddhist point of view, Mullin says, \"Simply stated, these four Dalai Lamas died young because the world did not have enough good karma to deserve their presence\".Tibetan historian K. Dhondup, however, in his history ''The Water-Bird and Other Years'', based on the Tibetan minister Surkhang Sawang Chenmo's historical manuscripts, disagrees with Mullin's opinion that having strong Dalai Lamas in power in Tibet would have been in China's best interests.", "He notes that many historians are compelled to suspect Manchu foul play in these serial early deaths because the Ambans had such latitude to interfere; the Manchu, he says, \"''to perpetuate their domination over Tibetan affairs, did not desire a Dalai Lama who will ascend the throne and become a strong and capable ruler over his own country and people''\".", "The life and deeds of the 13th Dalai Lama in successfully upholding ''de facto'' Tibetan independence from China from 1912 to 1950 serve as the living proof of this argument, he points out.", "This account also corresponds with TJ Norbu's observations above.Finally, while acknowledging the possibility, the 14th Dalai Lama himself doubts they were poisoned.", "He ascribes the probable cause of these early deaths to negligence, foolishness and lack of proper medical knowledge and attention.", "\"''Even today''\" he is quoted as saying, \"''when people get sick, some Tibetans will say: 'Just do your prayers, you don't need medical treatment.", "'''\"==== 9th Dalai Lama ====Born in Kham in 1805–6 amidst the usual miraculous signs the Ninth Dalai Lama, Lungtok Gyatso was appointed by the 7th Panchen Lama's search team at the age of two and enthroned in the Potala in 1808 at an impressive ceremony attended by representatives from China, Mongolia, Nepal and Bhutan.", "Exemption from using Golden Urn was approved by the Emperor.", "Tibetan historian Nyima Gyaincain and Wang Jiawei point out that the 9th Dalai Lama was allowed to use the seal of authority given to the late 8th Dalai Lama by the Emperor of ChinaHis second Regent Demo Tulku was the biographer of the 8th and 9th Dalai Lamas and though the 9th died at the age of 9, his biography is as lengthy as those of many of the early Dalai Lamas.", "In 1793 under Manchu pressure, Tibet had closed its borders to foreigners.", "In 1811, a British Sinologist, Thomas Manning became the first Englishman to visit Lhasa.", "Considered to be 'the first Chinese scholar in Europe' he stayed five months and gave enthusiastic accounts in his journal of his regular meetings with the Ninth Dalai Lama whom he found fascinating: \"beautiful, elegant, refined, intelligent, and entirely self-possessed, even at the age of six\".", "Three years later in March 1815 the young Lungtok Gyatso caught a severe cold and, leaving the Potala Palace to preside over the Monlam Prayer Festival, he contracted pneumonia from which he soon died.==== 10th Dalai Lama ====Like the Seventh Dalai Lama, the Tenth, Tsultrim Gyatso, was born in Lithang, Kham, where the Third Dalai Lama had built a monastery.", "It was 1816 and Regent Demo Tulku and the Seventh Panchen Lama followed indications from Nechung, the 'state oracle' which led them to appoint him at the age of two.", "He passed all the tests and was brought to Lhasa but official recognition was delayed until 1822 when he was enthroned and ordained by the Seventh Panchen Lama.", "There are conflicting reports about whether the Chinese 'Golden Urn' was utilised by drawing lots to choose him, but lot-drawing result was reported and approved by emperor.", "The 10th Dalai Lama mentioned in his biography that he was allowed to use the golden seal of authority based on the convention set up by the late Dalai Lama.", "At the investiture, decree of the Emperor of China was issued and read out.After 15 years of intensive studies and failing health he died, in 1837, at the age of 20 or 21.He identified with ordinary people rather than the court officials and often sat on his verandah in the sunshine with the office clerks.", "Intending to empower the common people he planned to institute political and economic reforms to share the nation's wealth more equitably.", "Over this period his health had deteriorated, the implication being that he may have suffered from slow poisoning by Tibetan aristocrats whose interests these reforms were threatening.", "He was also dissatisfied with his Regent and the Kashag and scolded them for not alleviating the condition of the common people, who had suffered much in small ongoing regional civil wars waged in Kokonor between Mongols, local Tibetans and the government over territory, and in Kham to extract unpaid taxes from rebellious Tibetan communities.==== 11th Dalai Lama ====Born in Gathar, Kham in 1838 and soon discovered by the official search committee with the help of the Nechung Oracle, the Eleventh Dalai Lama was brought to Lhasa in 1841 and recognised, enthroned and named Khedrup Gyatso by the Panchen Lama on April 16, 1842, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted on the same date.", "Sitting-in-the-bed ceremony was held in July 1844.After that he was immersed in religious studies under the Panchen Lama, amongst other great masters.", "Meanwhile, there were court intrigues and ongoing power struggles taking place between the various Lhasa factions, the Regent, the Kashag, the powerful nobles and the abbots and monks of the three great monasteries.", "The Tsemonling Regent became mistrusted and was forcibly deposed, there were machinations, plots, beatings and kidnappings of ministers and so forth, resulting at last in the Panchen Lama being appointed as interim Regent to keep the peace.Eventually the Third Reting Rinpoche was made Regent, and in 1855, Khedrup Gyatso, appearing to be an extremely promising prospect, was requested to take the reins of power at the age of 17.He was enthroned as ruler of Tibet in 1855, on orders of the Xianfeng Emperor.", "He died after just 11 months, no reason for his sudden and premature death being given in these accounts, Shakabpa and Mullin's histories both being based on untranslated Tibetan chronicles.", "The respected Reting Rinpoche was recalled once again to act as Regent and requested to lead the search for the next incarnation, the twelfth.==== 12th Dalai Lama ====In 1856, a child was born in south central Tibet amidst all the usual extraordinary signs.", "He came to the notice of the search team, was investigated, passed the traditional tests and was recognised as the 12th Dalai Lama in 1858.The use of the Chinese Golden Urn at the insistence of the Regent, who was later accused of being a Chinese lackey, confirmed this choice to the satisfaction of all.", "Renamed Trinley Gyatso and enthroned on July 3, 1860 after emperor's edict from Amban was announced.", "The boy underwent 13 years of intensive tutelage and training before stepping up to rule Tibet at the age of 17.His minority seems a time of even deeper Lhasan political intrigue and power struggles than his predecessor's.", "By 1862 this led to a coup by Wangchuk Shetra, a minister whom the Regent had banished for conspiring against him.", "Shetra contrived to return, deposed the Regent, who fled to China, and seized power, appointing himself 'Desi' or Prime Minister.", "He then ruled with \"absolute power\" for three years, quelling a major rebellion in northern Kham in 1863 and re-establishing Tibetan control over significant Qing-held territory there.", "Shetra died in 1864 and the Kashag re-assumed power.", "The retired 76th Ganden Tripa, Khyenrab Wangchuk, was appointed as 'Regent' but his role was limited to supervising and mentoring Trinley Gyatso.In 1868 Shetra's coup organiser, a semi-literate Ganden monk named Palden Dondrup, seized power by another coup and ruled as a cruel despot for three years, putting opponents to death by having them 'sewn into fresh animal skins and thrown in the river'.", "In 1871, at the request of officials outraged after Dondrup had done just that with one minister and imprisoned several others, he in turn was ousted and committed suicide after a counter-coup coordinated by the supposedly powerless 'Regent' Khyenrab Wangchuk.", "As a result of this action this venerable old Regent, who died the next year, is fondly remembered by Tibetans as saviour of the Dalai Lama and the nation.", "The Kashag and the Tsongdu or National Assembly were re-instated, and, presided over by a Dalai Lama or his Regent, ruled without further interruption until 1959.According to Smith, however, during Trinley Gyatso's minority, the Regent was deposed in 1862 for abuse of authority and closeness with China, by an alliance of monks and officials called ''Gandre Drungche'' (Ganden and Drepung Monks Assembly); this body then ruled Tibet for ten years until dissolved, when a National Assembly of monks and officials called the ''Tsongdu'' was created and took over.", "Smith makes no mention of Shetra or Dondrup acting as usurpers and despots in this period.In any case, Trinley Gyatso died within three years of assuming power.", "In 1873, at the age of 20 \"he suddenly became ill and passed away\".", "On the cause of his early death, accounts diverge.", "Mullin relates an interesting theory, based on cited Tibetan sources: out of concern for the monastic tradition, Trinley Gyatso chose to die and reincarnate as the 13th Dalai Lama, rather than taking the option of marrying a woman called Rigma Tsomo from Kokonor and leaving an heir to \"oversee Tibet's future\".", "Shakabpa on the other hand, without citing sources, notes that Trinley Gyatso was influenced and manipulated by two close acquaintances who were subsequently accused of having a hand in his fatal illness and imprisoned, tortured and exiled as a result.=== 13th Dalai Lama ===Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return.", "Summer residence of 14th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.In 1877, request to exempt Lobu Zangtab Kaijia Mucuo () from using lot-drawing process Golden Urn to become the 13th Dalai Lama was approved by the Central Government.", "The 13th Dalai Lama assumed ruling power from the monasteries, which previously had great influence on the Regent, in 1895.Due to his two periods of exile in 1904–1909 to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 1910–1912 to escape a Chinese invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations.", "After his return from exile in India and Sikkim during January 1913, he assumed control of foreign relations and dealt directly with the Maharaja, with the British Political officer in Sikkim and with the king of Nepal – rather than letting the Kashag or parliament do it.The Great Thirteenth Thubten Gyatso then published the Tibetan Declaration of Independence for the entirety of Tibet in 1913.Tibet's independence was never recognized by the Chinese (who claimed all land ever administered by the Manchus) but was recognized by the Kingdom of Nepal, who would use Tibet as one of its first references regarding its independent status when submitting an application to join the UN.", "On it, Nepal listed Tibet as a country just as independent and sovereign, with no mention of Chinese 'suzerainty'.", "Its relations with Tibet were apparently second in significance only to its relations with Britain, and even more significant than its relations with the USA or even India.Furthermore, Tibet and Mongolia both signed the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet.", "Neither countries' independence statuses were ever recognized by the KMT government in China, who would continue to completely claim both as Chinese territory.", "He expelled the ambans and all Chinese civilians in the country and instituted many measures to modernize Tibet.", "These included provisions to curb excessive demands on peasants for provisions by the monasteries and tax evasion by the nobles, setting up an independent police force, the abolition of the death penalty, extension of secular education, and the provision of electricity throughout the city of Lhasa in the 1920s.", "He died in 1933.=== 14th Dalai Lama ===The Dalai Lama giving teachings at Sissu, LahaulThe 14th Dalai Lama was born on 6 July 1935 on a straw mat in a cowshed to a farmer's family in a remote part of Tibet.", "According to most Western journalistic sources he was born into a humble family of farmers as one of 16 children, and one of the three reincarnated Rinpoches in the same family.", "On February 5, 1940, request to exempt Lhamo Thondup () from lot-drawing process to become the 14th Dalai Lama was approved by the Central Government.The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the Battle of Chamdo with the People's Republic of China.", "On 18 April 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama issued statement that in 1951, the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government were pressured into accepting the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet by which it became formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China.", "The United States already informed the Dalai Lama in 1951 that in order to receive assistance and support from the United States, he must depart from Tibet and publicly disavow \"agreements concluded under duress\" between the representatives of Tibet and China.", "Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, from where he led a government in exile.With the aim of launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the Central Intelligence Agency funded the Dalai Lama's administration with US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s.", "In 2001 the 14th Dalai Lama ceded his partial power over the government to an elected parliament of selected Tibetan exiles.", "His original goal was full independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s he was seeking high-level autonomy instead.", "He continued to seek greater autonomy from China, but Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the parliament-in-exile, stated: \"If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for complete independence or self-determination as per the UN charter\".The 14th Dalai Lama became one of the two most popular world leaders by 2013 (tied with Barack Obama), according to a poll conducted by Harris Interactive of New York, which sampled public opinion in the US and six major European countries.In 2014 and 2016, he stated that Tibet wants to be part of China but China should let Tibet preserve its culture and script.In 2018, he stated that \"Europe belongs to the Europeans\" and that Europe has a moral obligation to aid refugees whose lives are in peril.", "Further he stated that Europe should receive, help and educate refugees but ultimately they should return to develop their home countries.", "He made similar comments in an interview the following year, in which he also said \"If female Dalai Lama comes, then (she) should be more attractive\", because if a female Dalai Lama looked a certain way people would \"prefer not see … that face.", "\"In March 2019, the Dalai Lama spoke out about his successor, saying that after his death he is likely to be reincarnated in India.", "He also warned that any Chinese interference in succession should not be considered valid.In October 2020, he stated that he did not support Tibetan independence and hoped to visit China as a Nobel Prize winner.", "He said \"I prefer the concept of a 'republic' in the People's Republic of China.", "In the concept of republic, ethnic minorities are like Tibetans, The Mongols, Manchus, and Xinjiang Uyghurs, we can live in harmony\".In December 2021, he praised India as a role model for religious harmony in the world.A February 2023 video shows the Dalai Lama in the city of Dharamshala, India, asking a boy for a kiss on the lips, and then to suck his tongue.", "He later apologized for the incident and expressed regret through a statement that claimed he \"often teases people he meets in an innocent and playful way, even in public and before cameras\" and \"regrets the incident.\"" ], [ "Residences", "The 1st Dalai Lama was based at Tashi Lhunpo Monastery, which he founded.", "The Second to the Fifth Dalai Lamas were mainly based at Drepung Monastery outside Lhasa.", "In 1645, after the unification of Tibet, the Fifth moved to the ruins of a royal fortress or residence on top of ''Marpori'' ('Red Mountain') in Lhasa and decided to build a palace on the same site.", "This ruined palace, called Tritse Marpo, was originally built around 636 AD by the founder of the Tibetan Empire, Songtsen Gampo for his Nepalese wife.", "Amongst the ruins there was just a small temple left where Tsongkhapa had given a teaching when he arrived in Lhasa in the 1380s.The Fifth Dalai Lama began construction of the Potala Palace on this site in 1645, carefully incorporating what was left of his predecessor's palace into its structure.", "From then on and until today, unless on tour or in exile the Dalai Lamas have always spent their winters at the Potala Palace and their summers at the Norbulingka palace and park.", "Both palaces are in Lhasa and approximately 3 km apart.Following the failed 1959 Tibetan uprising, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge in India.", "Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru allowed in the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government officials.", "The Dalai Lama has since lived in exile in McLeod Ganj, in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration is established.", "His residence on the Temple Road in McLeod Ganj is called the Dalai Lama Temple and is visited by people from across the globe.", "Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamshala.File:Potala.jpg\|Potala PalaceFile:Norbulinka.", "August, 1993.JPG\|Norbulingka" ], [ "Searching for the reincarnation", "The search for the 14th Dalai Lama took the High Lamas to Taktser in Amdo.Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, who promised Gendun Drup the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions that \"she would protect the 'reincarnation' lineage of the Dalai Lamas\"By the Himalayan tradition, ''phowa'' is the discipline that is believed to transfer the mindstream to the intended body.", "Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for the Lama's ''yangsi'', or reincarnation, is conducted.", "The government of the People's Republic of China has stated its intention to be the ultimate authority on the selection of the next Dalai Lama.High Lamas may also claim to have a vision by a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will often monitor the direction of the smoke as an 'indication' of the direction of the expected rebirth.If there is only one boy found, the High Lamas will invite Living Buddhas of the three great monasteries, together with secular clergy and monk officials, to 'confirm their findings' and then report to the Central Government through the Minister of Tibet.", "Later, a group consisting of the three major servants of Dalai Lama, eminent officials, and troops will collect the boy and his family and travel to Lhasa, where the boy would be taken, usually to Drepung Monastery, to study the Buddhist sutra in preparation for assuming the role of spiritual leader of Tibet.If there are several possible claimed reincarnations, however, regents, eminent officials, monks at the Jokhang in Lhasa, and the Minister to Tibet have historically decided on the individual by putting the boys' names inside an urn and drawing one lot in public if it was too difficult to judge the reincarnation initially.In his autobiography, Freedom in Exile, the Dalai Lama states that after he dies it is possible that his people will no longer want a Dalai Lama, in which case there would be no search for the Lama's reincarnation.", "\"So, I might take rebirth as an insect, or an animal - whatever would be of most value to the largest number of sentient beings\" (p. 237).=== List of Dalai Lamas ===There have been 14 recognised incarnations of the Dalai Lama: Name Picture Lifespan Recognised Enthronement Tibetan/Wylie Tibetan pinyin/Chinese Alternative spellings 1 Gendun Drup 60px 1391–1474 – N/A ''dge 'dun 'grub'' Gêdün Chub根敦朱巴 Gedun DrubGedün Drup 2 Gendun Gyatso 60px 1475–1542 1483 N/A ''dge 'dun rgya mtsho'' Gêdün Gyaco根敦嘉措 Gedün GyatsoGendün Gyatso 3 Sonam Gyatso 60px 1543–1588 1546 1578 ''bsod nams rgya mtsho'' Soinam Gyaco索南嘉措 Sönam Gyatso 4 Yonten Gyatso 60px 1589–1617 1601 1603 ''yon tan rgya mtsho'' Yoindain Gyaco雲丹嘉措 Yontan Gyatso, Yönden Gyatso 5 Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso 60px 1617–1682 1618 1622 ''blo bzang rgya mtsho'' Lobsang Gyaco羅桑嘉措 Lobzang GyatsoLopsang Gyatso 6 Tsangyang Gyatso 60px 1683–1706 1688 1697 ''tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho'' Cangyang Gyaco倉央嘉措 Tsañyang Gyatso 7 Kelzang Gyatso 60px 1707–1757 1712 1720 ''bskal bzang rgya mtsho'' Gaisang Gyaco格桑嘉措 Kelsang GyatsoKalsang Gyatso 8 Jamphel Gyatso 60px 1758–1804 1760 1762 ''byams spel rgya mtsho'' Qambê Gyaco強白嘉措 Jampel GyatsoJampal Gyatso 9 Lungtok Gyatso 60px 1805–1815 1807 1808 ''lung rtogs rgya mtsho'' Lungdog Gyaco隆朵嘉措 Lungtog Gyatso 10 Tsultrim Gyatso \| 1816–1837 1822 1822 ''tshul khrim rgya mtsho'' Cüchim Gyaco楚臣嘉措 Tshültrim Gyatso 11 Khendrup Gyatso 85x85px 1838–1856 1841 1842 ''mkhas grub rgya mtsho'' Kaichub Gyaco凱珠嘉措 Kedrub Gyatso 12 Trinley Gyatso 60px 1857–1875 1858 1860 '''phrin las rgya mtsho'' Chinlai Gyaco成烈嘉措 Trinle Gyatso 13 Thubten Gyatso 60px 1876–1933 1878 1879 ''thub bstan rgya mtsho'' Tubdain Gyaco土登嘉措 Thubtan GyatsoThupten Gyatso 14 Tenzin Gyatso 60px born 1935 1939 1940(in exile since 1959) ''bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho'' Dainzin Gyaco丹增嘉措 Tenzin GyatsoThere has also been one non-recognised Dalai Lama, Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso, declared 28 June 1707, when he was 25 years old, by Lha-bzang Khan as the \"true\" 6th Dalai Lama – however, he was never accepted as such by the majority of the population." ], [ "Future of the position", "Dharamshala, India14th Dalai LamaThe government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of \"high\" reincarnations in Tibet, based on a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty.", "The Qianlong Emperor instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by a lottery that used a Golden Urn with names wrapped in clumps of barley.", "This method was used a few times for both positions during the 19th century, but eventually fell into disuse.In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the Chinese government insisted that it must be used.", "This has led to two rival Panchen Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama.", "However, Nyima was abducted by the Chinese government shortly after being chosen as the Panchen Lama and has not been seen in public since 1995.In September 2007, the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso.", "Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control.", "Consequently, the Dalai Lama has alluded to the possibility of a referendum to determine the 15th Dalai Lama.In response to this scenario, Tashi Wangdi, the representative of the 14th Dalai Lama, replied that the Chinese government's selection would be meaningless.", "\"You can't impose an Imam, an Archbishop, saints, any religion...you can't politically impose these things on people\", said Wangdi.", "\"It has to be a decision of the followers of that tradition.", "The Chinese can use their political power: force.", "Again, it's meaningless.", "Like their Panchen Lama.", "And they can't keep their Panchen Lama in Tibet.", "They tried to bring him to his monastery many times but people would not see him.", "How can you have a religious leader like that?", "\"The 14th Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama \"should continue or not\".", "He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth.", "In response to the possibility that the PRC might attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama said he would not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China or any other country which is not free.", "According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could mean that \"the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and hence anti-Chinese\".The 14th Dalai Lama supported the possibility that his next incarnation could be a woman.", "As an \"engaged Buddhist\" the Dalai Lama has an appeal straddling cultures and political systems making him one of the most recognized and respected moral voices today.", "\"Despite the complex historical, religious and political factors surrounding the selection of incarnate masters in the exiled Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is open to change\", author Michaela Haas writes." ], [ "See also", "* Golden Urn* 29-Article Ordinance for the More Effective Governing of Tibet* The Discourse of Lama* CIA Tibetan program* Index of Buddhism-related articles* Tibetan Buddhism Gelug* List of Dalai Lamas*** Panchen Lama* History of Tibet List of rulers of Tibet 14th Dalai Lama* Engaged Spirituality* Patron and priest relationship" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Bell, Sir Charles (1946).", "''Portrait of the Dalai Lama'' Wm.", "Collins, London.", "1st edition.", "(1987) Wisdom Publications, London.", ".", "* ** David-Neel, A.", "(1965).", "''Magic & Mystery in Tibet''.", "Corgi Books.London.", ".", "* * * * Kapstein, Matthew (2006).", "''The Tibetans''.", "Malden, MA, USA.", "Blackwell Publishing.", ".", "* * * * Mullin, Glenn H. (1982).", "''Selected Works of the Dalai Lama VII: Songs of Spiritual Change'' (2nd ed., 1985).", "Snow Lion Publications, Inc. New York.", ".", "* Mullin, Glenn H. (1983).", "''Selected Works of the Dalai Lama III: Essence of Refined Gold'' (2nd ed., 1985).", "Snow Lion Publications, Inc. New York.", ".", "* Mullin, Glenn H. (2001).", "''The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation''.", "Clear Light Publishers.", "Santa Fe, NM.", ".", "* * * Van Schaik, Sam (2011), ''Tibet.", "A History''.", "New Haven & London: Yale University Press.", "* * * Shakabpa, Tsepon W.D.", "(1967), ''Tibet: A Political History''.", "New York: Yale University Press, and (1984), Singapore: Potala Publications.", ".", "* * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " A Reader's Guide to the Works of the Dalai Lama (Shambhala Publications)* Dalai Lama.", "(1991) ''Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama.''", "San Francisco, CA.", "* Goodman, Michael H. (1986).", "''The Last Dalai Lama''.", "Shambhala Publications.", "Boston, MA.", "* Harrer, Heinrich (1951) ''Seven Years in Tibet: My Life Before, During and After''* Karmay, Samten G. (Translator) (1988).", "''Secret visions of the Fifth Dalai Lama.''", "Serindia Publications, London.", ".", "" ], [ "External links", " *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Damages" ], [ "Introduction", "At common law, '''damages''' are a remedy in the form of a monetary award to be paid to a claimant as compensation for loss or injury.", "To warrant the award, the claimant must show that a breach of duty has caused foreseeable loss.", "To be recognised at law, the loss must involve damage to property, or mental or physical injury; pure economic loss is rarely recognised for the award of damages.Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages, which are economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses, and general damages, which are non-economic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress.", "Rather than being compensatory, at common law damages may instead be nominal, contemptuous or exemplary." ], [ "History", "Among the Saxons, a monetary value called a ''weregild'' was assigned to every human being and every piece of property in the Salic Code.", "If property was stolen or someone was injured or killed, the guilty person had to pay the weregild as restitution to the victim's family or to the owner of the property." ], [ "Proof of damages", "===Proximate cause===Recovery of damages by a plaintiff in lawsuit is subject to the legal principle that damages must be proximately caused by the wrongful conduct of the defendant.", "This is known as the principle of proximate cause.", "This principle governs the recovery of all compensatory damages, whether the underlying claim is based on contract, tort, or both.", "Damages are likely to be limited to those reasonably foreseeable by the defendant.", "If a defendant could not reasonably have foreseen that someone might be hurt by their actions, there may be no liability.This rule does not usually apply to intentional torts (for example, tort of deceit), and also has stunted applicability to the quantum in negligence where the maxim 'Intended consequences are never too remote' applies: 'never' is inaccurate here but resorts to unforeseeable direct and natural consequences of an act.===Expert testimony===It may be useful for the lawyers, the plaintiff and/or the defendant to employ forensic accountants or someone trained in the relevant field of economics to give evidence on the value of the loss.", "In this case, they may be called upon to give opinion evidence as an expert witness." ], [ "Compensatory damages{{anchor\|Compensatory_or_expectation_damages}}", "Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered by the claimant as a result of another's breach of duty that caused the loss.", "For example, compensatory damages may be awarded as the result of a negligence claim under tort law.", "Expectation damages are used in contract law to put an injured party in the position it would have occupied but for the breach.", "Compensatory damages can be classified as special damages and general damages.===Quantum (measure) of damages===Liability for payment of an award of damages is established when the claimant proves, on the balance of probabilities, that a defendant's wrongful act caused a tangible, harm, loss or injury to the plaintiff.", "Once that threshold is met, the plaintiff is entitled to some amount of recovery for that loss or injury.", "No recovery is not an option.", "The court must then assess the amount of compensation attributable to the harmful acts of the defendant.", "The amount of damages a plaintiff would recover is usually measured on a \"loss of bargain\" basis, also known as expectation loss, or \"economic loss\".", "This concept reflects the difference between \"the value of what has been received and its value as represented\".Damages are usually assessed at the date of the wrongful act, but in England and Wales, Pelling J has observed that this is not the case if justice requires the assessment of damages to be calculated at some other date.", "In ''Murfin v Ford Campbell'', an agreement had been entered into whereby company shares were exchanged for loan notes, which could only be redeemed if certain profit thresholds had been achieved in the relevant accounting years.", "As the thresholds were not met, the loan notes were not redeemable, but at the date of the advisors' breach of contract this could not be known, only the loan notes' face value could be known.", "The conclusion was that in this case valuation could not be done until after the profit performance became known.", "In his judgement Pelling also referred to the case of ''Smith New Court Securities Ltd v Scrimgeour Vickers (Asset Management) Ltd'', a case where continuing misrepresentation affected the appropriate date for damages to be assessed.===Special damages===''Special damages'' compensate the claimant for the quantifiable monetary losses he has suffered.", "For example, extra costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost earnings (both historically and in the future), loss of irreplaceable items, additional domestic costs, and so on.", "They are seen in both personal and commercial actions.Special damages can include direct losses (such as amounts the claimant had to spend to try to mitigate damages) and consequential or economic losses resulting from lost profits in a business.Damages in tort are awarded generally to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the tort not taken place.", "Damages for breach of contract are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position in which he would have been had the contract not been breached.", "This can often result in a different measure of damages.", "In cases where it is possible to frame a claim in either contract or tort, it is necessary to be aware of what gives the best outcome.", "If the transaction was a \"good bargain\", contract generally gives a better result for the claimant.As an example, Neal agrees to sell Mary an antique Rolex watch for £100.In fact the watch is a fake and worth only £50.If it had been a genuine antique Rolex, it would have been worth £500.Neal is in breach of contract and could be sued.", "In contract, Mary is entitled to an item worth £500, but she has only one worth £50.Her damages are £450.Neal also induced Mary to enter into the contract through a misrepresentation (a tort).", "If Mary sues in tort, she is entitled to damages that put herself back to the same financial position place she would have been in had the misrepresentation not been made.", "She would clearly not have entered into the contract knowing the watch was fake, and is entitled to her £100 back.", "Thus her damages in tort are £100.", "(However, she would have to return the watch, or else her damages would be £50.", ")If the transaction were a \"bad bargain\", tort gives a better result for the claimant.", "If in the above example Mary had overpaid, paying £750 for the watch, her damages in contract would still be £450 (giving her the item she contracted to buy), however in tort damages are £700.This is because damages in tort put her in the position she would have been in had the tort not taken place, and are calculated as her money back (£750) less the value of what she actually got (£50).====Incidental and consequential losses====Special damages are sometimes divided into incidental damages, and consequential damages.Incidental losses include the costs needed to remedy problems and put things right.", "The largest element is likely to be the reinstatement of property damage.", "Take for example a factory which was burnt down by the negligence of a contractor.", "The claimant would be entitled to the direct costs required to rebuild the factory and replace the damaged machinery.The claimant may also be entitled to any consequential losses.", "These may include the lost profits that the claimant could have been expected to make in the period whilst the factory was closed and rebuilt.====Breach of contract duty - (ex contract)====On a breach of contract by a defendant, a court generally awards the sum that would restore the injured party to the economic position they expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an \"expectation measure\" or \"benefit-of-the-bargain\" measure of damages).", "This rule, however, has attracted increasing scrutiny from Australian courts and legal commentators.", "A judge arrives compensatory number by considering both the type of contract, and the loss incurred.When it is either not possible or not desirable to award the victim in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position they occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the \"reliance measure\") or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched (\"restitution\") (see below).Parties may contract for liquidated damages to be paid upon a breach of the contract by one of the parties.", "Under common law, a liquidated damages clause will not be enforced if the purpose of the term is solely to punish a breach (in this case it is termed penal damages).", "The clause will be enforceable if it involves a genuine attempt to quantify a loss in advance and is a good faith estimate of economic loss.", "Courts have ruled as excessive and invalidated damages which the parties contracted as liquidated, but which the court nonetheless found to be penal.", "To determine whether a clause is a liquidated damages clause or a penalty clause, it is necessary to consider:i) Whether the clause is 'extravagant, out of all proportion, exorbitant or unconscionable'ii) Whether there is a single sum stipulated for a number of different breaches, or individual sums for each breachiii) Whether a genuine pre-estimate of damage is ascertainable====Breach of tort duty - (ex delicto)====Damages in tort are generally awarded to place the claimant in the position that would have been taken had the tort not taken place.", "Damages in tort are quantified under two headings: general damages and special damages.In personal injury claims, damages for compensation are quantified by reference to the severity of the injuries sustained (see below general damages for more details).", "In non-personal injury claims, for instance, a claim for professional negligence against solicitors, the measure of damages will be assessed by the loss suffered by the client due to the negligent act or omission by the solicitor giving rise to the loss.", "The loss must be reasonably foreseeable and not too remote.", "Financial losses are usually simple to quantify but in complex cases which involve loss of pension entitlements and future loss projections, the instructing solicitor will usually employ a specialist expert actuary or accountant to assist with the quantification of the loss.===General damages===''General damages'' are monetary compensation for the non-monetary aspects of the specific harm suffered.", "These damages are sometimes termed \"pain, suffering and loss of amenity\".", "Examples of this include physical or emotional pain and suffering, loss of companionship, loss of consortium, disfigurement, loss of reputation, impairment of mental or physical capacity, hedonic damages or loss of enjoyment of life, etc.", "This is not easily quantifiable, and depends on the individual circumstances of the claimant.", "Judges in the United Kingdom base the award on damages awarded in similar previous cases.", "In 2012 the Court of Appeal of England and Wales noted that General damages in England and Wales were increased by 10% for all cases where judgements were given after 1 April 2013, following changes to the options available to personal injury claimants wanting to cover the cost of their litigation.General damages are generally awarded only in claims brought by individuals, when they have suffered personal harm.", "Examples would be personal injury (following the tort of negligence by the defendant), or the tort of defamation.====General damages in personal injury cases====The quantification of personal injury is not an exact science.", "In English law solicitors treat personal injury claims as \"general damages\" for pain and suffering and loss of amenity (PSLA).", "Solicitors quantify personal injury claims by reference to previous awards made by the courts which are \"similar\" to the case in hand.", "The Judicial College's ''Guidelines for the Assessment of General Damages in Personal Injury Cases'' are adjusted following periodic review of the awards which have been made by the courts since the previous review.The guidance which solicitors will take into account to help quantify general damages are:;The age of the clientThe age of the client is important especially when dealing with fatal accident claims or permanent injuries.", "The younger the injured victim with a permanent injury the longer that person has to live with the PSLA.", "As a consequence, the greater the compensation payment.", "In fatal accident claims, generally the younger deceased, the greater the dependency claim by the partner and children.", ";The nature and extent of the injuries sustainedSolicitors will consider \"like for like\" injuries with the case in hand and similar cases decided by the courts previously.", "These cases are known as precedents.", "Generally speaking decisions from the higher courts will bind the lower courts.", "Therefore, judgments from the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal have greater authority than the lower courts such as the High Court and the County Court.", "A compensation award can only be right or wrong with reference to that specific judgment.", "Solicitors must be careful when looking at older cases when quantifying a claim to ensure that the award is brought up to date and to take into account the court of appeal case in Heil v Rankin Generally speaking the greater the injury the greater the damages awarded.", ";Personal attributes and fortitude of the clientThis heading is inextricably linked with the other points above.", "Where two clients are of the same age, experience and suffer the same injury, it does not necessarily mean that they will be affected the same.", "We are all different.", "Some people will recover more quickly than others.", "The courts will assess each claim on its own particular facts and therefore if one claimant recovers more quickly than another, the damages will be reflected accordingly.", "It is important to note here that \"psychological injuries\" may also follow from an accident which may increase the quantum of damages.When a personal injury claim is settled either in court or out of court, the most common way the compensation payment is made is by a lump sum award in full and final settlement of the claim.", "Once accepted there can be no further award for compensation at a later time unless the claim is settled by provisional damages often found in industrial injury claims such as asbestos related injuries." ], [ "Statutory damages", "Statutory damages are an amount stipulated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff.", "Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim.", "Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award, even if no actual injury occurred.", "These are different from nominal damages, in which no written sum is specified." ], [ "Nominal damages", "Nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual.", "Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the National Football League (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the United States Football League.", "Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to antitrust law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL.", "Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the farthing that the jury awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin.", "In the English jurisdiction, nominal damages are generally fixed at £5.Many times a party that has been wronged but is not able to prove significant damages will sue for nominal damages.", "This is particularly common in cases involving alleged violations of constitutional rights, such as freedom of speech.", "Until 2021, in the United States, there was a circuit split as to whether nominal damages may be used if a constitutional violation had occurred but has since been rendered moot.", "The Supreme Court decided 8–1 in the 2021 case ''Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski'' that nominal damages are appropriate means to redress violated rights otherwise now rendered moot.=== Contemptuous damages ===Contemptuous damages are a form of damage award available in some jurisdictions.", "They are similar to nominal damages awards, as they are given when the plaintiff's suit is trivial, used only to settle a point of honour or law.", "Awards are usually of the smallest amount, usually 1 cent or similar.", "The key distinction is that in jurisdictions that follow the loser-pays for attorney fees, the claimant in a contemptuous damages case may be required to pay their own attorney fees.Traditionally, the court awarded the smallest coin in the Realm, which in England was one farthing, 1/960 of a pound before decimalisation in the 1970s.", "Court costs are not awarded." ], [ "Punitive damages (non-compensatory)", "Generally, '''punitive damages''', which are also termed ''exemplary damages'' in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff.", "Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously insidious and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent.", "Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application.", "In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.In England and Wales, exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by Lord Devlin in the leading case of ''Rookes v. Barnard''.", "They are:#Oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional actions by the servants of government.#Where the defendant's conduct was 'calculated' to make a profit for himself.#Where a statute expressly authorises the same.", "''Rookes v Barnard'' has been much criticised and has not been followed in Canada or Australia or by the Privy Council.Punitive damages awarded in a US case would be difficult to get recognition for in a European court, where punitive damages are most likely to be considered to violate .=== Aggravated damages ===Some jurisdictions recognize a form of damages, called, aggravated damages, that are similar to punitive or exemplary damages.", "Aggravated damages are not often awarded; they apply where the injury has been aggravated by the wrongdoer's behaviour, for example, their cruelty." ], [ "Restitutionary or disgorgement damages", "In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in restitution.", "Doyle and Wright define restitutionary damages as being a monetary remedy that is measured according to the defendant's gain rather than the plaintiff's loss.", "The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained.", "In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly intellectual property rights and breach of fiduciary relationship.In England and Wales the House of Lords case of ''Attorney-General v. Blake'' opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract.", "In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, George Blake, for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract.", "The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear.The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but is usually seen as based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrongdoing.", "The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should allow this remedy." ], [ "Legal costs", "In addition to damages, the successful party is often entitled to be awarded their reasonable legal costs that they spent during the case.", "This is the rule in most countries other than the United States.", "In the United States, a party generally is not entitled to its attorneys' fees or for hardships undergone during trial unless the parties agreed in a contract that attorney's fees should be covered or a specific statute or law permits recovery of legal fees, such as discrimination." ], [ "See also", "* Arbitration award* Bad faith* Fine (penalty)* Measure of Damages (under English law)* Non-economic damages caps* Restorative justice* Subrogation* RestitutionReparations (transitional justice)Legal remedyReparation (legal)ReparationsWar reparationsReparations for slavery" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disaster" ], [ "Introduction", "Ruins from the 369x369pxA '''disaster''' is a serious problem occurring over a period of time that causes widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.", "Disasters are routinely divided into either \"natural disasters\" caused by natural hazards or \"human-instigated disasters\" caused from anthropogenic hazards.", "However, in modern times, the divide between natural, human-made and human-accelerated disasters is difficult to draw.", "Examples of natural hazards include avalanches, flooding, cold waves and heat waves, droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides, lightning, tsunamis, volcanic activity, wildfires, and winter precipitation.", "Examples of anthropogenic hazards include criminality, civil disorder, terrorism, war, industrial hazards, engineering hazards, power outages, fire, hazards caused by transportation, and environmental hazards.Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95% of all deaths caused by hazards occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater (as a percentage of gross domestic product) in developing countries than in industrialized countries." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''disaster'' is derived from Middle French '''' and that from Old Italian '''', which in turn comes from the Ancient Greek pejorative prefix - (''-'') \"bad\" and (''''), \"star\".", "The root of the word ''disaster'' (\"bad star\" in Greek) comes from an astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the position of planets." ], [ "Classification", "Cathedral and the Academy building after the Great Fire of Turku, by Gustaf Wilhelm Finnberg, 1827Disasters are routinely divided into natural or human-made.", "However, in modern times, the divide between natural, man-made and man-accelerated disasters is quite difficult to draw.", "Complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries.", "A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact.", "A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding, resulting in damage to a nuclear power plant (such as the Fukushima nuclear disaster).", "Some manufactured disasters have been wrongly ascribed to nature, such as smog and acid rain.Some researchers also differentiate between recurring events, such as seasonal flooding, and those considered unpredictable.=== Related to natural hazards ===Disasters that have links to natural hazards are commonly called natural disasters although this term has been called a misnomer for a long time.+Disasters with links to natural hazards Example Profile AvalancheThe sudden, drastic flow of snow down a slope, occurring when either natural triggers, such as loading from new snow or rain, or artificial triggers, such as explosives or backcountry skiers.BlizzardA severe snowstorm characterized by very strong winds and low temperaturesEarthquakeThe shaking of the Earth's crust, caused by underground volcanic forces of breaking and shifting rock beneath the Earth's surfaceFire (wild)Fires that originate in uninhabited areas and which pose the risk to spread to inhabited areas (see also Wildfire § Climate change effects)FloodFlash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or even low-lying areas flood quickly (see also Effects of climate change)Freezing rainRain occurring when outside surface temperature is below freezingHeat waveA prolonged period of excessively hot weather relative to the usual weather pattern of an area and relative to normal temperatures for the season (see also Effects of climate change § Heat waves and temperature extremes).LandslideGeological phenomenon which includes a range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flowsLightning strikeAn electrical discharge caused by lightning, typically during thunderstormsLimnic eruptionThe sudden eruption of carbon dioxide from deep lake waterTropical cycloneRapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls (see also Tropical cyclones and climate change)TsunamiA series of waves hitting shores strongly, mainly caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake, usually caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below waterVolcanic eruptionThe release of hot magma, volcanic ash and/or gases from a volcano=== Unrelated to natural hazards ===Airplane crashes and terrorist attacks are examples of man-made disasters: they kill people, cause pollution, and damage property.", "One example of this is of the September 11 attacks in 2001 at the World Trade Center in New York City.Human-instigated disasters are the consequence of technological or human hazards.", "Examples include war, social unrest, stampedes, fires, transport accidents, industrial accidents, conflicts, oil spills, terrorist attacks, and nuclear explosions/nuclear radiation.Other types of induced disasters include the more cosmic scenarios of catastrophic climate change, nuclear war, and bioterrorism.One opinion argues that all disasters can be seen as human-made, due to human failure to introduce appropriate emergency management measures.Famines may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire, or pestilence, but in modern times there is plenty of food globally, and sustained localized shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed.+Disasters without links to natural hazards'''Disaster''''''Profile'''BioterrorismThe intentional release or dissemination of biological agents as a means of coercionCivil unrestA disturbance caused by a group of people that may include sit-ins and other forms of obstructions, riots, sabotage and other forms of crime, and which is intended to be a demonstration to the public and the government, but can escalate into general chaosFire (urban)Even with strict building fire codes, people still perish in firesHazardous material spillsThe escape of solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property or the environment, from their intended controlled environment such as a container.Nuclear and radiation accidentsAn event involving the significant release of radioactivity to the environment or a reactor core meltdown and which leads to major undesirable consequences to people, the environment, or the facilityPower failureCaused by summer or winter storms, lightning or construction equipment digging in the wrong location=== Major disasters ===Major disaster, as it is usually assessed on quantitative criteria of death and damage, was defined by Sheehan and Hewitt (1969), having to conform to the following criteria:* At least 100 people dead, * at least 100 people injured, or * at least $1 million damageThis definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster such as secondary effects of, e.g., cholera or dysentery.", "This definition is still commonly used but has the limitations of number of deaths, injuries, and damage (in $).", "UNDRO (1984) defined a disaster in a more qualitative fashion as:an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented.As with other definitions of disaster, this definition not only encompasses the social aspect of disaster impact and stresses potentially caused but also focuses on losses, implying the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster.", "It does not, however, set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury, respectively." ], [ "See also", "* Act of God* Disaster convergence* Disaster recovery* Disaster recovery plan* Disaster research* Disaster response* Emergency management* Environmental emergency* List of accidents and disasters by death toll* Lists of disasters** List of man-made disasters in South Korea* Sociology of disaster" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies – IFRC* ReliefWeb of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs – ReliefWeb* United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction – UNDRR* EM-DAT International Disaster Database of the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters* Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System – a joint initiative of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) and the European Commission* UN-SPIDER – UN-SPIDER, the United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response, a project of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dino Zoff" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dino Zoff''' (; born 28 February 1942) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper.", "He is the oldest ever winner of the World Cup, which he lifted as captain of the Italy national team in the 1982 tournament, at the age of 40 years, 4 months and 13 days.", "He also won the award for best goalkeeper of the tournament and was elected to the team of the tournament for his performances, keeping two clean-sheets, an honour he also received after winning the 1968 European Championship on home soil.", "Zoff is the only Italian player to have won both the World Cup and the European Championship.", "He also achieved great club success with Juventus, winning six Serie A titles, two Coppa Italia titles, and a UEFA Cup, also reaching two European Champions' Cup finals in the 1972–73 and 1982–83 seasons, as well as finishing second in the 1973 Intercontinental Cup final.Zoff was a goalkeeper of outstanding ability, and he has a place in the history of the sport among the very best in this role, being named the third greatest goalkeeper of the 20th century by the IFFHS behind Lev Yashin and Gordon Banks.", "He holds the record for the longest playing time without allowing goals in international tournaments (1,142 minutes) set between 1972 and 1974.Haiti's Emmanuel Sanon ended the streak at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, in the Haiti-Italy match.", "With 112 caps, he is the eighth most capped player for the Italy national team.", "In 2004, Pelé named Zoff as one of the 100 greatest living footballers.", "In the same year, Zoff placed fifth in the UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll, and was elected as Italy's golden player of the past 50 years.", "He also placed second in the 1973 Ballon d'Or, as he narrowly missed out on a treble with Juventus.", "In 1999, Zoff placed 47th in World Soccer Magazine's ''100 Greatest Players of the Twentieth Century''.After retiring as a footballer, Zoff went on to pursue a managerial career, coaching the Italy national team, with which he reached the Euro 2000 Final, losing to France, and several Italian club teams, including his former club Juventus, with which he won an UEFA Cup and a Coppa Italia double during the 1989–90 season, trophies he had also won as a player.", "In September 2014, Zoff published his Italian autobiography ''Dura solo un attimo, la gloria'' (\"Glory only Lasts a Moment\")." ], [ "Early life", "Dino Zoff was born in Mariano del Friuli, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Italy into a farming family.", "Upon his father's suggestion, Zoff initially also pursued studies to be a mechanic in case his football career proved to be unsuccessful.", "As a young aspiring footballer, Zoff was also interested in other sports, and his two main role models were the cyclist Fausto Coppi, and the race walker Abdon Pamich." ], [ "Club career", "===Udinese, Mantova and Napoli===Zoff (left) with Napoli in January 1970, beside Antonio Juliano and Kurt Hamrin, at Schiphol for the match of Inter-Cities Fairs Cup versus Ajax Amsterdam.Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with Inter Milan and Juventus, but was rejected due to a lack of height.", "Five years later, having grown by 33 centimetres (supposedly due to his grandmother Adelaide's recommended increased daily intake of eight eggs), he made his Serie A debut with Udinese on 24 September 1961, in a 5–2 defeat to Fiorentina, although Zoff was not criticised for any of the goals he conceded.", "Zoff made only four appearances in his first season for Udinese, as they were relegated to Serie B.", "He played the next season as the club's starting goalkeeper, helping the club to Serie A promotion, before moving to Mantova in 1963, where he spent four seasons, making 131 appearances.His performances for Mantova in the top flight caught the attention of larger clubs, while Italy's national coach at the time, Edmondo Fabbri, even considered bringing him as a back-up for the 1966 FIFA World Cup, although he ultimately chose to bring Enrico Albertosi, Roberto Anzolin, and Pierluigi Pizzaballa instead.", "In 1967, Zoff was transferred to Napoli, in exchange for fellow goalkeeper Claudio Bandoni, and a transfer fee of 130 million Lire; he spent five seasons in Naples, making 143 Serie A appearances with the club.", "During this time, he began to achieve increasing recognition in Italy, also making his International debut with the Italy national side in 1968, and earning a place in Italy's squads at Euro 68 and the 1970 World Cup.===Juventus===Following his achievements with the national side, and due to his performances during his time with Napoli, Zoff was signed by Juventus in 1972, at the age of 30, where he resumed his success.", "In eleven years with Juventus, Zoff won the Serie A championship six times, the Coppa Italia twice and the UEFA Cup once, also reaching two European Cup finals, another semi-final in 1978 (during which Zoff played a decisive role in the club's shoot-out victory over Ajax in the quarter-finals by saving two penalties), and the semi-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup during the 1979–80 season.", "In 1973, he placed second in the Ballon d'Or, following his Serie A title victory, also narrowly missing out on an historical treble with Juventus, after reaching both the European Cup and the Coppa Italia finals that season, in which his club were defeated, however; Juventus also finished as runners-up in the 1973 Intercontinental Cup that year.", "In winning the 1977 UEFA Cup Final against Athletic Bilbao, Zoff came out on top against his 'twin', the Basque goalkeeper José Ángel Iribar.Overall, Zoff made 479 appearances for Juventus in all competitions, making 330 Serie A appearances with the club (all of which came consecutively, a club record), 74 in the Coppa Italia, 71 in European Competitions, and 4 in other Club Competitions.", "He is currently Juventus's 6th record appearance holder in all competitions, their 7th all-time appearance holder in Serie A, their 3rd all-time appearance holder in the Coppa Italia, their 7th all-time appearance holder in UEFA Club competitions, and their 9th all-time appearance holder in international club competitions.Zoff (left) with Juventus in 1975, beside his historical understudy Massimo Piloni; on background, teammate Fabio Capello.Zoff won his final Serie A championship with Juventus during the 1981–82 Serie A season, also winning the 1982 FIFA World Cup with Italy that year, as his team's captain.", "During the following 1982–83 season, the final season of his career, Dino Zoff won the Coppa Italia with defending Serie A champions Juventus, and he reached his second European Cup final with the club in 1983; Juventus were defeated 1–0 by Hamburg in Athens on 25 May, after Zoff was beaten by Felix Magath's long-distance strike; this was the final club match of his career.", "His final league appearance came in a 4–2 home win over Genoa on 15 May 1983.===Club records===Upon retirement, Zoff held the records for the oldest Serie A player, at the age of 41, and the most Serie A appearances (570 matches) for more than 20 years, until the 2005–06 season, when the records were broken by Lazio goalkeeper Marco Ballotta, and A.C. Milan defender Paolo Maldini respectively.", "Behind only former A.C. Milan goalkeeper Sebastiano Rossi, who overtook him during the 1993–94 season, Zoff has conceded the fewest goals in a single Serie A season; behind only Gianluigi Buffon and Sebastiano Rossi, he has also gone the most time unbeaten in Serie A without conceding a goal, producing a 903-minute unbeaten streak during the 1972–73 season, a record that stood until Rossi overtook him in the 1993–94 season; Buffon broke the record during the 2015–16 season.", "He also held the Serie A record for most consecutive clean sheets alongside Rossi (9), until Gianluigi Buffon overtook them both with his 10th consecutive clean sheet in 2016.With 570 Serie A appearances, Zoff is also the sixth highest appearance holder in Serie A of all time, and he is the fourth oldest player in Serie A to have ever played a match.", "He holds the record for most consecutive matches played in Serie A (332), a streak which went unbroken from 21 May 1972 (in a 0–0 home draw with Napoli against Bologna), until his final league appearance with Juventus in 1983.At 41 years and 86 days, Zoff is also the oldest player to have appeared in a European Cup or UEFA Champions League Final." ], [ "International career", "Prior to representing the senior Italian side, Zoff had won a gold medal with the Italy under-23 side at the 1963 Mediterranean Games.", "On 20 April 1968, Zoff made his senior debut for Italy, playing in a 2–0 win against Bulgaria in the quarter finals of the 1968 European Championships, in Naples.", "Zoff ended up being promoted to starting goalkeeper over his perceived career rival Enrico Albertosi during the tournament, and Italy proceeded to win the European Championship on home soil, with Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance, keeping two clean sheets, and winning the award for the best goalkeeper of the tournament.", "Zoff was left out of the Italian starting eleven in the 1970 World Cup, however, and was Albertosi's deputy throughout the tournament, as Italy went on to reach the final of the World Cup, and were defeated 4–1 by Brazil.", "He returned to the starting line-up, however, ahead of Albertosi, in Italy's disappointing 1974 World Cup campaign, during which they would be eliminated in the first round.Franco Causio, the Italian president Sandro Pertini, Zoff (lower left) and the coach Enzo Bearzot on their return from Spain with the 1982 World Cup they just won.From 1972 onwards, Zoff became Italy's undisputed number 1, and he participated in the 1978 World Cup with Italy, during which he managed a fourth-place finish, keeping 3 clean-sheets.", "Italy were eliminated in the semi-final, in a 2–1 loss to the Netherlands.", "After the match, Zoff was criticised for making a fairly uncommon error, as he was beaten by a strike from distance by Arie Haan.", "Zoff was also Italy's starting goalkeeper once again at the 1980 European Championships on home soil, however, helping his side to reach the semi-finals, finishing the tournament in fourth place once again.", "During the 1980 European Championship, Zoff kept three clean sheets, only conceding one goal in the bronze medal match, which Italy would lose on penalties; Zoff was elected as the goalkeeper of the tournament once again, an honour he had previously managed after winning the tournament in 1968.Throughout these two tournaments, Zoff established a record for most consecutive minutes unbeaten in a European Championship, which was later beaten by Iker Casillas in 2012.Zoff had also established the record for most minutes unbeaten European Championship qualifying, which was also beaten, by compatriot Buffon in 2011.He still holds the record, however, for most consecutive minutes without conceding a goal at the European Championships including qualifying, having kept eight consecutive cleans sheets between 1975 and 1980, while going unbeaten for 784 minutes.", "Alongside Casillas, Buffon, and Thomas Myhre, he is the goalkeeper with the fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships, having conceded only one goal in the 1968 European Championships; of these players, only Zoff and Casillas won the title while achieving this feat.Zoff's greatest accomplishment, however, came in the 1982 World Cup in Spain, where he captained Italy to victory in the tournament at the age of 40, making him the oldest ever winner of the World Cup; throughout the tournament, he kept two clean sheets, and produced a crucial goal-line save in the final minutes of the last second-round group match against favourites Brazil on 5 July, which enabled the Italians to earn a 3–2 victory and advance to the semi-finals of the competition.", "On 11 July, at the age of 40 years and 133 days, he became the oldest player ever to feature in a World Cup final; following Italy's 3–1 victory over West Germany at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid, he followed in the footsteps of compatriot Gianpiero Combi (1934) as only the second goalkeeper to captain a World Cup-winning side (later Iker Casillas and Hugo Lloris repeated this feat for Spain and France in the 2010 and 2018 World Cups respectively).", "Due to his performances, he was voted as the Best Goalkeeper of the Tournament.", "Regarding Zoff's importance during Italy's victorious World Cup campaign, his manager Enzo Bearzot said of him:During the flight of return from Spain on a DC-9 airplane, Zoff, Sandro Pertini (the Italian President of Republic), Causio and Bearzot were immortalized in a photo, suddenly gone highly popular, while playing card at ''scopone scientifico'', an Italian social and team sport.", "In the previous years, the same aircraft had been used by Pertini and Pope John Paul II for private and institutional flights.", "In April 2017, it was put down back in the Museum of Volandia, near Varese.Zoff also holds the record for the longest stretch (1142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974.That clean sheet stretch was ended by Haitian player Manno Sanon's beautiful goal during the 1974 World Cup.", "Zoff made his final appearance for Italy on 29 May 1983, in a 2–0 away loss to Sweden, in a Euro 1984 qualifying match.", "At the time of his retirement, Zoff's 112 caps were the most ever by a member of the Italy national team.", "He currently sits in sixth place in this category, as well as second among goalkeepers, with Gianluigi Buffon having surpassed the latter record." ], [ "Style of play", "Zoff in training with Juventus, January 1973.Zoff was a traditional, effective, and experienced goalkeeper, who usually favoured efficiency and caution over flamboyance and making saves, although he was also capable of producing spectacular dives and decisive saves when necessary due to his strength and athleticism.", "He was particularly regarded for his outstanding positioning and handling of the ball, in particular when coming out to collect crosses, as well as his concentration, consistency, calm mindset, and composure under pressure; he was also an elegant player, who possessed good reactions and excellent shot-stopping abilities.", "Zoff was also noted for his attention to detail during matches, as well as his ability to read the game, anticipate his opponents, communicate with his defenders, and organise his back-line, which also enabled him to start attacking plays quickly from the back after claiming the ball.", "Despite his serious and reserved character, Zoff also drew praise for his leadership skills, correct behaviour, and competitive spirit, which led him to serve as captain of his national side, and enabled him to inspire a sense of calmness and confidence in his teammates.", "On occasion, however, Zoff was accused by certain pundits of occasionally struggling when facing long-range shots, and for not always being particularly adept at stopping penalties.", "Known for his work-rate in training, dedication, and discipline as a footballer, in addition to his goalkeeping skills, Zoff also stood out for his stamina, longevity, and determination, which enabled him to avoid injuries and have an extensive and highly successful career; due to his constant desire to improve himself, he was able to maintain a consistent level of performance throughout his entire career, even with his advancing age towards the end of his career, into his late 30s and early 40s.", "Considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time, in 1999 he was elected in a poll by the IFFHS as the third best goalkeeper of the 20th Century – after Lev Yashin (1st) and Gordon Banks (2nd) – as well as Italy's best keeper of the century, and the second best European keeper of the century – behind only Yashin." ], [ "Coaching career", "After his retirement as a player, Zoff went into coaching, joining the technical staff at Juventus, initially as a goalkeeping coach, although this experience proved to be unsatisfactory for him.", "He subsequently coached the Italian Olympic side, his first experience as a coach, helping the team to qualify for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games in Seoul, before returning to Juventus in a coaching role; the Italian Olympic side eventually managed a fourth-place finish in the final tournament.", "Zoff served as Juventus's head coach from 1988 to 1990.In 1990, he was sacked, however, despite winning the UEFA Cup and the Coppa Italia during the 1989–90 season, while also helping the club to a third-place finish in the league.", "He then joined Lazio, where he became the coach in 1994, and later the club's sporting director, winning the Coppa Italia in 1998, and helping the club to an UEFA Cup final the same season, and was defeated by compatriots Inter.In 1998, Zoff was appointed as the head coach of the Italy national team.", "Although Italy were still cautious and organised defensively, Zoff used a more open, fluid, and attacking style of play than that used by his more defensive Italian coaching predecessors Cesare Maldini and Arrigo Sacchi.", "Zoff helped the team to qualify for Euro 2000, and he introduced several younger players to the team, such as Francesco Totti, Gianluca Zambrotta, Stefano Fiore, Massimo Ambrosini, Christian Abbiati, Marco Delvecchio, and Vincenzo Montella.", "Although Italy were not top favourites because of a young squad, he coached a young Italy squad to a second-place finish in Euro 2000, suffering a 2–1 extra-time defeat at the hands of reigning World Cup Champions France in the final, due to a golden goal by David Trezeguet.", "En route to the final, a ten-man Italy had eliminated co-hosts the Netherlands in the semi-finals in a penalty shoot-out, after a 0–0 draw, following extra-time, with a tightly contested defensive display against a more offensive-minded Dutch side.", "In the final of the tournament, Italy had been 1–0 up for most of the second half, and were less than sixty seconds away from winning the tournament, before France forward Sylvain Wiltord scored in the fourth and final minute of stoppage time to equalise, and send the match into extra time.", "Despite reaching the final, Zoff resigned a few days later, following strong criticism from A.C. Milan president and politician Silvio Berlusconi.", "Zoff was voted the World Soccer Manager of the Year in 2000.Zoff returned to defending Serie A, Coppa Italia, and Supercoppa Italiana champions Lazio as a manager for the next season, replacing Sven-Göran Eriksson in 2001, and finishing third in Serie A.", "The following season, he resigned on 20 September, after only the third match, due to a poor start to the 2001–02 season.", "In 2005, he was named the coach of Fiorentina as a replacement for Sergio Buso.", "Despite saving the team from relegation on the last day of the season, Zoff was let go." ], [ "Style of management", "As a manager, Zoff was known for his use of tactics based upon the zona mista system (or \"Gioco all'Italiana\"), which was a cross between the ''catenaccio'' man-marking and zonal marking systems.", "Although he was initially known for fielding a 4–4–2 formation, at Euro 2000, he used a 5–2–1–2 system with Italy.", "His teams often used a sweeper, who, in addition to his defensive duties and organisational responsibilities, was also required to start plays from the back.", "He preferred not to base his team's play on set plays and formations, as he believed that cultivating a good relationship with his players and fostering a winning team mentality were the keys to getting the best out of them, and that this would also allow their natural creativity to come through in matches." ], [ "Personal life", "Zoff is married to Annamaria Passerini; they have a son, Marco, born in 1967.Zoff is Roman Catholic.On 28 November 2015, it was reported Zoff was hospitalised for three weeks with a viral neurological infection, which made it difficult for him to walk.", "On 23 December 2015, it was reported Zoff had been recovering well, however stating, \"For the first time in my life, I was actually afraid...", "When I say scared, I wasn't afraid for myself, but for those around me.", "My wife, my son, my grandchildren.", "My tribe, basically.", "I would've really hurt them by leaving.\"", "He also revealed, \"One night I saw two figures at the end of my bed.", "They had the faces of Gaetano Scirea one of his former, deceased teammates and Enzo Bearzot one of his former, deceased coaches.", "They were both smiling.", "I wasn't asleep, it wasn't a dream.", "I told them: 'Not yet, not now.'", "And I am still here.\"" ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueCoppa ItaliaEuropeTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsUdinese1961–62Serie A41962–63Serie B34Total380–Mantova1963–64Serie A271964–65321965–66Serie B381966–67Serie A34Total1310–Napoli1967–68Serie A3041968–693031969–703061970–71301971–72232Total1430150–Juventus1972–73Serie A3091973–743021974–7530101975–763041976–7730121977–783071978–7930010203301979–803081980–813041981–823041982–83309Total3300710–Career total6420860–===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsItaly1968501969401970201971601972501973801974801975701976100197760197812019794019801201981701982130198330Total1120===Managerial===:''Updated 8 March 2023''TeamNationFromToMatchesWonDrawnLostWin %JuventusLazioLazioItalyLazioFiorentinaTotal" ], [ "Honours and achievements", "===Player==='''Juventus'''Serie A: 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82Coppa Italia: 1978–79, 1982–83UEFA Cup: 1976–77Intercontinental Cup: Runner-up: 1973European Cup: Runner-up: 1972–73, 1982–83'''Italy'''FIFA World Cup: 1982FIFA World Cup: Runner-up: 1970UEFA European Championship: 1968===Manager==='''Juventus'''Coppa Italia: 1989–90UEFA Cup: 1989–90'''Italy'''UEFA European Championship: Runner-up: 2000===Individual==='''Player''' UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 1968, 1980* Ballon d'Or: 1973 (2nd place)* FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1982* FIFA Order of Merit: 1984* FIFA World Cup Best Goalkeeper: 1982World XI: 1968, 1975 Berlin-Britz Goalkeeper of the Decade (1970s): 1999* IFFHS Italian Goalkeeper of the 20th Century: 1999* IFFHS European Goalkeeper of the 20th Century (2nd): 1999* IFFHS World Goalkeeper of the 20th Century (3rd): 1999* World Soccer Magazine's ''100 Greatest Players of the Twentieth Century'': 1999* November 2003: Italy's Golden Player – the best Italian player of the last 50 years, selected by the Italian Football Federation.", "* UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: #5* FIFA 100* Golden Foot \"Football Legends\" Award: 2004* Inducted into the Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2012* Inducted into the Walk of Fame of Italian sport: 2015* IFFHS Legends'''Manager'''* Seminatore d'oro: 1990* World Soccer Manager of the Year: 2000===Orders===:50px 3rd Class / Commander: ''Commendatore Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana'': 1982:50px 2nd Class / Grand Officer: ''Grande Ufficiale Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana'': 2000===Records===* FIFA World Cup: Oldest player to play in and win a final, at 40 years, 4 months and 13 days in 1982* UEFA Champions League/European Cup: Oldest player to play in a final, at 41 years and 86 days in 1983* Most consecutive appearances in Serie A with Juventus: 330 (1972–1983)* Most consecutive appearances in Serie A: 332 (1972–1983)* Longest period time without conceding a goal in international matches: 1142 minutes (1972–1974).", "* Most consecutive minutes without conceding a goal at the European Championships including qualifying: 784 (1975–1980)* Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships: 1 (1968) (alongside Gianluigi Buffon, Iker Casillas, and Thomas Myhre)* Fewest goals conceded in a single edition of the European Championships by a tournament-winning starting goalkeeper: 1 (1968) (alongside Iker Casillas)* One of four goalkeepers to win the FIFA World Cup as captain: 1982 (alongside Gianpiero Combi, Iker Casillas, and Hugo Lloris)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dino Zoff the Legend – a lot of useful information* Dino Zoff @ Goalkeeping Greats" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dipsacales" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dipsacales''' are an order of flowering plants, included within the asterid group of dicotyledons.", "In the APG III system of 2009, the order includes only two families, Adoxaceae and a broadly defined Caprifoliaceae.", "Some well-known members of the Dipsacales order are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, and valerian.Under the Cronquist system, the order included Adoxaceae, Caprifoliaceae sensu stricto, Dipsacaceae, and Valerianaceae.", "Under the 2003 APG II system, the circumscription of the order was much the same but the system allowed either a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae including the families Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae, and Valerianaceae, or these families being kept separate.", "The APG III system only uses the broadly circumscribed Caprifoliceae.The Dipsacales appear to be most closely related to the Paracryphiales." ], [ "References", "Bell, C. D., E. J. Edwards, S. T. Kim, & M. J. Donoghue.", "2001.Dipsacales phylogeny based on chloroplast DNA sequences.", "Harvard Papers in Botany 6:481-499.", "Donoghue, M. J., C. D. Bell, & R. C. Winkworth.", "2003.The evolution of reproductive characters in Dipsacales.", "International Journal of Plant Sciences 164:S453-S464" ], [ "External links", "* Dipsacales at Tree of Life* Phylogeny of the Asteridae s. str.", "based on rbcL sequences, with particular reference to the Dipsacales (link to abstract)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Democrat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Democrat''', '''Democrats''', or '''Democratic''' may refer to:" ], [ "Politics", "A proponent of democracy, or democratic government; a form of government involving rule by the people.", "A member of a Democratic Party:Democratic Party (United States) (D)Democratic Party (Cyprus) (DCY)Democratic Party (Japan) (DP)Democratic Party (Italy) (PD)Democratic Party (Hong Kong) (DPHK)Democratic Progressive Party (DPP)Democratic Party of KoreaDemocratic Party (disambiguation), for a full listA member of a Democrat Party (disambiguation)A member of a Democracy Party (disambiguation)Australian Democrats, a political partyDemocrats (Brazil), a political partyDemocrats (Chile), a political partyDemocrats (Croatia), a political partyDemocrats (Gothenburg political party), in the city of Gothenburg, SwedenDemocrats (Greece), a political partyDemocrats (Greenland), a political partySweden Democrats, a political partyThe Democrats (Maldives), a political party Supporters of political parties and democracy movements in Hong Kong and Macau:Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)Localist camp (Hong Kong)*Pro-democracy camp (Macau)" ], [ "Places", " Democrat, California* Democrat, Kentucky* Democrat Gulch, a valley in Oregon* Democratic Republic of Afghanistan* Democratic Republic of the Congo* German Democratic Republic* People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia* Democratic People's Republic of Korea* Lao People's Democratic Republic* Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal* Somali Democratic Republic* People's Democratic Republic of Yemen" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Democrats'' (film), a 2014 documentary about politics in Zimbabwe" ], [ "See also", "* Democracy (disambiguation)* Democrat Party (disambiguation)* Democracy Party (disambiguation)* Democratic Party (disambiguation)* Democrat Party (epithet), a political epithet used in the United States instead of the Democratic Party* Demokrat Parti (disambiguation)* New Democrats (disambiguation) * Republicanism* Monarchism* * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December" ], [ "Introduction", "'''December''' is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars.", "Its length is 31 days.", "December, from the ''Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry''December’s name derives from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in the calendar of Romulus , which began in March.", "The winter days following December were not included as part of any month.", "Later, the months of January and February were created out of the monthless period and added to the beginning of the calendar, but December retained its name.In Ancient Rome, as one of the four Agonalia, this day in honour of Sol Indiges was held on December 11, as was Septimontium.", "Dies natalis (birthday) was held at the temple of Tellus on December 13, Consualia was held on December 15, Saturnalia was held December 17–23, Opiconsivia was held on December 19, Divalia was held on December 21, Larentalia was held on December 23, and the dies natalis of Sol Invictus was held on December 25.These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.The Anglo-Saxons referred to December–January as Ġēolamonaþ (modern English: \"Yule month\").", "The French Republican Calendar contained December within the months of Frimaire and Nivôse." ], [ "Astronomy", "Month December depicted in Hans Bol's and Adriaen Collart's ''Emblematica Evangelica.", "''December contains the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the day with the fewest daylight hours, and the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere, the day with the most daylight hours (excluding polar regions in both cases).", "December in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to June in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa.", "In the Northern hemisphere, the beginning of the astronomical winter is traditionally 21 December or the date of the solstice.Meteor showers occurring in December are the Andromedids (September 25 – December 6, peaking around November 9), the Canis-Minorids (December 4 – December 15, peaking around December 10–11), the Coma Berenicids (December 12 to December 23, peaking around December 16), the Delta Cancrids (December 14 to February 14, the main shower from January 1 to January 24, peaking on January 17), the Geminids (December 13–14), the Monocerotids (December 7 to December 20, peaking on December 9.This shower can also start in November), the Phoenicids (November 29 to December 9, with a peak occurring around 5/6 December), the Quadrantids (typically a January shower but can also start in December), the Sigma Hydrids (December 4–15), and the Ursids (December 17-to December 25/26, peaking around December 22)." ], [ "Astrology", "The zodiac signs for the month of December are Sagittarius (until December 21) and Capricorn (December 22 onward)." ], [ "Symbols", "narcissus flowerDecember's birth flower is the narcissus.", "Its birthstones are turquoise, zircon and tanzanite.A slab of turquoise Zircons Rough and polished tanzanite" ], [ "Observances", "A Christmas tree at the Eaton Centre in Toronto.", "''This list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance.", "''=== Non-Gregorian ===(All Baháʼí, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.", ")* List of observances set by the Baháʼí calendar* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar=== Month-long ===* In Catholic tradition, December typically marks the beginning of the Season of Advent.", "It is also devoted to the Immaculate Conception.", "* National Egg Nog Month (United States)* National Impaired Driving Prevention Month (United States)* National Fruit Cake Month (United States)* National Pear Month (United States)* No Gender December (International)=== Movable ===* See also Movable Western Christian observances* See also Movable Eastern Christian observances'''Tuesday immediately following fourth Thursday of November'''* Giving Tuesday (United States) (can fall in December)'''First Friday'''* Farmer's Day (Ghana)* Gospel Day (Marshall Islands)'''First Sunday'''* Good Neighborliness Day (Turkmenistan)* Sindhi Cultural Day (Sindhi diaspora)'''Second Monday'''* Green Monday* National Tree Planting Day (Malawi)'''December 15, unless the date falls on a Sunday, then December 16'''* Koninkrijksdag (Kingdom of the Netherlands)'''Winter Solstice'''* Blue Christmas (holiday)* Brumalia (Ancient Rome)* Dongzhi Festival (Asia)* Global Orgasm* Korochun (Slavic)* Midsummer in the Southern Hemisphere.", "(Contemporary Paganism)* Sanghamitta Day (Theravada Buddhism)* Shalako (Zuni)* Yaldā (Iran)* Yule in the Northern Hemisphere (Contemporary Paganism)* Ziemassvētki (Latvia)'''December 22, unless that date is a Sunday, in which case the 23rd'''* Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts)'''December 26, unless that day is a Sunday, in which case the 27th'''* Boxing Day (Commonwealth of Nations) Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia) Family Day (Vanuatu) Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands) Start of Boxing Week=== Fixed ===A Christmas market in Dresden* November 25 – December 10: 16 Days of Activism against Gender-based Violence* December 1 Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia) Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand) Day of Restoration of Independence (Portugal) Eat A Red Apple Day (United States) Feast for Death of Aleister Crowley (Thelema) First President Day (Kazakhstan) Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad) Great Union Day (Romania) Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica) National Day (Myanmar) Republic Day (Central African Republic) Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal) Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States) Self-governance Day (Iceland) Teachers' Day (Panama) World AIDS Day*** Day Without Art* December 2 Armed Forces Day (Cuba) International Day for the Abolition of Slavery National Day (Laos) National Day (United Arab Emirates)** National Fritters Day (United States)* December 3 Doctors' Day (Cuba) United Nations' International Day of Persons with Disabilities* December 4 National Cookie Day (United States) Navy Day (India) Saint Barbara's Day-related observances:* Barbórka (Poland)* Eid il-Burbara (Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey) Thai Environment Day (Thailand)** Tupou I Day (Tonga)* December 5 Children's Day (Suriname) Day of the Ninja (unofficial) Day of Military Honour – Battle of Moscow (Russia) Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic) International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social Development Klozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands) Saint Nicholas Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK)* Krampusnacht (Austria) King's Birthday (Thailand) Repeal Day (United States)** World Soil Day* December 6 Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador) Armed Forces Day (Ukraine) Constitution Day (Spain) Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan Independence Day of Finland National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada)** St Nicholas Day (Western Christianity)* December 7 Armed Forces Flag Day (India) Eve of the Immaculate Conception (Western Christianity) and related observances:* Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia)* Quema del Diablo, begins after sunset.", "(Guatemala) International Civil Aviation Day National Heroes Day (East Timor) National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States) Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia)* December 8 Battle Day (Falkland Islands) Bodhi Day (Japan) CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba) Constitution Day (Romania) Constitution Day (Uzbekistan) Day of Finnish Music (Finland) Feast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances:* Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemoration* Christmas on Campus (University of Dayton)* Mother's Day (Panama)* Festa da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean (Salvador, Bahia)* Festival of Lights (Lyon) Pansexual/Panromantic Pride Day Saint Clement of Ohrid Day (North Macedonia) National Brownie Day (United States) National Youth Day (Albania)* December 9 Anna's Day (Sweden and Finland) Feast of the Conception of the Most Holy Theotokos by St. Anne (Eastern Orthodox) Independence Day (Tanzania) International Anti-Corruption Day National Heroes Day (Antigua and Barbuda) National Pastry Day (United States) Navy Day (Sri Lanka) Remembrance for Egill Skallagrímsson (The Troth)** Yuri's Day in the Autumn (Russian Orthodox Church)* December 10 Alfred Nobel Day (Sweden) Constitution Day (Thailand)** Human Rights Day (International)* December 11 Human Rights and Peace Day (Kiribati) Indiana Day (Indiana, United States) National Have a Bagel Day (United States) National Noodle Ring Day (United States) National Tango Day (Argentina) Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines)** Republic Day (Burkina Faso)* December 12 Constitution Day (Russia) Croatian Air Force Day (Croatia) Day of Neutrality (Turkmenistan) Feast of the Apparition of Our Lady of Guadalupe (Mexico) Feast of Masá'il Baháʼí calendar (only if Baháʼí Naw-Rúz falls on March 21, which it does for 2015) Kanji Day (Japan)** Jamhuri Day (Kenya)* December 13 Acadian Remembrance Day (Acadians) National Day (Saint Lucia) Republic Day (Malta) Sailor's Day (Brazil)** Saint Lucy's Day (mainly Scandinavia, some regions of Italy)* December 14 Alabama Day (Alabama) Forty-seven Ronin Remembrance Day (Sengaku-ji, Tokyo) Martyred Intellectuals Day (Bangladesh) Monkey Day (International)* December 15 Bill of Rights Day (United States)* 2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina) Homecoming Day (Alderney) International Tea Day National Cupcake Day (United States) Remembrance Day of Journalists Killed in the Line of Duty (Russia)** Zamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community)* December 16 National Day (Kingdom of Bahrain) Victory day of Bangladesh** Day of Reconciliation in South Africa* December 17 Accession Day (Bahrain) International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers National Day (Bhutan) National Maple Syrup Day (United States) Pan American Aviation Day (United States) Wright Brothers Day (United States)* December 18 International Migrants Day (United Nations) National Muffin Day (Brazil)* December 19 Goa Liberation Day (Goa, India) National Heroes and Heroines Day (Anguilla)* December 20 Abolition of Slavery Day, also known as ''Fête des Cafres'' (Réunion, French Guiana) Bo Aung Kyaw Day (Myanmar) International Human Solidarity Day (International) Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Macau)** National Sangria Day (United States)* December 21 Armed Forces Day (Philippines) First day of winter (some cultures) Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts, United States) National Hamburger Day (United States) São Tomé Day (São Tomé and Príncipe) The first day of Pancha Ganapati, celebrated until December 25 (Saiva Siddhanta Church)* December 22 Armed Forces Day (Vietnam) Mother's Day (Indonesia) National Date Nut Bread Day (United States) National Mathematics Day (India) Teachers' Day (Cuba) Unity Day (Zimbabwe)* December 23 The Emperor's Birthday, a national holiday in Japan Festivus** HumanLight (Humanism)* December 24 Christmas Eve* Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns.", "(Iceland)* Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italy)* Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden)* Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations)* Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries)* The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City)* Quviasukvik (Eskimo of Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, NunatuKavut, Alaska, Greenland and Chukotka), a new year celebration held until January 7th.", " Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia) Independence Day (Libya) Mōdraniht (Anglo-Saxon paganism) National Eggnog Day (United States)* December 25 Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo) Christmas (Christianity)* Constitution Day (Taiwan)* Good Governance Day (India)* Newtonmas (Atheist community)* Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan)* Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru) National Pumpkin Pie Day (United States)* December 26 Independence Day in Slovenia – Independence and Unity Day Kwanzaa (December 26 to January 1) (African-American community, United States) Saint Stephen's Day Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man)* December 27 Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia) Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas) Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall) St. Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland)* Father's Day (Bulgaria) The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas) National Fruitcake Day (United States) Zartosht No-Diso (Zoroastrianism)* December 28** Proclamation Day in South Australia* December 29* December 30 Day of the Declaration of Slovakia as an Independent Ecclesiastic Province (Slovakia) National Bicarbonate of Soda Day (United States)** Rizal Day (Philippines)* December 31 International Solidarity Day (Azerbaijan) National Champagne Day (United States) New Year's Eve* Novy God Eve Bisperás ng Bagong Taón (Philippines) Ōmisoka (Japan)** Start of Hogmanay (Scotland) December 31 – January 1, in some cases until January 2." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Historical anniversaries* Undecimber" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 7" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===43 BC – Marcus Tullius Cicero is assassinated in Formia on orders of Marcus Antonius.", " 574 – Byzantine Emperor Justin II, suffering recurring seizures of insanity, adopts his general Tiberius and proclaims him as ''Caesar''.", "* 927 – The Sajid emir of Adharbayjan, Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj is defeated and captured by the Qarmatians near Kufa.===1601–1900===1703 – The Great Storm of 1703, the greatest windstorm ever recorded in the southern part of Great Britain, makes landfall.", "Winds gust up to 120 mph, and 9,000 people die.", "1724 – Tumult of Thorn: Religious unrest is followed by the execution of nine Protestant citizens and the mayor of Thorn (Toruń) by Polish authorities.", "1732 – The Royal Opera House opens at Covent Garden, London, England.", "1776 – Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, arranges to enter the American military as a major general.", "1787 – Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the United States Constitution.", "1837 – The Battle of Montgomery's Tavern, the only battle of the Upper Canada Rebellion, takes place in Toronto, where the rebels are quickly defeated.", "1842 – First concert of the New York Philharmonic, founded by Ureli Corelli Hill.===1901–present===1904 – Comparative fuel trials begin between warships and : ''Spiteful'' was the first warship powered solely by fuel oil, and the trials led to the obsolescence of coal in ships of the Royal Navy.", "1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.", "1922 – The Parliament of Northern Ireland votes to remain a part of the United Kingdom and not unify with Southern Ireland.", "1930 – W1XAV in Boston, Massachusetts telecasts video from the CBS radio orchestra program, ''The Fox Trappers''.", "The telecast also includes the first television advertisement in the United States, for I.J.", "Fox Furriers, which also sponsored the radio show.", "1932 – German-born Swiss physicist Albert Einstein is granted an American visa.", "1936 – Australian cricketer Jack Fingleton becomes the first player to score centuries in four consecutive Test innings.", "1941 – World War II: Attack on Pearl Harbor: The Imperial Japanese Navy carries out a surprise attack on the United States Pacific Fleet and its defending Army and Marine air forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.", "(For Japan's near-simultaneous attacks on Eastern Hemisphere targets, see December 8.", ")1942 – World War II: British commandos conduct Operation Frankton, a raid on shipping in Bordeaux harbour.", "1944 – An earthquake along the coast of Wakayama Prefecture in Japan causes a tsunami which kills 1,223 people.", "1946 – A fire at the Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta, Georgia kills 119 people, the deadliest hotel fire in U.S.", "history.", "1949 – Chinese Civil War: The Government of the Republic of China moves from Nanjing to Taipei, Taiwan.", "1962 – Prince Rainier III of Monaco revises the principality's constitution, devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils.", "1963 – Instant replay makes its debut during the Army-Navy football game in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.", "1965 – Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I simultaneously revoke mutual excommunications that had been in place since 1054.", "1971 – The Battle of Sylhet is fought between the Pakistani military and the Indian Army.", "* 1971 – Pakistan President Yahya Khan announces the formation of a coalition government with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as Deputy Prime Minister.", "1972 – Apollo 17, the last Apollo Moon mission, is launched.", "The crew takes the photograph known as ''The Blue Marble'' as they leave the Earth.", "1982 – In Texas, Charles Brooks Jr., becomes the first person to be executed by lethal injection in the United States.", "* 1982 – The Senior Road Tower collapses in less than 17 seconds.", "Five workers on the tower are killed and three workers on a building nearby are injured.", "1983 – An Iberia Airlines Boeing 727 collides with an Aviaco DC-9 in dense fog while the two airliners are taxiing down the runway at Madrid–Barajas Airport, killing 93 people.", "1987 – Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771, a British Aerospace 146-200A, crashes near Paso Robles, California, killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss traveling on the flight, then shoots both pilots and steers the plane into the ground.", "1988 – The 6.8 Armenian earthquake shakes the northern part of the country with a maximum MSK intensity of X (''Devastating''), killing 25,000–50,000 and injuring 31,000–130,000.", "1993 – Long Island Rail Road shooting: Passenger Colin Ferguson murders six people and injures 19 others on the LIRR in Nassau County, New York.", "1995 – The ''Galileo'' spacecraft arrives at Jupiter, a little more than six years after it was launched by Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' during Mission STS-34.", " 1995 – Khabarovsk United Air Group Flight 3949 crashes into the Bo-Dzhausa Mountain, killing 98.", "* 1995 – An Air Saint Martin (now Air Caraïbes) Beechcraft 1900 crashes near the Haitian commune of Belle Anse, killing 20.", "2003 – The Conservative Party of Canada is officially registered, following the merger of the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.", "2005 – Rigoberto Alpizar, a passenger on American Airlines Flight 924 who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal air marshals at Miami International Airport.", "2015 – The JAXA probe ''Akatsuki'' successfully enters orbit around Venus five years after the first attempt.", "2016 – Pakistan International Airlines Flight 661, a domestic passenger flight from Chitral to Islamabad, operated by an ATR-42-500 crashes near Havelian, killing all 47 on board.", "2017 – Aztec High School shooting: Former student William Atchison opens fire on former high school, killing 2." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 521 – Columba, Irish missionary, monk, and saint (d. 597)* 903 – Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Persian astronomer and author (d. 986)* 967 – Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr, Persian Sufi poet (d. 1049)1302 – Azzone Visconti, Italian nobleman (d. 1339)1532 – Louis I, German nobleman and politician (d. 1605)1545 – Henry Stuart, English-Scottish husband of Mary, Queen of Scots (d. 1567)1561 – Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese daimyō (d. 1625)1595 – Injo of Joseon, Korean king (d. 1649)1598 – Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian sculptor and painter (d. 1680)===1601–1900===1643 – Giovanni Battista Falda, Italian architect and engraver (d. 1678)1637 – Bernardo Pasquini, Italian organist and composer (d. 1710)1756 – John Littlejohn, American sheriff and Methodist preacher (d. 1836)1764 – Claude Victor-Perrin, French general and politician (d. 1841)1784 – Allan Cunningham, Scottish author and poet (d. 1842)1791 – Ferenc Novák, Hungarian-Slovene priest and poet (d. 1836)1792 – Abraham Jacob van der Aa, Dutch author and academic (d. 1857)1801 – Johann Nestroy, Austrian actor and playwright (d. 1862)1810 – Josef Hyrtl, Hungarian-Austrian anatomist and biologist (d. 1894) 1810 – Theodor Schwann, German physiologist and biologist (d. 1882)1823 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-German mathematician and academic (d. 1891)1838 – Thomas Bent, Australian businessman and politician, 22nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1909)1860 – Joseph Cook, English-born Australian politician, 6th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)1861 – Henri Mathias Berthelot, French general during World War I (d. 1931)1862 – Paul Adam, French author (d. 1920)1863 – Felix Calonder, Swiss soldier and politician, 36th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1952)* 1863 – Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1945)* 1863 – Richard Warren Sears, American businessman, co-founded Sears (d. 1914)1869 – Frank Laver, Australian cricketer (d. 1919)1873 – Willa Cather, American novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1947)1878 – Akiko Yosano, Japanese author, poet, pioneering feminist, pacifist, and social reformer (d. 1942)1879 – Rudolf Friml, Czech-American pianist, composer, and academic (d. 1972)1884 – John Carpenter, American sprinter (d. 1933)1885 – Mason Phelps, American golfer (d. 1945)* 1885 – Peter Sturholdt, American boxer and painter (d. 1919)1887 – Ernst Toch, Austrian-American composer and songwriter (d. 1964)1888 – Joyce Cary, Irish novelist (d. 1957)* 1888 – Hamilton Fish III, American captain and politician (d. 1991)1892 – Stuart Davis, American painter and academic (d. 1964)1893 – Fay Bainter, American actress (d. 1968)* 1893 – Hermann Balck, German general (d. 1982)1894 – Freddie Adkins, English author and illustrator (d. 1986)1900 – Kateryna Vasylivna Bilokur, Ukrainian folk artist (d. 1961)===1901–present===1902 – Hilda Taba, Estonian architect, author, and educator (d. 1967)1903 – Danilo Blanuša, Croatian mathematician, physicist, and academic (d. 1987)1904 – Clarence Nash, American voice actor and singer (d. 1985)1905 – Gerard Kuiper, Dutch-American astronomer and academic (d. 1973)1906 – Erika Fuchs, German translator (d. 2005)1907 – Fred Rose, Polish-Canadian politician and spy (d. 1983)1909 – Nikola Vaptsarov, Bulgarian poet and author (d. 1942)1910 – Duncan McNaughton, Canadian high jumper and geologist (d. 1998)* 1910 – Louis Prima, American singer-songwriter, trumpet player, and actor (d. 1978)1912 – Daniel Jones, Welsh captain and composer (d. 1993)1913 – Kersti Merilaas, Estonian author and poet (d. 1986)1915 – Leigh Brackett, American author and screenwriter (d. 1978) 1915 – Eli Wallach, American actor (d. 2014)1920 – Tatamkhulu Afrika, South African poet and author (d. 2002) 1920 – Fiorenzo Magni, Italian cyclist (d. 2012)* 1920 – Walter Nowotny, Austrian-German soldier and pilot (d. 1944)1921 – Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian guru and scholar (d. 2016)1923 – Intizar Hussain, Indian-Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2016)* 1923 – Ted Knight, American actor and comedian (d. 1986)1924 – Bent Fabric, Danish pianist and composer (d. 2020) 1924 – John Love, Zimbabwean race car driver (d. 2005)* 1924 – Mary Ellen Rudin, American mathematician (d. 2013)* 1924 – Mário Soares, Portuguese historian, lawyer, and politician, 17th President of Portugal (d. 2017)1925 – Hermano da Silva Ramos, French-Brazilian race car driver 1925 – Max Zaslofsky, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985)1926 – William John McNaughton, American bishop (d. 2020)1927 – Jack S. Blanton, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2013)* 1927 – Helen Watts, Welsh opera singer (d. 2009)1928 – Noam Chomsky, American linguist and philosopher 1928 – Mickey Thompson, American race car driver (d. 1988)1930 – Christopher Nicole, Guyanese-English author 1930 – Hal Smith, American baseball player (d. 2020)1931 – Allan B. Calhamer, American game designer, created ''Diplomacy'' (d. 2013) 1931 – Bobby Osborne, American bluegrass singer and musician (d. 2023)1932 – Ellen Burstyn, American actress 1932 – Oktay Ekşi, Turkish journalist and politician * 1932 – Rosemary Rogers, American journalist and author (d. 2019)* 1932 – J.", "B. Sumarlin, Indonesian economist and politician, 17th Indonesian Minister of Finance (d. 2020)* 1932 – Bobby Whitton, Australian rugby league player (d. 2008)1933 – Krsto Papić, Croatian director and screenwriter (d. 2013)1935 – Armando Manzanero, Mexican musician, singer and composer (d. 2020)1937 – Stan Boardman, English comedian 1937 – Thad Cochran, American lawyer and politician (d. 2019)1940 – Gerry Cheevers, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1941 – Melba Pattillo Beals, American journalist and activist1942 – Harry Chapin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1981) 1942 – Alex Johnson, American baseball player (d. 2015)* 1942 – Reginald F. Lewis, American businessman (d. 1993)* 1942 – Peter Tomarken, American game show host and producer (d. 2006)1943 – Susan Isaacs, American author and screenwriter 1943 – Nick Katz, American mathematician and academic* 1943 – Bernard C. Parks, American police officer and politician* 1943 – John Bennett Ramsey, American businessman and pilot1944 – Daniel Chorzempa, American organist and composer 1944 – Miroslav Macek, Czech dentist and politician1947 – Johnny Bench, American baseball player and sportscaster 1947 – Anne Fine, English author* 1947 – James Keach, American actor, producer, and director* 1947 – Garry Unger, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster1948 – Gary Morris, American country singer-songwriter and actor 1948 – Tony Thomas, American screenwriter and producer1949 – James Rivière, Italian sculptor and jeweler 1949 – Tom Waits, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor1950 – Ron Hynes, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)1952 – Susan Collins, American politician* 1952 – Eckhard Märzke, German footballer and manager1954 – Mary Fallin, American businesswoman and politician, 27th Governor of Oklahoma1955 – John Watkins, Australian educator and politician, 14th Deputy Premier of New South Wales1956 – Larry Bird, American basketball player and coach 1956 – Chuy Bravo, Mexican-American comedian and actor (d. 2019)* 1956 – Anna Soubry, British politician1957 – Geoff Lawson, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster 1957 – Tijjani Muhammad-Bande, Nigerian career-diplomat, President of the United Nations General Assembly (2019)* 1957 – Tom Winsor, English lawyer and civil servant1958 – Tim Butler, English bass player and songwriter 1958 – Rick Rude, American wrestler and sportscaster (d. 1999)1959 – Saleem Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer1960 – Craig Scanlon, English guitarist and songwriter 1962 – Alain Blondel, French decathlete 1962 – Jeffrey Donaldson, Northern Irish politician* 1962 – Imad Mughniyah, Lebanese activist (d. 2008)1963 – Theo Snelders, Dutch footballer and coach 1963 – Katsuya Terada, Japanese illustrator* 1963 – Barbara Weathers, American R&B/soul singer1964 – Hugo Blick, English filmmaker 1964 – Patrick Fabian, American actor* 1964 – Peter Laviolette, American ice hockey player and coach1965 – Deborah Bassett, Australian rower 1965 – Colin Hendry, Scottish footballer and manager* 1965 – Jeffrey Wright, American actor1966 – C. Thomas Howell, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Shinichi Ito, Japanese motorcycle racer* 1966 – Kazue Itoh, Japanese actress* 1966 – Andres Kasekamp, Canadian-Estonian historian and academic* 1966 – Louise Post, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1967 – Mark Geyer, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1967 – Tino Martinez, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster* 1967 – Nina Turner, American politician1971 – Vladimir Akopian, Azerbaijani-Armenian chess player1972 – Hermann Maier, Austrian skier* 1972 – Tammy Lynn Sytch, American wrestler and manager1973 – İbrahim Kutluay, Turkish basketball player 1973 – Hack Meyers, American wrestler and trainer (d. 2015)* 1973 – Terrell Owens, American football player* 1973 – Fabien Pelous, French rugby player and coach* 1973 – Damien Rice, Irish singer-songwriter, musician and record producer1974 – Nicole Appleton, Canadian singer and actress 1974 – Manuel Martínez Gutiérrez, Spanish shot putter and actor1975 – Jamie Clapham, English footballer and coach1976 – Alan Faneca, American football player* 1976 – Ivan Franceschini, Italian footballer* 1976 – Georges Laraque, Canadian ice hockey player and politician* 1976 – Derek Ramsay, Filipino-British actor, model and television personality* 1976 – Sunny Sweeney, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1976 – Benoît Tréluyer, French race car driver1977 – Eric Chavez, American baseball player and sportscaster 1977 – Luke Donald, English golfer* 1977 – Dominic Howard, English drummer and producer 1978 – Shiri Appleby, American actress, director, and producer 1978 – Suzannah Lipscomb, English historian, academic and television presenter1979 – Sara Bareilles, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actress 1979 – Jennifer Carpenter, American actress* 1979 – Lampros Choutos, Greek-Italian footballer* 1979 – Ayako Fujitani, Japanese actress and screenwriter1980 – Dan Bilzerian, American poker player and internet celebrity 1980 – John Terry, English footballer1982 – Lou Amundson, American basketball player 1982 – Jack Huston, English actor1983 – Mike Mucitelli, American mixed martial artist 1983 – Al Thornton, American basketball player1984 – Aaron Gray, American basketball player 1984 – Robert Kubica, Polish race car driver* 1984 – Milan Michálek, Czech ice hockey player* 1984 – Luca Rigoni, Italian footballer1985 – Jon Moxley, American wrestler1986 – Billy Horschel, American golfer* 1986 – Nita Strauss, American guitarist1987 – Aaron Carter, American singer-songwriter, rapper, dancer, and actor (d. 2022)1988 – Nathan Adrian, American swimmer* 1988 – Emily Browning, Australian actress and singer* 1988 – Angelina Gabueva, Russian tennis player* 1988 – Andrew Goudelock, American basketball player1989 – Kyle Hendricks, American baseball player 1989 – Nicholas Hoult, English actor* 1989 – Philip Larsen, Danish ice hockey player* 1989 – Alessandro Marchi, Italian footballer* 1989 – Kevin Séraphin, French basketball player1990 – Cameron Bairstow, Australian basketball player 1990 – David Goffin, Belgian tennis player* 1990 – Aleksandr Menkov, Russian long jumper* 1990 – Yasiel Puig, Cuban baseball player* 1990 – Urszula Radwańska, Polish tennis player1991 – Eugenio Pisani, Italian race car driver1992 – Sean Couturier, American-Canadian ice hockey player1993 – Rahama Sadau, Nigerian actress1994 – Pete Alonso, American baseball player* 1994 – Yuzuru Hanyu, Japanese figure skater* 1994 – Hunter Henry, American football player1997 – Abi Harrison, Scottish footballer 1997 – Tommy Nelson, American actor1998 – Tony Yike Yang, Canadian pianist 1999 – Pavol Regenda, Slovak ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===43 BC – Cicero, Roman philosopher, lawyer, and politician (b.", "106 BC) 283 – Eutychian, pope of the Catholic Church* 881 – Anspert, archbishop of Milan* 983 – Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "955)1254 – Innocent IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1195)1279 – Bolesław V, High Duke of Poland (b.", "1226)1295 – Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester, English officer (b.", "1243)1383 – Wenceslaus I, duke of Luxembourg (b.", "1337)1498 – Alexander Hegius von Heek, German poet (b.", "1433)1562 – Adrian Willaert, Dutch-Italian composer and educator (b.", "1490)===1601–1900===1649 – Charles Garnier, French missionary and saint (b.", "1606)1672 – Richard Bellingham, English-American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (b.", "1592)1680 – Peter Lely, Dutch-English painter (b.", "1618)1683 – Algernon Sidney, English philosopher and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b.", "1623)1723 – Jan Santini Aichel, Czech architect, designed the Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk and Karlova Koruna Chateau (b.", "1677)1725 – Florent Carton Dancourt, French actor and playwright (b.", "1661)1772 – Martín Sarmiento, Spanish monk, scholar, and author (b.", "1695)1775 – Charles Saunders, English admiral and politician (b.", "1715)1793 – Joseph Bara, French soldier and drummer (b.", "1779)1803 – Küçük Hüseyin Pasha, Turkish admiral and politician (b.", "1757)1815 – Michel Ney, German-French general (b.", "1769)1817 – William Bligh, English admiral and politician, 4th Governor of New South Wales (b.", "1745)1837 – Robert Nicoll, Scottish poet (b.1814)1842 – Thomas Hamilton, Scottish philosopher and author (b.", "1789)1874 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German theologian, scholar, and academic (b.", "1815)1879 – Jón Sigurðsson, Icelandic scholar and politician, 1st Speaker of the Parliament of Iceland (b.", "1811)1891 – Arthur Blyth, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1823)1894 – Ferdinand de Lesseps, French businessman and diplomat, co-developed the Suez Canal (b.", "1805)1899 – Juan Luna, Filipino painter and sculptor (b.", "1857)===1901–present===1902 – Thomas Nast, German-American cartoonist (b.", "1840)1906 – Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1833)1913 – Luigi Oreglia di Santo Stefano, Italian cardinal (b.", "1828)1917 – Ludwig Minkus, Austrian violinist and composer (b.", "1826)1918 – Frank Wilson, English-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Western Australia (b.", "1859)1941 – Attack on Pearl Harbor:* Mervyn S. Bennion, American captain (b.", "1887) Frederick Curtice Davis, American sailor (b.", "1915) Julius Ellsberry, American sailor (b.", "1921) John C. England, American sailor (b.", "1920) Edwin J. Hill, American sailor (b.", "1894) Ralph Hollis, American sailor (b.", "1906) Herbert C. Jones, American sailor (b.", "1918) Isaac C. Kidd, American admiral (b.", "1884) Robert Lawrence Leopold, American sailor (b.", "1916) Herbert Hugo Menges, American sailor (b.", "1917) Thomas James Reeves, American sailor (b.", "1895) Aloysius Schmitt, American priest and sailor (b.", "1909) Robert R. Scott, American sailor (b.", "1915) Peter Tomich, American sailor (b.", "1893) Robert Uhlmann, American sailor (b.", "1919) Franklin Van Valkenburgh, American captain (b.", "1888) Eldon P. Wyman, American sailor (b.", "1917)1947 – Tristan Bernard, French author and playwright (b.", "1866) 1947 – Nicholas Murray Butler, American philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1862)1949 – Rex Beach, American author, playwright, and water polo player (b.", "1877)1956 – Huntley Gordon, Canadian-American actor (b.", "1887)* 1956 – Reşat Nuri Güntekin, Turkish author and playwright (b.", "1889)1960 – Ioannis Demestichas, Greek admiral and politician (b.", "1882)1962 – Kirsten Flagstad, Norwegian opera singer (b.", "1895)1969 – Lefty O'Doul, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1897) 1969 – Eric Portman, English actor (b.", "1903)1970 – Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist, sculptor, and author (b.", "1883)1975 – Thornton Wilder, American novelist and playwright (b.", "1897)* 1975 – Hardie Albright, American actor (b.", "1903)1976 – Paul Bragg, American nutritionist (b.", "1895)1977 – Paul Gibb, English cricketer and umpire (b.", "1913)* 1977 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (b.", "1906)* 1977 – Georges Grignard, French race car driver (b.", "1905)1978 – Alexander Wetmore, American ornithologist and paleontologist (b.", "1886)1979 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin, English-American astronomer and astrophysicist (b.", "1900)1980 – Darby Crash, American punk rock vocalist and songwriter (b.", "1958)1984 – Jack Mercer, American voice actor (b.", "1910)* 1984 – LeeRoy Yarbrough, American race car driver (b.", "1938)1985 – J. R. Eyerman, American photographer and journalist (b.", "1906) 1985 – Robert Graves, English poet, novelist, critic (b.", "1895)* 1985 – Potter Stewart, American soldier and jurist (b.", "1915)1989 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (b.", "1934) 1989 – Hans Hartung, French-German painter (b.", "1904)1990 – Joan Bennett, American actress (b.", "1910) 1990 – Jean Paul Lemieux, Canadian painter and educator (b.", "1904)1992 – Richard J. Hughes, American politician, 45th Governor of New Jersey, and Chief Justice of the New Jersey Supreme Court (b.", "1909)1993 – Abidin Dino, Turkish-French painter and illustrator (b.", "1913)* 1993 – Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Ivoirian physician and politician, 1st President of Ivory Coast (b.", "1905)1995 – Kathleen Harrison, English actress (b.", "1892)1997 – Billy Bremner, Scottish footballer and manager (b.", "1942)1998 – John Addison, English-American composer and conductor (b.", "1920) 1998 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1925)2003 – Carl F. H. Henry American journalist and theologian (b.", "1913) 2003 – Azie Taylor Morton, American educator and politician, 36th Treasurer of the United States (b.", "1933)2004 – Frederick Fennell, American conductor and educator (b.", "1914) 2004 – Jerry Scoggins, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1913)* 2004 – Jay Van Andel, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Amway (b.", "1924)2005 – Bud Carson, American football player and coach (b.", "1931)2006 – Jeane Kirkpatrick, American academic and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (b.", "1926)2008 – Herbert Hutner, American banker and lawyer (b.", "1908)2010 – Elizabeth Edwards, American lawyer and author (b.", "1949)* 2010 – Kari Tapio, Finnish singer (b.", "1945)2011 – Harry Morgan, American actor (b.", "1915)2012 – Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Dutch Minister of Defence (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Ralph Parr, American colonel and pilot (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Marty Reisman, American table tennis player and author (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Saul Steinberg, American businessman and financier (b.", "1939)2013 – Édouard Molinaro, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1928) 2013 – Chick Willis, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1934)2014 – Mark Lewis, American author and educator (b.", "1954) 2015 – Gerhard Lenski, American sociologist and academic (b.", "1924)* 2015 – Hyron Spinrad, American astronomer and academic (b.", "1934)* 2015 – Peter Westbury, English race car driver (b.", "1938)2016 – Junaid Jamshed, Pakistani recording artist, television personality, fashion designer, occasional actor, singer-songwriter and preacher.", "(b.", "1964) 2015 – Shirley Stelfox, English actress (b.", "1941)* 2016 – Greg Lake, English musician (b.", "1947)2017 – Steve Reevis, Native American actor (b.", "1962)2019 – Ron Saunders, English football player and manager (b.", "1932)2020 – Dick Allen, American baseball player and tenor (b.", "1942) 2020 – Chuck Yeager, American aviator (b.", "1923)2023 – Benjamin Zephaniah, British writer and dub poet (b.1958) 2023 – Refaat Alareer, Palestinian professor and writer (b.1979)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Armed Forces Flag Day (India)Christian feast day:Aemilianus (Greek Church)AmbroseMaria Giuseppa RosselloSabinus of Spoleto*December 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Eve of the Immaculate Conception-related observances:*Day of the Little Candles, begins after sunset (Colombia)International Civil Aviation DayNational Heroes Day (East Timor)National Pearl Harbor Remembrance Day (United States)Spitak Remembrance Day (Armenia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 7" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 15" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 533 – Vandalic War: Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Tricamarum.", "* 687 – Pope Sergius I is elected as a compromise between antipopes Paschal and Theodore.", "1025 – Constantine VIII becomes sole emperor of the Byzantine Empire, 63 years after being crowned co-emperor.", "1161 – Jin–Song wars: Military officers conspire against the emperor Wanyan Liang of the Jin dynasty after a military defeat at the Battle of Caishi, and assassinate the emperor at his camp.", "1167 – Sicilian Chancellor Stephen du Perche moves the royal court to Messina to prevent a rebellion.", "1256 – Mongol forces under Hulagu enter and dismantle the Nizari Ismaili (Assassin) stronghold at Alamut Castle (in present-day Iran) as part of their offensive on Islamic southwest Asia.", "1270 – The Nizari Ismaili garrison of Gerdkuh, Persia surrender after 17 years to the Mongols.", "1467 – Stephen III of Moldavia defeats Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, with the latter being injured thrice, at the Battle of Baia.", "1546 – The town of Ekenäs () is founded by King Gustav Vasa of Sweden.===1601–1900===1651 – Castle Cornet in Guernsey, the last stronghold which had supported the King in the Third English Civil War, surrenders.", "1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and French fleets clash in the Battle of St.", "Lucia.", "1791 – The United States Bill of Rights becomes law when ratified by the Virginia General Assembly.", "1836 – The U.S. Patent Office building in Washington, D.C., nearly burns to the ground, destroying all 9,957 patents issued by the federal government to that date, as well as 7,000 related patent models.", "1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Nashville begins at Nashville, Tennessee, and ends the following day with the destruction of the Confederate Army of Tennessee as a fighting force by the Union Army of the Cumberland.", "1869 – The short-lived Republic of Ezo is proclaimed in the Ezo area of Japan.", "It is the first attempt to establish a democracy in Japan.", "1871 – Sixteen-year-old telegraphist Ella Stewart keys and sends the first telegraphed message from Arizona Territory at the Deseret Telegraph Company office in Pipe Spring.", "1890 – Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull is killed on Standing Rock Indian Reservation, leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre.", "1893 – ''Symphony No.", "9'' (\"From the New World\" the \"New World Symphony\") by Antonín Dvořák premieres in a public afternoon rehearsal at Carnegie Hall in New York City, followed by a concert premiere on the evening of December 16.", "1899 – British Army forces are defeated at the Battle of Colenso in Natal, South Africa, the third and final battle fought during the Black Week of the Second Boer War.===1901–present===1903 – Italian American food cart vendor Italo Marchiony receives a U.S. patent for inventing a machine that makes ice cream cones.", "1905 – The Pushkin House is established in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to preserve the cultural heritage of Alexander Pushkin.", "1906 – The London Underground's Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway opens.", "1914 – World War I: The Serbian Army recaptures Belgrade from the invading Austro-Hungarian Army.", " 1914 – A gas explosion at Mitsubishi Hōjō coal mine, in Kyushu, Japan, kills 687.", "1917 – World War I: An armistice between Russia and the Central Powers is signed.", "1939 – ''Gone with the Wind'' (highest inflation adjusted grossing film) receives its premiere at Loew's Grand Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.", "1941 – The Holocaust in Ukraine: German troops murder over 15,000 Jews at Drobytsky Yar, a ravine southeast of the city of Kharkiv.", "1942 – World War II: The Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse begins during the Guadalcanal Campaign.", "1943 – World War II: The Battle of Arawe begins during the New Britain campaign.", "1944 – World War II: a single-engine UC-64A Norseman aeroplane carrying United States Army Air Forces Major Glenn Miller is lost in a flight over the English Channel.", "1945 – Occupation of Japan/Shinto Directive: General Douglas MacArthur orders that Shinto be abolished as the state religion of Japan.", "1960 – Richard Pavlick is arrested for plotting to assassinate U.S. President-Elect John F.", "Kennedy.", "* 1960 – King Mahendra of Nepal suspends the country's constitution, dissolves parliament, dismisses the cabinet, and imposes direct rule.", "1961 – Eichmann trial: Adolf Eichmann is sentenced to death after being found guilty by an Israeli court of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people, and membership of an outlawed organization.", "1965 – Project Gemini: Gemini 6A, crewed by Wally Schirra and Thomas Stafford, is launched from Cape Kennedy, Florida.", "Four orbits later, it achieves the first space rendezvous, with Gemini 7.", "1970 – Soviet spacecraft Venera 7 successfully lands on Venus.", "It is the first successful soft landing on another planet.", "1973 – John Paul Getty III, grandson of American billionaire J. Paul Getty, is found alive near Naples, Italy, after being kidnapped by an Italian gang on July 10.", "* 1973 – The American Psychiatric Association votes 13–0 to remove homosexuality from its official list of psychiatric disorders, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.", "1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter announces that the United States will recognize the People's Republic of China and sever diplomatic relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan).", "1981 – A suicide car bombing targeting the Iraqi embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, levels the embassy and kills 61 people, including Iraq's ambassador to Lebanon.", "The attack is considered the first modern suicide bombing.", "1989 – Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights relating the abolition of capital punishment is adopted.", "1993 – The Troubles: The Downing Street Declaration is issued by British Prime Minister John Major and Irish Taoiseach Albert Reynolds.", "1997 – Tajikistan Airlines Flight 3183 crashes in the desert near Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, killing 85.", "2000 – The third reactor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is shut down.", "2001 – The Leaning Tower of Pisa reopens after 11 years and $27,000,000 spent to stabilize it, without fixing its famous lean.", "2005 – Introduction of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor into USAF active service.", "2010 – A boat carrying 90 asylum seekers crashes into rocks off the coast of Christmas Island, Australia, killing 48 people.", "2013 – The South Sudanese Civil War begins when opposition leaders Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng vote to boycott the meeting of the National Liberation Council at Nyakuron.", "2014 – Gunman Man Haron Monis takes 18 hostages inside a café in Martin Place for 16 hours in Sydney.", "Monis and two hostages are killed when police raid the café the following morning.", "2017 – A 6.5earthquake strikes the Indonesian island of Java in the city of Tasikmalaya, resulting in four deaths." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===AD 37 – Nero, Roman emperor (d. 68)130 – Lucius Verus, Roman emperor (d. 169)1242 – Prince Munetaka, Japanese shōgun (d. 1274)1447 – Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1508)1567 – Christoph Demantius, German composer, poet, and theorist (d. 1643)===1601–1900===1610 – David Teniers the Younger, Flemish painter (d. 1690)1657 – Michel Richard Delalande, French organist and composer (d. 1726)1686 – Jean-Joseph Fiocco, Flemish violinist and composer (d. 1746)1710 – Francesco Zahra, Maltese painter (d. 1773)1789 – Carlos Soublette, Venezuelan general and politician, 11th President of Venezuela (d. 1870)1832 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (d. 1923)1837 – E. W. Bullinger, English minister, scholar, and theologian (d. 1913)1852 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1908)1859 – L. L. Zamenhof, Polish linguist and ophthalmologist, created Esperanto (d. 1917)1860 – Niels Ryberg Finsen, Faroese-Danish physician and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1904) 1860 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (d. 1953)1861 – Charles Duryea, American engineer and businessman, co-founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company (d. 1938) 1861 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Finnish lawyer, judge, and politician, 3rd President of Finland (d. 1944)1863 – Arthur Dehon Little, American chemist and engineer (d. 1935)1869 – Leon Marchlewski, Polish chemist and academic (d. 1946)1875 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (d. 1899)1878 – Hans Carossa, German author and poet (d. 1956)1885 – Leonid Pitamic, Slovenian lawyer, philosopher, and academic (d. 1971)1886 – Wanda Krahelska-Filipowicz, Polish politician and resistance fighter (d. 1968)* 1886 – Florence Jepperson Madsen, American contralto singer and professor of music (d. 1977)1888 – Maxwell Anderson, American journalist and playwright (d. 1959)1890 – Harry Babcock, American pole vaulter (d. 1965)1891 – A.P.", "Carter, American country singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1960)1892 – J. Paul Getty, American-English businessman and art collector, founded Getty Oil (d. 1976)1894 – Vibert Douglas, Canadian astrophysicist and astronomer (d. 1988) 1894 – Josef Imbach, Swiss sprinter (d. 1964)1896 – Betty Smith, American author and playwright (d. 1972)1899 – Harold Abrahams, English sprinter, lawyer, and journalist (d. 1978)===1901–present===1902 – Robert F. Bradford, American lawyer and politician, 57th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1983)1903 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (d. 1938)1907 – Gordon Douglas, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1907 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and the Cathedral of Brasília (d. 2012)1908 – Swami Ranganathananda, Indian monk, scholar, and author (d. 2005)1909 – Sattar Bahlulzade, Azerbaijani-Russian painter (d. 1974)* 1909 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (d. 2009)1910 – John Hammond, American record producer and critic (d. 1987)1911 – Nicholas P. Dallis, American psychiatrist and illustrator (d. 1991)* 1911 – Stan Kenton, American pianist and composer (d. 1979)1913 – Roger Gaudry, Canadian chemist and businessman (d. 2001) 1913 – Muriel Rukeyser, American poet, academic, and activist (d. 1980)1915 – Eila Campbell, English geographer and cartographer (d. 1994)1916 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician, Governor of Pernambuco (d. 2005)* 1916 – Buddy Cole, American pianist and conductor (d. 1964)* 1916 – Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-English physicist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)1917 – Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee, Indian-Pakistani linguist and lexicographer (d. 2005)1918 – Jeff Chandler, American actor (d. 1961)* 1918 – Chihiro Iwasaki, Japanese painter and illustrator (d. 1974)1919 – Max Yasgur, American dairy farmer and host of the Woodstock Music & Art Fair (d. 1973)1920 – Gamal al-Banna, Egyptian author and scholar (d. 2013)* 1920 – Kurt Schaffenberger, German-American sergeant and illustrator (d. 2002)1921 – Alan Freed, American radio host (d. 1965)1923 – Pierre Cossette, American producer and manager (d. 2009)* 1923 – Freeman Dyson, English-American physicist and mathematician (d. 2020)* 1923 – Uziel Gal, German-Israeli engineer, designed the Uzi gun (d. 2002)* 1923 – Valentin Varennikov, Russian general and politician (d. 2009)1924 – Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (d. 2013) 1924 – Ruhi Sarıalp, Turkish triple jumper and educator (d. 2001)1925 – Kasey Rogers, American actress and author (d. 2006)1926 – Bill Pitt, Australian race car driver (d. 2017) 1928 – Ernest Ashworth, American singer-songwriter (d. 2009) 1928 – Ida Haendel, Polish-English violinist and educator (d. 2020)* 1928 – Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Austrian-New Zealand painter and architect (d. 2000)1930 – Edna O'Brien, Irish novelist, playwright, poet and short story writer1931 – Klaus Rifbjerg, Danish author and poet (d. 2015)1932 – Jesse Belvin, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1960) 1932 – John Meurig Thomas, Welsh chemist and academic (d. 2020)1933 – Bapu, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1933 – Tim Conway, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2019)* 1933 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (d. 2001)1936 – Joe D'Amato, Italian director and producer (d. 1999)1938 – Michael Bogdanov, Welsh director and screenwriter (d. 2017)* 1938 – Billy Shaw, American football player1939 – Cindy Birdsong, American singer-songwriter 1939 – Dave Clark, English musician and songwriter1940 – Nick Buoniconti, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2019)1942 – Kathleen Blanco, American educator and politician, 54th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2019)1943 – Lucien den Arend, Dutch sculptor1944 – Jim Leyland, American baseball player and manager* 1944 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian trade union leader and activist (d. 1988)1945 – Heather Booth, American civil rights activist, feminist, and political strategist 1945 – Ivor Crewe, English political scientist and academic1946 – Carmine Appice, American drummer and songwriter 1946 – Art Howe, American baseball player and manager* 1946 – Genny Lim, American writer1948 – Cassandra Harris, Australian actress (d. 1991) 1948 – Charlie Scott, American basketball player1949 – Don Johnson, American actor 1949 – Brian Roper, English economist and academic1950 – Melanie Chartoff, American actress and comedian 1950 – Sylvester James Gates, American theoretical physicist and professor 1951 – George Donikian, Australian journalist 1951 – Joe Jordan, Scottish footballer and manager* 1951 – Tim Webster, Australian journalist and sportscaster1952 – Rudi Protrudi, American singer-songwriter and producer 1952 – Allan Simonsen, Danish footballer and manager* 1952 – Julie Taymor, American director, producer, and screenwriter1953 – John R. Allen, American general and diplomat 1953 – J. M. DeMatteis, American author* 1953 – Robert Charles Wilson, American-Canadian author1954 – Alex Cox, English film director, screenwriter, actor, non-fiction author and broadcaster 1954 – Oliver Heald, English lawyer and politician, Solicitor General for England and Wales* 1954 – Mark Warner, American businessman and politician, 69th Governor of Virginia1955 – Hector Sants, English banker 1955 – Paul Simonon, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1956 – John Lee Hancock, American screenwriter, film director, and producer 1956 – Tony Leon, South African lawyer and politician1957 – Mario Marois, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1957 – Mike McAlary, American journalist and author (d. 1998)* 1957 – Tim Reynolds, German-American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Carlo J. Caparas, Filipino director and producer 1958 – Richard Kastle, American classical pianist1959 – Greg Matthews, Australian cricketer 1959 – Alan Whetton, New Zealand rugby player* 1959 – Gary Whetton, New Zealand rugby player1960 – Walter Werzowa, Austrian composer and producer1961 – Karin Resetarits, Austrian journalist and politician1962 – Tim Gaines, American bass player 1962 – Simon Hodgkinson, English rugby player and coach1963 – Ellie Cornell, American actress and producer 1963 – Norman J. Grossfeld, American screenwriter and producer* 1963 – Helen Slater, American actress * 1963 – David Wingate, American basketball player1964 – Paul Kaye, English actor1966 – Carl Hooper, Guyanese cricketer and coach* 1966 – Molly Price, American actress1967 – David Howells, English footballer and coach 1967 – Mo Vaughn, American baseball player1968 – Garrett Wang, American actor1969 – Ralph Ineson, English actor* 1969 – Chantal Petitclerc, Canadian wheelchair racer and senator* 1969 – Adam Setliff, American discus thrower and lawyer1970 – Frankie Dettori, Italian jockey 1970 – Lawrence Funderburke, American basketball player* 1970 – Michael Shanks, Canadian actor, screenwriter and director1971 – Clint Lowery, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1972 – Rodney Harrison, American football player and sportscaster* 1972 – Lee Jung-jae, South Korean actor* 1972 – Stuart Townsend, Irish actor * 1972 – Alexandra Tydings, American actress, director, writer and producer1973 – Surya Bonaly, French figure skater 1973 – Ryoo Seung-wan, South Korean actor, director, and screenwriter1974 – Garath Archer, English rugby player 1974 – P. J. Byrne, American actor1975 – Samira Saraya, Palestinian actor, filmmaker, poet and rapper 1976 – Baichung Bhutia, Indian footballer and manager* 1976 – Kim Eagles, Canadian sport shooter* 1976 – Aaron Miles, American baseball player and coach* 1976 – Todd Tichenor, American baseball player and umpire1977 – Mehmet Aurélio, Brazilian-Turkish footballer and manager 1977 – Geoff Stults, American actor and producer1978 – Ned Brower, American drummer 1978 – Mark Jansen, Dutch guitarist and songwriter * 1978 – Jerome McDougle, American football player1979 – Adam Brody, American actor 1979 – Eric Young, Canadian-American wrestler1980 – Élodie Gossuin, French beauty pageant titleholder and model 1980 – Sergio Pizzorno, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1980 – Manuel Wilhelm, German rugby player1981 – Michelle Dockery, English actress 1981 – Brendan Fletcher, Canadian actor and screenwriter* 1981 – Andy González, Puerto Rican-American baseball player* 1981 – Thomas Herrion, American football player (d. 2005)* 1981 – Roman Pavlyuchenko, Russian footballer1982 – Charlie Cox, English actor 1982 – Borja García, Spanish race car driver* 1982 – George O. Gore II, American actor and comedian* 1982 – Tatiana Perebiynis, Ukrainian tennis player1983 – Delon Armitage, Trinidadian-English rugby player 1983 – René Duprée, Canadian professional wrestler* 1983 – Camilla Luddington, English actress* 1983 – Ronnie Radke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1983 – Sophia Young, Vincentian-American basketball player1984 – Martyn Bernard, English high jumper 1984 – Martin Škrtel, Slovak footballer1985 – Diogo Fernandes, Brazilian footballer1986 – Kim Junsu, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer* 1986 – Iveta Mazáčová, Czech sprinter* 1986 – Keylor Navas, Costa Rican footballer* 1986 – Snejana Onopka, Ukrainian model1987 – Josh Norman, American football player1988 – Erik Gustafsson, Swedish ice hockey player* 1988 – Emily Head, English actress* 1988 – Steven Nzonzi, French footballer1989 – Nichole Bloom, American actress and model1991 – Conor Daly, American race car driver* 1991 – Yanni Gourde, Canadian ice hockey player* 1991 – Alana Haim, American musician and actress1992 – Daiamami Genki, Japanese sumo wrestler 1992 – Jesse Lingard, English footballer* 1992 – Alex Telles, Brazilian footballer1993 – Daniel Ochefu, American basketball player1995 – Jahlil Okafor, American basketball player1996 – Jenifer Brening, German singer 1996 – Oleksandr Zinchenko, Ukrainian footballer1997 – Maude Apatow, American actress 1997 – Zach Banks, American race car driver* 1997 – Magdalena Fręch, Polish tennis player* 1997 – Stefania LaVie Owen, New Zealand-American actress1998 – Chandler Canterbury, American actor2000 – Kayvon Thibodeaux, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 933 – Li Siyuan, Chinese emperor (b.", "867)1025 – Basil II, Byzantine emperor (b.", "958)1072 – Alp Arslan, Turkish sultan (b.", "1029)1161 – Wanyan Liang, Chinese emperor (b.", "1122)1230 – Ottokar I, duke of Bohemia (b.", "1155)1283 – Philip I, Latin emperor (b.", "1243)1343 – Hasan Kucek, Chopanid prince (b. c. 1319)1467 – Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna, archbishop and regent of Sweden (b.", "1417)1574 – Selim II, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1524)1598 – Philips of Marnix, Lord of Saint-Aldegonde, Dutch nobleman (b.", "1540)===1601–1900===1621 – Charles d'Albert, duc de Luynes, French courtier, Constable of France (b.", "1578)1673 – Margaret Cavendish, Duchess of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, English noblewoman (b.", "1623)1675 – Johannes Vermeer, Dutch painter and educator (b.", "1632)1683 – Izaak Walton, English author (b.", "1593)1688 – Gaspar Fagel, Dutch lawyer and politician (b.", "1634)* 1698 – Louis Victor de Rochechouart de Mortemart, French nobleman (b.", "1636)1715 – George Hickes, English minister and scholar (b.", "1642)1753 – Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, English architect and politician, designed Chiswick House (b.", "1694)1792 – Joseph Martin Kraus, Swedish pianist, violinist, and composer (b.", "1756)1812 – Shneur Zalman, Russian rabbi, author and founder of Chabad (b.", "1745)1817 – Federigo Zuccari, astronomer, director of the Astronomical Observatory of Naples (b.", "1783)1819 – Daniel Rutherford, Scottish chemist and physician (b.", "1749)1855 – Jacques Charles François Sturm, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1803)1878 – Alfred Bird, English chemist and businessman, invented baking powder (b.", "1811)1890 – Sitting Bull, Hunkpapa Lakota tribal chief (b.", "1831)===1901–present===1943 – Fats Waller, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1904)1944 – Glenn Miller, American bandleader and composer (b.", "1904)1947 – Arthur Machen, Welsh journalist and author (b.", "1863)* 1947 – Crawford Vaughan, Australian politician, 27th Premier of South Australia (b.", "1874)1950 – Vallabhbhai Patel, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of India (b.", "1875)1958 – Wolfgang Pauli, Austrian-Swiss physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1900)1962 – Charles Laughton, English-American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1899)1965 – M. Balasundaram, Sri Lankan journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1903)1966 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Indian-Scottish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Kincardineshire (b.", "1897) 1966 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b.", "1901)1968 – Antonio Barrette, Canadian politician, 18th Premier of Quebec (b.", "1899) 1968 – Jess Willard, American boxer and actor (b.", "1881)1969 – Karl Theodor Bleek, German lawyer and politician, 12th Mayor of Marburg (b.", "1898)1971 – Paul Lévy, French mathematician and theorist (b.", "1886)1974 – Anatole Litvak, Russian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1902)1977 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1893)1978 – Chill Wills, American actor (b.", "1903)1980 – Peter Gregg, American race car driver (b.", "1940)1984 – Jan Peerce, American tenor and actor (b.", "1904)1985 – Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritian physician and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Mauritius (b.", "1900)1986 – Serge Lifar, Russian-French ballet dancer and choreographer (b.", "1905)1989 – Edward Underdown, English actor and jockey (b.", "1908)1991 – Vasily Zaytsev, Russian captain (b.", "1915)1993 – William Dale Phillips, American chemist and engineer (b.", "1925)2000 – Haris Brkić, Bosnian-Serbian basketball player (b.", "1974)2003 – Vincent Apap, Maltese sculptor (b.", "1909)* 2003 – George Fisher, American cartoonist (b.", "1923)* 2003 – Keith Magnuson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1947)2004 – Vassal Gadoengin, Nauruan educator and politician, Speaker of the Nauru Parliament (b.", "1943)2005 – Heinrich Gross, Austrian physician and psychiatrist (b.", "1914)* 2005 – Stan Leonard, Canadian golfer (b.", "1915)* 2005 – William Proxmire, American soldier, journalist, and politician (b.", "1915)* 2005 – Darrell Russell, American football player (b.", "1976)2006 – Clay Regazzoni, Swiss race car driver (b.", "1939) 2006 – Mary Stolz, American journalist and author (b.", "1920)2007 – Julia Carson, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1938)2008 – León Febres Cordero, Ecuadorian engineer and politician, 46th President of Ecuador (b.", "1931)2009 – Eliza Atkins Gleason, American librarian (b.", "1909) 2009 – Oral Roberts, American evangelist, founded the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association (b.", "1918)2010 – Blake Edwards, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1922) 2010 – Bob Feller, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1918)* 2010 – Eugene Victor Wolfenstein, American psychoanalyst and theorist (b.", "1940)2011 – Bob Brookmeyer, American trombone player and composer (b.", "1929) 2011 – Christopher Hitchens, English-American essayist, literary critic, and journalist (b.", "1949)2012 – Owoye Andrew Azazi, Nigerian general (b.", "1952) 2012 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian politician, 18th Governor of Kaduna State (b.", "1948)* 2012 – Olga Zubarry, Argentinian actress (b.", "1929)2013 – Harold Camping, American evangelist, author, radio host (b.", "1921) 2013 – Joan Fontaine, British-American actress (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Dyron Nix, American basketball player (b.", "1967)2014 – Donald Metcalf, Australian physiologist and immunologist (b.", "1929) 2014 – Fausto Zapata, Mexican journalist, lawyer, and politician, Governor of San Luis Potosí (b.", "1940)2015 – Harry Zvi Tabor, English-Israeli physicist and engineer (b.", "1917)2016 – Craig Sager, American sports journalist (b.", "1951)2017 – Heinz Wolff, scientist and TV presenter (b.", "1928) 2017 – Calestous Juma, academic (b.", "1953)2018 – Eryue He, Chinese historical fiction writer (b.1945) 2018 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, President of Ethiopia (b.", "1924)2020 – Saufatu Sopoanga, Tuvaluan politician, 8th Prime Minister of Tuvalu (b.", "1952)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Bill of Rights Day (United States)*2nd Amendment Day (South Carolina)Christian feast day:Drina MartyrsDrostan (Aberdeen Breviary)John Horden and Robert McDonald (Episcopal Church (USA))Maria Crocifissa di RosaMesminValerian of AbbenzaVirginia Centurione BracelliDecember 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Homecoming Day (Alderney)Kingdom Day (Netherlands), moves to December 16 if the 15th is on a SundayZamenhof Day (International Esperanto Community)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 15" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diogo Cão" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diogo Cão''' ( – 1486), also known as '''Diogo Cam''', was a Portuguese mariner and one of the most notable explorers of the fifteenth century.", "He made two voyages along the west coast of Africa in the 1480s, exploring the Congo River and the coasts of present-day Angola and Namibia." ], [ "Early life and family", "Little is known about the early life of Diogo Cão.", "According to tradition, he was born in Vila Real, Portugal, around 1452.His grandfather, Gonçalo Cão, had fought for Portuguese independence at the Battle of Aljubarrota.", "By 1480, Cão was sailing off the coast of Africa in the service of João II.", "There is a record that he returned to Portugal with captured Spanish ships." ], [ "Exploration", "Diogo CãoWhen the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1480) confirmed Portugal's monopoly on trade and exploration along Africa's west coast, João II moved quickly to secure and expand his hold on the region.", "In 1481, a fleet of ten ships was dispatched to the Gold Coast to construct a fortress known as Sao Jorge da Mina.", "The fort would serve as a commercial center for trade (including in slaves) and an important point of resupply for Portuguese voyages.", "João II also re-instituted a program of exploration southward along the African coast, an initiative that had been held in abeyance during the war with Spain.", "Diogo Cão was selected to lead João's first voyage of exploration in 1482.===First voyage===The ''padrão'' bearing the arms of Portugal erected by Cão at Cape St. MaryWhen João II restarted the work of Henry the Navigator, he sent out Cão, probably around midsummer 1482, to explore the African coast south of the equator.", "Diogo Cão filled his ship with stone pillars (''padrões'') surmounted by the cross of the Order of Christ and engraved with the Portuguese royal arms, planning to erect them at significant landmarks along his voyage of discovery.", "On the way, the expedition stopped at Sao Jorge da Mina to resupply.In August 1482, Cão discovered the mouth of the Congo River and marked it with a padrão erected on Shark Point, commemorating the Portuguese discovery.", "This padrão stood until 1642 when it was destroyed by the Dutch during their occupation of the Congo.Cão sailed up the great river for a short distance and commenced modest commerce with the natives of the Bakongo kingdom.", "He was told that their king lived farther upriver, so he sent four Christian native messengers to search for the ruler and then proceeded south along the coast of present-day Angola where he erected a second ''padrão'', probably marking the termination of this voyage, at Cabo de Santa Maria.", "When he returned to the Congo, Cão was annoyed to find that his messengers had not returned, so he abducted four local natives who were visiting his ship and returned with them to Portugal.Diogo Cão's Coat of ArmsHe reached Lisbon by 8 April 1484, where John II ennobled him, promoting him from esquire to a cavalier of his household, and granted him an annuity of ten thousand ''reals'' and a coat of arms on which two ''padrões'' are depicted.The King also asked him to sail back to Kongo to repatriate the 4 men he left behind.===Second voyage===Stone of Ielala, with the inscriptions of Diogo CãoThat Cão, on his second voyage of 1484–1486, was accompanied by Martin Behaim (as alleged on the latter's Nuremberg globe of 1492) is very doubtful.", "But it is known that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more padrões on land beyond his previous voyage.", "The first was at Cabo Negro, Angola, the second at Cape Cross.", "The Cape Cross pillar probably marked the end of his progress southward, some 1,400 kilometers.", "Diogo Cão also embarked the four indigenous ambassadors, that he had promised not to keep for more than fifteen moons.Cão sailed 170 kilometers up the Congo River to the falls of Ielala.", "On the cliffs above this site an inscription was engraved which records the passage of Cão and his men: \"Here arrived the ships of the illustrious monarch, Dom João the Second of Portugal – Diogo Cão, Pedro Anes, Pedro da Costa, Alvaro Pires, Pero Escolar\".===Death===Information regarding Cão's death is scanty and contradictory.", "A legend on the globe created by Martin Behaim reads \"''hic moritur''\" (here he dies), seeming to indicate that the explorer lost his life on the coast of Africa in 1486 during his second voyage.", "However, sixteenth-century historian João de Barros never mentions Cão's death but wrote instead of his return to the Congo, and subsequent taking of a native envoy back to Portugal.", "A report by a board of astronomers and pilots presented at a 1525 conference in Badajo clearly stated that his death happened near Serra Parda.", "A coast map by Henricus Martellus Germanus published in 1489 indicated the location of a padrão erected by Diogo Cão in Ponta dos Farilhões nearby Serra Parda, with the legend \"et hic moritur\" (\"and here he died\")." ], [ "Padrões", "The four pillars set up by Cão on his two voyages have all been discovered still on their original site, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated 1482 and 1485 respectively, are still to be read and have been printed.", "The Cape Cross padrão was long in Berlin (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile) but was recently returned to Namibia; those from the Kongo estuary and the more southerly Cape Santa Maria and Cabo Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society." ], [ "Tributes post-mortem", "In 1951, botanists named a genus of plants from western central tropical Africa in his honour, ''Diogoa''.In Vila Real, the plaza Diogo Cão was named after him.", "In the center of the plaza, stands a bronze statue of him supported on a square granite pedestal base.In 1999, André Roubertou from the French Hydrographic Office (SHOM) named an undersea hole located off the southern coast of Portugal (Gulf of Cádiz) the Diogo Cão Hole.In 2018, a hopper dredger called the Diogo Cao and immatriculated in Luxembourg was launched afloat." ], [ "In literature", "Diogo Cão is the subject of ''Padrão'', one of the best-known poems in Fernando Pessoa's book ''Mensagem'', the only one published during the author's lifetime.", "He also figures strongly in the 1996 novel ''Lord of the Kongo'' by Peter Forbath." ], [ "See also", "Portugal in the period of discoveries" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "'''English'''******'''Portuguese''' Barros, João de.", "''Décadas da Ásia'', Década I. bk.", "III., esp.", "ch.", "3;* Ruy de Pina, ''Chronica d'el Rei D. João II.", "'';* Garcia de Resende, ''Chronica'';* Luciano Cordeiro, ''Diogo Cão'' in ''Boletim da Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa'', 1892;" ], [ "External links", "* Diogo Cão* (pt) Os descobrimentos portugueses: Diogo Cão e Bartolomeu Dias" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drinking game" ], [ "Introduction", "Beer pong is a drinking game in which players throw ping pong balls across a table, attempting to land each ball in a cup of beer on the other end.", "'''Drinking games''' are games which involve the consumption of alcoholic beverages and often enduring the subsequent intoxication resulting from them.", "Evidence of the existence of drinking games dates back to antiquity.", "Drinking games have been banned at some institutions, particularly colleges and universities." ], [ "History", "===Ancient Greece===Symposium, with scene of Kottabos – fresco from the Tomb of the Diver in Paestum, 475 BCKottabos is one of the earliest known drinking games from ancient Greece, dated to the 5th to 4th centuries BC.", "Players would use dregs (remnants of what was left in their cup) to hit targets across the room with their wine.", "Often, there were special prizes and penalties for one's performance in the game.===Ancient China===Drinking games were enjoyed in ancient China, usually incorporating the use of dice or verbal exchange of riddles.", "During the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Chinese used a silver canister where written lots could be drawn that designated which player had to drink and specifically how much; for example, from 1, 5, 7, or 10 measures of drink that the youngest player, or the last player to join the game, or the most talkative player, or the host, or the player with the greatest alcohol tolerance, etc.", "had to drink.", "There were even drinking game referee officials, including a 'registrar of the rules' who knew all the rules to the game, a 'registrar of the horn' who tossed a silver flag down on calling out second offenses, and a 'governor' who decided one's third call of offense.", "These referees were used mainly for maintaining order (as drinking games often became rowdy) and for reviewing faults that could be punished with a player drinking a penalty cup.", "If a guest was considered a 'coward' for dropping out of the game, he could be branded as a 'deserter' and not invited back to further drinking bouts.", "There was another game where little puppets and dolls dressed as western foreigners with blue eyes (Iranian peoples) were set up and when one fell over, the person it pointed to had to empty his cup of wine.=== Germany ===A wager cupDrinking games in 19th century Germany included Bierskat, Elfern, Rammes and Quodlibet, as well as Schlauch and Laubober, probably the same game as Grasobern.", "But the \"crown of all drinking games\" was one with an ancient and distinctive name: Cerevis.", "One feature of the game was that everything went under a different name from normal.", "So the cards (''Karten'') were called 'spoons' (''Löffel''), the Sevens were 'Septembers' and the Aces were the 'Juveniles' (''junge Leichtsinn'').", "A player who used the normal names was penalised.", "Every time a card was played, it was supposed to be accompanied by humorous words, so if a Jack or Unter was played, the player might say something like \"my merry ''Unterkasser''\" (''Lustig mein Unterkasser'') or \"long live my ''Unterkasser''\" (''Vivat mein Unterkasser'').", "If his opponent beat it, he might say \"hang the ''Unterkasser''\" (''Hängt den Unterkasser'').", "The loser had to chalk up a figure such as a swallow, a wheel or a pair of scissors depending on the number of minus points gained and was only allowed to erase them once he had drunk the associated amount of beer.Silver wager cups, originally used during 16th century German wedding feasts, are used in dexterity drinking games.", "Players fill both the large cup and the smaller cup that swings beneath it, and must drink from the former without spilling the latter." ], [ "Types", "===Endurance===The simplest drinking games are endurance games in which players compete to out-drink one another.", "Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner.", "Some games have rules involving the \"cascade\", \"fountain\", or \"waterfall\", which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him does not stop drinking.", "Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which players race to drink a case of beer the fastest.", "Often drinking large amounts will be combined with a stylistic element or an abnormal method of drinking, as with the boot of beer, yard of ale, or a keg stand.Tolerance games are simply about seeing which player can last the longest.", "It can be as simple as two people matching each other drink for drink until one of the participants \"passes out\".", "Power hour and its variant, centurion, fall under this category.===Speed===Bonging is popular among college students.Many pub or bar games involve competitive drinking for speed.", "Examples of such drinking games are Edward Fortyhands, boat races, beer bonging, shotgunning, flippy cup (a team-based speed game), and yard.", "Some say that the most important skill to improving speed is to relax and take fewer but larger gulps.", "There are a variety of individual tactics to accomplishing this, such as bending the knees in anticipation, or when drinking from a plastic cup, squeezing the sides of the cup to form a more perfect funnel.Athletic races involving alcohol including the beer mile, which consists of a mile run with a can of beer consumed before each of the four laps.", "A variant is known in German speaking countries as ''Bierkastenlauf'' (beer crate running) where a team of two carries a crate of beer along a route of several kilometers and must consume all of the bottles prior to crossing the finish line.===Skill===Some party and pub games focus on the performance of a particular act of skill, rather than on either the amount a participant drinks or the speed with which they do so.", "Examples include beer pong, quarters, chandeliers (also known as gauchoball, rage cage, stack cup), caps, polish horseshoes, pong, baseball, and beer darts.Pub golf involves orienteering and pub crawling together.A unique drinking game is made in the tavern Oepfelchammer in Zürich, Switzerland.", "It is called \"Balkenprobe\" and one has therefore to climb up a beam at the ceiling and move to another beam and then to drink a glass of wine with the head hanging down.===Thinking===Thinking games rely on the players' powers of observation, recollection, logic and articulation.Numerous types of thinking games exist, including Think or Drink, 21, beer checkers, bizz buzz, buffalo, saved by the bell, bullshit, tourettes, matchboxes, never have I ever, roman numerals, fuzzy duck, pennying, wine games, and Zoom Schwartz Profigliano.", "Trivia games, such as Trivial Pursuit, are sometimes played as drinking games.===Card and dice===Kings is played with cards.Drinking games involving cards include president, horserace, Kings, liar's poker, pyramid, ring of fire, toepen, ride the bus and black or red.Dice games include beer die, dudo, kinito, liar's dice, Mexico, mia, ship, captain, and crew, three man, and Triple Snakes.===Arts===Movie drinking games are played while watching a movie (sometimes a TV show or a sporting event) and have a set of rules for who drinks when and how much based on on-screen events and dialogue.", "The rules may be the same for all players, or alternatively players may each be assigned rules related to particular characters.", "The rules are designed so that rarer events require larger drinks.", "Rule sets for such games are usually arbitrary and local, although they are sometimes published by fan clubs.In reference to film, a popular game among young adults consists of printing out a mustache and taping it on the television screen.", "Every time the mustache fits appropriately to a person on the screen, one must drink the designated amount.Live drinking games such as Los Angeles–based \"A Drinking Game\" involve recreating films of the 80s in a \"Rocky Horror\" fashion, with gift bags, drinking cues, and costumed actors.", "A suggestion to \"do six shots for SEAL Team 6\" following every mention of Osama bin Laden at the 2012 Democratic National Convention necessitated a prominent disclaimer on the satire site that posted it, as the quantity of alcohol ingested would probably have been lethal.", "\"Datsyuk Game\" involves a Datsyuk highlight reel being played and contestants drink every time the word ''Datsyuk'' is mentioned.", "The ceremonial playing of the Russian national anthem before the game is another tradition.Music can also be used as a basis for drinking games.", "The song \"Thunderstruck\" by AC/DC is used in which a player begins drinking when the word thunder is sung and switches to the next player the next time it is sung.Sport related drinking games involve the participants each selecting a scenario of the game resulting in their drink being downed.", "Examples of this include participants each picking a footballer in a game while other versions require multiple players to be selected.", "Should a player score or be sent off, a drink must be taken.", "Another version requires a drink for every touch a player takes of the ball.===Hybrid games===Some drinking games can fall into multiple categories such as a Power hour which is a primarily an endurance-based game, but can also incorporate the arts if players are prompted to drink by a playlist that changes songs every 60 seconds.", "Similarly, Flip cup combines the skill of flipping cups with the speed of drinking quickly prior to flipping.=== Mobile app games ===Many drinking game apps (i.e.", "Boom Phone, Picolo and Appyshot) have been launched on mobile devices, Android, iOS, and Windows Phone." ], [ "See also", "* Binge drinking* Pregaming* List of drinking games* List of public house topics* ''Beerfest''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Literature", "* " ], [ "External links", " * Large List of Movie Drinking Games" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Devon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Devon''' (/ˈdɛvən/ ''DEV-ən'', historically also known as '''Devonshire''' /-ʃɪər, -ʃər/ ''-⁠sheer'', ''-⁠shər'') is a ceremonial county in South West England.", "It is bordered by the Bristol Channel to the north, Somerset and Dorset to the east, the English Channel to the south, and Cornwall to the west.", "The city of Plymouth is the largest settlement, and the city of Exeter is the county town.", "The county has an area of and a population of 1,194,166.The largest settlements after Plymouth (264,695) are the city of Exeter (130,709) and the seaside resorts of Torquay and Paignton, which have a combined population of 115,410.They all are located along the south coast, which is the most populous part of the county; Barnstaple (46,619) and Tiverton (22,291) are the largest towns in the north and centre respectively.", "For local government purposes Devon comprises a non-metropolitan county, with eight districts, and two unitary authority areas: Plymouth and Torbay.Devon has a varied geography.", "It contains Dartmoor and part of Exmoor, one upland moor which is the source of most of the county's rivers, including the Taw, Dart, and Exe.", "The longest river in the county is the Tamar, which forms most of the border with Cornwall and rises in the Devon's northwest hills.", "The southeast coast is part of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site, and characterised by tall cliffs which reveal the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous geology of the region.", "The county gives its name to the Devonian geologic period, which includes the slates and sandstones of the north coast.", "Dartmoor and Exmoor have been designated national parks, and the county also contains, in whole or in part, five national landscapes.", "In the Iron Age, Roman and the Sub-Roman periods, the county was the home of the Dumnonii Celtic Britons.", "The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the kingdom of Wessex in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the western boundary with Cornwall was set at the Tamar by king Æthelstan in 936." ], [ "History", "===Toponymy===The name ''Devon'' derives from the name of the Brythons who inhabited the southwestern peninsula of Britain at the time of the Roman conquest of Britain known as the Dumnonii, thought to mean 'deep valley dwellers' from Proto-Celtic 'deep'.", "In the Brittonic, Devon is known as , and , each meaning 'deep valleys'.", "(For an account of Celtic ''Dumnonia'', see the separate article.)", "Among the most common Devon placenames is ''-combe'' which derives from Brittonic meaning 'valley' usually prefixed by the name of the possessor.William Camden, in his 1607 edition of ''Britannia'', described Devon as being one part of an older, wider country that once included Cornwall:The term ''Devon'' is normally used for everyday purposes (e.g., \"Devon County Council\"), but ''Devonshire'' has continued to be used in the names of the \"Devonshire and Dorset Regiment\" (until 2007) and \"The Devonshire Association\".", "One erroneous theory is that the ''shire'' suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire, resident in Derbyshire.", "However, there are references to in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 CE (this would mean 'Shire of the Devonians'), which translates to modern English as ''Devonshire''.", "The term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from (Latin) to .===Human occupation===Menhir at DrizzlecombeKents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30 to 40,000 years ago.", "Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC.", "The Romans held the area under military occupation for around 350 years.", "Later, the area began to experience Saxon incursions from the east around 600 AD, firstly as small bands of settlers along the coasts of Lyme Bay and southern estuaries and later as more organised bands pushing in from the east.", "Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was largely absorbed into Wessex by the mid ninth century.A genetic study carried out by the University of Oxford & University College London discovered separate genetic groups in Cornwall and Devon.", "Not only were there differences on either side of the River Tamar—-with a division almost exactly following the modern county boundary —but also between Devon and the rest of Southern England.", "Devon's population also exhibited similarities with modern northern France, including Brittany.", "This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited, rather than a mass movement of people.The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD.", "Danish raids also occurred sporadically along many coastal parts of Devon between around 800AD and just before the time of the Norman conquest, including the silver mint at ''Hlidaforda'' Lydford in 997 and Taintona (a settlement on the Teign estuary) in 1001.Devon was the home of a number of anticlerical movements in the Later Middle Ages.", "For example, the Order of Brothelyngham—a fake monastic order of 1348 — regularly rode through Exeter, kidnapping both religious men and laymen, and extorting money from them as ransom.Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman conquest, including the Wars of the Roses, Perkin Warbeck's rising in 1497, the Prayer Book Rebellion of 1549, and the English Civil War.", "The arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham.Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times.", "Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's Stannary Convocation, which dates back to the 12th century.", "The last recorded sitting was in 1748." ], [ "Economy and industry", "Devon's total economic output in 2019 was over £26 billion, larger than either Manchester, or Edinburgh.", "A 2021 report states that \"health, retail and tourism account for 43.1% of employment.", "Agriculture, education, manufacturing, construction and real estate employment are also over-represented in Devon compared with nationally\".", "Like neighbouring Cornwall to the west, historically Devon has been disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of Southern England, owing to the decline of a number of core industries, notably fishing, mining, and farming, but it is now significantly more diverse.", "Agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century.", "The 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis harmed the farming community severely.", "Since then some parts of the agricultural industry have begun to diversify and recover, with a strong local food sector and many artisan producers.", "Nonetheless, in 2015 the dairy industry was still suffering from the low prices offered for wholesale milk by major dairies and especially large supermarket chains.The pandemic negatively affected the economy during 2020 and early 2021; an August 2021 report states that \"the immediate economic impacts of COVID-19 for the County as a whole was as severe as any in living memory\".", "Part of the seafront of Torquay, south Devon, at high tidein 2014 to 2016, the attractive lifestyle of the area was drawing in new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location; Dartmoor, for instance, has recently seen a significant rise in the percentage of its inhabitants involved in the digital and financial services sectors.", "The Met Office, the UK's national and international weather service, moved to Exeter in 2003.Plymouth hosts the head office and first ever store of The Range, the only major national retail chain headquartered in Devon.Since the rise of seaside resorts with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century, Devon's economy has been heavily reliant on tourism.", "The county's economy followed the declining trend of British seaside resorts since the mid-20th century, but with some recent revival and regeneration of its resorts, particularly focused around camping; sports such as surfing, cycling, sailing and heritage.", "This revival has been aided by the designation of much of Devon's countryside and coastline as the Dartmoor and Exmoor national parks, and the Jurassic Coast and Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape World Heritage Sites.", "In 2019 the county's visitor spend was almost £2.5 billion.", "More successful visitor attractions are particularly concentrated on food and drink, including sea-view restaurants in North-West Devon (such as one example belonging to Damien Hurst), walking the South West Coast Path, cycling on the Devon Coast to Coast Cycle Route and other cycle routes such as the Tarka Trail and the Stover Trail; watersports; surfing; indoor and outdoor folk music festivals across the county and sailing in the hill-surrounded inlet (ria) at Salcombe.Incomes vary significantly and the average is bolstered by a high proportion of affluent retired people.", "Incomes in much of the South Hams and in villages surrounding Exeter and Plymouth are close to, or above the national average, but there are also areas of severe deprivation, with earnings in some places among the lowest in the UK.The table also shows the population change in the ten years to the 2011 census by subdivision.", "It also shows the proportion of residents in each district reliant upon lowest income and/or joblessness benefits, the national average proportion of which was 4.5% as at August 2012, the year for which latest datasets have been published.", "It can be seen that the most populous district of Devon is East Devon but only if excluding Torbay which has marginally more residents and Plymouth which has approximately double the number of residents of either of these.", "West Devon has the fewest residents, having 63,839 at the time of the census.+ ''Population from census to census.", "Claimants of Jobseeker's Allowance (JSA) or Income Support (DWP)''UnitJSA or Inc. Supp.", "claimants (August 2012) % of 2011 populationJSA and Income Support claimants (August 2001) % of 2001 populationPopulation (April 2011)Population (April 2001)\t'''Devon'''\t\t2.7%\t\t6.6%\t\t746,399\t\t704,493''Ranked by district''\tExeter\t\t3.5%\t\t7.5%\t\t117,773\t\t111,076\tTorridge\t\t3.3%\t\t7.7%\t\t63,839\t\t58,965\tNorth Devon\t\t2.8%\t\t7.8%\t\t93,667\t\t87,508\tTeignbridge\t\t2.6%\t\t6.7%\t\t124,220\t\t120,958\tMid Devon\t\t2.6%\t\t6.0%\t\t77,750\t\t69,774\tWest Devon\t\t2.5%\t\t5.9%\t\t53,553\t\t48,843\tSouth Hams\t\t2.1%\t\t6.0%\t\t83,140\t\t81,849\tEast Devon\t\t1.9%\t\t5.4%\t\t132,457\t\t125,520''In historic Devon''\tTorbay\t\t5.3%\t\t11.0%\t\t130,959\t\t129,706\tPlymouth\t\t5.1%\t\t9.5%\t\t256,384\t\t240,720" ], [ "Transport", "===Bus===There is a network of bus services across Devon.", "Bus operators include: Stagecoach (much of Devon), AVMT Buses (East Devon/Jurassic Coast), County Bus (Teignbridge) and Plymouth Citybus.===Rail===The key train operator for Devon is Great Western Railway, which operates numerous regional, local and suburban services, as well as inter-city services north to London Paddington and south to Plymouth and Penzance.", "Other inter-city services are operated by CrossCountry north to Manchester Piccadilly, Edinburgh Waverley, Glasgow Central, Dundee, Aberdeen and south to Plymouth and Penzance; and by South Western Railway, operating hourly services between London Waterloo and Exeter St Davids, via the West of England Main Line.", "All Devon services are diesel-hauled, since there are no electrified lines in the county.Okehampton station in Devon was closed in 1972 to passenger traffic as a result of the Beeching cuts, but regained regular passenger services run by GWR to Exeter in November 2021, funded by the UK Government's Restoring your Railway programme.There are proposals to reopen the line from Tavistock to Bere Alston for a through service to Plymouth.", "The possibility of reopening the line between Tavistock and Okehampton, to provide an alternative route between Exeter and Plymouth, has also been suggested following damage to the railway's sea wall at Dawlish in 2014, which caused widespread disruption to trains between Exeter and Penzance.", "However, a study by Network Rail determined that maintaining the existing railway line would offer the best value for money and work to strengthen the line at Dawlish began in 2019.====Devon Metro====Devon County Council has proposed a 'Devon Metro' scheme to improve rail services in the county and offer a realistic alternative to car travel.", "This includes the delivery of Cranbrook station, plus four new stations (including Torquay Gateway) as a priority.", "Several elements of the scheme have, or are in the process of being delivered including the building of Marsh Barton station on the edge of Exeter and a regular half hourly local rail service now extended from the Exmouth to Exeter Branch onto Paignton.===Air===Exeter Airport is the only passenger airport in Devon and in 2019 was used by over one million people.", "Until 2020, Flybe had its headquarters at the airport.", "Destinations include various locations within the UK (London City, Manchester, Belfast, Edinburgh, etc.", "), as well as locations in Cyprus, Italy, Netherlands, Lapland, Portugal, Spain, France, Malta, Switzerland and Turkey." ], [ "Geography and geology", "Heathland at Woodbury Common in south east DevonCliffs in DevonIlfracombe, on the coast of North DevonDevon straddles a peninsula and so, uniquely among English counties, has two separate coastlines: on the Bristol Channel and Celtic Sea in the north, and on the English Channel in the south.", "The South West Coast Path runs along the entire length of both, around 65% of which is named as Heritage Coast.", "Before the changes to English counties in 1974, Devon was the third largest county by area and the largest of the counties not divided into county-like divisions (only Yorkshire and Lincolnshire were larger and both were sub-divided into ridings or parts, respectively).", "Since 1974 the county is ranked fourth by area (due to the creation of Cumbria) amongst ceremonial counties and is the third largest non-metropolitan county.", "The island of Lundy and the reef of Eddystone are also in Devon.", "The county has more mileage of road than any other county in England.Inland, the Dartmoor National park lies wholly in Devon, and the Exmoor National Park lies in both Devon and Somerset.", "Apart from these areas of high moorland the county has attractive rolling rural scenery and villages with thatched cob cottages.", "All these features make Devon a popular holiday destination.In South Devon the landscape consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as Dartmouth, Ivybridge, Kingsbridge, Salcombe, and Totnes.", "The towns of Torquay and Paignton are the principal seaside resorts on the south coast.", "East Devon has the first seaside resort to be developed in the county, Exmouth and the more upmarket Georgian town of Sidmouth, headquarters of the East Devon District Council.", "Exmouth marks the western end of the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.", "Another notable feature is the coastal railway line between Newton Abbot and the Exe Estuary: the red sandstone cliffs and sea views are very dramatic and in the resorts railway line and beaches are very near.North Devon is very rural with few major towns except Barnstaple, Great Torrington, Bideford and Ilfracombe.", "Devon's Exmoor coast has the highest cliffs in southern Britain, culminating in the Great Hangman, a \"hog's-back\" hill with a cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay.", "Its sister cliff is the Little Hangman, which marks the western edge of coastal Exmoor.", "One of the features of the North Devon coast is that Bideford Bay and the Hartland Point peninsula are both west-facing, Atlantic facing coastlines; so that a combination of an off-shore (east) wind and an Atlantic swell produce excellent surfing conditions.", "The beaches of Bideford Bay (Woolacombe, Saunton, Westward Ho!", "and Croyde), along with parts of North Cornwall and South Wales, are the main centres of surfing in Britain.===Geology===Geological map of Wales & Southwest EnglandA geological dividing line cuts across Devon roughly along the line of the Bristol to Exeter line and the M5 motorway east of Tiverton and Exeter.", "It is a part of the Tees–Exe line broadly dividing Britain into a southeastern lowland zone typified by gently dipping sedimentary rocks and a northwestern upland zone typified by igneous rocks and folded sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.The principal geological components of Devon are i) the Devonian strata of north Devon and south west Devon (and extending into Cornwall); ii) the Culm Measures (north western Devon also extending into north Cornwall); and iii) the granite intrusion of Dartmoor in central Devon, part of the Cornubian batholith forming the 'spine' of the southwestern peninsula.", "There are blocks of Silurian and Ordovician rocks within Devonian strata on the south Devon coast but otherwise no pre-Devonian rocks on the Devon mainland.", "The metamorphic rocks of Eddystone are of presumed Precambrian age.The oldest rocks which can be dated are those of the Devonian period which are approximately 395–359 million years old.", "Sandstones and shales were deposited in North and South Devon beneath tropical seas.", "In shallower waters, limestone beds were laid down in the area now near Torquay and Plymouth.This geological period was named after Devon by Roderick Murchison and Adam Sedgwick in the 1840s and is the only British county whose name is used worldwide as the basis for a geological time period.Devon's second major rock system is the Culm Measures, a geological formation of the Carboniferous period that occurs principally in Devon and Cornwall.", "The measures are so called either from the occasional presence of a soft, sooty coal, which is known in Devon as ''culm'', or from the contortions commonly found in the beds.", "This formation stretches from Bideford to Bude in Cornwall, and contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape.", "It is also found on the western, north and eastern borders of Dartmoor.The sedimentary rocks in more eastern parts of the county include Permian and Triassic sandstones (giving rise to east Devon's well known fertile red soils); Bunter pebble beds around Budleigh Salterton and Woodbury Common and Jurassic rocks in the easternmost parts of Devon.", "Smaller outcrops of younger rocks also exist, such as Cretaceous chalk cliffs at Beer Head and gravels on Haldon, plus Eocene and Oligocene ball clay and lignite deposits in the Bovey Basin, formed around 50 million years ago under tropical forest conditions.===Climate===Torquay sea front during Storm Emma – March 2018Devon generally has a cool oceanic climate, heavily influenced by the North Atlantic Drift.", "In winter, snow is relatively uncommon away from high land, although there are few exceptions.", "The county has mild summers with occasional warm spells and cool rainy periods.", "Winters are generally cool and the county often experiences some of the mildest winters in the world for its high latitude, with average daily maximum temperatures in January at .", "Rainfall varies significantly across the county, ranging from over on parts of Dartmoor, to around in the rain shadow along the coast in southeastern Devon and around Exeter.", "Sunshine amounts also vary widely: the moors are generally cloudy, but the SE coast from Salcombe to Exmouth is one of the sunniest parts of the UK (a generally cloudy region).", "With westerly or south-westerly winds and high pressure the area around Torbay and Teignmouth will often be warm, with long sunny spells due to shelter by high ground (Foehn wind).", "===Ecology===Ponies grazing on Exmoor near Brendon, North DevonThe variety of habitats means that there is a wide range of wildlife (see Dartmoor wildlife, for example).", "A popular challenge among birders is to find over 100 species in the county in a day.", "The county's wildlife is protected by several wildlife charities such as the Devon Wildlife Trust, which looks after 40 nature reserves.", "The Devon Bird Watching and Preservation Society (founded in 1928 and known since 2005 as \"Devon Birds\") is a county bird society dedicated to the study and conservation of wild birds.", "The RSPB has reserves in the county, and Natural England is responsible for over 200 Devon Sites of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserves, such as Slapton Ley.", "The Devon Bat Group was founded in 1984 to help conserve bats.", "Wildlife found in this area extend to a plethora of different kinds of insects, butterflies and moths; an interesting butterfly to take look at is the chequered skipper.Devon is a national hotspot for several species that are uncommon in Britain, including the cirl bunting; greater horseshoe bat; Bechstein's bat and Jersey tiger moth.", "It is also the only place in mainland Britain where the sand crocus (''Romulea columnae'') can be found – at Dawlish Warren, and is home to all six British native land reptile species, partly as a result of some reintroductions.", "Another recent reintroduction is the Eurasian beaver, primarily on the river Otter.", "Other rare species recorded in Devon include seahorses and the sea daffodil.The botany of the county is very diverse and includes some rare species not found elsewhere in the British Isles other than Cornwall.", "Devon is divided into two Watsonian vice-counties: north and south, the boundary being an irregular line approximately across the higher part of Dartmoor and then along the canal eastwards.", "Botanical reports begin in the 17th century and there is a ''Flora Devoniensis'' by Jones and Kingston in 1829.A general account appeared in ''The Victoria History of the County of Devon'' (1906), and a ''Flora of Devon'' was published in 1939 by Keble Martin and Fraser.", "An ''Atlas of the Devon Flora'' by Ivimey-Cook appeared in 1984, and ''A New Flora of Devon'', based on field work undertaken between 2005 and 2014, was published in 2016.Rising temperatures have led to Devon becoming the first place in modern Britain to cultivate olives commercially.In January 2024, plans were announced to plant over 100,000 trees in northern Devon to support Celtic rainforests, which are cherished yet at risk ecosystems in the UK.", "The project aims to create 50 hectares of new rainforest across three sites, planting trees near existing rainforest areas along the coast and inland.", "Among the tree species to be planted is the rare Devon whitebeam, known for its unique reproduction method and once-popular fruit.", "Led by the National Trust and with the assistance of volunteers and community groups, the initiative will focus on locations in Exmoor, Woolacombe, Hartland, and Arlington Court." ], [ "Politics and administration", "County Hall, Exeter.", "Headquarters for Devon County Council.The administrative centre and capital of Devon is the city of Exeter.", "The largest city in Devon, Plymouth, and the conurbation of Torbay (which includes the largest town in Devon and capital of Torbay, Torquay, as well as Paignton and Brixham) have been unitary authorities since 1998, separate from the remainder of Devon which is administered by Devon County Council for the purposes of local government.Devon County Council is controlled by the Conservatives, and the political representation of its 62 councillors are: 38 Conservatives, 9 Liberal Democrats, seven Labour, four UKIP, three Independents and one Green.At the 2019 general election, Devon returned 10 Conservatives and two Labour MPs to the House of Commons.", ";HundredsHistorically Devon was divided into 32 hundreds: Axminster, Bampton, Black Torrington, Braunton, Cliston, Coleridge, Colyton, Crediton, East Budleigh, Ermington, Exminster, Fremington, Halberton, Hartland, Hayridge, Haytor, Hemyock, Lifton, North Tawton and Winkleigh, Ottery, Plympton, Roborough, Shebbear, Shirwell, South Molton, Stanborough, Tavistock, Teignbridge, Tiverton, West Budleigh, Witheridge, and Wonford." ], [ "Cities, towns and villages", "The inner harbour, Brixham, south Devon, at low tideThe main settlements in Devon are the cities of Plymouth, a historic port now administratively independent, Exeter, the county town, and Torbay, the county's tourist centre.", "Devon's coast is lined with tourist resorts, many of which grew rapidly with the arrival of the railways in the 19th century.", "Examples include Dawlish, Exmouth and Sidmouth on the south coast, and Ilfracombe and Lynmouth on the north.", "The Torbay conurbation of Torquay, Paignton and Brixham on the south coast is now administratively independent of the county.", "Rural market towns in the county include Barnstaple, Bideford, Honiton, Newton Abbot, Okehampton, Tavistock, Totnes and Tiverton.The boundary with Cornwall has not always been on the River Tamar as at present: until the late 19th century a few parishes in the Torpoint area were in Devon and five parishes now in north-east Cornwall were in Devon until 1974 (however, for ecclesiastical purposes these were nevertheless in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall and in 1876 became part of the Diocese of Truro)." ], [ "Religion", "===Ancient and medieval history===The region of Devon was the dominion of the pre-Roman Dumnonii Celtic tribe, known as the \"Deep Valley Dwellers\".", "The region to the west of Exeter was less Romanised than the rest of Roman Britain since it was considered a remote part of the province.", "After the formal Roman withdrawal from Britain in AD 410, one of the leading Dumnonii families attempted to create a dynasty and rule over Devon as the new Kings of Dumnonii.Celtic paganism and Roman practices were the first known religions in Devon, although in the mid-fourth century AD, Christianity was introduced to Devon.", "In the Sub-Roman period the church in the British Isles was characterised by some differences in practice from the Latin Christianity of the continent of Europe and is known as Celtic Christianity; however it was always in communion with the wider Roman Catholic Church.", "Many Cornish saints are commemorated also in Devon in legends, churches and place-names.", "Western Christianity came to Devon when it was over a long period incorporated into the kingdom of Wessex and the jurisdiction of the bishop of Wessex.", "Saint Petroc is said to have passed through Devon, where ancient dedications to him are even more numerous than in Cornwall: a probable seventeen (plus Timberscombe just over the border in Somerset), compared to Cornwall's five.", "The position of churches bearing his name, including one within the old Roman walls of Exeter, are nearly always near the coast, as in those days travelling was done mainly by sea.", "The Devonian villages of Petrockstowe and Newton St Petroc are also named after Saint Petroc and the flag of Devon is dedicated to him.The history of Christianity in the South West of England remains to some degree obscure.", "Parts of the historic county of Devon formed part of the diocese of Wessex, while nothing is known of the church organisation of the Celtic areas.", "About 703 Devon and Cornwall were included in the separate diocese of Sherborne and in 900 this was again divided into two, the Devon bishop having from 905 his seat at Tawton (now Bishop's Tawton) and from 912 at Crediton, birthplace of St Boniface.", "Lyfing became Bishop of Crediton in 1027 and shortly afterwards became Bishop of Cornwall.The two dioceses of Crediton and Cornwall, covering Devon and Cornwall, were united under Edward the Confessor by Lyfing's successor Bishop Leofric, hitherto Bishop of Crediton, who became first Bishop of Exeter under Edward the Confessor, which was established as his cathedral city in 1050.At first, the abbey church of St Mary and St Peter, founded by Athelstan in 932 and rebuilt in 1019, served as the cathedral.Devon came under the political influence of several different nobles during the Middle Ages, especially the Courtenays Earl of Devon.", "During the Wars of the Roses, important magnates included the Earl of Devon, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Humphrey Stafford, earl of Devon whose wider influence stretched from Cornwall to Wiltshire.", "After 1485, one of the county's influential figures included Henry VII's courtier Robert Willoughby, 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke.===Later history===In 1549, the Prayer Book Rebellion caused the deaths of thousands of people from Devon and Cornwall.", "During the English Reformation, churches in Devon officially became affiliated with the Church of England.", "From the late sixteenth century onwards, zealous Protestantism – or 'puritanism' – became increasingly well-entrenched in some parts of Devon, while other districts of the county remained much more conservative.", "These divisions would become starkly apparent during the English Civil War of 1642–46, when the county split apart along religious and cultural lines.", "The Methodism of John Wesley proved to be very popular with the working classes in Devon in the 19th century.", "Methodist chapels became important social centres, with male voice choirs and other church-affiliated groups playing a central role in the social lives of working class Devonians.", "Methodism still plays a large part in the religious life of Devon today, although the county has shared in the post-World War II decline in British religious feeling.The Diocese of Exeter remains the Anglican diocese including the whole of Devon.", "The Roman Catholic Diocese of Plymouth was established in the mid 19th century." ], [ "Symbols", "===Coat of arms===The coat of arms of Devon County CouncilThere was no established coat of arms for the county until 1926: the arms of the City of Exeter were often used to represent Devon, for instance in the badge of the Devonshire Regiment.", "During the forming of a county council by the Local Government Act 1888 adoption of a common seal was required.", "The seal contained three shields depicting the arms of Exeter along with those of the first chairman and vice-chairman of the council (Lord Clinton and the Earl of Morley).On 11 October 1926, the county council received a grant of arms from the College of Arms.", "The main part of the shield displays a red crowned lion on a silver field, the arms of Richard Plantagenet, Earl of Cornwall.", "The ''chief'' or upper portion of the shield depicts an ancient ship on wavers, for Devon's seafaring traditions.", "The Latin motto adopted was ''Auxilio Divino'' (by Divine aid), that of Sir Francis Drake.", "The 1926 grant was of arms alone.", "On 6 March 1962 a further grant of crest and supporters was obtained.", "The crest is the head of a Dartmoor Pony rising from a \"Naval Crown\".", "This distinctive form of crown is formed from the sails and sterns of ships, and is associated with the Royal Navy.", "The supporters are a Devon bull and a sea lion.Devon County Council adopted a \"ship silhouette\" logo after the 1974 reorganisation, adapted from the ship emblem on the coat of arms, but following the loss in 1998 of Plymouth and Torbay re-adopted the coat of arms.", "In April 2006 the council unveiled a new logo which was to be used in most everyday applications, though the coat of arms will continue to be used for \"various civic purposes\".===Flag===The flag of the historic county of DevonDevon also has its own flag which has been dedicated to Saint Petroc, a local saint with dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties.", "The flag was adopted in 2003 after a competition run by BBC Radio Devon.", "The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast.", "The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, for example, the colours of the University of Exeter, the rugby union team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first Viscount Exmouth at the Bombardment of Algiers (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum), as well as one of the county's football teams, Plymouth Argyle.", "On 17 October 2006, the flag was hoisted for the first time outside County Hall in Exeter to mark Local Democracy Week, receiving official recognition from the county council.", "In 2019 Devon County Council with the support of both the Anglican and Catholic churches in Exeter and Plymouth, officially recognised Saint Boniface as the Patron Saint of Devon." ], [ "Place names and customs", "The beach at Westward Ho!, North Devon, looking north towards the shared estuary of the rivers Taw and TorridgeDevon's toponyms include many with the endings \"coombe/combe\" and \"tor\".", "Both 'coombe' (valley or hollow, cf.", "Welsh ''cwm'', Cornish ''komm'') and 'tor' (Old Welsh and Scots Gaelic ''tòrr'' from Latin ''turris''; 'tower' used for granite formations) are rare Celtic loanwords in English and their frequency is greatest in Devon which shares a boundary with Brittonic speaking Cornwall.", "Ruined medieval settlements of Dartmoor longhouses indicate that dispersed rural settlement (OE ''tun'', now often -ton) was very similar to that found in Cornish 'tre-' settlements, however these are generally described with the local placename , from the Old English for homestead, cf.", "cottage.", "Saxon endings in -worthy (from Anglo-Saxon ) indicate larger settlements.", "Several 'Bere's indicate Anglo-Saxon wood groves, as 'leighs' indicate clearings.Devon has a variety of festivals and traditional practices, including the traditional orchard-visiting Wassail in Whimple every 17 January, and the carrying of flaming tar barrels in Ottery St. Mary, where people who have lived in Ottery for long enough are called upon to celebrate Bonfire Night by running through the village (and the gathered crowds) with flaming barrels on their backs.", "Berry Pomeroy still celebrates Queene's Day for Elizabeth I." ], [ "Education", "Devon has a mostly comprehensive education system.", "There are 37 state and 23 independent secondary schools.", "There are three tertiary (FE) colleges and an agricultural college (Bicton College, near Budleigh Salterton).", "Torbay has 8 state (with 3 grammar schools) and 3 independent secondary schools, and Plymouth has 17 state (with 3 grammar schools – two female and one male) and one independent school, Plymouth College.", "East Devon and Teignbridge have the largest school populations, with West Devon the smallest (with only two schools).", "Only one school in Exeter, Mid Devon, Torridge and North Devon have a sixth form – the schools in other districts mostly have sixth forms, with all schools in West Devon and East Devon having a sixth form.Two universities are located in Devon, the University of Exeter (split between the Streatham Campus and St Luke's Campus, both in Exeter, and a campus in Cornwall); in Plymouth the University of Plymouth in Britain is present, along with the University of St Mark & St John to the city's north.", "The universities of Exeter and Plymouth have together formed the Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry which has bases in Exeter and Plymouth.", "There is also Schumacher College." ], [ "Cuisine", "The county has given its name to a number of culinary specialities.", "The Devonshire cream tea, involving scones, jam and clotted cream, is thought to have originated in Devon (though claims have also been made for neighbouring counties); in other countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, it is known as a \"Devonshire tea\".", "It has also been claimed that the pasty originated in Devon rather than Cornwall, with the first record of the pasty coming from Plymouth in 1509.In October 2008, Devon was awarded Fairtrade County status by the Fairtrade Foundation." ], [ "Sport", "Devon has been home to a number of customs, such as its own form of Devon wrestling, similar in some ways to Cornish wrestling.", "As recently as the 19th century, a crowd of over 17,000 at Devonport, near Plymouth, attended a match between the champions of Devon and Cornwall.", "Another Devon sport was outhurling which was played in some regions until the 20th century (e.g.", "1922, at Great Torrington).", "Other ancient customs which survive include Dartmoor step dancing, and \"Crying The Neck\".Devon has three professional football teams, based in each of its most populous towns and cities.", "As of 2023, Plymouth Argyle F.C.", "competes in the EFL Championship, Exeter City F.C.", "in the EFL League One, whilst Torquay United F.C.", "compete in the National League.", "Plymouth's highest Football League finish was fourth in the Second Division, which was achieved twice, in 1932 and 1953.Torquay and Exeter have never progressed beyond the third tier of the league; Torquay finished second on goal average in the Third Division (S) behind Sir Alf Ramsey's Ipswich Town in 1957.Exeter's highest position has been eighth in the Third Division (S).", "The county's biggest non-league clubs are Plymouth Parkway F.C.", "and Tiverton Town F.C.", "which compete in the Southern Football League Premier Division, and Bideford A.F.C., Exmouth Town F.C.", "and Tavistock A.F.C.", "which are in the Southern Football League Division One South and West.Rugby Union is popular in Devon with over forty clubs under the banner of the Devon Rugby Football Union, many with various teams at senior, youth and junior levels.", "One club – Exeter Chiefs – play in the Aviva Premiership, winning the title in 2017 for the first time in their history after beating Wasps RFC in the final 23–20.Plymouth Albion who are, , in the National League 1 (The third tier of English Professional Rugby Union).There are five rugby league teams in Devon.", "Plymouth Titans, Exeter Centurions, Devon Sharks from Torquay, North Devon Raiders from Barnstaple and East Devon Eagles from Exmouth.", "They all play in the Rugby League Conference.Plymouth City Patriots represent Devon in the British Basketball League.", "Formed in 2021, they replaced the former professional club, Plymouth Raiders, after the latter team were withdrawn from competition due to venue issues.", "Motorcycle speedway is also supported in the county, with both the Exeter Falcons and Plymouth Gladiators succeeding in the National Leagues in recent years.The University of Exeter Hockey Club enter teams in both the Men's and Women's England Hockey Leagues.Horse Racing is also popular in the county, with two National Hunt racecourses (Exeter and Newton Abbot), and numerous point to point courses.", "There are also many successful professional racehorse trainers based in Devon.The county is represented in cricket by Devon County Cricket Club, who play at a Minor counties level." ], [ "Notable Devonians", "Agatha Christie, best selling crime novelistDevon is known for its mariners, such as Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Richard Grenville, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Sir Francis Chichester.", "Henry Every, described as the most notorious pirate of the late 17th century, was probably born in the village of Newton Ferrers.", "John Oxenham (1536–1580) was a lieutenant of Drake but considered a pirate by the Spanish.", "Thomas Morton (1576–1647) was an avid Elizabethan outdoorsman probably born in Devon who became an attorney for The Council For New England, and built the New England fur-trading-plantation called Ma-Re Mount or Merrymount around a West Country-style Maypole, much to the displeasure of Pilgrim and Puritan colonists.", "Morton wrote a 1637 book ''New English Canaan'' about his experiences, partly in verse, and may have thereby become America's first poet to write in English.", "Another famous mariner and Devonian was Robert Falcon Scott, the leader of the unfortunate Terra Nova Expedition to reach the geographical South Pole.", "The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, the crime writers Agatha Christie and Bertram Fletcher Robinson, the Irish writer William Trevor, and the poet Ted Hughes lived in Devon.", "The painter and founder of the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds, was born in Devon.", "Chris Dawson, the billionaire owner of retailer The Range was born in Devon, where his business retains its head office in Plymouth.Chris Martin, lead singer of ColdplayThe actor Matthew Goode was raised in Devon, and Bradley James, also an actor, was born there.", "The singer Joss Stone was brought up in Devon and frontman Chris Martin from the British rock group Coldplay was born there.", "Matt Bellamy, Dominic Howard and Chris Wolstenholme from the English group Muse all grew up in Devon and formed the band there.", "Dave Hill of rock band Slade was born in Flete House which is in the South Hams district of Devon.", "Singer-songwriter Ben Howard grew up in Totnes, a small town in Devon.", "Another famous Devonian is the model and actress Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, who was born in Plymouth and raised in Tavistock.", "The singer and songwriter Rebecca Newman was born and raised in Exmouth.", "Roger Deakins, called \"the pre-eminent cinematographer of our time\", was born and lives in Devon.Roger Deakins, cinematographerTrevor Francis, former Nottingham Forest and Birmingham City professional footballer, and the first English footballer to cost £1 million, was born and brought up in Plymouth.Swimmer Sharron Davies and diver Tom Daley were born in Plymouth.", "The Olympic runner Jo Pavey was born in Honiton.", "Peter Cook the satirist, writer and comedian was born in Torquay, Devon.", "Leicester Tigers and British and Irish Lions Rugby player Julian White was born and raised in Devon and now farms a herd of pedigree South Devon beef cattle.", "The dog breeder John \"Jack\" Russell was also from Devon.", "Jane McGrath, who married Australian cricketer Glenn McGrath was born in Paignton, her long battle with and subsequent death from breast cancer inspired the formation of the McGrath Foundation, which is one of Australia's leading charities.Devon has also been represented in the House of Commons by notable Members of Parliament (MPs) such as Nancy Astor, Gwyneth Dunwoody, Michael Foot and David Owen and the Prime Ministers Lord John Russell and Lord Palmerston." ], [ "See also", "Tamar Valley AONB* List of Lord Lieutenants of Devon* List of High Sheriffs of Devon* Healthcare in Devon* Custos Rotulorum of Devon – Keepers of the Rolls* List of MPs for Devon constituency* :Category:Rivers of Devon* List of hills of Devon* List of monastic houses in Devon* List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Devon* North Devon Coast* West Country English* Circular linhay* Devon Sinfonia* Duchy of Cornwall" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "******" ], [ "External links", " Devon County Council* BBC Devon * Genuki Devon Historical, geographical and genealogical information* The Devonshire Association, a Devon-centric equivalent of the British Association** Images of Devon at the English Heritage Archive" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dartmoor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dartmoor''' is an upland area in southern Devon, South West England.", "The moorland and surrounding land has been protected by National Park status since 1951.", "'''Dartmoor National Park''' covers .The granite which forms the uplands dates from the Carboniferous Period of geological history.", "The landscape consists of moorland capped with many exposed granite hilltops known as tors, providing habitats for wildlife.", "The highest point is High Willhays, above sea level.", "The entire area is rich in antiquities and archaeological artefacts.Dartmoor National Park is managed by the Dartmoor National Park Authority, whose 22 members are drawn from Devon County Council, local district councils and Government.Parts of Dartmoor have been used as military firing ranges for over 200 years.", "The public is granted extensive land access rights on Dartmoor (including restricted access to the firing ranges) and it is a popular tourist destination." ], [ "Physical geography", "===Geology===Map showing the main granite outcrops of the Cornubian batholith in southwest England and the gravity anomaly associated with itDartmoor includes the largest area of granite in Britain, with about at the surface, though most of it is under superficial peat deposits.", "The granite (or more specifically adamellite) was intruded at depth as a pluton into the surrounding sedimentary rocks during the Carboniferous period, probably about 309 million years ago.", "It is generally accepted that the present surface is not far below the original top of the pluton; evidence for this includes partly digested shale xenoliths, contamination of the granite and the existence of two patches of altered sedimentary rock on top of the granite.A considerable gravity anomaly is associated with the Dartmoor pluton as with other such plutons.", "Measurement of the anomaly has helped to determine the likely shape and extent of the rock mass at depth.===Tors===tors in snowHigh Willhays with Yes Tor behindDartmoor is known for its tors – hills topped with outcrops of bedrock, which in granite country such as this are usually rounded boulder-like formations.", "More than 160 of the hills of Dartmoor have the word ''tor'' in their name but quite a number do not.", "However, this does not appear to relate to whether or not there is an outcrop of rock on their summit.", "The tors are the focus of an annual event known as the Ten Tors Challenge, when around 2400 people aged between 14 and 19 walk for distances of 56, 72 or 88 km (35, 45 or 55 mi) between ten tors on many differing routes.The highest points on Dartmoor are on the northern moor: High Willhays, , () and Yes Tor, , () The highest points on the southern moor are Ryder's Hill, , (), Snowdon , (), and an unnamed point, at (), between Langcombe Hill and Shell Top.", "The best-known tor on Dartmoor is Haytor (called Hey Tor by William Crossing), , ().", "For a more complete list see List of Dartmoor tors and hills.===Rivers===River Erme at IvybridgeThe high ground of Dartmoor forms the catchment area for many of Devon's rivers.", "As well as shaping the landscape, these have traditionally provided a source of power for moor industries such as tin mining and quarrying.The moor takes its name from the River Dart, which starts as the East Dart and West Dart and then becomes a single river at Dartmeet.", "It leaves the moor at Buckfastleigh, flowing through Totnes below where it opens up into a long ria, reaching the sea at Dartmouth.", "Other rivers flowing from Dartmoor include the Teign, the Taw, the Tavy, the Avon, and the Lyd.", "Some of the rivers in Dartmoor have been dammed to create reservoirs for drinking water, including the River Avon and the South Teign River (Fernworthy Reservoir).===Bogs===Much more rain falls on Dartmoor than in the surrounding lowlands.", "As much of the national park is covered in thick layers of peat (decaying vegetation), the rain is usually absorbed quickly and distributed slowly, so the moor is rarely dry.", "In areas where water accumulates, dangerous bogs or mires can result.", "Some of these, topped with bright green moss, are known to locals as \"feather beds\" or \"quakers\", because they can shift (or 'quake') beneath a person's feet.", "Quakers result from sphagnum moss growing over the water that accumulates in the hollows in the granite.Aune Mire, the source of the River AvonThe vegetation of the bogs depends on the type and location.", "Blanket bog, which forms on the highest land where the rainfall exceeds a year, consists mainly of cotton-grass (''Eriophorum'' species), sedges (''Carex'' and ''Rhynchospora''), ''Bog Asphodel'' and ''Common Tormentil'', with ''Sphagnum'' thriving in the wettest patches.", "The valley bogs have lush growth of rushes, with sphagnum, cross-leaved heath, sundews and several other species.Some of the bogs on Dartmoor have achieved notoriety.", "Fox Tor Mires was supposedly the inspiration for Great Grimpen Mire in Conan Doyle's novel ''The Hound of the Baskervilles'', although there is a waymarked footpath across it.", "Sabine Baring-Gould, in his ''Book of Dartmoor'' (1900) related the story of a man who was making his way through Aune Mire at the head of the River Avon when he came upon a top-hat brim down on the surface of the mire.", "He kicked it, whereupon a voice called out: \"What be you a-doin' to my 'at?\"", "The man replied, \"Be there now a chap under'n?\"", "\"Ees, I reckon,\" was the reply, \"and a hoss under me likewise.\"" ], [ "Climate", "Along with the rest of South West England, Dartmoor has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than locations at similar height in the rest of England.", "At Princetown, near the centre of the moor at a height of , January and February are the coldest months with mean minimum temperatures around .", "July and August are the warmest months with mean daily maxima not reaching .", "Compared with Teignmouth, which is on the coast about to the east, the average maximum and minimum temperatures are and lower respectively, and frost is at least five times as frequent.", "On the highest ground, in the north of the moor, the growing season is less than 175 days – this contrasts with some 300 days along most of the south coast of the county.Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection.", "In summer, convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of rainfall falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year.", "The wettest months are November and December and on the highest parts of the moor the average annual total rainfall is over .", "This compares with less than in the lower land to the east around the Exe Estuary, which is in the rain shadow of the moor.", "Due to the influence of the Gulf Stream snowfall is not common, though due to its high altitude it is more vulnerable to snowfall than surrounding regions.Between 1961 and 1990 Met Office data shows that there was an average of 20 days when snow fell on the moor, and over 40 days a year with hail, which is as high as anywhere else in the country.", "This results when cold polar maritime air that has travelled over a large expanse of warmer ocean is forced to rise over high country.When average temperatures at Princetown between 1961 and 2000 are compared, the average annual temperature in the decade 1990–2000 was up by and the late winter temperature increased by ." ], [ "Wildlife", "Because of Dartmoor's height and granite geology, it experiences strong winds and has acidic soils.", "In consequence it has been subject to very little intensive farming, and all these factors combine to form the basis of the important ecosystems found here.", "The landscape is one of granite with peat bogs overlying it.", "While the moors topped with granite tors are the most iconic part of Dartmoor's landscape, only about half of Dartmoor is actually moorland.", "Equally important for wildlife are the blanket bogs, upland heaths and the oak woodlands which are all of global importance.", "Dartmoor is a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) with four habitats (''Northern Atlantic wet heaths with Erica tetralix''; ''European dry heaths''; ''Blanket bog''s and ''Old sessile oak woods with Ilex and Blechnum in the British Isles'') being listed as primary reasons for the selection of Dartmoor as a SAC.", "In addition the area has a population of the southern damselfly which is also a primary reason for its selection along with populations of Atlantic salmon and otter being qualifying reasons.Inside Wistman's Wood in summerWistman's Wood is one of the old sessile oak woods which contribute to the listing of Dartmoor as a SAC and is possibly a surviving fragment from the earliest Neolithic woodland clearances.", "It is home to exceptional epiphytic mosses, liverworts and lichens.", "Nearly 50 species of moss and liverwort are found in the wood along with 120 types of lichen, including Smith's horsehair lichen, speckled sea-storm lichen and pendulous wing-moss.", "Over 60 species of lichens grow on the exposed surfaces of the granite tors, including granite-speck rim-lichen, purple rock lichen, brown cobblestone lichen and goldspot lichen and many rare lichen grow on rocks exposed by mining which are rich in heavy metals.", "On the upland heaths heather (ling) and bell heather are common along with western gorse.", "In dry grassy areas tormentil, heath bedstraw and heath milkwort are all common.", "Cross-leaved heath and purple moor grass grow in wetter spots and in the boggy areas many different species of sphagnum and other mosses can be found along with liverworts, Hare's-tail Cotton-grass, round-leaved sundew and bog asphodel and in the valley bottoms, many different sedges, bogbean and pale butterwort all grow.A large variety of bird species can be found on Dartmoor including ones that have declined elsewhere in the UK, such as skylark and common snipe, or are even rare nationally, such as the ring ouzel and the cuckoo.", "There are internationally important populations of meadow pipit and stonechat.", "Woodland birds include a number of migrant species, like the pied flycatcher, the wood warbler or the common redstart.", "Mammals found here include otters, hazel dormice and nearly all of the UK's 16 bat species.", "Three rare species, the barbastelle, and the greater and lesser horseshoe bats are of particular importance.", "The upper reaches of the rivers, are spawning grounds for Salmon and trout and Palmate newts, frogs and toads breed in the numerous small pools.", "Two shrimp species can be found on Dartmoor: fairy shrimp that can be found in temporary pools and in underground streams very rare cave shrimp.", "The world's largest land slug, the Ash black, is also found.", "Reptiles include common lizards and adders.", "The farmland in the wet valleys around the edge of the moors is the most important habitat for insectsincluding the marsh fritillary butterfly, southern damselfly, narrow-bordered bee hawkmoth and bog hoverfly.", "Areas of bracken are home to the high brown fritillary and pearl-bordered fritillary.", "Insects found in the heathlands include the emperor moth, green hairstreak and the bilberry bumblebee.", "The old oak woodlands have a distinctive group of insects including the blue ground beetle and Heckford's pygmy moth, a species found nowhere else in the world." ], [ "Restoration and climate change mitigation", "The '''South West Peatland Project''' aims to restore around 300 hectares of Dartmoor's peatland through collaboration with Dartmoor National Park.", "Preserving these peatlands will help mitigate climate change through sequestering carbon from the atmosphere.", "More generally, Dartmoor aims to be carbon negative by 2045." ], [ "History", "===Pre-history===The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age.", "Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor.", "The large systems of Bronze Age fields, divided by reaves, cover an area of over of the lower moors.The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees.", "The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities.", "Fire was the main method of clearing land, creating pasture and swidden types of fire-fallow farmland.", "Areas less suited for farming tended to be burned for livestock grazing.", "Over the centuries these Neolithic practices greatly expanded the upland moors, and contributed to the acidification of the soil and the accumulation of peat and bogs.After a few thousand years the mild climate deteriorated leaving these areas uninhabited and consequently relatively undisturbed to the present day.", "The highly acidic soil has ensured that no organic remains have survived, but the durability of the granite has meant that the remains of buildings, enclosures and monuments have survived well, as have flint tools.", "A number of remains were \"restored\" by enthusiastic Victorians and, in some cases, they have placed their own interpretation on how an area may have looked.===Standing stones===Beardown Man, DartmoorNumerous prehistoric menhirs (more usually referred to locally as standing stones or longstones), stone circles, kistvaens, cairns and stone rows are to be found on the moor.", "The most significant sites include:* Upper Erme stone row is the longest on Dartmoor and in fact in the world at * Beardown Man, near Devil's Tor – isolated standing stone high, said to have another below ground.", "* Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of Grimspound — triple stone row.", "* Drizzlecombe, east of Sheepstor village – stone rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns.", "* Grey Wethers, near Postbridge — double circle, aligned almost exactly north south.", "* Laughter Tor, near Two Bridges — standing stone high and two double stone rows, one long.", "* Merrivale, between Princetown and Tavistock — includes a double stone row long, wide, aligned almost exactly east–west, stone circles and a kistvaen.", "* Scorhill (pronounced 'Scorill'), west of Chagford — circle, in circumference, and stone rows.", "* Shovel Down, north of Fernworthy reservoir — double stone row approximately long.", "* Yellowmead Down, a quadruple concentric stone circle and stone rows.===Hut circles and kistvaens===There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving although many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls.", "These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses.", "The smallest are around in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size.Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain; some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound.", "It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch.There are also numerous kistvaens, Neolithic stone box-like tombs.===The historical period===Ancient cross close to Crazywell PoolThe climate became wetter and cooler over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, resulting in much of high Dartmoor being largely abandoned by its early inhabitants.It was not until the early Mediaeval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors.", "Like their ancient predecessors, they used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the longhouse; some of theses are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries.", "Many are now being used as farm buildings, while others were abandoned and fell into ruin.The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the Ancient Tenements.", "Most of these date back to the 14th century, and some even earlier.Some way into the moor stands the town of Princetown, the site of Dartmoor Prison, which was originally built by Isbell Rowe & Company, Plymouth, for prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.The prison has an incorrect reputation for being escape-proof, due to both the buildings themselves and its physical location.The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries – such as the remains of the Dartmoor tin-mining industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned.", "See Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor." ], [ "Myths and literature", "Jay's GraveDartmoor is known for its myths and legends.", "It is reputedly the haunt of pixies, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of \"spectral hounds\", and a large black dog, among others.", "During the Great Thunderstorm of 1638, the moorland village of Widecombe-in-the-Moor was said to have been visited by the Devil.Many landmarks have ancient legends and ghost stories associated with them, such as the allegedly haunted Jay's Grave, the ancient burial site of Childe's Tomb, the rock pile called Bowerman's Nose, and the stone crosses that mark former mediaeval routes across the moor.A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the \"hairy hands\", that are said to attack motorists on the B3212 near Two Bridges; and the \"Beast of Dartmoor\", a supposed big cat.Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in ''The Hound of the Baskervilles'' and ''The Adventure of Silver Blaze'', R. D. Blackmore, Eden Phillpotts, Beatrice Chase, Agatha Christie, Rosamunde Pilcher, Gilbert Adair and the Reverend Sabine Baring-Gould.In 1820, the newly formed Royal Society of Literature offered a prize for a poem on the subject of Dartmoor, this being won by Felicia Hemans.", "In ''Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire'', the fictional 1994 Quidditch World Cup final between Ireland and Bulgaria was hosted on the moor." ], [ "Ownership and access", "Over half of Dartmoor National Park (57.3%) is private land; the Forest of Dartmoor being the major part of this, owned by the Duke of Cornwall.", "The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (see below), 3.8% is owned by water companies (see Dartmoor reservoirs), 3.7% by the National Trust, 1.8% by the Forestry Commission and 1.4% by Dartmoor's national park authority.", "About 37% of Dartmoor is common land.Dartmoor differs from some other National Parks in England and Wales, in that since the Dartmoor Commons Act 1985 much of it has been designated as Access land, which, although it remains privately owned, has no restrictions on where walkers can roam.", "In addition to this access land, there are about of public rights of way on Dartmoor, and many kilometres of permitted footpaths and bridleways where the owners allow access.Because of the 1985 Act, Dartmoor was largely unaffected by the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, which established similar rights in other rural parts of the country, until 2006, when the 2000 Act opened up much of the remaining restricted land to walkers.In January 2023, in a high court judgement in a case brought by landowner Alexander Darwall, the right for members of the public to wild camp on Dartmoor was lost.", "Julian Flaux, the chancellor of the high court, ruled: \"In my judgment, on the first issue set out at 14 above, the claimants are entitled to the declaration they seek that, on its true construction, section 10(1) of the 1985 Act does not confer on the public any right to pitch tents or otherwise make camp overnight on Dartmoor Commons.", "Any such camping requires the consent of the landowner.\"", "A protest against the new restrictions, led by local storyteller Martin Shaw, was held in January 2023.However on July 31 the ban was overturned by the Court of Appeal.=== Use by the Ministry of Defence ===There is a history of military usage of Dartmoor dating back to the Napoleonic Wars.", "Today, a large British Army training camp remains at Okehampton — also the site of an airbase during the Second World War.The Ministry of Defence (MoD) uses three areas of the northern moor for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises, totalling , or just over 11% of the National Park.", "Red and white posts mark the boundaries of these military areas (shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 scale maps).", "Flagpoles on many tors in and around the ranges fly red flags when firing is taking place.", "At other times, members of the public are allowed access.", "Blank rounds may also be used, but the MoD does not notify the public of this in advance.Some \"challenge\" and charitable events take place with assistance of the military on Dartmoor, including the long established Ten Tors event and the more recent Dartmoor Beast.Dartmoor's fictional use as an MoD centre for animal testing called Baskerville was referenced in the BBC drama ''Sherlock'' episode \"The Hounds of Baskerville\".The disused Rippon Tor Rifle Range was built to train soldiers during the Second World War, and remained in use until its closure in 1977." ], [ "Preservation", "The clapper bridge at PostbridgeDartmoor Hill pony on DartmoorThroughout human history, the landscape has been exploited for industrial purposes.", "In recent years, controversy has surrounded the work of industrial conglomerates Imerys and Sibelco (formerly Watts Blake Bearne), who have used parts of the moor for china clay mining.", "Licences were granted by the British Government but were recently renounced after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the Dartmoor Preservation Association.The British government has made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating companies for these licences, which may not have been granted in today's political climate, could prove prohibitive.The military use of the moor has been another source of controversy, as when training was extended in January 2003.The national park authority received 1,700 objections before making the decision.", "Objectors said that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace.Those who objected included the Open Spaces Society and the Dartmoor Preservation Association.", "During her lifetime, Sylvia Sayer was another outspoken critic of the damage which she perceived that the army was doing to the moor." ], [ "Towns and villages", "A typical Dartmoor tor close to HaytorThe designated Dartmoor National Park area has a resident population of about 33,000, which swells considerably during holiday periods with incoming tourists.", "The largest settlements within the National Park are Ashburton (the largest, with a population of about 3,500), Buckfastleigh, Moretonhampstead, Princetown, Yelverton, Horrabridge, South Brent, Christow, and Chagford.For a full list, expand the ''Settlements of Dartmoor'' navigational box at the bottom of this page." ], [ "Landmarks", "* Avon Dam Reservoir – reservoir popular for walks and trout fishing* Bowerman's Nose – a tor said to be shaped like a nose* Brentor Church – remote church high on crag at western edge of moor* Buckfast Abbey – abbey near Buckfastleigh* Burrator Reservoir – late Victorian reservoir* Canonteign Falls – second highest waterfall in England* Castle Drogo – Edwardian faux castle built by Edwin Lutyens on a crag above Teign Gorge, Drewsteignton* Childe's Tomb – ancient burial site* Cosdon Hill – prominent hill, northern extremity of moor, site of beacon fire for invasion warning* Cranmere Pool – original letterbox site and location of the legend of Cranmere Binjie* Crazywell Pool – artificial lake* Dartmeet – meeting point of East and West Dart rivers* Dartmoor Prison – a prison in the middle of Dartmoor at the village of Princetown* Devonport Leat – human-made water channel* Duck's Pool – location of a memorial to local writer William Crossing* Fernworthy Dam & Reservoir – granite-faced concrete dam and lake in Fernworthy Forest, near Chagford* Fingle Bridge – a 17th-century crossing of the River Teign near Chagford* Great Links Tor – dominant tor on north west scarp of moor* Grey Wethers – pair of ancient stone circles* Grimspound – Bronze Age settlement* Haytor Granite Tramway – early tramway with stone rails; ran from quarries at Haytor to Stover Canal* Haytor Rock – prominent tor and viewpoint between Bovey Tracey and Widecombe* Hay Tor – less prominent outcrop behind Haytor Rock when viewed from the south.", "Popular spot for rock climbing due to its large cliff face and relative ease of access.", "* High Willhays – highest point on Dartmoor* Hound Tor – rugged tor with remains of Iron Age village* Jay's Grave – burial site* Lydford Gorge – deep and narrow gorge with waterfalls* Meldon Viaduct and reservoir – wide and high concrete dam and Victorian iron bridge which itself is wide and high* North Hessary Tor transmitting station – a TV mast near Princetown which can be seen for many miles.", "* Rippon Tor Rifle Range – disused rifle range* Redlake Tramway – disused railway* Spitchwick – a swimming spot where the River Webburn joins the River Dart* Tavistock Canal – 19th-century canal* Two Bridges – 18th-century coaching inn* Warren House Inn – highest inn in south west England, rumoured to have a fire which has not gone out in hundreds of years.", "* Widecombe in the moor, village in a valley in southern Dartmoor with a church rumoured to have been struck by lightning in medieval times.", "* Wistman's Wood – copse of stunted oaks in the valley of the West Dart near Two Bridges* Yes Tor – tor next to High Willhays, forming the second highest hill in Dartmoor." ], [ "Leisure activities", "Until the early 19th century Dartmoor was not considered to be a place worth visiting: in the 1540s John Leland wrote in his ''Itinerary'' that \"Dartmore is muche a wilde Morish and forest Ground\", and even by 1789 Richard Gough's opinion was that it is a \"dreary mountainous tract\".", "At the turn of the 19th century John Swete was one of the first people to visit Dartmoor for pleasure and his journals and watercolour paintings now provide a valuable historical resource.The oldest leisure pursuit on the moor is hill walking.", "William Crossing's definitive ''Guide to Dartmoor'' was published in 1909, and in 1938 a plaque and letterbox in his memory were placed at Duck's Pool on the southern moor.", "Parts of the Abbots Way, Two Moors Way and the Templer Way are on Dartmoor.Letterboxing originated on Dartmoor in the 19th century and has become increasingly popular in recent decades.", "Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes', are hidden throughout the moor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp.", "Visitors take an impression of the letterbox's rubber stamp as proof of finding the box and record their visit by stamping their own personal stamp in the letterbox's logbook.", "A recent related development is geocaching.", "Geocache clues make use of GPS coordinates, whereas letterboxing clues tend to consist of grid references and compass bearings.Whitewater kayaking and canoeing are popular on the rivers due to the high rainfall and their high quality, though for environmental reasons access is restricted to the winter months.", "The River Dart is the most prominent meeting place, the section known as the Loop being particularly popular.", "Other white water rivers are the Erme, Tavy, Plym and Meavy.Other activities are rock climbing on the granite tors and outcrops, some of the well-known venues being Haytor, Hound Tor and The Dewerstone; horse riding, which can be undertaken on any of the common land; cycling (but not on open moorland); and angling for wild brown trout, sea trout and salmon—although much of the river fishing on Dartmoor is privately owned, permits are available for some stretches.===Visitor centres===The park's main visitor centre is located in Princetown and features exhibits about Dartmoor's history, culture and wildlife, as well as changing displays of local art.", "The visitor centres located in Postbridge and Haytor feature information, maps, guidebooks and items for exploring the area." ], [ "Transport", "===Bus===Dartmoor is served by the following bus services:* 359 Moretonhampstead – Exeter (Country bus)* 271 Newton Abbot – Bovey Tracey – Widecombe (Summer Saturdays only) (Country bus)* 173 Moretonhampstead – Chagford – Exeter (Dartline)* 178 Newton Abbot – Bovey Tracey – M'tonhampstead – Chagford – Okehampton (Country bus)* 98 Tavistock – Princetown – Postbridge (Oakleys)Other bus services operate in Dartmoor on a less frequent basis.GWR operate direct trains from Exeter to Okehampton." ], [ "See also", "* Dartmoor Discovery, ultramarathon race* Dartmoor Way long-distance footpath* Museum of Dartmoor Life" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Crossing, William Crossing's Guide to Dartmoor, the 1912 edition reprinted with new introd.", "by Brian Le Messurier.", "Dawlish: David & Charles, 1965.", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " Dartmoor National Park Authority *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dante Alighieri" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dante Alighieri''' (; – 14 September 1321), most likely baptized '''Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri''' and often referred to as '''Dante''' (, ), was an Italian poet, writer, and philosopher.", "His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: ''Commedia'') and later christened by Giovanni Boccaccio, is widely considered one of the most important poems of the Middle Ages and the greatest literary work in the Italian language.Dante is known for establishing the use of the vernacular in literature at a time when most poetry was written in Latin, which was accessible only to educated readers.", "His ''De vulgari eloquentia'' (''On Eloquence in the Vernacular'') was one of the first scholarly defenses of the vernacular.", "His use of the Florentine dialect for works such as ''The New Life'' (1295) and ''Divine Comedy'' helped establish the modern-day standardized Italian language.", "By writing his poem in the Italian vernacular rather than in Latin, Dante influenced the course of literary development, making Italian the literary language in western Europe for several centuries.", "His work set a precedent that important Italian writers such as Petrarch and Boccaccio would later follow.Dante was instrumental in establishing the literature of Italy, and is considered to be among the country's national poets and the Western world's greatest literary icons.", "His depictions of Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven provided inspiration for the larger body of Western art and literature.", "He influenced English writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton, and Alfred Tennyson, among many others.", "In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, or the ''terza rima'', is attributed to him.", "He is described as the \"father\" of the Italian language, and in Italy he is often referred to as '''' (\"the Supreme Poet\").", "Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also called the (\"three crowns\") of Italian literature." ], [ "Early life", "Dante's house museum in FlorenceGiotto, in the chapel of the Bargello palace, Florence.", "It was painted and has been restored.Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, in what is now Italy.", "The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around 1265.This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the ''Divine Comedy''.", "Its first section, the ''Inferno'', begins, ''\"Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita\"'' (\"Midway upon the journey of our life\"), implying that Dante was around 35 years old, since the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalm 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and since his imaginary travel to the netherworld took place in 1300, he was most probably born around 1265.Some verses of the ''Paradiso'' section of the ''Divine Comedy'' also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: \"As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed, from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious\" (XXII 151–154).", "In 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately 11 May and 11 June (Julian calendar).Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans (''Inferno'', XV, 76), but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei (''Paradiso'', XV, 135), born no earlier than about 1100.Dante's father, Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century.", "This suggests that Alighiero or his family may have enjoyed some protective prestige and status, although some suggest that the politically inactive Alighiero was of such low standing that he was not considered worth exiling.Dante's family was loyal to the Guelphs, a political alliance that supported the Papacy and that was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines, who were backed by the Holy Roman Emperor.", "The poet's mother was Bella, probably a member of the Abati family.", "She died when Dante was not yet ten years old.", "His father Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi.", "It is uncertain whether he really married her, since widowers were socially limited in such matters, but she definitely bore him two children, Dante's half-brother Francesco and half-sister Tana (Gaetana).Portrait of Dante, , from a fresco in the Palazzo dei Giudici, FlorenceDante said he first met Beatrice Portinari, daughter of Folco Portinari, when he was nine (she was eight), and he claimed to have fallen in love with her \"at first sight\", apparently without even talking with her.", "When he was 12, however, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, member of the powerful Donati family.", "Contracting marriages for children at such an early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary.", "Dante claimed to have seen Beatrice again frequently after he turned 18, exchanging greetings with her in the streets of Florence, though he never knew her well.Years after his marriage to Gemma, he claims to have met Beatrice again; he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems.", "He refers to other Donati relations, notably Forese and Piccarda, in his ''Divine Comedy''.", "The exact date of his marriage is not known; the only certain information is that, before his exile in 1301, he had fathered three children with Gemma (Pietro, Jacopo and Antonia).Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino (11 June 1289).", "This victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution.", "To take part in public life, one had to enroll in one of the city's many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians' and Apothecaries' Guild.", "His name is occasionally recorded as speaking or voting in the councils of the republic.", "Many minutes from such meetings between 1298–1300 were lost, so the extent of his participation is uncertain." ], [ "Education and poetry", "Mural of Dante in the Uffizi, Florence, by Andrea del Castagno, Not much is known about Dante's education; he presumably studied at home or in a chapter school attached to a church or monastery in Florence.", "It is known that he studied Tuscan poetry and that he admired the compositions of the Bolognese poet Guido Guinizelli—in ''Purgatorio'' XXVI he characterized him as his \"father\"—at a time when the Sicilian School (''Scuola poetica Siciliana''), a cultural group from Sicily, was becoming known in Tuscany.", "He also discovered the Provençal poetry of the troubadours, such as Arnaut Daniel, and the Latin writers of classical antiquity, including Cicero, Ovid and especially Virgil.Dante's interactions with Beatrice set an example of so-called courtly love, a phenomenon developed in French and Provençal poetry of prior centuries.", "Dante's experience of such love was typical, but his expression of it was unique.", "It was in the name of this love that Dante left his imprint on the ''dolce stil nuovo'' (\"sweet new style\", a term that Dante himself coined), and he would join other contemporary poets and writers in exploring never-before-emphasized aspects of love (''Amore'').", "Love for Beatrice (as Petrarch would express for Laura somewhat differently) would be his reason for writing poetry and for living, together with political passions.", "In many of his poems, she is depicted as semi-divine, watching over him constantly and providing spiritual instruction, sometimes harshly.", "When Beatrice died in 1290, Dante sought refuge in Latin literature.", "The ''Convivio'' chronicles his having read Boethius's and Cicero's ''De Amicitia''.Dante and Beatrice'', by Henry Holiday, inspired by ''La Vita Nuova'', 1883He next dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in Santa Maria Novella.", "He took part in the disputes that the two principal mendicant orders (Franciscan and Dominican) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrines of the mystics and of St. Bonaventure, the latter expounding on the theories of St. Thomas Aquinas.At around the age of 18, Dante met Guido Cavalcanti, Lapo Gianni, Cino da Pistoia and, soon after, Brunetto Latini; together they became the leaders of the ''dolce stil nuovo''.", "Brunetto later received special mention in the ''Divine Comedy'' (''Inferno'', XV, 28) for what he had taught Dante: ''Nor speaking less on that account I go With Ser Brunetto, and I ask who are his most known and most eminent companions.''", "Some fifty poetical commentaries by Dante are known (the so-called ''Rime'', rhymes), others being included in the later ''Vita Nuova'' and ''Convivio''.", "Other studies are reported, or deduced from ''Vita Nuova'' or the ''Comedy'', regarding painting and music." ], [ "Florence and politics", "Statue of Dante at the UffiziDante, like most Florentines of his day, was embroiled in the Guelph–Ghibelline conflict.", "He fought in the Battle of Campaldino (11 June 1289), with the Florentine Guelphs against Arezzo Ghibellines; he fought as a '''', responsible for the first attack.", "To further his political career, he became a pharmacist.", "He did not intend to practice as one, but a law issued in 1295 required nobles aspiring to public office to be enrolled in one of the Corporazioni delle Arti e dei Mestieri, so Dante obtained admission to the Apothecaries' Guild.", "This profession was appropriate, as books were sold from apothecaries' shops.", "As a politician, he held various offices over some years in a city rife with political unrest.After defeating the Ghibellines, the Guelphs divided into two factions: the White Guelphs (''Guelfi Bianchi'')—Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi—and the Black Guelphs (''Guelfi Neri''), led by Corso Donati.", "Although the split was along family lines at first, ideological differences arose based on opposing views of the papal role in Florentine affairs.", "The Blacks supported the Pope and the Whites wanted more freedom from Rome.", "The Whites took power first and expelled the Blacks.", "In response, Pope Boniface VIII planned a military occupation of Florence.", "In 1301, Charles of Valois, brother of King Philip IV of France, was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him as peacemaker for Tuscany.", "But the city's government had treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influence.", "It was believed Charles had received other unofficial instructions, so the council sent a delegation that included Dante to Rome to persuade the Pope not to send Charles to Florence." ], [ "Exile from Florence", "Statue of Dante in the Piazza Santa Croce in Florence, Enrico Pazzi, 1865Pope Boniface quickly dismissed the other delegates and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome.", "At the same time (1 November 1301), Charles of Valois entered Florence with the Black Guelphs, who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies.", "A new Black Guelph government was installed, and Cante dei Gabrielli da Gubbio was appointed of the city.", "In March 1302, Dante, a White Guelph by affiliation, along with the Gherardini family, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine.", "Dante was accused of corruption and financial wrongdoing by the Black Guelphs for the time that Dante was serving as city prior (Florence's highest position) for two months in 1300.The poet was still in Rome in 1302, as the Pope, who had backed the Black Guelphs, had \"suggested\" that Dante stay there.", "Florence under the Black Guelphs, therefore, considered Dante an absconder.Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs.", "He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he had returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake.", "(In June 2008, nearly seven centuries after his death, the city council of Florence passed a motion rescinding Dante's sentence.)", "In 1306–07, Dante was a guest of in the region of Lunigiana.", "''Dante in Verona'', by Antonio Cotti, 1879Dante took part in several attempts by the White Guelphs to regain power, but these failed due to treachery.", "Bitter at the treatment he received from his enemies, he grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his former allies and vowed to become a party of one.", "He went to Verona as a guest of Bartolomeo I della Scala, then moved to Sarzana in Liguria.", "Later he is supposed to have lived in Lucca with a woman named Gentucca.", "She apparently made his stay comfortable (and he later gratefully mentioned her in ''Purgatorio'', XXIV, 37).", "Some speculative sources claim he visited Paris between 1308 and 1310, and other sources even less trustworthy say he went to Oxford: these claims, first made in Boccaccio's book on Dante several decades after his death, seem inspired by readers who were impressed with the poet's wide learning and erudition.", "Evidently, Dante's command of philosophy and his literary interests deepened in exile and when he was no longer busy with the day-to-day business of Florentine domestic politics, and this is evidenced in his prose writings in this period.", "There is no real evidence that he ever left Italy.", "Dante's ''Immensa Dei dilectione testante'' to Henry VII of Luxembourg confirms his residence \"beneath the springs of Arno, near Tuscany\" in April 1311.In 1310, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII of Luxembourg marched into Italy at the head of 5,000 troops.", "Dante saw in him a new Charlemagne who would restore the office of the Holy Roman Emperor to its former glory and also retake Florence from the Black Guelphs.", "He wrote to Henry and several Italian princes, demanding that they destroy the Black Guelphs.", "Mixing religion and private concerns in his writings, he invoked the worst anger of God against his city and suggested several particular targets, who were also his personal enemies.", "It was during this time that he wrote ''De Monarchia'', proposing a universal monarchy under Henry VII.Dante Alighieri, detail from Luca Signorelli's fresco in the Chapel of San Brizio, Orvieto CathedralAt some point during his exile, he conceived of the ''Comedy'', but the date is uncertain.", "The work is much more assured and on a larger scale than anything he had written in Florence; it is likely he would have undertaken such a work only after he realized his political ambitions, which had been central to him up to his banishment, had been halted for some time, possibly forever.", "It is also noticeable that Beatrice has returned to his imagination with renewed force and with a wider meaning than in the ''Vita Nuova''; in ''Convivio'' (written –07) he had declared that the memory of this youthful romance belonged to the past.An early indication that the poem was underway is a notice by Francesco da Barberino, tucked into his ''Documenti d'Amore'' (''Lessons of Love''), probably written in 1314 or early 1315.Francesco notes that Dante followed the ''Aeneid'' in a poem called \"Comedy\" and that the setting of this poem (or part of it) was the underworld; i.e., hell.", "The brief note gives no incontestable indication that Barberino had seen or read even the ''Inferno'', or that this part had been published at the time, but it indicates composition was well underway and that the sketching of the poem might have begun some years before.", "(It has been suggested that a knowledge of Dante's work also underlies some of the illuminations in Francesco da Barberino's earlier ''Officiolum'' c. 1305–08, a manuscript that came to light in 2003.)", "It is known that the ''Inferno'' had been published by 1317; this is established by quoted lines interspersed in the margins of contemporary dated records from Bologna, but there is no certainty as to whether the three parts of the poem were each published in full or, rather, a few cantos at a time.", "''Paradiso'' was likely finished before he died, but it may have been published posthumously.Statue of Dante in VeronaIn 1312, Henry assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelphs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved.", "Some say he refused to participate in the attack on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that he had become unpopular with the White Guelphs, too, and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed.", "Henry VII died (from a fever) in 1313 and with him any hope for Dante to see Florence again.", "He returned to Verona, where Cangrande I della Scala allowed him to live in certain security and, presumably, in a fair degree of prosperity.", "Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (''Paradiso'', XVII, 76).During the period of his exile, Dante corresponded with Dominican theologian Fr.", "Nicholas Brunacci OP 1240–1322, who had been a student of Thomas Aquinas at the Santa Sabina ''studium'' in Rome, later at Paris, and of Albert the Great at the Cologne ''studium''.", "Brunacci became lector at the Santa Sabina ''studium'', forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, and later served in the papal curia.In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to those in exile, including Dante.", "But for this, Florence required public penance in addition to payment of a high fine.", "Dante refused, preferring to remain in exile.", "When Uguccione defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was commuted to house arrest, on condition that he go to Florence to swear he would never enter the town again.", "He refused to go, and his death sentence was confirmed and extended to his sons.", "Despite this, he still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honorable terms, particularly in praise of his poetry." ], [ "Death and burial", "Dante's final days were spent in Ravenna, where he had been invited to stay in the city in 1318 by its prince, Guido II da Polenta.", "Dante died in Ravenna on 14 September 1321, aged about 56, of quartan malaria contracted while returning from a diplomatic mission to the Republic of Venice.", "He was attended by his three children, and possibly by Gemma Donati, and by friends and admirers he had in the city.", "He was buried in Ravenna at the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called Basilica di San Francesco).", "Bernardo Bembo, praetor of Venice, erected a tomb for him in 1483.On the grave, a verse of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, is dedicated to Florence:In 1329, Bertrand du Pouget, Cardinal and nephew of Pope John XXII, classified Dante's ''Monarchia'' as heretical and sought to have his bones burned at the stake.", "Ostasio I da Polenta and Pino della Tosa, allies of Pouget, interceded to prevent the destruction of Dante's remains.Recreated death mask of Dante in Palazzo Vecchio, FlorenceFlorence eventually came to regret having exiled Dante.", "The city made repeated requests for the return of his remains.", "The custodians of the body in Ravenna refused, at one point going so far as to conceal the bones in a false wall of the monastery.", "Florence built a tomb for Dante in 1829, in the Basilica of Santa Croce.", "That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body remaining in Ravenna.", "The front of his tomb in Florence reads ''Onorate l'altissimo poeta'' — which roughly translates as \"Honor the most exalted poet\" and is a quote from the fourth canto of the ''Inferno''.In 1945, the fascist government discussed bringing Dante's remains to the Valtellina Redoubt, the Alpine valley in which the regime intended to make its last stand against the Allies.", "The case was made that \"the greatest symbol of Italianness\" should be present at fascism's \"heroic\" end.A copy of Dante's so-called death mask has been displayed since 1911 in the Palazzo Vecchio; scholars today believe it is not a true death mask and was probably carved in 1483, perhaps by Pietro and Tullio Lombardo." ], [ "Legacy", "Dante in the national side of the Italian 2 euro coinThe first formal biography of Dante was the ''Vita di Dante'' (also known as ''Trattatello in laude di Dante''), written after 1348 by Giovanni Boccaccio.", "Although several statements and episodes of it have been deemed unreliable on the basis of modern research, an earlier account of Dante's life and works had been included in the ''Nuova Cronica'' of the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani.Some 16th-century English Protestants, such as John Bale and John Foxe, argued that Dante was a proto-Protestant because of his opposition to the pope.The 19th century saw a \"Dante revival\", a product of the medieval revival, which was itself an important aspect of Romanticism.", "Thomas Carlyle profiled him in \"The Hero as Poet\", the third lecture in ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History'' (1841): \"He is world-great not because he is worldwide, but because he is world-deep.", ".", ".", ".", "Dante is the spokesman of the Middle Ages; the Thought they lived by stands here, in everlasting music.\"", "Leigh Hunt, Henry Francis Cary and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow were among Dante's translators of the era.Italy's first dreadnought battleship was completed in 1913 and named ''Dante Alighieri'' in honor of him.Statue of Dante at the Dante Park of Manhattan, New York CityOn 30 April 1921, in honor of the 600th anniversary of Dante's death, Pope Benedict XV promulgated an encyclical named ''In praeclara summorum'', naming Dante as one \"of the many celebrated geniuses of whom the Catholic faith can boast\" and the \"pride and glory of humanity\".On 7 December 1965, Pope Paul VI promulgated the Latin ''motu proprio'' titled ''Altissimi cantus'', which was dedicated to Dante's figure and poetry.", "In that year, the pope also donated a golden iron Greek Cross to Dante's burial site in Ravenna, in occasion of the 700th anniversary of his birth.", "The same cross was blessed by Pope Francis in October 2020.In 2007, a reconstruction of Dante's face was undertaken in a collaborative project.", "Artists from the University of Pisa and forensic engineers at the University of Bologna at Forlì constructed the model, portraying Dante's features as somewhat different from what was once thought.In 2008, the Municipality of Florence officially apologized for expelling Dante 700 years earlier.", "In May 2021, a symbolic re-trial was held virtually in Florence to posthumously clear his name.A celebration was held in 2015 at Italy's Senate of the Republic for the 750th anniversary of Dante's birth.", "It included a commemoration from Pope Francis, who also issued the apostolic letter ''Cando lucis aeternae'' in honor of the anniversary." ], [ "Works", "===Overview===''Divina Commedia'' (1472)Most of Dante's literary work was composed after his exile in 1301.", "''La Vita Nuova'' (\"The New Life\") is the only major work that predates it; it is a collection of lyric poems (sonnets and songs) with commentary in prose, ostensibly intended to be circulated in manuscript form, as was customary for such poems.", "It also contains, or constructs, the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who later served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the ''Comedy'', a function already indicated in the final pages of the ''Vita Nuova''.", "The work contains many of Dante's love poems in Tuscan, which was not unprecedented; the vernacular had been regularly used for lyric works before, during all the thirteenth century.", "However, Dante's commentary on his own work is also in the vernacular—both in the ''Vita Nuova'' and in the ''Convivio''—instead of the Latin that was almost universally used.The ''Divine Comedy'' describes Dante's journey through Hell (''Inferno''), Purgatory (''Purgatorio''), and Paradise (''Paradiso''); he is first guided by the Roman poet Virgil and then by Beatrice.", "Of the books, ''Purgatorio'' is arguably the most lyrical of the three, referring to more contemporary poets and artists than ''Inferno''; ''Paradiso'' is the most heavily theological, and the one in which, many scholars have argued, the ''Divine Comedy'' most beautiful and mystic passages appear.With its seriousness of purpose, its literary stature and the range—both stylistic and thematic—of its content, the ''Comedy'' soon became a cornerstone in the evolution of Italian as an established literary language.", "Dante was more aware than most early Italian writers of the variety of Italian dialects and of the need to create a literature and a unified literary language beyond the limits of Latin writing at the time; in that sense, he is a forerunner of the Renaissance, with its effort to create vernacular literature in competition with earlier classical writers.", "Dante's in-depth knowledge (within the limits of his time) of Roman antiquity, and his evident admiration for some aspects of pagan Rome, also point forward to the 15th century.Dante, poised between the mountain of purgatory and the city of Florence, displays the incipit ''Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'' in a detail of Domenico di Michelino's painting, Florence, 1465.He wrote the ''Comedy'' in a language he called \"Italian\", in some sense an amalgamated literary language predominantly based on the regional dialect of Tuscany, but with some elements of Latin and other regional dialects.", "He deliberately aimed to reach a readership throughout Italy including laymen, clergymen and other poets.", "By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the Italian language was suitable for the highest sort of expression.", "In French, Italian is sometimes nicknamed ''la langue de Dante''.", "Publishing in the vernacular language marked Dante as one of the first in Roman Catholic Western Europe (among others such as Geoffrey Chaucer and Giovanni Boccaccio) to break free from standards of publishing in only Latin (the language of liturgy, history and scholarship in general, but often also of lyric poetry).", "This break set a precedent and allowed more literature to be published for a wider audience, setting the stage for greater levels of literacy in the future.", "However, unlike Boccaccio, Milton or Ariosto, Dante did not really become an author read across Europe until the Romantic era.", "To the Romantics, Dante, like Homer and Shakespeare, was a prime example of the \"original genius\" who set his own rules, created persons of overpowering stature and depth, and went beyond any imitation of the patterns of earlier masters; and who, in turn, could not truly be imitated.", "Throughout the 19th century, Dante's reputation grew and solidified; and by 1865, the 600th anniversary of his birth, he had become established as one of the greatest literary icons of the Western world.Dante and Virgil visiting Hell, as depicted in ''Inferno'', painted by Rafael Flores, 1855New readers often wonder how such a serious work may be called a \"comedy\".", "In the classical sense the word ''comedy'' refers to works that reflect belief in an ordered universe, in which events tend toward not only a happy or amusing ending but one influenced by a Providential will that orders all things to an ultimate good.", "By this meaning of the word, as Dante himself allegedly wrote in a letter to Cangrande I della Scala, the progression of the pilgrimage from Hell to Paradise is the paradigmatic expression of comedy, since the work begins with the pilgrim's moral confusion and ends with the vision of God.A number of other works are credited to Dante.", "''Convivio'' (\"The Banquet\") is a collection of his longest poems with an (unfinished) allegorical commentary.", "''Monarchia'' (\"Monarchy\") is a summary treatise of political philosophy in Latin which was condemned and burned after Dante's death by the Papal Legate Bertrando del Poggetto; it argues for the necessity of a universal or global monarchy to establish universal peace in this life, and this monarchy's relationship to the Roman Catholic Church as guide to eternal peace.", "''De vulgari eloquentia'' (\"On the Eloquence in the Vernacular\") is a treatise on vernacular literature, partly inspired by the ''Razos de trobar'' of Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun.", "''Quaestio de aqua et terra'' (\"A Question of the Water and of the Land\") is a theological work discussing the arrangement of Earth's dry land and ocean.", "The ''Eclogues'' are two poems addressed to the poet Giovanni del Virgilio.", "Dante is also sometimes credited with writing ''Il Fiore'' (\"The Flower\"), a series of sonnets summarizing ''Le Roman de la Rose'', and ''Detto d'Amore'' (\"Tale of Love\"), a short narrative poem also based on ''Le Roman de la Rose''.", "These would be the earliest, and most novice, of his known works.", "''Le Rime'' is a posthumous collection of miscellaneous poems.===List of works===The major works of Dante's are the following.", "* ''Il Fiore'' and ''Detto d'Amore'' (\"The Flower\" and \"Tale of Love\", 1283–87)* ''La Vita Nuova'' (\"The New Life\", 1294)* ''De vulgari eloquentia'' (\"On the Eloquence in the Vernacular\", 1302–05)* ''Convivio'' (\"The Banquet\", 1307)* ''Monarchia'' (\"Monarchy\", 1313)* ''Divina Commedia'' (\"Divine Comedy\", 1320)* ''Eclogues'' (1320)* ''Quaestio de aqua et terra'' (\"A Question of the Water and of the Land\", 1320)* ''Le Rime'' (\"The Rhymes\")File:Purgatory (Purgatorio).jpg\|Illustration for ''Purgatorio'' (of ''The Divine Comedy'') by Gustave DoréFile:Gustave Dore XIV.jpg\|Illustration for ''Paradiso'' (of ''The Divine Comedy'') by Gustave DoréFile:Paradise (Paradiso) II.jpg\|Illustration for ''Paradiso'' (of ''The Divine Comedy'') by Gustave Doré=== Collections ===Dante's works reside in cultural institutions across the world.", "Many items have been digitised or are available for public consultation.", "* (Florence, Italy) opened in Dante's residence in 1965 and was refurbished in 2020.", "* Princeton University Library (New Jersey, USA) holds 160 volumes of Dante's works and books about his life, including two 15th century editions of the Divine Comedy.", "* University College London Special Collections (London, UK) holds c.3000 volumes of material by and about Dante, including 36 editions of the Divine Comedy.", "The collection was bequeathed to the University by scholar Henry Clark Barlow in 1876.", "* The Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library (Yale University Library, Connecticut, USA) holds a manuscript edition of the Divine Comedy (c.1385 - 1400)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations", "=== References ===* * " ], [ "Further reading", " * * Barolini, Teodolinda (ed.).", "''Dante's Lyric Poetry: Poems of Youth and of the 'Vita Nuova'''.", "University of Toronto Press, 2014.", "* * Guénon, René (1925).", "''The Esoterism of Dante'', trans.", "by C.B.", "Berhill, in the ''Perennial Wisdom Series''.", "Ghent, NY: Sophia Perennis et Universalis, 1996.viii, 72 p.", "''N.B''.", ": Originally published in French, entitled L'Esoterisme de Danté, in 1925.", "* * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Works by Dante Alighieri at One More Library (Works in English, Italian, Latin, Arabic, German, French and Spanish)* * The Dante Museum in Florence: his life, his books and a history & literature blog about Dante* The World of Dante multimedia, texts, maps, gallery, searchable database, music, teacher resources, timeline* The Princeton Dante Project texts and multimedia* The Dartmouth Dante Project searchable database of commentary* Dante Online manuscripts of works, images and text transcripts by Società Dantesca Italiana* Digital Dante – ''Divine Comedy'' with commentary, other works, scholars on Dante* Open Yale Course on Dante by Yale University* DanteSources project about Dante's primary sources developed by ISTI-CNR and the University of Pisa* Works Italian and Latin texts, concordances and frequency lists by IntraText* Dante Today citings and sightings of Dante in contemporary culture* Bibliotheca Dantesca journal dedicated to Dante and his reception* Dante Collection at University College London (c. 3000 volumes of works by and about Dante)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dennis the Menace" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dennis the Menace''' may refer to either of two comic strip characters that both appeared in March 1951, one in the UK and one in the US." ], [ "American character", "* ''Dennis the Menace'' (U.S. comics), a daily US syndicated newspaper comic strip since March 12, 1951Various television and film adaptations of the comic strip:''Dennis the Menace'' (1959 TV series), a CBS network live action television show ''Dennis the Menace'' (1986 TV series), an animated TV series''All-New Dennis the Menace'', a 1993 animated television series''Dennis the Menace'' (1993 film), a live-action film released in 1993''Dennis the Menace'' (video game), based on the 1993 film''Dennis the Menace Strikes Again'', a 1998 direct-to-video sequel of the 1993 film" ], [ "British character", " ''Dennis the Menace'' is the original title of a British comic strip, written and published in Dundee, which first appeared in ''The Beano'' on 12 March 1951 and became the longest-running strip in the magazine in 2004;Various television adaptations of the comic strip:''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher'' (1996 TV series) is an animated television series based on the Beano comic strip, known internationally as ''Dennis and Gnasher''.", "''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher'' (2009 TV series) was released on September 7, 2009.", "''Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed!''", "(2017 TV series) is the latest animated CGI series, first broadcast in November 2017." ], [ "See also", " \"Tennis the Menace\", a 2001 episode of ''The Simpsons''* Dennis Kucinich, Mayor of Cleveland Ohio, From 1977-1979 who earned the nickname \"Dennis the Menace\" for bankrupting the City of Cleveland" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dave Brubeck" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Warren Brubeck''' (; December 6, 1920 – December 5, 2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer.", "Often regarded as a foremost exponent of cool jazz, Brubeck's work is characterized by unusual time signatures and superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, and tonalities.Born in Concord, California, Brubeck was drafted into the US Army, but was spared from combat service when a Red Cross show he had played at became a hit.", "Within the US Army, Brubeck formed one of the first racially diverse bands.", "In 1951, Brubeck formed the Dave Brubeck Quartet, which kept its name despite shifting personnel.", "The most successful—and prolific—lineup of the quartet was the one between 1958 and 1968.This lineup, in addition to Brubeck, featured saxophonist Paul Desmond, bassist Eugene Wright and drummer Joe Morello.", "A U.S. Department of State-sponsored tour in 1958 featuring the band inspired several of Brubeck's subsequent albums, most notably the 1959 album ''Time Out''.", "Despite its esoteric theme and contrarian time signatures, ''Time Out'' became Brubeck's highest-selling album, and the first jazz album to sell over one million copies.", "The lead single from the album, \"Take Five\", a tune written by Desmond in time, similarly became the highest-selling jazz single of all time.", "The quartet followed up ''Time Out'' with four other albums in non-standard time signatures, and some of the other songs from this series became hits as well, including \"Blue Rondo à la Turk\" (in ) and \"Unsquare Dance\" (in ).", "Brubeck continued releasing music until his death in 2012.Brubeck's style ranged from refined to bombastic, reflecting both his mother's classical training and his own improvisational skills.", "He expressed elements of atonality and fugue.", "Brubeck, with Desmond, used elements of West Coast jazz near the height of its popularity, combining them with the unorthodox time signatures seen in ''Time Out''.", "Like many of his contemporaries, Brubeck played into the style of the French composer Darius Milhaud, especially his earlier works, including \"Serenade Suite\" and \"Playland-At-The-Beach\".", "Brubeck's fusion of classical music and jazz would come to be known as \"third stream\", although Brubeck's use of third stream would predate the coining of the term.", "John Fordham of ''The Guardian'' commented: \"Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways.", "\"Brubeck was the recipient of several music awards and honors throughout his lifetime.", "In 1996, Brubeck received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "In 2008, Brubeck was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, and a year later, he was given an honorary Doctor of Music degree from Berklee College of Music.", "Brubeck's 1959 album ''Time Out'' was added to the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2005.Noted as \"one of Jazz's first pop stars\" by the ''Los Angeles Times'', Brubeck rejected his fame, and felt uncomfortable with ''Time'' magazine featuring him on the cover before Duke Ellington." ], [ "Ancestry and early life", "Brubeck had Swiss ancestry (the family surname was originally '''Brodbeck'''), while his maternal grandparents were English and German.", "He was born on December 6, 1920, in Concord, California, and grew up in Ione, California.", "His father, Peter Howard \"Pete\" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher, while his mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), who had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist, taught piano for extra money.Brubeck did not intend to become a musician, although his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track.", "Brubeck did, however, take lessons from his mother.", "He could not read music during these early lessons, attributing the difficulty to poor eyesight, but \"faked\" his way through well enough that his deficiency went mostly unnoticed.", "Planning to work with his father on their ranch, Brubeck entered the liberal arts college College of the Pacific in Stockton, California, in 1938 to study veterinary science.", "He switched his major to music at the urging of the head of zoology at the time, Dr. Arnold, who told him, \"Brubeck, your mind's not here.", "It's across the lawn in the conservatory.", "Please go there.", "Stop wasting my time and yours.\"", "Later, Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his professors discovered that he was unable to sight-read.", "Several others came forward to his defense, however, arguing that his ability to write counterpoint and harmony more than compensated, and demonstrated his skill with music notation.", "The college was still concerned, but agreed to allow Brubeck to graduate only after he promised never to teach piano." ], [ "Military service", "After graduating in 1942, Brubeck was drafted into the United States Army, serving in Europe in the Third Army under George S. Patton.", "He volunteered to play piano at a Red Cross show; the show was a resounding success, and Brubeck was spared from combat service.", "He created one of the U.S. armed forces' first racially integrated bands, \"The Wolfpack\".", "It was in the military, in 1944, that Brubeck met Paul Desmond.", "After serving nearly four years in the army, he returned to California for graduate study at Mills College in Oakland.", "He was a student of Darius Milhaud, who encouraged him to study fugue and orchestration, but not classical piano.", "While on active duty, he received two lessons from Arnold Schoenberg at UCLA in an attempt to connect with high modernist theory and practice.", "However, the encounter did not end on good terms since Schoenberg believed that every note should be accounted for, an approach which Brubeck could not accept, although according to his son Chris Brubeck, there is a twelve-tone row in ''The Light in the Wilderness'', Dave Brubeck's first oratorio.", "In it, Jesus's Twelve Disciples are introduced each singing their own individual notes; it is described as \"quite dramatic, especially when Judas starts singing 'Repent' on a high and straining dissonant note\".Jack Sheedy owned San Francisco-based Coronet Records, which had previously recorded area Dixieland bands.", "(This Coronet Records is distinct from the late 1950s New York-based budget label, and also from Australia-based Coronet Records.)", "In 1949, Sheedy was convinced to make the first recording of Brubeck's octet and later his trio.", "But Sheedy was unable to pay his bills and in 1949 gave up his masters to his record stamping company, the Circle Record Company, owned by Max and Sol Weiss.", "The Weiss brothers soon changed the name of their business to Fantasy Records.The first Brubeck records sold well, and he made new records for Fantasy.", "Soon the company was shipping 40,000 to 50,000 copies of Brubeck records each quarter, making a good profit." ], [ "Career", "===Dave Brubeck Quartet===The quartet in 1959 during the ''Time Out'' sessions.", "From left to right: Joe Morello, Paul Desmond, Dave Brubeck, Eugene Wright.In 1951, Brubeck organized the Dave Brubeck Quartet, with Paul Desmond on alto saxophone.", "The two took up residency at San Francisco's Black Hawk nightclub and had success touring college campuses, recording a series of live albums.The first of these live albums, ''Jazz at Oberlin'', was recorded in March 1953 in the Finney Chapel at Oberlin College.", "Brubeck's live performance was credited with legitimizing the field of jazz music at Oberlin, and the album is one of the earliest examples of cool jazz.", "Brubeck returned to College of the Pacific to record ''Jazz at the College of the Pacific'' in December of that year.Following the release of ''Jazz at the College of the Pacific'', Brubeck signed with Fantasy Records, believing that he had a stake in the company and worked as an artists and repertoire promoter for the label, encouraging the Weiss brothers to sign other contemporary jazz performers, including Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker and Red Norvo.", "Upon discovering that the deal was for a half interest in his own recordings, Brubeck quit to sign with another label, Columbia Records.====College success====In June 1954, Brubeck released ''Jazz Goes to College'', with double bassist Bob Bates and drummer Joe Dodge.", "The album is a compilation of the quartet's visits to three colleges: Oberlin College, University of Michigan, and University of Cincinnati, and features seven songs, two of which were written by Brubeck and Desmond.", "\"Balcony Rock\", the opening song on the album, was noted for its timing and uneven tonalities, themes that would be explored by Brubeck later.Brubeck was featured on the cover of ''Time'' in November 1954, the second jazz musician to be featured, following Louis Armstrong in February 1949.Brubeck personally found this acclaim embarrassing, since he considered Duke Ellington more deserving and was convinced that he had been favored as a Caucasian.", "In one encounter with Ellington, he knocked on the door of Brubeck's hotel room to show him the cover; Brubeck's response was, \"It should have been you.", "\"Early bassists for the group included Ron Crotty, Bates, and Bates' brother Norman; Lloyd Davis and Dodge held the drum chair.", "In 1956, Brubeck hired drummer Joe Morello, who had been working with Marian McPartland; Morello's presence made possible the rhythmic experiments that were to come.", "In 1958, African-American bassist Eugene Wright joined for the group's Department of State tour of Europe and Asia.", "The group visited Poland, Turkey, India, Ceylon, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq on behalf of the Department of State.", "They spent two weeks in Poland, giving thirteen concerts and visiting with Polish musicians and citizens as part of the People-to-People program.", "Wright became a permanent member in 1959, finishing the \"classic era\" of the quartet's personnel.", "During this time, Brubeck was strongly supportive of Wright's inclusion in the band, and reportedly canceled several concerts when the club owners or hall managers objected to presenting an integrated band.", "He also canceled a television appearance when he found out that the producers intended to keep Wright off-camera.====Time Out====In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded ''Time Out''.", "The album, which featured pieces entirely written by members of the quartet, notably uses unusual time signatures in the field of music—and especially jazz—a crux which Columbia Records was enthusiastic about, but which they were nonetheless hesitant to release.The release of ''Time Out'' required the cooperation of Columbia Records president Goddard Lieberson, who underwrote and released ''Time Out'', on the condition that the quartet record a conventional album of the American South, ''Gone with the Wind'', to cover the risk of ''Time Out'' becoming a commercial failure.Featuring the cover art of S. Neil Fujita, ''Time Out'' was released in December 1959, to negative critical reception.", "Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures, the album quickly went Gold (and was eventually certified Double Platinum), and peaked at number two on the ''Billboard'' 200.It was the first jazz album to sell more than a million copies.", "The single \"Take Five\" off the album quickly became a jazz standard, despite its unusual composition and its time signature: time.", "''Time Out'' was followed by several albums with a similar approach, including ''Time Further Out: Miro Reflections'' (1961), using more , , and , plus the first attempt at ; ''Countdown—Time in Outer Space'' (dedicated to John Glenn, 1962), featuring and more ; ''Time Changes'' (1963), with much , and ; and ''Time In'' (1966).", "These albums (except ''Time In'') were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of Joan Miró on ''Time Further Out'', Franz Kline on ''Time in Outer Space'', and Sam Francis on ''Time Changes''.====Later work====The Dave Brubeck Quartet in 1967.From left to right: Joe Morello, Eugene Wright, Dave Brubeck and Paul DesmondOn a handful of albums in the early 1960s, clarinetist Bill Smith replaced Desmond.", "These albums were devoted to Smith's compositions and thus had a somewhat different aesthetic than other Brubeck Quartet albums.", "Nonetheless, according to critic Ken Dryden, \"Smith proves himself very much in Desmond's league with his witty solos\".", "Smith was an old friend of Brubeck's; they would record together, intermittently, from the 1940s until the final years of Brubeck's career.In 1961, Brubeck and his wife, Iola, developed a jazz musical, ''The Real Ambassadors'', based in part on experiences they and their colleagues had during foreign tours on behalf of the Department of State.", "The soundtrack album, which featured Louis Armstrong, Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and Carmen McRae was recorded in 1961; the musical was performed at the 1962 Monterey Jazz Festival.At its peak in the early 1960s, the Brubeck Quartet was releasing as many as four albums a year.", "Apart from the \"College\" and the \"Time\" series, Brubeck recorded four LP records featuring his compositions based on the group's travels, and the local music they encountered.", "''Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A.'' (1956, Morello's debut with the group), ''Jazz Impressions of Eurasia'' (1958), ''Jazz Impressions of Japan'' (1964), and ''Jazz Impressions of New York'' (1964) are less well-known albums and they produced Brubeck standards such as \"Summer Song\", \"Brandenburg Gate\", \"Koto Song\", and \"Theme from Mr. Broadway\".", "(Brubeck wrote, and the Quartet performed, the theme song for this Craig Stevens CBS drama series; the music from the series became material for the ''New York'' album.)", "In 1961, Brubeck appeared in a few scenes of the British jazz/beat film ''All Night Long'', which starred Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough.", "Brubeck merely plays himself, with the film featuring close-ups of his piano fingerings.", "Brubeck performs \"It's a Raggy Waltz\" from the ''Time Further Out'' album and duets briefly with bassist Charles Mingus in \"Non-Sectarian Blues\".Brubeck also served as the program director of WJZZ-FM (now WEZN-FM) while recording for the quartet.", "He achieved his vision of an all-jazz format radio station along with his friend and neighbor John E. Metts, one of the first African Americans in senior radio management.The final studio album for Columbia by the Desmond/Wright/Morello quartet was ''Anything Goes'' (1966), featuring the songs of Cole Porter.", "A few concert recordings followed, and ''The Last Time We Saw Paris'' (1967) was the \"Classic\" quartet's swan-song.===Later career===Brubeck produced ''The Gates of Justice'' in 1968, a cantata mixing Biblical scripture with the words of Martin Luther King Jr.In 1971, the new senior management at Columbia Records decided not to renew Brubeck's contract, as they wished to focus on rock music.", "He moved to Atlantic Records.Brubeck's music was used in the 1985 film ''Ordeal by Innocence''.", "He also composed for—and performed with his ensemble on—\"The NASA Space Station\", a 1988 episode of the CBS TV series ''This Is America, Charlie Brown''." ], [ "Personal life", "Brubeck in 2004Brubeck in Ludwigshafen, Germany, in 2005Brubeck founded the Brubeck Institute with his wife, Iola, at their alma mater, the University of the Pacific in 2000.What began as a special archive, consisting of the personal document collection of the Brubecks, has since expanded to provide fellowships and educational opportunities in jazz for students, also leading to having one of the main streets on which the school resides named in his honor, Dave Brubeck Way.In 2008, Brubeck became a supporter of the Jazz Foundation of America in its mission to save the homes and the lives of elderly jazz and blues musicians, including those who had survived Hurricane Katrina.", "Brubeck supported the Jazz Foundation by performing in its annual benefit concert \"A Great Night in Harlem\".===Family===Dave Brubeck married jazz lyricist Iola Whitlock in September 1942; the couple were married for 70 years, until his death in 2012.Iola died at age 90 on March 12, 2014, from cancer in Wilton, Connecticut.Brubeck had six children with Iola.", "Four of his children have been professional musicians.", "Darius, named after Brubeck's mentor Darius Milhaud and the eldest, is a pianist, producer, educator and performer.", "Dan is a percussionist, Chris is a multi-instrumentalist and composer, and Matthew, the youngest, is a cellist with an extensive list of composing and performance credits.", "Another son, Michael, died in 2009.Brubeck's children often joined him in concerts and in the recording studio.===Religion===Brubeck became a Catholic in 1980, shortly after completing the Mass ''To Hope'' which had been commissioned by Ed Murray, editor of the national Catholic weekly ''Our Sunday Visitor''.", "Although he had spiritual interests before that time, he said, \"I didn't convert to Catholicism, because I wasn't anything to convert from.", "I just joined the Catholic Church.\"", "In 1996, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.", "In 2006, Brubeck was awarded the University of Notre Dame's Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious honor given to American Catholics, during the university's commencement.", "He performed \"Travellin' Blues\" for the graduating class of 2006." ], [ "Death", "Brubeck died of heart failure on December 5, 2012, in Norwalk, Connecticut, one day before his 92nd birthday.", "He was on his way to a cardiology appointment, accompanied by his son Darius.", "A birthday party concert had been planned for him with family and famous guests.", "A memorial tribute was held in May 2013.Brubeck is interred at Umpawaug Cemetery in Redding, Connecticut." ], [ "Legacy", "The ''Los Angeles Times'' noted that he \"was one of Jazz's first pop stars\", even though he was not always happy with his fame.", "He felt uncomfortable, for example, that ''Time'' magazine had featured him on the cover before it did so for Duke Ellington, saying, \"It just bothered me.\"", "''The New York Times'' noted he had continued to play well into his old age, performing in 2011 and in 2010 only a month after getting a pacemaker, with ''Times'' music writer Nate Chinen commenting that Brubeck had replaced \"the old hammer-and-anvil attack with something almost airy\" and that his playing at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City was \"the picture of judicious clarity\".In ''The Daily Telegraph'', music journalist Ivan Hewett wrote: \"Brubeck didn't have the réclame of some jazz musicians who lead tragic lives.", "He didn't do drugs or drink.", "What he had was endless curiosity combined with stubbornness\", adding: \"His work list is astonishing, including oratorios, musicals and concertos, as well as hundreds of jazz compositions.", "This quiet man of jazz was truly a marvel.", "\"In ''The Guardian'', John Fordham said \"Brubeck's real achievement was to blend European compositional ideas, very demanding rhythmic structures, jazz song-forms and improvisation in expressive and accessible ways.", "His son Chris told ''The Guardian'' \"when I hear Chorale, it reminds me of the very best Aaron Copland, something like ''Appalachian Spring''.", "There's a sort of American honesty to it.\"", "Robert Christgau dubbed Brubeck the \"jazz hero of the rock and roll generation\".", "''The Economist'' wrote: \"Above all they found it hard to believe that the most successful jazz in America was being played by a family man, a laid-back Californian, modest, gentle and open, who would happily have been a rancher all his days—except that he couldn't live without performing, because the rhythm of jazz, under all his extrapolation and exploration, was, he had discovered, the rhythm of his heart.", "\"While on tour performing \"Hot House\" in Toronto, Chick Corea and Gary Burton completed a tribute to Brubeck on the day of his death.", "Corea played \"Strange Meadow Lark\", from Brubeck's album ''Time Out''.In the United States, May 4 is informally observed as \"Dave Brubeck Day\".", "In the format most commonly used in the U.S., May 4 is written \"5/4\", recalling the time signature of \"Take Five\", Brubeck's best-known recording.", "In September 2019, musicologist Stephen A. Crist's book, ''Dave Brubeck's Time Out'', provided the first scholarly book length analysis of the seminal album.", "In addition to his musical analyses of each of the album's original compositions, Crist provides insight into Brubeck's career during a time he was rising to the top of the jazz charts.===Recognition===Kennedy Center honorees 2009, flanked by President and Mrs. Obama at the Blue Room, White House, December 6, 2009 (his 89th birthday)In 1975, the main-belt asteroid 5079 Brubeck was named after Brubeck.Brubeck recorded five of the seven tracks of his album ''Jazz Goes to College'' in Ann Arbor, Michigan.", "He returned to Michigan many times, including a performance at Hill Auditorium where he received a Distinguished Artist Award from the University of Michigan's Musical Society in 2006.Brubeck was presented with a \"Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy\" by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice in 2008 for offering an American \"vision of hope, opportunity and freedom\" through his music.", "\"As a little girl I grew up on the sounds of Dave Brubeck because my dad was your biggest fan\", said Rice.", "The State Department said in a statement that \"as a pianist, composer, cultural emissary and educator, Dave Brubeck's life's work exemplifies the best of America's cultural diplomacy\".", "At the ceremony, Brubeck played a brief recital for the audience at the State Department.", "\"I want to thank all of you because this honor is something that I never expected.", "Now I am going to play a cold piano with cold hands\", Brubeck stated.California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Brubeck would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts.", "The induction ceremony occurred December 10, and he was inducted alongside eleven other famous Californians.On October 18, 2008, Brubeck received an honorary Doctor of Music degree from the prestigious Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York.", "Similarly, at the Monterey Jazz Festival in September 2009, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (D.Mus.", "''honoris causa'') from Berklee College of Music.", "On May 16, 2010, Brubeck was awarded an honorary Doctor of Music degree (honoris causa) from the George Washington University in Washington, D.C.", "The ceremony took place on the National Mall.Dave Brubeck at the White House for the 2009 Kennedy Center HonorsIn September 2009, the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts announced Brubeck as a Kennedy Center Honoree for exhibiting excellence in performance arts.", "The Kennedy Center Honors Gala took place on Sunday, December 6 (Brubeck's 89th birthday), and was broadcast nationwide on CBS on December 29 at 9:00 pm EST.", "When the award was made, President Barack Obama recalled a 1971 concert Brubeck had given in Honolulu and said, \"You can't understand America without understanding jazz, and you can't understand jazz without understanding Dave Brubeck.", "\"On July 5, 2010, Brubeck was awarded the Miles Davis Award at the Montreal International Jazz Festival.", "In 2010, Bruce Ricker and Clint Eastwood produced ''Dave Brubeck: In His Own Sweet Way'', a documentary about Brubeck for Turner Classic Movies (TCM) to commemorate his 90th birthday in December 2010.The Concord Boulevard Park in his hometown of Concord, California, was posthumously renamed to \"Dave Brubeck Memorial Park\" in his honor.", "Mayor Dan Helix favorably recalled one of his performances at the park, saying: \"He will be with us forever because his music will never die.", "\"===Awards===* Connecticut Arts Award (1987)* National Medal of Arts, National Endowment for the Arts (1994)* DownBeat Hall of Fame (1994)* Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1996)* Doctor of Sacred Theology, Doctorate honoris causa, University of Fribourg, Switzerland (2004)* Laetare Medal (University of Notre Dame) (2006)* BBC Jazz Lifetime Achievement Award (2007)* Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy (2008)* Inducted into California Hall of Fame (2008)* Eastman School of Music Honorary Degree (2008)* Kennedy Center Honors (2009)* George Washington University Honorary Degree (2010)Honorary Fellow of Westminster Choir College, Princeton, New Jersey (2011)" ], [ "Discography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * * * Brubeck Institute at the University of the Pacific* ''Rediscovering Dave Brubeck'', PBS, December 16, 2001, documentary* Brubeck biography and concert review in cosmopolis.ch* University of the Pacific Library's Digital Collections website* Dave Brubeck Interview at NAMM Oral History Library, September 21, 2006* \"Q&A Special: Dave Brubeck, a Life in Music\" theartsdesk.com* Interview: Dave Brubeck & the First Annual Maine Jazz Festival, ''Portland Magazine''* Dave Brubeck interview on BBC Radio 4, ''Desert Island Discs'', January 8, 1998* Thank you Dave Brubeck...for showing us yet again that music wells up in the most unlikely places!", "Includes the complete eight-part BBC interview of 1994, ''Unsquare Dances''." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dye" ], [ "Introduction", "Drying colored clothChemical structure of indigo dye, the blue coloration of blue jeans.", "Although once extracted from plants, indigo dye is now almost exclusively synthesized industrially.A '''dye''' is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied.", "This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color.", "Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.The majority of natural dyes are derived from non-animal sources such as roots, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens.", "However, due to large-scale demand and technological improvements, most dyes used in the modern world are synthetically produced from substances such as petrochemicals.", "Some are extracted from insects and/or minerals.Synthetic dyes are produced from various chemicals.", "The great majority of dyes are obtained in this way because of their superior cost, optical properties (color), and resilience (fastness, mordancy).", "Both dyes and pigments are colored, because they absorb only some wavelengths of visible light.", "Dyes are usually soluble in some solvent, whereas pigments are insoluble.", "Some dyes can be rendered insoluble with the addition of salt to produce a lake pigment." ], [ "History", "Dyeing wool cloth, 1482: from a French translation of Bartolomaeus AnglicusTextile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period.", "Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials.", "Scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world.", "Plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo, saffron, and madder were important trade goods in the economies of Asia and Europe.", "Across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth.", "Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America.Dyed flax fibers have been found in the Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP.", "Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia, dyeing has been widely carried out for over 5,000 years.", "Early dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing.", "By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only few of which are used on a commercial scale.Early industrialization was conducted by J. Pullar and Sons in Scotland.", "The first synthetic dye, mauve, was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856.The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general.", "Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine, safranine, and induline.", "Many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared.The discovery of mauve also led to developments within immunology and chemotherapy.", "In 1863 the forerunner to Bayer AG was formed in what became Wuppertal, Germany.", "In 1891, Paul Ehrlich discovered that certain cells or organisms took up certain dyes selectively.", "He then reasoned that a sufficiently large dose could be injected to kill pathogenic microorganisms, if the dye did not affect other cells.", "Ehrlich went on to use a compound to target syphilis, the first time a chemical was used in order to selectively kill bacteria in the body.", "He also used methylene blue to target the plasmodium responsible for malaria.Historical collection of over 10,000 dyes at Technical University Dresden, Germany" ], [ "Chemistry", "The color of a dye is dependent upon the ability of the substance to absorb light within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (380-750 nm).", "An earlier theory known as Witt theory stated that a colored dye had two components, a chromophore which imparts color by absorbing light in the visible region (some examples are nitro, azo, quinoid groups) and an auxochrome which serves to deepen the color.", "This theory has been superseded by modern electronic structure theory which states that the color in dyes is due to excitation of valence π-electrons by visible light." ], [ "Types", "RIT brand dye from mid-20th century Mexico, part of the permanent collection of the Museo del Objeto del ObjetoA woman dyeing her hairDyes are classified according to their solubility and chemical properties.", "'''Acid dyes''' are water-soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths.", "Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber.", "Acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers.", "Most synthetic food colors fall in this category.", "Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88, etc.", "'''Basic dyes''' are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers, but find some use for wool and silk.", "Usually acetic acid is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber.", "Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper.", "'''Direct''' or '''substantive dyeing''' is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly alkaline dye bath, at or near boiling point, with the addition of either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).", "Direct dyes are used on cotton, paper, leather, wool, silk and nylon.", "They are also used as pH indicators and as biological stains.Laser dyes are used in the production of some lasers, optical media (CD-R), and camera sensors (color filter array).", "'''Mordant dyes''' require a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration.", "The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final color significantly.", "Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques.", "The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades.", "The mordant potassium dichromate is applied as an after-treatment.", "It is important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be taken in using them.", "'''Vat dyes''' are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly.", "However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces the water-soluble alkali metal salt of the dye.", "This form is often colorless, in which case it is referred to as a Leuco dye, and has an affinity for the textile fibre.", "Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye.", "The color of denim is due to indigo, the original vat dye.", "'''Reactive dyes''' utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of directly reacting with the fiber substrate.", "The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes.", "\"Cold\" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature.", "Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio.", "'''Disperse dyes''' were originally developed for the dyeing of cellulose acetate, and are water-insoluble.", "The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder.", "Their main use is to dye polyester, but they can also be used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate, and acrylic fibers.", "In some cases, a dyeing temperature of is required, and a pressurized dyebath is used.", "The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber.", "The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.", "'''Azoic dyeing''' is a technique in which an insoluble Azo dye is produced directly onto or within the fiber.", "This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components.", "With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye.", "This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components.", "This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the toxic nature of the chemicals used.", "'''Sulfur dyes''' are inexpensive dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors.", "Dyeing is effected by heating the fabric in a solution of an organic compound, typically a nitrophenol derivative, and sulfide or polysulfide.", "The organic compound reacts with the sulfide source to form dark colors that adhere to the fabric.", "Sulfur Black 1, the largest selling dye by volume, does not have a well defined chemical structure.", "'''Some dyes commonly used in Staining:''' +Basic DyesAcidic DyesSafraninEosinBasic fuchsinAcid fuchsin Crystal violetCongo redMethylene blue" ], [ "Food dyes", "One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the food dye.", "Because food dyes are classed as food additives, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes.", "Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by legislation.", "Many are azo dyes, although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such as green and blue.", "Some naturally occurring dyes are also used." ], [ "Other important dyes", "A number of other classes have also been established, including:* Oxidation bases, for mainly hair and fur* Laser dyes: rhodamine 6G and coumarin dyes.", "* Leather dyes, for leather* Fluorescent brighteners, for textile fibres and paper* Solvent dyes, for wood staining and producing colored lacquers, solvent inks, coloring oils, waxes.", "* Contrast dyes, injected for magnetic resonance imaging, are essentially the same as clothing dye except they are coupled to an agent that has strong paramagnetic properties.", "* Mayhems dye, used in water cooling for looks, often rebranded RIT dye" ], [ "Chromophoric dyes", "By the nature of their chromophore, dyes are divided into:* :Category:Acridine dyes, derivates of acridine* :Category:Anthraquinone dyes, derivates of anthraquinone* Arylmethane dyes :Category:Diarylmethane dyes, based on diphenyl methane :Category:Triarylmethane dyes, derivates of triphenylmethane* :Category:Azo dyes, based on -N=N- azo structure* Phthalocyanine dyes, derivatives of phthalocyanine* Quinone-imine dyes, derivatives of quinone :Category:Azin dyes* :Category:Eurhodin dyes* Category:Safranih* dyes, derivates of safranin Indamins :Category:Indophenol dyes, derivates of indophenol :Category:Oxazin dyes, derivates of oxazin Oxazone dyes, derivates of oxazone** :Category:Thiazine dyes* :Category:Thiazole dyes* :Category:Safranin dyes* Xanthene dyes Fluorene dyes, derivatives of fluorene* Pyronin dyes :Category:Fluorone dyes, based on fluorone* :Category:Rhodamine dyes, derivatives of rhodamine" ], [ "Pollution", "Dyes produced by the textile, printing and paper industries are a source of pollution of rivers and waterways.", "An estimated 700,000 tons of dyestuffs are produced annually (1990 data).", "The disposal of that material has received much attention, using chemical and biological means." ], [ "Vital dyes", "A “vital dye” or stain is a dye capable of penetrating living cells or tissues without causing immediate visible degenerative changes.", "Such dyes are useful in medical and pathological fields in order to selectively color certain structures (such as cells) in order to distinguish them from surrounding tissue and thus make them more visible for study (for instance, under a microscope).", "As the visibility is meant to allow study of the cells or tissues, it is usually important that the dye not have other effects on the structure or function of the tissue that might impair objective observation.A distinction is drawn between dyes that are meant to be used on cells that have been removed from the organism prior to study (supravital staining) and dyes that are used within a living body - administered by injection or other means (intravital staining) - as the latter is (for instance) subject to higher safety standards, and must typically be a chemical known to avoid causing adverse effects on any biochemistry (until cleared from the tissue), not just to the tissue being studied, or in the short term.The term \"vital stain\" is occasionally used interchangeably with both intravital and supravital stains, the underlying concept in either case being that the cells examined are still alive.In a stricter sense, the term \"vital staining\" means the polar opposite of \"supravital staining.", "\"If living cells absorb the stain during supravital staining, they exclude it during \"vital staining\"; for example, they color negatively while only dead cells color positively, and thus viability can be determined by counting the percentage of total cells that stain negatively.Because the dye determines whether the staining is supravital or intravital, a combination of supravital and vital dyes can be used to more accurately classify cells into various groups (e.g., viable, dead, dying)." ], [ "See also", "* Biological pigment, any colored substance in organisms* Blue Wool Scale* Hair coloring* Industrial dye degradation* J-aggregate* Laser dyes* List of dyes* Oxidant* Phototendering* Stain* Natural dyes* Pigments Inorganic pigments Organic pigments" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abelshauser, Werner.", "''German History and Global Enterprise: BASF: The History of a Company'' (2004) covers 1865 to 2000* Beer, John J.", "''The Emergence of the German Dye Industry'' (1959)**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dwight D. Eisenhower" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dwight David Eisenhower''' ( ; born '''David Dwight Eisenhower'''; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969), nicknamed '''Ike''', was an American military officer and statesman who served as the 34th president of the United States from 1953 to 1961.During World War II, he was Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Europe and achieved the five-star rank as General of the Army.", "Eisenhower planned and supervised two of the most consequential military campaigns of World War II: Operation Torch in the North Africa campaign in 1942–1943 and the invasion of Normandy in 1944.Eisenhower was born in Denison, Texas, and raised in Abilene, Kansas.", "His family had a strong religious background, and his mother became a Jehovah's Witness.", "Eisenhower, however, belonged to no organized church until 1952.He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, with whom he had two sons.", "During World War I, he was denied a request to serve in Europe and instead commanded a unit that trained tank crews.", "Following the war, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1941.After the United States entered World War II, Eisenhower oversaw the invasions of North Africa and Sicily before supervising the invasions of France and Germany.", "After the war ended in Europe, he served as military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany (1945), Army Chief of Staff (1945–1948), president of Columbia University (1948–1953), and as the first supreme commander of NATO (1951–1952).In 1952, Eisenhower entered the presidential race as a Republican to block the isolationist foreign policies of Senator Robert A. Taft, who opposed NATO.", "Eisenhower won that election and the 1956 election in landslides, both times defeating Adlai Stevenson II.", "Eisenhower's main goals in office were to contain the spread of communism and reduce federal deficits.", "In 1953, he considered using nuclear weapons to end the Korean War and may have threatened China with nuclear attack if an armistice was not reached quickly.", "China did agree and an armistice resulted, which remains in effect.", "His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence prioritized \"inexpensive\" nuclear weapons while reducing funding for expensive Army divisions.", "He continued Harry S. Truman's policy of recognizing Taiwan as the legitimate government of China, and he won congressional approval of the Formosa Resolution.", "His administration provided major aid to help the French fight off Vietnamese Communists in the First Indochina War.", "After the French left, he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam.", "He supported regime-changing military coups in Iran and Guatemala orchestrated by his own administration.", "During the Suez Crisis of 1956, he condemned the Israeli, British, and French invasion of Egypt, and he forced them to withdraw.", "He also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action.", "He deployed 15,000 soldiers during the 1958 Lebanon crisis.", "Near the end of his term, a summit meeting with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was cancelled when a US spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union.", "Eisenhower approved the Bay of Pigs Invasion, which was left to John F. Kennedy to carry out.On the domestic front, Eisenhower governed as a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security.", "He covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege.", "He signed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and sent Army troops to enforce federal court orders which integrated schools in Little Rock, Arkansas.", "His administration undertook the development and construction of the Interstate Highway System, which remains the largest construction of roadways in American history.", "In 1957, following the Soviet launch of Sputnik, Eisenhower led the American response which included the creation of NASA and the establishment of a stronger, science-based education via the National Defense Education Act.", "The Soviet Union began to reinforce their own space program, escalating the Space Race.", "His two terms saw unprecedented economic prosperity except for a minor recession in 1958.In his farewell address, he expressed his concerns about the dangers of massive military spending, particularly deficit spending and government contracts to private military manufacturers, which he dubbed \"the military–industrial complex\".", "Historical evaluations of his presidency place him among the upper tier of American presidents." ], [ "Family background", "The Eisenhauer (German for \"iron hewer\" or \"iron miner\") family migrated from the German village of Karlsbrunn to the Province of Pennsylvania in 1741.Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized.David Jacob Eisenhower, Eisenhower's father, was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father's urging to stay on the family farm.", "Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth (Stover) Eisenhower, of predominantly German Protestant ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia.", "She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas, on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University.", "David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas, but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished.", "The Eisenhowers lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 () to their name.", "David worked as a railroad mechanic and then at a creamery.", "By 1898, the parents made a decent living and provided a suitable home for their large family." ], [ "Early life and education", "The Eisenhower family home in Abilene, KansasEisenhower was born David Dwight Eisenhower in Denison, Texas, on October 14, 1890, the third of seven sons born to Ida and David.", "His mother soon reversed his two forenames after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family.", "He was named Dwight after the evangelist Dwight L. Moody.", "All of the boys were nicknamed \"Ike\", such as \"Big Ike\" (Edgar) and \"Little Ike\" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name.", "By World War II, only Dwight was still called \"Ike\".In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered his hometown.", "As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother Earl an eye, for which he was remorseful for the remainder of his life.", "Eisenhower developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring the outdoors.", "He learned about hunting and fishing, cooking, and card playing from a man named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River.", "While his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's interest in military history; he became a voracious reader on the subject.", "Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling.Eisenhower's parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading.", "Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David.", "His mother, previously a member (with David) of the River Brethren (Brethren in Christ Church) sect of the Mennonites, joined the International Bible Students Association, later known as Jehovah's Witnesses.", "The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Dwight never joined.", "His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was \"rather wicked\", but she did not overrule his decision.", "Speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was \"one of the most deeply religious men I know\" though unattached to any \"sect or organization\".", "He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953.Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated in 1909.As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection that extended into his groin, which his doctor diagnosed as life-threatening.", "The doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and surprisingly recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year.", "He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds.", "They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked to earn the tuitions.Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery.", "When Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented.", "At that time, a friend Edward \"Swede\" Hazlett was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply, since no tuition was required.", "Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his Senator, Joseph L. Bristow.", "Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy.", "He accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911.At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about the hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe.", "He was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating.", "Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English.", "Otherwise, his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics.In athletics, Eisenhower later said that \"not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest\".", "He made the varsity football team and was a starter at halfback in 1912, when he tried to tackle the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians.", "Eisenhower suffered a torn knee while being tackled in the next game, which was the last he played; he reinjured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring, so he turned to fencing and gymnastics.West Point yearbook photo, 1915Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader, which caught the attention of General Frederick Funston.", "He graduated from West Point in the middle of the class of 1915, which became known as \"the class the stars fell on\", because 59 members eventually became general officers.", "After graduation in 1915, Second Lieutenant Eisenhower requested an assignment in the Philippines, which was denied; because of the ongoing Mexican Revolution, he was posted to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, under the command of General Funston.", "In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Funston convinced him to become the football coach for Peacock Military Academy; he later became the coach at St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University, and was an honorary member of the Sigma Beta Chi fraternity there." ], [ "Personal life", "While Eisenhower was stationed in Texas, he met Mamie Doud of Boone, Iowa.", "They were immediately taken with each other.", "He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916.A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the impending American entry into World War I; Funston approved 10 days of leave for their wedding.", "The Eisenhowers moved many times during their first 35 years of marriage.The Eisenhowers had two sons.", "In late 1917 while he was in charge of training at Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia, his wife Mamie had their first son, Doud Dwight \"Icky\" Eisenhower, who died of scarlet fever at the age of three.", "Eisenhower was mostly reluctant to discuss his death.", "Their second son, John Eisenhower, was born in Denver, Colorado.", "John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971.He married Barbara Jean Thompson and had four children: David, Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean.", "David, after whom Camp David is named, married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968.Mamie Eisenhower, painted in 1953 by Thomas E. StephensEisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and he joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948.He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter; he ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow.", "He had a basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and he became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on numerous occasions.", "Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments.He began oil painting while at Columbia University, after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait.", "Eisenhower painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life.", "The images were mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln.", "Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's paintings, \"simple and earnest\", caused her to \"wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president\".", "A conservative in both art and politics, Eisenhower in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as \"a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down Tin Lizzie, loaded with paint, has been driven over it\".", "''Angels in the Outfield'' was Eisenhower's favorite movie.", "His favorite reading material for relaxation was the Western novels of Zane Grey.", "With his excellent memory and ability to focus, Eisenhower was skilled at cards.", "He learned poker, which he called his \"favorite indoor sport\", in Abilene.", "Eisenhower recorded West Point classmates' poker losses for payment after graduation and later stopped playing because his opponents resented having to pay him.", "A friend reported that after learning to play contract bridge at West Point, Eisenhower played the game six nights a week for five months.", "Eisenhower continued to play bridge throughout his military career.", "While stationed in the Philippines, he played regularly with President Manuel Quezon, earning him the nickname the \"Bridge Wizard of Manila\".", "An unwritten qualification for an officer's appointment to Eisenhower's staff during World War II was the ability to play bridge.", "He played even during the stressful weeks leading up to the D-Day landings.", "His favorite partner was General Alfred Gruenther, considered the best player in the US Army; he appointed Gruenther his second-in-command at NATO partly because of his skill at bridge.", "Saturday night bridge games at the White House were a feature of his presidency.", "He was a strong player, though not an expert by modern standards.", "The great bridge player and popularizer Ely Culbertson described his game as classic and sound with \"flashes of brilliance\" and said that \"you can always judge a man's character by the way he plays cards.", "Eisenhower is a calm and collected player and never whines at his losses.", "He is brilliant in victory but never commits the bridge player's worst crime of gloating when he wins.\"", "Bridge expert Oswald Jacoby frequently participated in the White House games and said, \"The President plays better bridge than golf.", "He tries to break 90 at golf.", "At bridge, you would say he plays in the 70s.\"" ], [ "World War I (1914–1918)", "Eisenhower served initially in logistics and then the infantry at various camps in Texas and Georgia until 1918.When the US entered World War I, he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was denied and assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.", "In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers.", "His unit was later ordered to France, but, to his chagrin, he received orders for the new tank corps, where he was promoted to brevet lieutenant colonel in the National Army.", "He commanded a unit that trained tank crews at Camp Colt – his first command.", "Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.His spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France.", "This time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed a week before his departure date.", "Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite receiving the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home.", "In World War II, rivals who had combat service in the Great War (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp for thousands of troops and developing a full combat training schedule." ], [ "Between the Wars (1918–1939)", "=== In service of generals ===Eisenhower (far right) with friends William Stuhler, Major Brett, and Paul V. Robinson in 1919, four years after graduating from the United States Military Academy at West PointAfter the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major, a rank he held for 16 years.", "The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads.", "Indeed, the convoy averaged only from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as president.He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922.His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank.", "His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders.", "Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry.", "Eisenhower was even threatened with court-martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.From 1920, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall.", "He first became executive officer to General Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924.Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's ''On War''), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that \"Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew.\"", "Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, \"He is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met.\"", "On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–1926 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers.During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs.", "He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother Milton Eisenhower, then a journalist at the Agriculture Department, he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe.", "He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928.After a one-year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Moseley, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933.Major Eisenhower graduated from the Army Industrial College in 1933 and later served on the faculty (it was later expanded to become the Industrial College of the Armed Services and is now known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy).His primary duty was planning for the next war, which proved most difficult in the midst of the Great Depression.", "He then was posted as chief military aide to General Douglas MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff.", "In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington, D.C.", "Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct.===Philippine tenure (1935–1939)===In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army.", "MacArthur allowed Eisenhower to handpick an officer whom he thought would contribute to the mission.", "Hence he chose James Ord, a classmate of his at West Point.", "Having been brought up in Mexico, which inculcated into him the Spanish culture which influenced both Mexico and the Philippines, Ord was deemed the right pick for the job.", "Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with MacArthur regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates.", "The antipathy between Eisenhower and MacArthur lasted the rest of their lives.Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, George Marshall, and Bernard Montgomery during World War II.", "Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur and that a positive relationship endured.", "While in Manila, Mamie suffered a life-threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully.", "Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936.He also learned to fly with the Philippine Army Air Corps at the Zablan Airfield in Camp Murphy under Capt.", "Jesus Villamor, making a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937, and obtained his private pilot's license in 1939 at Fort Lewis.", "Also around this time, he was offered a post by the Philippine Commonwealth Government, namely by then Philippine President Manuel L. Quezon on recommendations by MacArthur, to become the chief of police of a new capital being planned, now named Quezon City, but he declined the offer." ], [ "World War II (1939–1945)", "Eisenhower returned to the United States in December 1939 and was assigned as commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, 15th Infantry Regiment at Fort Lewis, Washington, later becoming the regimental executive officer.", "In March 1941 he was promoted to colonel and assigned as chief of staff of the newly activated IX Corps under Major General Kenyon Joyce.", "In June 1941, he was appointed chief of staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the Third Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas.", "After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers, he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941.After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany.", "He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division.", "Next, he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, commanding general of the Army Air Forces, to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney.", "He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an \"uneasy feeling\" about Chaney and his staff.", "On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London and with a house on Coombe, Kingston upon Thames, and took over command of ETOUSA from Chaney.", "He was promoted to lieutenant general on July 7.=== Operations Torch and Avalanche ===major general, 1942In November 1942, Eisenhower was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters Allied (Expeditionary) Force Headquarters (A(E)FHQ).", "The word \"expeditionary\" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons.", "The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned in the underground headquarters within the Rock of Gibraltar.", "Eisenhower was the first non-British person to command Gibraltar in 200 years.French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign and Eisenhower encountered a \"preposterous situation\" with the multiple rival factions in France.", "His primary objective was to move forces successfully into Tunisia and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices in Vichy France and his continued role as commander-in-chief of the French armed forces.", "The Allied leaders were \"thunderstruck\" by this from a political standpoint, though none had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in planning the operation.", "Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move.", "Darlan was assassinated on December 24 by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, a French antifascist monarchist.", "Eisenhower later appointed as High Commissioner General Henri Giraud, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander-in-chief.Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of ''Generalfeldmarschall'' Erwin Rommel's move into the Kasserine Pass, Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates.", "He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall, commanding II Corps.", "He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.", "In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery.", "The Eighth Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign.After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa, Eisenhower oversaw the invasion of Sicily.", "Once Mussolini, the Italian leader, had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche.", "But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country.", "The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1.=== Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord ===General Eisenhower reads his order of the day for June 5, 1944, the day before D-Day.In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower – not Marshall – would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe.", "The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945.He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment (PIR), part of the 101st \"Screaming Eagles\" Airborne Division, on June 5, 1944, the day before the D-Day invasion.", "The officer Eisenhower is speaking to is First Lieutenant Wallace Strobel.Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault.", "His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert operations against the Germans in advance of Operation Overlord.", "Admiral Ernest J.", "King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific.", "Eisenhower also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, which he did.", "Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified, and Eisenhower prevailed.", "He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate, and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, were costly but successful.", "Two months later (August 15), the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of forces in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF.", "Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year.", "From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower, through SHAEF, commanded all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA had administrative command of all US forces on the Western Front north of the Alps.", "He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced by the troops under his command and their families.", "This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion.", "Eisenhower's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed.", "It has been called one of the great speeches of history:Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops.", "My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available.", "The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do.", "If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.=== Liberation of France and victory in Europe ===Eisenhower with Allied commanders following the signing of the German Instrument of Surrender at ReimsOnce the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany.", "Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley (12th US Army Group) and Devers (Sixth US Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front (respectively).", "Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe.", "However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944.In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944, he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies.", "In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy.", "Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders.", "He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle.", "He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them.", "He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.In December 1944, the Germans launched a surprise counteroffensive, the Battle of the Bulge, which the Allies turned back in early 1945 after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Army Air Force to engage.", "German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the Eastern Front with the Red Army and the Western Front with the Western Allies.", "The British wanted to capture Berlin, but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit.", "The British backed down but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons.", "Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow.", "The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon.", "The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a very bloody large-scale battle, and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.In 1945, Eisenhower anticipated that someday an attempt would be made to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda (Holocaust denial) and took steps against it by demanding extensive photo and film documentation of Nazi death camps." ], [ "After World War II (1945–1953)", "=== Military Governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany ===General Eisenhower served as military governor of the American zone (highlighted) in Allied-occupied Germany from May through November 1945.Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American-occupied zone of Germany, located primarily in Southern Germany, and headquartered in Frankfurt am Main.", "Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence for use in the Nuremberg Trials.", "He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in US custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs), who were no longer subject to the Geneva Convention.", "Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067 but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization.", "In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment.", "His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis.===Army Chief of Staff===In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army.", "His main role was the rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, which was delayed by lack of shipping.", "Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs.", "However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon.", "Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, \"First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing.", "Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon.\"", "Initially, Eisenhower hoped for cooperation with the Soviets.", "He even visited Warsaw in 1945.Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration, he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city.", "However, by mid-1947, as east–west tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.=== 1948 presidential election ===In June 1943, a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become president after the war.", "Believing that a general should not participate in politics, Merlo J. Pusey wrote that \"figuratively speaking, Eisenhower kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office\".", "As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job \"from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of the Universe\", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions.", "In 1945, Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the 1948 election, and in 1947 he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination.As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run.", "In January 1948, after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming Republican National Convention, Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was \"not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office\"; \"life-long professional soldiers\", he wrote, \"in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, should abstain from seeking high political office\".", "Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time.", "Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president as Republican Thomas E. Dewey was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would be too old to run.=== President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander ===Eisenhower lighting the Columbia University Yule Log, 1949Alma Mater'' at Columbia in 1953president of Columbia, Eisenhower presents an honorary degree to Jawaharlal Nehru.In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, an Ivy League university in New York City, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa.", "The choice was subsequently characterized as not having been a good fit for either party.", "During that year, Eisenhower's memoir, ''Crusade in Europe'', was published.", "It was a major financial success.", "Eisenhower sought the advice of Augusta National's Roberts about the tax implications of this, and in due course Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by what author David Pietrusza calls \"a ruling without precedent\" by the Department of the Treasury.", "It held that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he had to pay only capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate.", "This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's \"vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature\".", "His biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook suggested that this period served his \"the political education\", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university.", "Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy.", "\"Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings,\" one Aid to Europe member claimed.Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote \"the American form of democracy\" through education.", "He was clear on this point to the trustees on the search committee.", "He informed them that his main purpose was \"to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy\".", "As a result, he was \"almost incessantly\" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.Within months of becoming university president, Eisenhower was requested to advise Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services.", "About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington.", "Two months later he fell ill with what was diagnosed as acute gastroenteritis, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club.", "He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state.", "Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during summer and fall 1950, building financial support for it, including from Columbia Associates, a recently created alumni and benefactor organization for which he had helped recruit members.Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests.", "As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.", "The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fundraising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency.", "Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen.He did have some successes at Columbia.", "Puzzled as to why no American university had undertaken the \"continuous study of the causes, conduct and consequences of war\", Eisenhower undertook the creation of the Institute of War and Peace Studies, a research facility to \"study war as a tragic social phenomenon\".", "Eisenhower was able to use his network of wealthy friends and acquaintances to secure initial funding for it.", "Under its founding director, international relations scholar William T. R. Fox, the institute began in 1951 and became a pioneer in international security studies, one that would be emulated by other institutes in the United States and Britain later in the decade.", "The Institute of War and Peace Studies thus become one of the projects which Eisenhower considered his \"unique contribution\" to Columbia.", "As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy.", "His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership.", "His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.The trustees of Columbia University declined to accept Eisenhower's offer to resign in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe.", "Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on June 3, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia.", "Meanwhile, Eisenhower had become the Republican Party nominee for president of the United States, a contest that he won on November 4.Eisenhower tendered his resignation as university president on November 15, 1952, effective January 19, 1953, the day before his inauguration.At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration had been.", "By the middle of 1951, with American and European support, NATO was a genuine military power.", "Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.=== Presidential campaign of 1952 ===Eisenhower button from the 1952 campaignPresident Truman sensed a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, and he again pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat in 1951.But Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democrats and declared himself to be a Republican.", "A \"Draft Eisenhower\" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert A. Taft.", "The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty to offer himself as a candidate and that there was a mandate from the public for him to be their president.", "Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. and others succeeded in convincing him, and he resigned his command at NATO in June 1952 to campaign full-time.", "\"I Like Ike\" televised campaign ad, 1952Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas.", "His campaign was noted for the simple slogan \"I Like Ike\".", "It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at the Yalta Conference and to Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated.", "In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right-wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard Nixon as the vice-president on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose.", "Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist reputation, as well as youth to counter Eisenhower's more advanced age.1952 electoral vote resultsEisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South in the general election, against the advice of his campaign team, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats.", "The campaign strategy was dubbed \"K1C2\" and was intended to focus on attacking the Truman administration on three failures: the Korean War, Communism, and corruption.Two controversies tested him and his staff, but they did not damage the campaign.", "One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust.", "Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates.", "The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.", "Eisenhower condemned \"wickedness in government\", an allusion to gay government employees who were conflated with communism during McCarthyism.Eisenhower defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.", "He also brought a Republican majority in the House, by eight votes, and in the Senate, evenly divided with Vice President Nixon providing Republicans the majority.Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and he was the oldest president-elect at age 62 since James Buchanan in 1856.He was the third commanding general of the Army to serve as president, after George Washington and Ulysses S. Grant, and the last not to have held political office prior to becoming president until Donald Trump entered office in January 2017.=== Election of 1956 ===1956 electoral vote resultsIn the United States presidential election of 1956, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, was re-elected.", "The election was a re-match of 1952, as his opponent in 1956 was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier.", "Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia from Stevenson, while losing Missouri.", "His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record.", "Instead what stood out this time \"was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness.\"" ], [ "Presidency (1953–1961)", "Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations due to a complete estrangement between them as a result of campaigning.", "Eisenhower selected Joseph M. Dodge as his budget director, then asked Herbert Brownell Jr. and Lucius D. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments.", "He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, as well as Oveta Culp Hobby.", "His cabinet consisted of several corporate executives and one labor leader, and one journalist dubbed it \"eight millionaires and a plumber\".", "The cabinet was known for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators.", "He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.Before his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor where they set goals for his first term: balance the budget, end the Korean War, defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and end price and wage controls.", "He also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy.", "His inaugural address was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations.February 1959 White House portraitEisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost 200 over his two terms.", "He saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, and he saw value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people.Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.", "He described himself as a \"progressive conservative\" and used terms such as \"progressive moderate\" and \"dynamic conservatism\" to describe his approach.", "He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security.", "He expanded its programs and rolled them into the new Cabinet-level agency of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers.", "He implemented racial integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote:When the 1954 Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses.", "Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP.", "He then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: \"I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country.", "If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore.", "\"Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but he remained flexible in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again.", "He was recovering from a heart attack late in September 1955 when he met with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group concluded that a second term was well advised, and he announced that he would run again in February 1956.Eisenhower was publicly noncommittal about having Nixon as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition.", "He personally favored Robert B. Anderson, a Democrat who rejected his offer, so Eisenhower resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.", "In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6 percent of the popular vote.", "His campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.Eisenhower made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support; he rarely drove or even dialed a phone number.", "He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player.", "On August 26, 1959, he was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the ''Columbine'' as the presidential aircraft.=== Interstate Highway System ===Eisenhower championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War.Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced his involvement in the Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy.", "He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of Army vehicles coast to coast.", "His subsequent experience with the German autobahn convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System.", "The system could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts.", "Franklin D. Roosevelt put this system into place with the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944.He thought that an interstate highway system would be beneficial for military operations and would support continued economic growth.", "The legislation initially stalled in Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and Eisenhower signed the law in June 1956.=== Foreign policy ===Eisenhower with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.Eisenhower visits the Republic of China and its President Chiang Kai-shek in Taipei.==== Space Race ====In the 1970s the reverse of the Eisenhower dollar celebrated America's Moon landings, which began 11 years after NASA was created during Eisenhower's presidencyEisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January 1957, nine months before ''Sputnik'', that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige.", "He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education.", "The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow \"space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space\".", "His Open Skies Policy attempted to legitimize illegal Lockheed U-2 flyovers and Project Genetrix while paving the way for spy satellite technology to orbit over sovereign territory, but Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev declined Eisenhower's proposal at the Geneva conference in July 1955.In response to Sputnik being launched in October 1957, Eisenhower created NASA as a civilian space agency in October 1958, signed a landmark science education law, and improved relations with American scientists.Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism, so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States.", "In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of strategic bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race; however, in 1960, an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that \"man-in-space can not be justified\" and was too costly.", "Eisenhower later resented the space program and its gargantuan price tag—he was quoted as saying, \"Anyone who would spend $40 billion in a race to the moon for national prestige is nuts.", "\"==== Korean War, Free China and Red China ====In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate.", "Once in office, when the Chinese People's Volunteer Army began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he considered using nuclear weapons if an armistice was not reached.", "Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown.", "His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists.", "The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against Red China.", "With the death of Stalin in March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese communist hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue.Eisenhower in Korea with General Chung Il-kwon, and Baik Seon-yup, 1952In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950.The armistice and boundary remain in effect today.", "The armistice, which concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Stephen E. Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration.", "Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.A point of emphasis in Eisenhower's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment.", "This remained his preference despite the armistice with Korea.", "Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the legitimate government of China, not the Peking (Beijing) regime.", "There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954.Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response; he thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded.The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with the Republic of China was signed in December 1954.He requested and secured from Congress their \"Free China Resolution\" in January 1955, which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level in defense of Free China and the Pescadores.", "The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists and signaled to Beijing that the US was committed to holding the line.During the First Taiwan Strait crisis, Eisenhower threatened to use nuclear weapons against PRC military targets in Fujian.", "These threats prompted Mao Zedong to launch China's nuclear weapons program.", "He authorized a series of bomb tests labeled Operation Teapot.", "Nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response.", "This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives—the end of this communist encroachment, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.", "Defense of the Republic of China from an invasion remains a core American policy.By the end of 1954, Eisenhower's military and foreign policy experts—the NSC, JCS and State Department—had unanimously urged him, on no less than five occasions, to launch an atomic attack against China; yet he consistently refused to do so and felt a distinct sense of accomplishment in having sufficiently confronted communism while keeping world peace.==== Southeast Asia ====Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War.", "Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. O'Daniel to Vietnam to assess the French forces there.", "Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary.", "Eisenhower stated prophetically that \"this war would absorb our troops by divisions.", "\"Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel.", "After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes.", "Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Eisenhower knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval.", "When the French fortress of Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietnamese Communists in May 1954, Eisenhower refused to intervene despite urging from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.Eisenhower responded to the French defeat with the formation of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) Alliance with the UK, France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism.", "At that time the French and Chinese reconvened the Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the US would participate only as an observer.", "After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.", "Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the US out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had put the US back into the conflict.In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to \"Free Vietnam\", effectively elevating the country to sovereign status.", "Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.", "In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army.", "After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900.This was due to North Vietnam's support of \"uprisings\" in the south and concern the nation would fall.", "In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States.", "Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City.", "Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower, in a briefing with John F. Kennedy, pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration.", "Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos \"the cork in the bottle\" with regard to the regional threat.==== Legitimation of Francoist Spain ====Spanish dictator Francisco Franco and Eisenhower in Madrid in 1959The Pact of Madrid, signed on September 23, 1953, by Francoist Spain and the United States, was a significant effort to break international isolation of Spain, together with the Concordat of 1953.This development came at a time when other victorious Allies and much of the rest of the world remained hostile to a fascist regime sympathetic to the cause of the former Axis powers and established with Nazi assistance.", "This accord took the form of three separate executive agreements that pledged the United States to furnish economic and military aid to Spain.==== Middle East and Eisenhower doctrine ====Eisenhower with the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1959)Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran (Mohammad Reza Pahlavi) to power.", "He therefore authorized the CIA to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.", "This resulted in increased strategic control over Iranian oil by US and British companies.In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis, receiving praise from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser.", "Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.", "Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Britain and France in his memoirs, published in 1965.After the Suez Crisis, the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the \"Eisenhower Doctrine\".", "Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the US would be \"prepared to use armed force ... to counter aggression from any country controlled by international communism\".", "Further, the US would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–1958 by dispensing economic aid to Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it.", "More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peacekeeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution.", "The Marines departed three months later.", "Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.Most Arab countries were skeptical about the \"Eisenhower doctrine\" because they considered \"Zionist imperialism\" the real danger.", "However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons.", "Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative.", "However, Egypt received American aid until the Six-Day War in 1967.As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances against it.", "Critics sometimes called it \"pacto-mania\".==== 1960 U-2 incident ====U-2 reconnaissance aircraft in flight=== Civil rights ===While President Truman's 1948 Executive Order 9981 had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces, actual implementation had been slow.", "Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February 1953, saying \"I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces\".", "When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating \"Wherever Federal Funds are expended ..., I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds\".", "When Robert B. Anderson, Eisenhower's first Secretary of the Navy, argued that the US Navy must recognize the \"customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating,\" Eisenhower overruled him: \"We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step.", "There must be no second class citizens in this country.", "\"The administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the US as a point of propaganda attack.Eisenhower told Washington, D.C. officials to make the city a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public-school children.", "He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and of 1960 and signed those acts into law.", "The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights.", "Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875.In 1957 Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the ''Brown'' decision.", "Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order.", "When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the 101st Airborne Division.", "They protected nine black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school, marking the first time since the Reconstruction Era the federal government had used federal troops in the South to enforce the Constitution.", "Martin Luther King Jr. wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing \"The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock\".Eisenhower's administration contributed to the McCarthyist Lavender Scare with Eisenhower issuing Executive Order 10450 in 1953.During Eisenhower's presidency thousands of lesbian and gay applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual.", "From 1947 to 1961 the number of firings based on sexual orientation were far greater than those for membership in the Communist Party, and government officials intentionally campaigned to make \"homosexual\" synonymous with \"Communist traitor\" such that LGBT people were treated as a national security threat.=== Relations with Congress ===Official White House portrait of Eisenhower, Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, Republicans held the majority by a one-vote margin.", "Despite being Eisenhower's political opponent for the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, Senator Majority Leader Robert A. Taft assisted Eisenhower a great deal by promoting the President's proposals among the \"Old Guard\" Republican Senators.", "Taft's death in July 1953—six months into Eisenhower's presidency—affected Eisenhower both personally and professionally.", "The President noted he had lost \"a dear friend\" with Taft's passing.", "Eisenhower disliked Taft's successor as Majority Leader, Senator William Knowland, and the relationship between the two men led to tension between the Senate and the White House.This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism.", "To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from the involvement of the White House.", "This position drew criticism from a number of corners.", "In late 1953, McCarthy declared on national television that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 Senate elections.", "Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) into McCarthy's witchhunt, which might interfere with the AEC's work on hydrogen bombs and other weapons programs.", "In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that nuclear scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer had been accused of being a spy for the Soviet Union.", "Although Eisenhower never really believed these allegations, in January 1954 he ordered that \"a blank wall\" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities.", "The Oppenheimer security hearing later that year resulted in the physicist losing his security clearance.", "The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom.", "The case would reflect poorly on Eisenhower, but the president had never examined it in any detail and had instead relied excessively upon the advice of his subordinates, especially that of AEC chairman Lewis Strauss.", "Eisenhower later suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of Strauss to be Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the Oppenheimer matter.In May 1955, McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel.", "Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: \"It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters ... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed.\"", "This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as executive privilege.", "Eisenhower's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters and contributed to his ultimate downfall.In early 1954, the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment, which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements.", "Eisenhower opposed the measure.", "The Old Guard agreed with Eisenhower on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed.", "The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election.", "Eisenhower had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (later US president) in the Senate and Speaker Sam Rayburn in the House.", "Joe Martin, the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower \"never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill.", "There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall, for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success.", "However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance.", "\"Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, \"often the reverse of what he has desired\" because Members of Congress, \"resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'.", "The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking.", "\"=== Judicial appointments ======= Supreme Court ====Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:* Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice)* John Marshall Harlan II, 1954* William J. Brennan, 1956* Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957* Potter Stewart, 1958Whittaker was unsuited for the role and retired in 1962, after Eisenhower's presidency had ended.", "Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism.", "In selecting a Chief Justice, Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren \"represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court ...", "He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court\".=== States admitted to the Union ===Two states were admitted to the Union during Eisenhower's presidency.", "* Alaska – January 3, 1959 (49th state)* Hawaii – August 21, 1959 (50th state)=== Health issues ===Eisenhower began chain smoking cigarettes at West Point, often three or four packs a day.", "He joked that he \"gave himself an order\" to stop cold turkey in 1949.However, Evan Thomas says the true story was more complex.", "At first, he removed cigarettes and ashtrays, but that did not work.", "He told a friend:I decided to make a game of the whole business and try to achieve a feeling of some superiority ...", "So I stuffed cigarettes in every pocket, put them around my office on the desk ... and made it a practice to offer a cigarette to anyone who came in ... while mentally reminding myself as I sat down, \"I do not have to do what that poor fellow is doing.", "\"He was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office, but people around him deliberately misled the public about his health.", "On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack.", "While convalescing at Building 500 Howard McCrum Snyder, his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in help that was urgently needed.", "Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to allow Eisenhower to imply that he was healthy enough to do his job.The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president.", "He was treated by Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the president's progress.", "His physician recommended a second presidential term as essential to his recovery.As a consequence of his heart attack Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which caused a mild stroke during a cabinet meeting on November 25, 1957, when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to move his right hand or to speak.", "The president also suffered from Crohn's disease, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956.To treat the intestinal block, surgeons bypassed about ten inches of his small intestine.", "His scheduled meeting with Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was postponed so he could recover at his farm.", "He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis.", "Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his diet, but he still drank alcohol.", "During a visit to England, he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at prime ministerial manor house Chequers on the next day his physician, General Howard Snyder, recalled that Eisenhower \"drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks ... three or four wines with the dinner\".Eisenhower's health during the last three years of his second term in office was relatively good.", "After leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks.", "A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs.", "On December 12, 1966, his gallbladder was removed, containing 16 gallstones.", "After Eisenhower's death in 1969, an autopsy revealed an undiagnosed adrenal pheochromocytoma, a benign adrenalin-secreting tumor that may have made him more vulnerable to heart disease.", "Eisenhower suffered seven heart attacks from 1955 until his death.=== End of presidency ===The 22nd Amendment to the US Constitution, which set a two-term limit on the presidency, was ratified in 1951.Eisenhower was the first president constitutionally prevented from serving a third term.Eisenhower was also the first outgoing president to come under the protection of the Former Presidents Act.", "Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a Secret Service security detail.In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed Nixon over Democrat John F. Kennedy.", "He told friends, \"I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy.\"", "He actively campaigned for Nixon in the final days, although he may have done Nixon some harm.", "When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, \"If you give me a week, I might think of one.", "I don't remember.\"", "Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials.", "Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy.", "Eisenhower, who was, at 70, the oldest president to date, was succeeded by 43-year-old Kennedy, the youngest elected president.It was originally intended for Eisenhower to have a more active role in the campaign as he wanted to respond to attacks Kennedy made on his administration.", "However, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower expressed concern to Second Lady Pat Nixon about the strain campaigning would put on his heart, and wanted the president to withdraw, without letting him know of her intervention.", "Vice President Nixon himself was informed by White House physician Major General Howard Snyder that he could not approve a heavy campaign schedule for the president, whose health problems had been exacerbated by Kennedy's attacks.", "Nixon then convinced Eisenhower not to go ahead with the expanded campaign schedule and limit himself to the original schedule.", "Nixon reflected that if Eisenhower had carried out his expanded campaign schedule, he might have had a decisive impact on the outcome of the election, especially in states that Kennedy won with razor-thin margins.", "Mamie did not tell Dwight why Nixon changed his mind on Dwight's campaigning until years later.Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office.", "In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the armed forces.", "He described the Cold War: \"We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ...\" and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals.", "He continued with a warning that \"we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex.\"", "Eisenhower elaborated, \"we recognize the imperative need for this development ... the potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist ... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together.", "\"Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower had resigned his permanent commission as General of the Army before assuming the presidency.", "Upon completion of his presidential term, his commission was reactivated by Congress." ], [ "Post-presidency (1961–1969)", "President Lyndon Johnson with Eisenhower aboard Air Force One in October 1965Eisenhower's funeral serviceGraves of Dwight D. Eisenhower, Doud Dwight \"Icky\" Eisenhower and Mamie Eisenhower in Abilene, KansasFollowing the presidency, Eisenhower moved to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, from his ancestral home in Elizabethville, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania.", "They also maintained a retirement home in Palm Desert, California.After leaving office, Eisenhower did not completely retreat from political life.", "He flew to San Antonio, where he had been stationed years earlier, to support John W. Goode, the unsuccessful Republican candidate against the Democrat Henry B. Gonzalez for Texas's 20th congressional district seat.", "He addressed the 1964 Republican National Convention, in San Francisco, and appeared with party nominee Barry Goldwater in a campaign commercial.", "That endorsement came somewhat reluctantly, because Goldwater had in the late 1950s criticized Eisenhower's administration as \"a dime-store New Deal\".", "On January 20, 1969, the day Nixon was inaugurated as President, Eisenhower issued a statement praising his former vice president and calling it a \"day for rejoicing\".=== Death ===At 12:25 p.m. on March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died from congestive heart failure at Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, D.C., at age 78.The following day, his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours.", "He was then transported to the United States Capitol, where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda on March 30 and 31.A state funeral was conducted at the Washington National Cathedral on March 31.The president and First Lady, Richard and Pat Nixon, attended, as did former president Lyndon Johnson.", "Also among the 2,000 invited guests were UN Secretary General U Thant and 191 foreign delegates from 78 countries, including 10 foreign heads of state and government.", "Guests included President Charles de Gaulle of France, who was in the United States for the first time since the state funeral of John F. Kennedy, Chancellor Kurt-Georg Kiesinger of West Germany, King Baudouin of Belgium and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran.The service included the singing of Faure's \"The Palms\", and the playing of the hymn \"Onward, Christian Soldiers\".That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a special funeral train for its journey from the capital to his hometown of Abilene, Kansas.", "First incorporated into President Abraham Lincoln's funeral in 1865, a funeral train would not be part of a US state funeral again until 2018.Eisenhower is buried inside the Place of Meditation, the chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Center in Abilene.", "As requested, he was buried in a Government Issue casket, wearing his World War II uniform, decorated with Army Distinguished Service Medal with three oak leaf clusters, Navy Distinguished Service Medal, and the Legion of Merit.", "Buried alongside Eisenhower are his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921, and wife Mamie, who died in 1979.President Richard Nixon eulogized Eisenhower in 1969, saying:" ], [ "Legacy and memory", "Eisenhower's reputation declined in the immediate years after he left office.", "During his presidency, he was widely seen by critics as an inactive, uninspiring, golf-playing president.", "This was in stark contrast to his vigorous young successor, John F. Kennedy, who was 26 years his junior.", "Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree that activists wanted.", "Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment, for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to publicly oppose McCarthyism.", "In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George C. Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics.Following the access of Eisenhower's private papers, his reputation changed amongst presidential historians.", "Historian John Lewis Gaddis has summarized a more recent turnaround in evaluations by historians:Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency.", "He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others.", "He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet–American rivalry.", "He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism.", "He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism.", "He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a \"military–industrial complex\" that could endanger the nation's liberties.", "Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.President John F. Kennedy meets with General Eisenhower at Camp David, April 22, 1961, three days after the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion.Although conservatism in politics was strong during the 1950s, and Eisenhower generally espoused conservative sentiments, his administration concerned itself mostly with foreign affairs and pursued a hands-off domestic policy.", "Eisenhower looked to moderation and cooperation as a means of governance, which he dubbed \"The Middle Way\".Although he sought to slow or contain the New Deal and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright.", "In doing so, Eisenhower was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.", "Conservative critics of his administration thought that he did not do enough to advance the goals of the right; according to Hans Morgenthau, \"Eisenhower's victories were but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party.", "\"Since the 19th century, many if not all presidents were assisted by a central figure or \"gatekeeper\", sometimes described as the president's private secretary, sometimes with no official title.", "Eisenhower formalized this role, introducing the office of White House Chief of Staff – an idea he borrowed from the United States Army.", "Every president after Lyndon Johnson has appointed staff to this position.As president, Eisenhower also initiated the \"up or out\" policy that still prevails in the US military.", "Officers who are passed over for promotion twice are then usually honorably but quickly discharged to make way for younger and more able officers.On December 20, 1944, Eisenhower was appointed to the rank of General of the Army, placing him in the company of George Marshall, Henry \"Hap\" Arnold, and Douglas MacArthur, the only four men to achieve the rank in World War II.", "Along with Omar Bradley, they were the only five men to achieve the rank since the August 5, 1888, death of Philip Sheridan, and the only five men to hold the rank of five-star general.", "The rank was created by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis, when Public Law 78-482 was passed on December 14, 1944, as a temporary rank, subject to reversion to permanent rank six months after the end of the war.", "The temporary rank was declared permanent on March 23, 1946, by Public Law 333 of the 79th Congress, which also awarded full pay and allowances in the grade to those on the retired list.", "It was created to give the most senior American commanders parity of rank with their British counterparts holding the ranks of field marshal and admiral of the fleet.Eisenhower founded People to People International in 1956, believing that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace.", "The program includes a student ambassador component, which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.During his second term as president, Eisenhower awarded a series of specially designed US Mint presidential appreciation medals.", "Eisenhower presented the medal to individuals as an expression of his appreciation.", "The development of the appreciation medals was initiated by the White House and executed by the United States Mint, through the Philadelphia Mint.", "The medals were struck from September 1958 through October 1960.A total of twenty designs are cataloged with a total mintage of 9,858.Prior to the end of his second term as president, 1,451 medals were turned in to the Bureau of the Mint and destroyed.", "The Eisenhower appreciation medals are part of the Presidential Medal of Appreciation Award Medal Series.=== Tributes and memorials ===The Eisenhower dollar was the official dollar coin from 1971 to 1978.The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the \"Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways\".", "It was inspired in part by Eisenhower's experiences in World War II, where he recognized the advantages of the autobahn system in Germany.", "Commemorative signs reading \"Eisenhower Interstate System\" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent 5-star rank insignia were introduced in 1993 and now are displayed throughout the Interstate System.", "Several highways are also named for him, including the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) near Chicago, the Eisenhower Tunnel on Interstate 70 west of Denver, and Interstate 80 in California.Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy is a senior war college of the Department of Defense's National Defense University in Washington, DC.", "Eisenhower graduated from this school when it was known as the Army Industrial College.Eisenhower was honored on the Eisenhower dollar, minted from 1971 to 1978.His centenary was honored on the Eisenhower commemorative dollar issued in 1990.In 1969 four major record companies – ABC Records, MGM Records, Buddha Records and Caedmon Audio – released tribute albums in Eisenhower's honor.In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, to create an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C.", "In 2009 the commission chose the architect Frank Gehry to design the memorial.", "The groundbreaking ceremony of the memorial was held on November 3, 2017, and was dedicated on September 17, 2020.It stands on a site near the National Mall on Maryland Avenue, across the street from the National Air and Space Museum.In December 1999 he was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century.", "In 2009 he was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.", "In 1973, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.", "On 27 October 2023, Fort Gordon was redesignated Fort Eisenhower." ], [ "Honors", "=== Awards and decorations ===The star of the Soviet Order of Victory awarded to EisenhowerThe coat of arms granted to Eisenhower upon his incorporation as a knight of the Danish Order of the Elephant in 1950.The anvil represents the fact that his name is derived from the German for \"iron hewer\", making these an example of canting arms.\|alt='''US military decorations'''Army Distinguished Service Medal w/ 4 oak leaf clustersNavy Distinguished Service MedalLegion of Merit'''US service medals'''Mexican Border Service MedalWorld War I Victory MedalAmerican Defense Service MedalEuropean–African–Middle Eastern Campaign Medal w/ 7 campaign starsWorld War II Victory MedalArmy of Occupation Medal w/ \"Germany\" claspNational Defense Service Medal w/ 1 service star'''International and foreign awards'''Order of the Liberator San Martin, Grand Cross (Argentina)Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash (Austria)Order of Leopold, Grand Cordon (Belgium) – 1945 w/ palm (Belgium)Order of the Southern Cross, Grand Cross (Brazil)Order of Military Merit (Brazil), Grand CrossOrder of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil)War Medal (Brazil)Campaign Medal (Brazil)Order of Merit, Grand Cross (Chile)Order of the Cloud and Banner, with Special Grand Cordon, (China)Military Order of the White Lion, Grand Cross (Czechoslovakia)War Cross 1939–1945 (Czechoslovakia)Order of the Elephant, Knight (Denmark) – December 15, 1945Order of Abdon Calderón, First Class (Ecuador)Order of Ismail, Grand Cordon (Egypt)Order of Solomon, Knight Grand Cross with Cordon (Ethiopia)Order of the Queen of Sheba, Member (Ethiopia)Legion of Honour, Grand Cross (France) – 1943Order of Liberation, Companion (France)Military Medal (France)Croix de guerre w/ palm (France)Royal Order of George I, Knight Grand Cross with Swords (Greece)Order of the Redeemer, Knight Grand Cross (Greece)Cross of Military Merit, First Class (Guatemala)National Order of Honour and Merit, Grand Cross with Gold Badge (Haiti)Order of the Holy Sepulchre, Knight Grand Cross (Holy See)Military Order of Italy, Knight Grand Cross (Italy)Order of the Chrysanthemum, Collar (Japan)Order of the Oak Crown, Grand Cross (Luxembourg)60pxMilitary Medal (Luxembourg)Order pro merito Melitensi, KGC (Sovereign Military Order of Malta)Order of the Aztec Eagle, Collar (Mexico) – 1945Medal of Military Merit (Mexico)Medal of Civic Merit (Mexico)Order of Muhammad, (Morocco)Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross (Morocco)Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands) – October 6, 1945Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, Grand Cross (Norway)Order of Nishan-e-Pakistan, First Class (Pakistan) – December 7, 1957Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Officer (Panama)Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Grand Cross (Panama)Order of Sikatuna, Grand Collar (Philippines)Legion of Honor (Philippines), Chief Commander (Philippines)Distinguished Service Star, (Philippines)Order of Polonia Restituta, Grand Cross (Poland)Order of Virtuti Militari, First Class (Poland)Cross of Grunwald, First Class (Poland)Order of the Royal House of Chakri, Knight (Thailand)Order of Glory, Grand Cordon (Tunisia)Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross (United Kingdom)* Military Division 1945* Civil Division 1957Order of Merit (United Kingdom)* Member Military Division June 12, 1945Africa Star, with 8th Army clasp (United Kingdom)60pxWar Medal 1939–1945 (United Kingdom)Order of Victory, Star (USSR)Order of Suvorov, First Class (USSR)The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross (Yugoslavia)===Freedom of the City===Eisenhower received the Freedom honor from several locations, including:* Freedom of the City of London on June 12, 1945* Freedom of the City of Belfast on August 24, 1945* Freedom of the City of Edinburgh in 1946* Freedom of the Burgh of Maybole in October 1946===Honorary degrees===Eisenhower received many honorary degrees from universities and colleges around the world.", "These included: Location Date School Degree Gave commencement address '''August 24, 1945''' Queen's University Belfast Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1945''' University of Oxford Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) '''1946''' Harvard University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1946''' Gettysburg College Doctorate '''1946''' University of Toronto Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1947''' University of Pennsylvania Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1948''' Yale University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1950''' Hofstra University Doctorate '''June 14, 1953''' Dartmouth College Doctorate Yes '''November 19, 1953''' Catholic University of America Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1953''' College of William and Mary Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1954''' Northwestern University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''June 7, 1954''' Washington College Doctor of Laws (LL.D) Yes '''1958''' Johns Hopkins University Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''December 17, 1959''' University of Delhi Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''June 5, 1960''' University of Notre Dame Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''June 20, 1964''' Bard College Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''1965''' Grinnell College Doctor of Laws (LL.D) '''October 5, 1965''' Ohio University Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) Yes" ], [ "Promotions", "No insigniaCadet, United States Military Academy: June 14, 1911No pin insignia in 1915Second Lieutenant, Regular Army: June 12, 191513pxFirst Lieutenant, Regular Army: July 1, 191633pxCaptain, Regular Army: May 15, 191740pxMajor, National Army: June 17, 191840pxLieutenant Colonel, National Army: October 20, 191833pxCaptain, Regular Army: June 30, 1920(Reverted to permanent rank.", ")40pxMajor, Regular Army: July 2, 192033pxCaptain, Regular Army: November 4, 1922(Discharged as major and appointed as captain due to reduction of Army.", ")40pxMajor, Regular Army: August 26, 192440pxLieutenant Colonel, Regular Army: July 1, 193660pxColonel, Army of the United States: March 6, 194133pxBrigadier General, Army of the United States: September 29, 1941(temporary)66pxMajor General, Army of the United States: March 27, 1942(temporary)99pxLieutenant General, Army of the United States: July 7, 1942(temporary)132pxGeneral, Army of the United States: February 11, 1943(temporary)33pxBrigadier General, Regular Army: August 30, 194366pxMajor General, Regular Army: August 30, 1943100pxGeneral of the Army, Army of the United States: December 20, 1944100pxGeneral of the Army, Regular Army: April 11, 1946" ], [ "See also", "* \"And I don't care what it is\", phrase by Eisenhower, 1952, on religion* Atoms for Peace, a speech to the UN General Assembly in December 1953* Committee on Scientists and Engineers* Eisenhower baseball controversy* Eisenhower method for time management* Eisenhower National Historic Site* Eisenhower Presidential Center* ''Ike: Countdown to D-Day'' – a 2004 American television film about the decisions Eisenhower made as Supreme Commander that led to the successful D-Day invasion of World War II* People to People Student Ambassador Program* Kay Summersby'''General''':* Historical rankings of presidents of the United States* History of the United States (1945–1964)* List of presidents of the United States by previous experience" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Print sources ======= General biographies ====* * * * * Krieg, Joann P. ed.", "(1987).", "''Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman''.", "24 essays by scholars.", "* , popular history.", "* * * , popular history==== Military career ====* * * Eisenhower, David (1986).", "''Eisenhower at War 1943–1945'', Random House.", ".", "A detailed study by his grandson.", "* Eisenhower, John S. D. (2003).", "''General Ike'', Free Press.", ", by his son.", "* Hatch, Alden.", "''General Eisenhower'' (1944) online, early popular biography.", "* * Irish, Kerry E. \"Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan\", ''The Journal of Military History'' 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.", "* * * * ==== Civilian career ====* * * * Damms, Richard V. (2002).", "''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961''* David Paul T., ed.", "(1954).", "''Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952''.", "5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press.", "* Divine, Robert A.", "(1981).", "''Eisenhower and the Cold War''.", "* Gellman, Irwin F. (2015).", "''The President and the Apprentice: Eisenhower and Nixon, 1952–1961.''", "New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.", "* Greenstein, Fred I.", "(1991).", "''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader''.", "Basic Books.", "* Harris, Douglas B.", "\"Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption\", ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol.", "27, 1997.", "* Harris, Seymour E. (1962).", "''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy''.", "* * * Mason, Robert.", "\"War Hero in the White House: Dwight Eisenhower and the Politics of Peace, Prosperity, and Party.\"", "in ''Profiles in Power'' (Brill, 2020) pp. 112–128.", "* Medhurst, Martin J.", "(1993).", "''Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator.''", "Greenwood Press.", "* Mayer, Michael S. (2009).", "''The Eisenhower Years'' Facts on File.", "* Newton, Jim.", "(2011) ''Eisenhower: The White House Years'' * Pach, Chester J., and Richardson, Elmo (1991).", "''Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower''.", "University Press of Kansas.", "* * * Watry, David M. (2014).", "''Diplomacy at the Brink: Eisenhower, Churchill and Eden in the Cold War''.", "Louisiana State University Press.==== General history ====* * * * * ==== Primary sources ====* Boyle, Peter G., ed.", "(1990).", "''The Churchill–Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955''.", "University of North Carolina Press.", "* Boyle, Peter G., ed.", "(2005).", "''The Eden–Eisenhower correspondence, 1955–1957''.", "University of North Carolina Press.", "* Butcher, Harry C. (1946).", "''My Three Years With Eisenhower The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR'', candid memoir by a top aide.", "online* Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1948).", "''Crusade in Europe'', his war memoirs.", "* * Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965).", "''The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961'', Doubleday and Co.* ''Eisenhower Papers'' 21-volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.", "* Summersby, Kay (1948).", "''Eisenhower Was My Boss'', Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback." ], [ "External links", "* White House biography* Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum* Eisenhower National Historic Site* Eisenhower Foundation* Major speeches of Dwight Eisenhower* * Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress* Extensive essays on Dwight Eisenhower and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs* \"Life Portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower\", from C-SPAN's ''American Presidents: Life Portraits'', October 25, 1999* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dejima" ], [ "Introduction", "Museum Volkenkunde in LeidenDejima and Nagasaki Bay, circa 1820.Two Dutch ships and numerous Chinese trading junks are depicted.A view of Dejima island in Nagasaki Bay (from Siebold's ''Nippon'', 1897)Philipp Franz von Siebold (with Taki and his child Ine) watching an incoming Dutch ship at Dejima.", "Painting by Kawahara Keiga, between 1823 and 1829A central part of reconstructed Dejima or '''Deshima''', in the 17th century also called '''Tsukishima''' ( 築島, \"built island\"), was an artificial island off Nagasaki, Japan that served as a trading post for the Portuguese (1570–1639) and subsequently the Dutch (1641–1854).", "For 220 years, it was the central conduit for foreign trade and cultural exchange with Japan during the isolationist Edo period (1600–1869), and the only Japanese territory open to Westerners.", "Spanning or , Dejima was created in 1636 by digging a canal through a small peninsula and linking it to the mainland with a small bridge.", "The island was constructed by the Tokugawa shogunate, whose isolationist policies sought to preserve the existing sociopolitical order by forbidding outsiders from entering Japan while prohibiting most Japanese from leaving.", "Dejima housed Portuguese merchants and separated them from Japanese society while still facilitating lucrative trade with the West.Following a rebellion by mostly Catholic converts, all Portuguese were expelled in 1639.The Dutch were moved to Dejima in 1641, albeit under stricter control: the open practice of Christianity was banned, and interactions between Dutch and Japanese traders were tightly regulated.", "Until the mid-19th century, the Dutch were the only Westerners with exclusive access to Japanese goods, and, to a lesser extent, society and culture.", "Dejima consequently played a key role in the Japanese movement of ''rangaku'' (蘭學, \"Dutch learning\"), an organized scholarly effort to learn the Dutch language in order to understand Western science, medicine, and technology.After the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, which fully opened Japan to foreign trade and diplomatic relations, Dejima was abolished and later integrated into Nagasaki city through land reclamation.", "In 1922, the \"Dejima Dutch Trading Post\" was designated a Japanese national historic site, and there are ongoing efforts in the 21st century to restore Dejima as an island." ], [ "History", "In 1543, the history of direct contact between Japan and Europe began with the arrival of storm-blown Portuguese merchants on Tanegashima.", "Six years later the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier landed in Kagoshima.", "At first Portuguese traders were based in Hirado, but they moved in search of a better port.", "In 1570 ''daimyō'' Ōmura Sumitada converted to Catholicism (choosing Bartolomeu as his Christian name) and made a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki; soon the port was open for trade.", "In 1580 Sumitada gave the jurisdiction of Nagasaki to the Jesuits, and the Portuguese obtained the ''de facto'' monopoly on the silk trade with China through Macau.The ''shōgun'' Iemitsu ordered the construction of the artificial island in 1634, to accommodate the Portuguese traders living in Nagasaki and prevent the propagation of their religion.", "This was one of the many edicts put forth by Iemitsu between 1633 and 1639 moderating contact between Japan and other countries.", "However, in response to the uprising of the predominantly Christian population in the Shimabara-Amakusa region, the Tokugawa government decided to expel the Portuguese in 1639.Since 1609, the Dutch East India Company had run a trading post on the island of Hirado.", "The departure of the Portuguese left the Dutch employees of the \"Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie\" (\"VOC\") as the sole Westerners with trade access to Japan.", "For 33 years they were allowed to trade relatively freely.", "At its maximum, the Hirado trading post (平戸オランダ商館, Hirado Oranda Shōkan) covered a large area.In 1637 and 1639 stone warehouses were constructed within the ambit of this Hirado trading post.", "Christian-era year dates were used on the stonework of the new warehouses and these were used in 1640 as a pretext to demolish the buildings and relocate the trading post to Nagasaki.With the expulsion of the last Portuguese in 1639, Dejima became a failed commercial post and without the annual trading with Portuguese ships from Macau, the economy of Nagasaki suffered greatly.", "The Dutch were forced by government officials to move from Hirado to Dejima in Nagasaki.", "From 1641 on, only Chinese and Dutch ships were allowed to come to Japan, and Nagasaki harbor was the only harbor they were allowed to enter." ], [ "Organization", "On the administrative level, the island of Dejima was part of the city of Nagasaki.", "The 25 local Japanese families who owned the land received an annual rent from the Dutch.", "Dejima was a small island, by , linked to the mainland by a small bridge, guarded on both sides, and with a gate on the Dutch side.", "It contained houses for about twenty Dutchmen, warehouses, and accommodation for Japanese officials.", "The Dutch were watched by several Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen, and a supervisor (''otona'' 乙名) with about fifty subordinates.", "Numerous merchants supplied goods and catering, and about 150 interpreters (''tsūji'' 通詞) served.", "They all had to be paid by the ''VOC''.", "As the city of Nagasaki, Dejima was under the direct supervision of Edo through a governor (''Nagasaki bugyō'').Every ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected.", "Its sails were held by the Japanese until they released the ship to leave.", "They confiscated religious books and weapons.", "Christian churches were banned on the island and the Dutch were not allowed to hold any religious services.Despite the financial burden of maintaining the isolated outpost on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the Dutch, initially yielding profits of 50% or more.", "Trade declined in the 18th century, as only two ships per year were allowed to dock at Dejima.", "After the bankruptcy of the East-India Company in 1795, the Dutch government took over the exchange with Japan.", "Times were especially hard when the Netherlands, then called the Batavian Republic, was under French Napoleonic rule.", "All ties with the homeland were severed at Dejima, and for a while, it was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag was flown.The chief VOC trading post officer in Japan was called the ''Opperhoofd'' by the Dutch, or ''Kapitan'' (from Portuguese ''capitão'') by the Japanese.", "This descriptive title did not change when the VOC went bankrupt and trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indies government at Batavia.", "According to the Sakoku rules of the Tokugawa shogunate, the VOC had to transfer and replace the opperhoofd every year with a new one.", "And each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun." ], [ "Trade", "Originally, the Dutch mainly traded in silk, cotton, and ''materia medica'' from China and India.", "Sugar became more important later.", "Deer pelts and shark skin were transported to Japan from Formosa, as well as books, scientific instruments and many other rarities from Europe.", "In return, the Dutch traders bought Japanese copper, silver, camphor, porcelain, lacquer ware, and rice.To this was added the personal trade of VOC employees on Dejima, which was an important source of income for them and their Japanese counterparts.", "They sold more than 10,000 foreign books on various scientific subjects to the Japanese from the end of the 18th to the early 19th century.", "These became the basis of knowledge and a factor in the ''Rangaku'' movement, or Dutch studies." ], [ "Ships", "In all, 606 Dutch ships arrived at Dejima during its two centuries of settlement, from 1641 to 1847.", "* The first period, from 1641 to 1671, was rather free and saw an average of seven Dutch ships every year (12 sank during this period).", "* From 1671 to 1715, about five Dutch ships were allowed to visit Dejima every year.", "* From 1715, only two ships were permitted every year, which was reduced to one ship in 1790, and again increased to two ships in 1799.", "* During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), in which the Netherlands was occupied by (and a satellite of) France, Dutch ships abstained from sailing to Japan directly due to the possibility of being captured by Royal Navy ships.", "They relied on \"neutral\" American and Danish ships.", "The Netherlands was annexed by Napoleon Bonaparte (1810–1813), while Britain captured several Dutch colonial possessions and after the 1811 invasion of Java, Dejima was the only place in the world where the Dutch flag still flew, as ordered by commissioner Hendrik Doeff.", "* In 1815 the Dutch East Indies was returned to the control of the Netherlands and regular Dutch trading traffic was reestablished." ], [ "Trade policy", "For two hundred years, foreign merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Dejima to Nagasaki.", "Japanese civilians were likewise banned from entering Dejima, except interpreters, cooks, carpenters, clerks and yūjo (\"women of pleasure\") from the Maruyama teahouses.", "The ''yūjo'' were handpicked from 1642 by the Japanese, often against their will.", "From the 18th century, there were some exceptions to this rule, especially following Tokugawa Yoshimune's doctrine of promoting European practical sciences.", "A few ''Oranda-yuki'' (\"those who stay with the Dutch\") were allowed to stay for longer periods, but they had to report regularly to the Japanese guard post.", "Once a year the Europeans were allowed to attend the festivities at the Suwa-Shrine under escort.", "Sometimes physicians such as Engelbert Kaempfer, Carl Peter Thunberg, and Philipp Franz von Siebold were called to high-ranking Japanese patients with the permission of the authorities.", "Starting in the 18th century, Dejima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy.", "Many samurai traveled there for \"Dutch studies\" (''Rangaku'').The ''Opperhoofd'' was treated like the representative of a tributary state, which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the ''shōgun'' in Edo.", "The Dutch delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790, and once every four years thereafter.", "This prerogative was denied to the Chinese traders.", "The lengthy travel to the shogunal court broke the boredom of the Dutch stay, but it was a costly affair.", "Government officials told them in advance and in detail which (expensive) gifts were expected at the court, such as astrolabes, a pair of glasses, telescopes, globes, medical instruments, medical books, or exotic animals and tropical birds.", "In return, the Dutch delegation received some gifts from the ''shōgun''.", "On arrival in Edo, the ''Opperhoofd'' and his retinue, usually his scribe and the factory physician, had to wait in the ''Nagasakiya'' (長崎屋), their mandatory residence, until they were summoned at the court.", "During the reign of the somewhat eccentric ''shōgun'' Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, they were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs for the amusement of the ''shōgun'' after their official audience, according to Engelbert Kaempfer.", "But they also used the opportunity of their stay of about two to three weeks in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese and, under escort, to visit the town.Allegations published in the late 17th and early 18th century that Dutch traders were required by the Shogunate to renounce their Christian faith and undergo the test of treading on a ''fumi-e'', an image of Jesus or Mary, are thought by modern scholars to be propaganda arising from the Anglo-Dutch Wars." ], [ "New introductions to Japan", "A scene of residential and badminton playing in Dejima, ca.", "late 18th centuryDutch playing billiards in Dejima, ca.", "19th century* Photography, first lessons in photography given to Japanese in 1856 by the physician of the island, Dr. J. K. van den Broek.", "* Badminton, a sport that originated in India, was introduced by the Dutch during the 18th century; it is mentioned in the ''Sayings of the Dutch''.", "* Billiards were introduced in Japan on Dejima in 1764; it is noted as \"Ball striking table\" (玉突の場) in the paintings of Kawahara Keiga (川原慶賀).", "* Beer seems to have been introduced as imports during the period of isolation.", "The Dutch governor Doeff made his own beer in Nagasaki, following the disruption of trade during the Napoleonic Wars.", "Local production of beer started in Japan in 1880.", "* Clover was introduced in Japan by the Dutch as packing material for fragile cargo.", "The Japanese called it \"White packing herb\" (シロツメクサ), in reference to its white flowers.", "* Coffee was introduced in Japan by the Dutch under the name ''Moka'' and ''koffie''.", "The latter name appears in 18th-century Japanese books.", "Siebold refers to Japanese coffee amateurs in Nagasaki around 1823.", "* Japan's oldest piano was introduced by Siebold in 1823, and later given to a tradesperson in the name of Kumaya (熊谷).", "The piano is today on display in the Kumaya Art Museum (熊谷美術館), Hagi City.", "* Paint (Tar), used for ships, was introduced by the Dutch.", "The original Dutch name (''pek'') was also adopted in Japanese (Penki/ペンキ).", "* Cabbage and tomatoes were introduced in the 17th century by the Dutch.", "* Chocolate was introduced between 1789 and 1801; it is mentioned as a drink in the pleasure houses of Maruyama.", "* A diving bell with air supply by a pump was bought from Hugh Morton & Co. at Leith Docks near Edinburgh in 1834." ], [ "Nagasaki Naval Training Center", "Nagasaki, next to Dejima (in the background)Following the forced opening of Japan by US Navy Commodore Perry in 1854, the Bakufu suddenly increased its interactions with Dejima in an effort to build up knowledge of Western shipping methods.", "The , a naval training institute, was established in 1855 by the government of the ''shōgun'' at the entrance of Dejima, to enable maximum interaction with Dutch naval know-how.", "The center was equipped with Japan's first steamship, the ''Kankō Maru'', given by the government of the Netherlands the same year.", "The future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki was one of the students of the Training Center." ], [ "Reconstruction", "A photo of Dejima Island, ca.", "1870The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Dejima was abolished when Japan concluded the Treaty of Kanagawa with the United States in 1858.This ended Dejima's role as Japan's only window on the Western world during the era of national isolation.", "Since then, the island was expanded by reclaimed land and merged into Nagasaki.", "Extensive redesigning of Nagasaki Harbor in 1904 obscured its original location.", "The original footprint of Dejima Island has been marked by rivets; but as restoration progresses, the ambit of the island will be easier to see at a glance.Edo-era boundaries of Dejima island (outlined in red) within the modern city of NagasakiDejima today is a work in progress.", "The island was designated a national historic site in 1922, but further steps were slow to follow.", "Restoration work was started in 1953, but that project languished.", "In 1996, restoration of Dejima began with plans for reconstructing 25 buildings in their early 19th-century state.", "To better display Dejima's fan-shaped form, the project anticipated rebuilding only parts of the surrounding embankment wall that had once enclosed the island.", "Buildings that remained from the Meiji period were to be used.In 2000, five buildings including the Deputy Factor's Quarters were completed and opened to the public.", "In the spring of 2006, the finishing touches were put on the Chief Factor's Residence, the Japanese Officials' Office, the Head Clerk's Quarters, the No.", "3 Warehouse, and the Sea Gate.", "Currently, some 10 buildings throughout the area have been restored.In 2017, six new buildings, as well as the Omotemon Bridge (the old bridge to the mainland), were restored.", "The bridge was officially opened in attendance of members of the Japanese and Dutch royal families.Long-term planning intends that Dejima will again be surrounded by water on all four sides; its characteristic fan-shaped form and all of its embankment walls will be fully restored.", "This long-term plan will include large-scale urban redevelopment in the area.", "To make Dejima an island again will require rerouting the Nakashima River and moving a part of Route 499." ], [ "Chronology", "* 1550: Portuguese ships visit Hirado.", "* 1561: Following the murder of foreigners in the area of the Hirado clan, the Portuguese began to look for other ports to trade.", "* 1570: Christian ''daimyō'' Ōmura Sumitada make a deal with the Portuguese to develop Nagasaki, six town blocks are built.", "* 1571: Nagasaki Harbor is opened for trade, the first Portuguese ships enter.", "* 1580: Ōmura Sumitada cedes jurisdiction over Nagasaki and Mogi to the Jesuits.", "* 1588: Toyotomi Hideyoshi exerts direct control over Nagasaki, Mogi, and Urakami from the Jesuits.", "* 1609: The Dutch East India Company opens a factory in Hirado.", "It closes in 1641 when it is moved to Dejima.", "* 1612: Japan's feudal government decrees that Christian proselytizing on Bakufu lands is forbidden.", "* 1616: All trade with foreigners except that with China is confined to Hirado and Nagasaki.", "* 1634: The construction of Dejima begins.", "* 1636: Dejima is completed; the Portuguese are interned on Dejima (Fourth National Isolation Edict).", "* 1638: Shimabara Rebellion of Christian peasants is repressed with Dutch support, Christianity in Japan is repressed.", "* 1639: Portuguese ships are prohibited from entering Japan.", "Consequently, the Portuguese are banished from Dejima.", "* 1641: The Dutch East India Company Trading Post in Hirado is moved to Nagasaki.", "* 1649: German surgeon Caspar Schamberger comes to Japan.", "Beginning of a lasting interest in Western style medicine.", "* 1662: A shop is opened on Dejima to sell Imari porcelain.", "* 1673: The English ship ''Return'' enters Nagasaki, but the shogunate refuses its request for trade.", "* 1678: A bridge connecting Dejima with the shore is replaced with a stone bridge.", "* 1690: German physician Engelbert Kaempfer comes to Dejima.", "* 1696: Warehouses for secondary cargo reach completion on Dejima.", "* 1698: The Nagasaki Kaisho (trade association) is founded.", "* 1699: The Sea Gate is built at Dejima.", "* 1707: Water pipes are installed on Dejima.", "* 1775: Carl Thunberg starts his term as physician on Dejima.", "* 1779: Surgeon Isaac Titsingh arrives for his first tour of duty as ''\"Opperhoofd\".", "''* 1798: Many buildings, including the Chief Factor's Residence, are destroyed by the Great ''Kansei'' Fire of Dejima.", "* 1804: Russian Ambassador Nikolai Rezanov visits Nagasaki to request an exchange of trade between Japan and Imperial Russia.", "* 1808: The ''Phaeton'' Incident occurs.", "* 1823: German physician Philipp Franz von Siebold posted to Dejima." ], [ "Trading post chiefs (''Opperhoofden'')", "''Opperhoofd'' is a Dutch word (plural ''opperhoofden'') which literally means 'supreme head'.", "The Japanese used to call the trading post chiefs ''kapitan'' which is derived from Portuguese ''capitão'' (cf.", "Latin ''caput'', head).", "In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English Chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch ''factory'' in the sense of trading post, as led by a Factor, i.e.", "agent.===Notable ''opperhoofden'' at Hirado===* François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 ''Caron was last ''Opperhoofd'' at Hirado.", "''===Notable ''opperhoofden'' at Dejima===* François Caron: 03.02.1639 – 13.02.1641 ''Caron was the first ''Opperhoofd'' in Dejima following the forced move from Hirado.", "''* Zacharias Wagenaer Wagener: 01.11.1656 – 27.10.1657* Zacharias Wagenaer Wagener: 22.10.1658 – 04.11.1659* Andreas Cleyer Andries: 20.10.1682 -08.11.1683* Andreas Cleyer: 17.10.1685 – 05.11.1686* Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23.11.1776 – 11.11.1777* Isaac Titsingh: 29.11.1779 – 05.11.1780* Isaac Titsingh: 24.11.1781 – 26.10.1783* Isaac Titsingh: _.08.1784 – 30.11.1784* Hendrik Doeff: 14.11.1803 – 06.12.1817* Jan Cock Blomhoff: 06.12.1817 – 20.11.1823* Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 02.11.1852 – 28.02.1860" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Dutchmen with Courtesans Nagasaki c1800.jpg\|''Dutchmen with Keiseis'' (Courtesans), Nagasaki, ca.", "1800File:HendrikDoeffJapan.jpg\|Hendrik Doeff and a Balinese servant in Dejima, Japanese painting, ca.", "early 19th centuryFile:Nagasaki Dejima C1821.jpg\|A monument erected in Dejima by Siebold to honor Kaempfer and ThunbergFile:Dejima-scale-model.jpg\|A scale model of a Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (1995)" ], [ "See also", "* Dutch missions to Edo* Japan–Netherlands relations* Nanban trade* List of Jesuit sites* Sakoku* ''The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet'' – Historical novel set in Dejima* Nagasaki foreign settlement* Thirteen Factories, a former area of Guangzhou, China, where the first foreign trade was allowed in the 18th century since the ''hai jin'' (海禁) ban on maritime activities.", "* Baan Hollanda – Site of former Dutch settlement in Ayutthaya (Thailand), now a museum* ''Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C.", "2nd GIG'' – Much of the action centers on refugees who are settled on the island and eventually try to declare independence* Nagasaki saikenzu.", "Hayashi Jiza'emon, publisher.", "1830." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Blomhoff, J. C. (2000).", "''The Court Journey to the Shogun of Japan: From a Private Account by Jan Cock Blomhoff''.", "Amsterdam* Blussé, L. ''et al.", "'', eds.", "(1995–2001) ''The Deshima Dagregisters: Their Original Tables of Content''.", "Leiden.", "* Blussé, L. ''et al.", "'', eds.", "(2004).", "''The Deshima Diaries Marginalia 1740–1800.''", "Tokyo.", "* Boxer.", "C. R. (1950).", "''Jan Compagnie in Japan, 1600–1850: An Essay on the Cultural, Artistic, and Scientific Influence Exercised by the Hollanders in Japan from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Centuries''.", "Den Haag.", "* Caron, François.", "(1671).", "''A True Description of the Mighty Kingdoms of Japan and Siam''.", "London.", "* Doeff, Hendrik.", "(1633).", "''Herinneringen uit Japan''.", "Amsterdam.", "Doeff, H. \"Recollections of Japan\" ()* Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog.", "(2000).", "''A Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance: The Kapitan (the Dutch Chief) Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan''.", "Catalog of \"400th Anniversary Exhibition Regarding Relations between Japan and the Netherlands\", a joint project of the Edo-Tokyo Museum, the City of Nagasaki, the National Museum of Ethnology, the National Natuurhistorisch Museum and the National Herbarium of the Netherlands in Leiden, Netherlands.", "Tokyo.", "* Leguin, F. (2002).", "''Isaac Titsingh (1745–1812): Een passie voor Japan, leven en werk van de grondlegger van de Europese Japanologie''.", "Leiden.", "* Mitchell, David (2010).", "''The Thousand Autumns of Jacob de Zoet''.", "London.", "* ''Nederland's Patriciaat'', Vol.", "13 (1923).", "Den Haag.", "* Screech, Timon.", "(2006).", "''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822''.", "London: RoutledgeCurzon.", "* Siebold, P.F.v.", "(1897).", "''Nippon.''", "Würzburg / Leipzig.", "Click link for full text in modern German* Titsingh, I.", "(1820).", "''Mémoires et Anecdotes sur la Dynastie régnante des Djogouns, Souverains du Japon''.", "Paris: Nepveau.", "* Titsingh, I.", "(1822).", "''Illustrations of Japan; consisting of Private Memoirs and Anecdotes of the reigning dynasty of The Djogouns, or Sovereigns of Japan''.", "London: Ackerman." ], [ "External links", "* Dejima official website(Japanese)* Trading-post chiefs, surgeons, physicians and other employees at the VOC factories Hirado and Dejima* Hendrick Hamel in Japan: Deshima, layout and building placement* WorldStatesmen – Japan* New York Public Library Digital Gallery: Engelbert Kaempfer's map of Nagasaki harbor, 1727 Deshima location" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Descriptive statistics" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''descriptive statistic''' (in the count noun sense) is a summary statistic that quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a collection of information, while '''descriptive statistics''' (in the mass noun sense) is the process of using and analysing those statistics.", "Descriptive statistics is distinguished from inferential statistics (or inductive statistics) by its aim to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent.", "This generally means that descriptive statistics, unlike inferential statistics, is not developed on the basis of probability theory, and are frequently nonparametric statistics.", "Even when a data analysis draws its main conclusions using inferential statistics, descriptive statistics are generally also presented.", "For example, in papers reporting on human subjects, typically a table is included giving the overall sample size, sample sizes in important subgroups (e.g., for each treatment or exposure group), and demographic or clinical characteristics such as the average age, the proportion of subjects of each sex, the proportion of subjects with related co-morbidities, etc.Some measures that are commonly used to describe a data set are measures of central tendency and measures of variability or dispersion.", "Measures of central tendency include the mean, median and mode, while measures of variability include the standard deviation (or variance), the minimum and maximum values of the variables, kurtosis and skewness." ], [ "Use in statistical analysis", "Descriptive statistics provide simple summaries about the sample and about the observations that have been made.", "Such summaries may be either quantitative, i.e.", "summary statistics, or visual, i.e.", "simple-to-understand graphs.", "These summaries may either form the basis of the initial description of the data as part of a more extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in and of themselves for a particular investigation.For example, the shooting percentage in basketball is a descriptive statistic that summarizes the performance of a player or a team.", "This number is the number of shots made divided by the number of shots taken.", "For example, a player who shoots 33% is making approximately one shot in every three.", "The percentage summarizes or describes multiple discrete events.", "Consider also the grade point average.", "This single number describes the general performance of a student across the range of their course experiences.The use of descriptive and summary statistics has an extensive history and, indeed, the simple tabulation of populations and of economic data was the first way the topic of statistics appeared.", "More recently, a collection of summarisation techniques has been formulated under the heading of exploratory data analysis: an example of such a technique is the box plot.In the business world, descriptive statistics provides a useful summary of many types of data.", "For example, investors and brokers may use a historical account of return behaviour by performing empirical and analytical analyses on their investments in order to make better investing decisions in the future.===Univariate analysis===Univariate analysis involves describing the distribution of a single variable, including its central tendency (including the mean, median, and mode) and dispersion (including the range and quartiles of the data-set, and measures of spread such as the variance and standard deviation).", "The shape of the distribution may also be described via indices such as skewness and kurtosis.", "Characteristics of a variable's distribution may also be depicted in graphical or tabular format, including histograms and stem-and-leaf display.===Bivariate and multivariate analysis===When a sample consists of more than one variable, descriptive statistics may be used to describe the relationship between pairs of variables.", "In this case, descriptive statistics include:* Cross-tabulations and contingency tables* Graphical representation via scatterplots* Quantitative measures of dependence* Descriptions of conditional distributionsThe main reason for differentiating univariate and bivariate analysis is that bivariate analysis is not only a simple descriptive analysis, but also it describes the relationship between two different variables.", "Quantitative measures of dependence include correlation (such as Pearson's r when both variables are continuous, or Spearman's rho if one or both are not) and covariance (which reflects the scale variables are measured on).", "The slope, in regression analysis, also reflects the relationship between variables.", "The unstandardised slope indicates the unit change in the criterion variable for a one unit change in the predictor.", "The standardised slope indicates this change in standardised (z-score) units.", "Highly skewed data are often transformed by taking logarithms.", "The use of logarithms makes graphs more symmetrical and look more similar to the normal distribution, making them easier to interpret intuitively." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Descriptive Statistics Lecture: University of Pittsburgh Supercourse: http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec0421/index.htm" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demographic statistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Demographic statistics''' are measures of the characteristics of, or changes to, a population.", "Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy.A useful summary of such data is the population pyramid.", "It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.Another summary is called the life table.", "For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death.", "For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes.", "Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population." ], [ "Collection", "National population statistics are usually collected by conducting a census.", "However, because these are usually huge logistical exercises, countries normally conduct censuses only once every five to 10 years.", "Even when a census is conducted it may miss counting everyone (known as undercount).", "Also, some people counted in the census may be recorded in a different place than where they usually live, because they are travelling, for example (this may result in overcounting).", "Consequently, raw census numbers are often adjusted to produce ''census estimates'' that identify such statistics as ''resident population'', ''residents, tourists and other visitors'', ''nationals and aliens (non-nationals)''.", "For privacy reasons, particularly when there are small counts, some census results may be rounded, often to the nearest ten, hundred, thousand and sometimes randomly up, down or to another small number such as within 3 of the actual count.Between censuses, administrative data collected by various agencies about population events such as births, deaths, and cross-border migration may be used to produce intercensal estimates." ], [ "Population estimates and projections", "'''Population estimates''' are usually derived from census and other administrative data.", "Population estimates are normally produced after the date the estimate is for.Some estimates, such as the ''Usually resident population'' estimate who usually lives in a locality as at the census date, even though the census did not count them within that locality.", "Census questions usually include a questions about where a person usually lives, whether they are a resident or visitor, or also live somewhere else, to allow these estimates to be made.Other estimates are concerned with estimating population on a particular date that is different from the census date, for example the middle or end of a calendar or financial year.", "These estimates often use birth and death records and migration data to adjust census counts for the changes that have happened since the census.", "'''Population projections''' are produced in advance of the date they are for.", "They use time series analysis of existing census data and other sources of population information to forecast the size of future populations.", "Because there are unknown factors that may affect future population changes, population projections often incorporate high and low as well as expected values for future populations.", "Population projections are often recomputed after a census has been conducted.", "It depends on how the area is adjusted in a particular demarcation." ], [ "History", "While many censuses were conducted in antiquity, there are few population statistics that survive.", "One example though can be found in the Bible, in chapter 1 of the Book of Numbers.", "Not only are the statistics given, but the method used to compile those statistics is also described.", "In modern-day terms, this metadata about the census is probably of as much value as the statistics themselves as it allows researchers to determine not only what was being counted but how and why it was done." ], [ "Metadata", "Modern population statistics are normally accompanied by '''metadata''' that explains how the statistics have been compiled and adjusted to compensate for any collection issues." ], [ "Statistical sources", "Most countries have a census bureau or government agency responsible for conducting censuses.", "Many of these agencies publish their country's census results and other population statistics on their agency's website." ], [ "See also", "Demographic windowCensus - Census Bureau, Census tract, Census block group, Census block.", "Intercensal estimatePopulation projection" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Detective fiction" ], [ "Introduction", "Consulting detective Sherlock Holmes examines a suspect's boots in an illustration to the 1891 story \"The Boscombe Valley Mystery\"'''Detective fiction''' is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder.", "The detective genre began around the same time as speculative fiction and other genre fiction in the mid-nineteenth century and has remained extremely popular, particularly in novels.", "Some of the most famous heroes of detective fiction include C. Auguste Dupin, Sherlock Holmes, and Hercule Poirot.", "Juvenile stories featuring The Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, and The Boxcar Children have also remained in print for several decades." ], [ "History", "===Ancient===Some scholars, such as R. H. Pfeiffer, have suggested that certain ancient and religious texts bear similarities to what would later be called detective fiction.", "In the Old Testament story of Susanna and the Elders (the Protestant Bible locates this story within the apocrypha), the account told by two witnesses broke down when Daniel cross-examines them.", "In response, author Julian Symons has argued that \"those who search for fragments of detection in the Bible and Herodotus are looking only for puzzles\" and that these puzzles are not detective stories.", "In the play ''Oedipus Rex'' by Ancient Greek playwright Sophocles, Oedipus investigates the unsolved murder of King Laius and discovers the truth after questioning various witnesses that he himself is the culprit.", "Although \"Oedipus's enquiry is based on supernatural, pre-rational methods that are evident in most narratives of crime until the development of Enlightenment thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries\", this narrative has \"all of the central characteristics and formal elements of the detective story, including a mystery surrounding a murder, a closed circle of suspects, and the gradual uncovering of a hidden past.", "\"===Early Arabic===The ''One Thousand and One Nights'' contains several of the earliest detective stories, anticipating modern detective fiction.", "The oldest known example of a detective story was \"The Three Apples\", one of the tales narrated by Scheherazade in the ''One Thousand and One Nights'' (''Arabian Nights'').", "In this story, a fisherman discovers a heavy, locked chest along the Tigris river, which he then sells to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid.", "When Harun breaks open the chest, he discovers the body of a young woman who has been cut into pieces.", "Harun then orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and to find the murderer within three days, or be executed if he fails in his assignment.", "Suspense is generated through multiple plot twists that occur as the story progressed.", "With these characteristics this may be considered an archetype for detective fiction.", "It anticipates the use of reverse chronology in modern detective fiction, where the story begins with a crime before presenting a gradual reconstruction of the past.The main difference between Ja'far (\"The Three Apples\") and later fictional detectives, such as Sherlock Holmes and Hercule Poirot, is that Ja'far has no actual desire to solve the case.", "The whodunit mystery is solved when the murderer himself confessed his crime.", "This in turn leads to another assignment in which Ja'far has to find the culprit who instigated the murder within three days or else be executed.", "Ja'far again fails to find the culprit before the deadline, but owing to chance, he discovers a key item.", "In the end, he manages to solve the case through reasoning in order to prevent his own execution.On the other hand, two other ''Arabian Nights'' stories, \"The Merchant and the Thief\" and \"Ali Khwaja\", contain two of the earliest fictional detectives, who uncover clues and present evidence to catch or convict a criminal known to the audience, with the story unfolding in normal chronology and the criminal already known to the audience.", "The latter involves a climax where the titular detective protagonist Ali Khwaja presents evidence from expert witnesses in a court.===Early Chinese===Gong'an fiction (公案小说, literally：\"case records of a public law court\") is an early genre of Chinese detective fiction.Some well-known stories include the Yuan dynasty story ''Circle of Chalk'' (Chinese: 灰闌記), the Ming dynasty story collection ''Bao Gong An'' (Chinese: 包公案) and the 18th century ''Di Gong An'' (Chinese: 狄公案) story collection.", "The latter was translated into English as ''Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee'' by Dutch sinologist Robert Van Gulik, who then used the style and characters to write the original Judge Dee series.The hero/detective of these novels was typically a traditional judge or similar official based on historical personages such as Judge Bao (Bao Qingtian) or Judge Dee (Di Renjie).", "Although the historical characters may have lived in an earlier period (such as the Song or Tang dynasty) most stories are written in the later Ming or Qing dynasty period.These novels differ from the Western style tradition in several points as described by Van Gulik:* The detective is the local magistrate who is usually involved in several unrelated cases simultaneously;* The criminal is introduced at the very beginning of the story and his crime and reasons are carefully explained, thus constituting an inverted detective story rather than a \"puzzle\";* The stories have a supernatural element with ghosts telling people about their death and even accusing the criminal;* The stories are filled with digressions into philosophy, the complete texts of official documents, and much more, resulting in long books; and* The novels tend to have a huge cast of characters, typically in the hundreds, all described with their relation to the various main actors in the story.Van Gulik chose ''Di Gong An'' to translate because in his view it was closer to the Western literary style and more likely to appeal to non-Chinese readers.A number of Gong An works may have been lost or destroyed during the Literary Inquisitions and the wars in ancient China.", "In the traditional Chinese culture, this genre was low-prestige, and therefore was less worthy of preservation than works such as philosophy or poetry.", "Mainly incomplete case volumes can be found; for example, a copy of ''Di Gong An'' was found at a second-hand book store in Tokyo, Japan.===Early Western===Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849)One of the earliest examples of detective fiction in Western Literature is Voltaire's ''Zadig'' (1748), which features a main character who performs feats of analysis.", "''Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams'' (1794) by William Godwin portrays the law as protecting the murderer and destroying the innocent.", "Thomas Skinner Sturr's anonymous ''Richmond, or stories in the life of a Bow Street officer'' was published in London in 1827; the Danish crime story ''The Rector of Veilbye'' by Steen Steensen Blicher was written in 1829; and the Norwegian crime novel ''Mordet paa Maskinbygger Roolfsen'' (\"The Murder of Engine Maker Roolfsen\") by Maurits Hansen was published in December 1839.", "\"Das Fräulein von Scuderi\" is an 1819 short story by E. T. A. Hoffmann, in which Mlle de Scudery establishes the innocence of the police's favorite suspect in the murder of a jeweller.", "This story is sometimes cited as the first detective story and as a direct influence on Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\" (1841).", "Also suggested as a possible influence on Poe is 'The Secret Cell', a short story published in September 1837 by William Evans Burton.", "It has been suggested that this story may have been known to Poe, who in 1839 worked for Burton.", "The story was about a London policeman who solves the mystery of a kidnapped girl.", "Burton's fictional detective relied on practical methods such as dogged legwork, knowledge of the underworld and undercover surveillance, rather than brilliance of imagination or intellect.===English genre establishment===Detective fiction in the English-speaking world is considered to have begun in 1841 with the publication of Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\", featuring \"the first fictional detective, the eccentric and brilliant C. Auguste Dupin\".", "When the character first appeared, the word ''detective'' had not yet been used in English; however, the character's name, \"Dupin\", originated from the English word dupe or deception.", "Poe devised a \"plot formula that's been successful ever since, give or take a few shifting variables.\"", "Poe followed with further Auguste Dupin tales: \"The Mystery of Marie Rogêt\" in 1842 and \"The Purloined Letter\" in 1844.Poe referred to his stories as \"tales of ratiocination\".", "In stories such as these, the primary concern of the plot is ascertaining truth, and the usual means of obtaining the truth is a complex and mysterious process combining intuitive logic, astute observation, and perspicacious inference.", "\"Early detective stories tended to follow an investigating protagonist from the first scene to the last, making the unravelling a practical rather than emotional matter.\"", "\"The Mystery of Marie Rogêt\" is particularly interesting because it is a barely fictionalized account based on Poe's theory of what happened to the real-life Mary Cecilia Rogers.William Russell (1806–1876) was among the first English authors to write fictitious 'police memoirs', contributing an irregular series of stories (under the pseudonym 'Waters') to ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'' between 1849 and 1852.Unauthorised collections of his stories were published in New York City in 1852 and 1853, entitled ''The Recollections of a Policeman''.", "Twelve stories were then collated into a volume entitled ''Recollections of a Detective Police-Officer'', published in London in 1856.196x196pxLiterary critic Catherine Ross Nickerson credits Louisa May Alcott with creating the second-oldest work of modern detective fiction, after only Poe's Dupin stories themselves, with the 1865 thriller \"V.V., or Plots and Counterplots.\"", "A short story published anonymously by Alcott, the story concerns a Scottish aristocrat who tries to prove that a mysterious woman has killed his fiancée and cousin.", "The detective on the case, Antoine Dupres, is a parody of Auguste Dupin who is less concerned with solving the crime as he is in setting up a way to reveal the solution with a dramatic flourish.", "Ross Nickerson notes that many of the American writers who experimented with Poe's established rules of the genre were women, inventing a subgenre of domestic detective fiction that flourished in its own right for several generations.", "These included Metta Fuller Victor's two detective novels ''The Dead Letter'' (1867) and ''The Figure Eight'' (1869).", "''The Dead Letter'' is noteworthy as the first full-length work of American crime fiction.Émile Gaboriau was a pioneer of the detective fiction genre in France.", "In ''Monsieur Lecoq'' (1868), the title character is adept at disguise, a key characteristic of detectives.", "Gaboriau's writing is also considered to contain the first example of a detective minutely examining a crime scene for clues.Another early example of a whodunit is a subplot in the novel ''Bleak House'' (1853) by Charles Dickens.", "The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan police force.", "Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the murderer.", "Dickens also left a novel unfinished at his death, ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood''.Wilkie Collins (1824–1889)Dickens's protégé, Wilkie Collins (1824–1889)—sometimes called the \"grandfather of English detective fiction\"—is credited with the first great mystery novel, ''The Woman in White''.", "T. S. Eliot called Collins's novel ''The Moonstone'' (1868) \"the first, the longest, and the best of modern English detective novels... in a genre invented by Collins and not by Poe\", and Dorothy L. Sayers called it \"probably the very finest detective story ever written\".", "''The Moonstone'' contains a number of ideas that have established in the genre several classic features of the 20th century detective story:* English country house robbery* An \"inside job\"* red herrings* A celebrated, skilled, professional investigator* Bungling local constabulary* Detective inquiries* Large number of false suspects* The \"least likely suspect\"* A rudimentary \"locked room\" murder* A reconstruction of the crime* A final twist in the plotArthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930)Although ''The Moonstone'' is usually seen as the first detective novel, there are other contenders for the honor.", "A number of critics suggest that the lesser known ''Notting Hill Mystery'' (1862–63), written by the pseudonymous \"Charles Felix\" (later identified as Charles Warren Adams), preceded it by a number of years and first used techniques that would come to define the genre.Literary critics Chris Willis and Kate Watson consider Mary Elizabeth Braddon's first book, the even earlier ''The Trail of the Serpent'' (1861), to be the first British detective novel.", "''The Trail of the Serpent'' \"features an innovative detective figure, Mr. Peters, who is lower class and mute, and who is initially dismissed both by the text and its characters.\"", "Braddon's later and better-remembered work, ''Aurora Floyd'' (printed in 1863 novel form, but serialized in 1862–63), also features a compelling detective in the person of Detective Grimstone of Scotland Yard.Tom Taylor's melodrama ''The Ticket-of-Leave Man'', an adaptation of ''Léonard'' by Édouard Brisbarre and Eugène Nus, appeared in 1863, introducing Hawkshaw the Detective.", "In short, it is difficult to establish who was the first to write the English-language detective novel, as various authors were exploring the theme simultaneously.Anna Katharine Green, in her 1878 debut ''The Leavenworth Case'' and other works, popularized the genre among middle-class readers and helped to shape the genre into its classic form as well as developed the concept of the series detective.In 1887, Arthur Conan Doyle created Sherlock Holmes, arguably the most famous of all fictional detectives.", "Although Sherlock Holmes is not the original fictional detective (he was influenced by Poe's Dupin and Gaboriau's Lecoq), his name has become a byword for the part.", "Conan Doyle stated that the character of Holmes was inspired by Dr. Joseph Bell, for whom Doyle had worked as a clerk at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary.", "Like Holmes, Bell was noted for drawing large conclusions from the smallest observations.", "A brilliant London-based \"consulting detective\" residing at 221B Baker Street, Holmes is famous for his intellectual prowess and is renowned for his skillful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning, and forensic skills to solve difficult cases.", "Conan Doyle wrote four novels and fifty-six short stories featuring Holmes, and all but four stories are narrated by Holmes's friend, assistant, and biographer, Dr. John H. Watson." ], [ "Golden Age novels", " Agatha Christie (1890–1976)Mika Waltari (1908–1979), better known for his historical novels, also wrote crime novels such as Inspector Palmus.The period between World War I and World War II (the 1920s and 1930s) is generally referred to as the Golden Age of Detective Fiction.", "During this period, a number of very popular writers emerged, including mostly British but also a notable subset of American and New Zealand writers.", "Female writers constituted a major portion of notable Golden Age writers.", "Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, Josephine Tey, Margery Allingham, and Ngaio Marsh were particularly famous female writers of this time.", "Apart from Ngaio Marsh (a New Zealander), they were all British.Various conventions of the detective genre were standardized during the Golden Age, and in 1929, some of them were codified by the English Catholic priest and author of detective stories Ronald Knox in his 'Decalogue' of rules for detective fiction.", "One of his rules was to avoid supernatural elements so that the focus remained on the mystery itself.", "Knox has contended that a detective story \"must have as its main interest the unravelling of a mystery; a mystery whose elements are clearly presented to the reader at an early stage in the proceedings, and whose nature is such as to arouse curiosity, a curiosity which is gratified at the end.\"", "Another common convention in Golden Age detective stories involved an outsider–sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but often a gifted amateur—investigating a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects.The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel became the whodunit (or whodunnit, short for \"who done it?\").", "In this subgenre, great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the crime, usually a homicide, and the subsequent investigation.", "This objective was to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are both revealed.", "According to scholars Carole Kismaric and Marvin Heiferman, \"The golden age of detective fiction began with high-class amateur detectives sniffing out murderers lurking in rose gardens, down country lanes, and in picturesque villages.", "Many conventions of the detective-fiction genre evolved in this era, as numerous writers—from populist entertainers to respected poets—tried their hands at mystery stories.", "\"John Dickson Carr—who also wrote as Carter Dickson—used the “puzzle” approach in his writing which was characterized by including a complex puzzle for the reader to try to unravel.", "He created ingenious and seemingly impossible plots and is regarded as the master of the \"locked room mystery\".", "Two of Carr's most famous works are ''The Case of Constant Suicides'' (1941) and ''The Hollow Man'' (1935).", "Another author, Cecil Street—who also wrote as John Rhode—wrote of a detective, Dr. Priestley, who specialised in elaborate technical devices.", "In the United States, the whodunit subgenre was adopted and extended by Rex Stout and Ellery Queen, along with others.", "The emphasis on formal rules during the Golden Age produced great works, albeit with highly standardized form.", "The most successful novels of this time included “an original and exciting plot; distinction in the writing, a vivid sense of place, a memorable and compelling hero and the ability to draw the reader into their comforting and highly individual world.”==='Whodunit'===A '''''whodunit''''' or '''''whodunnit''''' (a colloquial elision of \"Who has done it?\"", "or \"Who did it?\")", "is a complex, plot-driven variety of the detective story in which the audience is given the opportunity to engage in the same process of deduction as the protagonist throughout the investigation of a crime.", "The reader or viewer is provided with the clues from which the identity of the perpetrator may be deduced before the story provides the revelation itself at its climax.", "The \"whodunit\" flourished during the so-called \"Golden Age\" of detective fiction, between 1920 and 1950, when it was the predominant mode of crime writing.=== Agatha Christie ===Agatha Christie is not only the most famous Golden Age writer, but also considered one of the most famous authors of all genres of all time.", "At the time of her death in 1976, “she was the best-selling novelist in history.”Many of the most popular books of the Golden Age were written by Agatha Christie.", "She produced long series of books featuring detective characters like Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple, amongst others.", "Her use of basing her stories on complex puzzles, “combined with her stereotyped characters and picturesque middle-class settings”, is credited for her success.", "Christie's works include ''Murder on the Orient Express'' (1934), ''Death on the Nile'' (1937), ''Three Blind Mice'' (1950) and ''And Then There Were None'' (1939)." ], [ "By country", "=== China ===Through China's Golden Age of crime fiction (1900–1949), translations of Western classics, and native Chinese detective fictions circulated within the country.Cheng Xiaoqing had first encountered Conan Doyle's highly popular stories as an adolescent.", "In the ensuing years, he played a major role in rendering them first into classical and later into vernacular Chinese.", "Cheng Xiaoqing's translated works from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle introduced China to a new type of narrative style.", "Western detective fiction that was translated often emphasized “individuality, equality, and the importance of knowledge”, appealing to China that it was the time for opening their eyes to the rest of the world.This style began China's interest in popular crime fiction, and is what drove Cheng Xiaoqing to write his own crime fiction novel, ''Sherlock in Shanghai''.", "In the late 1910s, Cheng began writing detective fiction very much in Conan Doyle's style, with Bao as the Watson-like narrator; a rare instance of such a direct appropriation from foreign fiction.", "Famed as the “Oriental Sherlock Holmes”, the duo Huo Sang and Bao Lang become counterparts to Doyle's Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson characters.=== Iran ===\"Sadiq Mamquli, The Sherlock Holmes of Iran, The Sherriff of Isfahan\" is the first major detective fiction in Persian, written by Kazim Musta'an al-Sultan (Houshi Daryan).", "It was first published in 1925.There was no biographical account of the author of the book for over 70 years until being identified after the book was reprinted in 2017.=== Japan ===Edogawa Rampo is the first major Japanese modern mystery writer and the founder of the Detective Story Club in Japan.", "Rampo was an admirer of western mystery writers.", "He gained his fame in the early 1920s, when he began to bring to the genre many bizarre, erotic and even fantastic elements.", "This is partly because of the social tension before World War II.", "In 1957, Seicho Matsumoto received the Mystery Writers of Japan Award for his short story ''The Face'' (''顔'' ''kao'').", "''The Face'' and Matsumoto's subsequent works began the \"social school\" (社会派 ''shakai ha'') within the genre, which emphasized social realism, described crimes in an ordinary setting and sets motives within a wider context of social injustice and political corruption.", "Since the 1980s, a \"new orthodox school\" (新本格派 ''shin honkaku ha'') has surfaced.", "It demands restoration of the classic rules of detective fiction and the use of more self-reflective elements.", "Famous authors of this movement include Soji Shimada, Yukito Ayatsuji, Rintaro Norizuki, Alice Arisugawa, Kaoru Kitamura and Taku Ashibe.=== India ===Kottayam Pushpanath, a prolific writer, brought to life a vivid array of characters and mysteries.", "Pushpanath practiced teaching history for several years before becoming a full time writer.", "It was in the last 1960s that he made his literary debut with ''Chuvanna Manushyan''.", "Pushpanath authored more than 350 detective novels.=== Pakistan ===Ibn-e-Safi is the most popular Urdo detective fiction writer.", "He started writing his famous Jasoosi Dunya Series spy stories in 1952 with Col. Fareedi & Captain.", "Hameed as main characters.In 1955 he started writing Imran Series spy novels with Ali Imran as X2 the chief of secret service and his companions.After his death many other writers accepted Ali Imran character and wrote spy novels.Another popular spy novel writer was Ishtiaq Ahmad who wrote Inspector Jamsheed, Inspector Kamran Mirza and Shooki brother's series of spy novels.===Russia===Stories about robbers and detectives were very popular in Russia since old times.", "The most famous hero in XVIII cent.", "was Ivan Osipov (1718–after 1756), nicknamed Ivan Kain.", "Another examples of early Russian detective stories are: \"Bitter Fate\" (1789) by M. D. Chulkov (1743–1792), \"The Finger Ring\" (1831) by Yevgeny Baratynsky, \"The White Ghost\" (1834) by Mikhail Zagoskin, ''Crime and Punishment '' (1866) and ''The Brothers Karamazov'' (1880) by Fyodor Dostoevsky.", "Detective fiction in modern Russian literature with clear detective plots started with ''The Garin Death Ray'' (1926–1927) and ''The Black Gold'' (1931) by Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, ''Mess-Mend'' by Marietta Shaginyan, ''The Investigator's Notes'' by Lev Sheinin.", "Boris Akunin is a famous Russian writer of historical detective fiction in modern-day Russia.===United States===Especially in the United States, detective fiction emerged in the 1960s, and gained prominence in later decades, as a way for authors to bring stories about various subcultures to mainstream audiences.", "One scholar wrote about the detective novels of Tony Hillerman, set among the Native American population around New Mexico, \"many American readers have probably gotten more insight into traditional Navajo culture from his detective stories than from any other recent books.\"", "Other notable writers who have explored regional and ethnic communities in their detective novels are Harry Kemelman, whose Rabbi Small series were set in the Conservative Jewish community of Massachusetts; Walter Mosley, whose Easy Rawlins books are set in the African American community of 1950s Los Angeles; and Sara Paretsky, whose V. I. Warshawski books have explored the various subcultures of Chicago." ], [ "Subgenres", "===Hardboiled===Martin Hewitt, created by British author Arthur Morrison in 1894, is one of the first examples of the modern style of fictional private detective.", "This character is described as an \"'Everyman' detective meant to challenge the detective-as-superman that Holmes represented.", "\"By the late 1920s, Al Capone and the Mob were inspiring not only fear, but piquing mainstream curiosity about the American crime underworld.", "Popular pulp fiction magazines like ''Black Mask'' capitalized on this, as authors such as Carrol John Daly published violent stories that focused on the mayhem and injustice surrounding the criminals, not the circumstances behind the crime.", "Very often, no actual mystery even existed: the books simply revolved around justice being served to those who deserved harsh treatment, which was described in explicit detail.\"", "The overall theme these writers portrayed reflected \"the changing face of America itself.", "\"In the 1930s, the private eye genre was adopted wholeheartedly by American writers.", "One of the primary contributors to this style was Dashiell Hammett with his famous private investigator character, Sam Spade.", "His style of crime fiction came to be known as \"hardboiled\", which is described as a genre that \"usually deals with criminal activity in a modern urban environment, a world of disconnected signs and anonymous strangers.\"", "\"Told in stark and sometimes elegant language through the unemotional eyes of new hero-detectives, these stories were an American phenomenon.", "\"In the late 1930s, Raymond Chandler updated the form with his private detective Philip Marlowe, who brought a more intimate voice to the detective than the more distanced \"operative's report\" style of Hammett's Continental Op stories.", "Despite struggling through the task of plotting a story, his cadenced dialogue and cryptic narrations were musical, evoking the dark alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men about whom he wrote.", "Several feature and television movies have been made about the Philip Marlowe character.", "James Hadley Chase wrote a few novels with private eyes as the main heroes, including ''Blonde's Requiem'' (1945), ''Lay Her Among the Lilies'' (1950), and ''Figure It Out for Yourself'' (1950).", "The heroes of these novels are typical private eyes, very similar to or plagiarizing Raymond Chandler's work.Ross Macdonald, pseudonym of Kenneth Millar, updated the form again with his detective Lew Archer.", "Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past.", "\"Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears,\" one reviewer wrote.", "Two of Macdonald's strengths were his use of psychology and his beautiful prose, which was full of imagery.", "Like other 'hardboiled' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation.", "The 1966 movie ''Harper'' starring Paul Newman was based on the first Lew Archer story ''The Moving Target'' (1949).", "Newman reprised the role in ''The Drowning Pool'' in 1976.Michael Collins, pseudonym of Dennis Lynds, is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age.", "His PI, Dan Fortune, was consistently involved in the same sort of David-and-Goliath stories that Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald wrote, but Collins took a sociological bent, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people.", "Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than those of his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room.The PI novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until Marcia Muller, Sara Paretsky, and Sue Grafton were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "Each author's detective, also female, was brainy and physical and could hold her own.", "Their acceptance, and success, caused publishers to seek out other female authors.=== Inverted ===An inverted detective story, also known as a \"'''howcatchem'''\", is a murder mystery fiction structure in which the commission of the crime is shown or described at the beginning, usually including the identity of the perpetrator.", "The story then describes the detective's attempt to solve the mystery.", "There may also be subsidiary puzzles, such as why the crime was committed, and they are explained or resolved during the story.", "This format is the opposite of the more typical \"whodunit\", where all of the details of the perpetrator of the crime are not revealed until the story's climax.===Police procedural===Many detective stories have police officers as the main characters.", "These stories may take a variety of forms, but many authors try to realistically depict the routine activities of a group of police officers who are frequently working on more than one case simultaneously.", "Some of these stories are whodunits; in others, the criminal is well known, and it is a case of getting enough evidence.In the 1940s the police procedural evolved as a new style of detective fiction.", "Unlike the heroes of Christie, Chandler, and Spillane, the police detective was subject to error and was constrained by rules and regulations.", "As Gary Huasladen says in ''Places for Dead Bodies'', \"not all the clients were insatiable bombshells, and invariably there was life outside the job.\"", "The detective in the police procedural does the things police officers do to catch a criminal.", "Writers include Ed McBain, P. D. James, and Bartholomew Gill.===Historical mystery===Estonian writer Indrek Hargla is known for his ''Melchior the Apothecary'' series, which takes place in medieval Tallinn and has also been adapted into filmsHistorical mystery is set in a time period considered historical from the author's perspective, and the central plot involves the solving of a mystery or crime (usually murder).", "Though works combining these genres have existed since at least the early 20th century, many credit Ellis Peters's ''Cadfael Chronicles'' (1977–1994) for popularizing what would become known as the historical mystery.A variation on this is Josephine Tey's ''The Daughter of Time''.", "In it, Scotland Yard Inspector Alan Grant—who considers himself a good judge of faces—is surprised to find that what he considers to be the portrait of a sensitive man is in reality a portrait of Richard III, who murdered his brother's children in order to become king.", "The story details his attempt to get to the historical truth of whether Richard III is the villain he has been made out to be by history.", "The novel was awarded the top spot in the Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time by the UK Crime Writers' Association and the number 4 spot in The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time Mystery Writers of America===Cozy mystery===Cozy mystery began in the late 20th century as a reinvention of the Golden Age whodunit; these novels generally shy away from violence and suspense and frequently feature female amateur detectives.", "Modern cozy mysteries are frequently, though not necessarily in either case, humorous and thematic (culinary mystery, animal mystery, quilting mystery, etc.", ")This style features minimal violence, sex, and social relevance; a solution achieved by intellect or intuition rather than police procedure, with order restored in the end; honorable and well bred characters; and a setting in a closed community.", "Writers include Agatha Christie, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Elizabeth Daly.===Serial killer mystery===Serial killer mystery might be thought of as an outcropping of the police procedural.", "There are early mystery novels in which a police force attempts to contend with the type of criminal known in the 1920s as a homicidal maniac, such as a few of the early novels of Philip Macdonald and Ellery Queen's ''Cat of Many Tails''.", "However, this sort of story became much more popular after the coining of the phrase \"serial killer\" in the 1970s and the publication of ''The Silence of the Lambs'' in 1988.These stories frequently show the activities of many members of a police force or government agency in their efforts to apprehend a killer who is selecting victims on some obscure basis.", "They are also often much more violent and suspenseful than other mysteries.===Legal thriller===The legal thriller or courtroom novel is also related to detective fiction.", "The system of justice itself is always a major part of these works, at times almost functioning as one of the characters.", "In this way, the legal system provides the framework for the legal thriller as much as the system of modern police work does for the police procedural.", "The legal thriller usually starts its business with the court proceedings following the closure of an investigation, often resulting in a new angle on the investigation, so as to bring about a final outcome different from the one originally devised by the investigators.", "In the legal thriller, court proceedings play a very active, if not to say decisive part in a case reaching its ultimate solution.", "Erle Stanley Gardner popularized the courtroom novel in the 20th century with his Perry Mason series.", "Contemporary authors of legal thrillers include Michael Connelly, Linda Fairstein, John Grisham, John Lescroart, Paul Levine, Lisa Scottoline, and Scott Turow.===Locked room mystery===The locked room mystery is a subgenre of detective fiction in which a crime—almost always murder—is committed under circumstances which it was seemingly impossible for the perpetrator to commit the crime and/or evade detection in the course of getting in and out of the crime scene.", "The genre was established in the 19th century.", "Edgar Allan Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\" (1841) is considered the first locked-room mystery; since then, other authors have used the scheme.", "The crime in question typically involves a crime scene with no indication as to how the intruder could have entered or left, i.e., a locked room.", "Following other conventions of classic detective fiction, the reader is normally presented with the puzzle and all of the clues, and is encouraged to solve the mystery before the solution is revealed in a dramatic climax.===Occult===Occult detective fiction is a subgenre of detective fiction that combines the tropes of detective fiction with those of supernatural horror fiction.", "Unlike the traditional detective, the occult detective is employed in cases involving ghosts, demons, curses, magic, monsters and other supernatural elements.", "Some occult detectives are portrayed as knowing magic or being themselves psychic or in possession of other paranormal powers." ], [ "Modern criticism", "===Preserving story secrets===Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados sometimes give away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes—for example in the case of Mickey Spillane's novel ''I, the Jury''—even the solution.", "After the credits of Billy Wilder's film ''Witness for the Prosecution'', the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery.===Plausibility and coincidence===For series involving amateur detectives, their frequent encounters with crime often test the limits of plausibility.", "The character Miss Marple appears in twelve novels and twenty short stories, De Andrea has described Marple's home town, the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead, as having \"put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah\".", "Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher of ''Murder, She Wrote'' was confronted with bodies wherever she went, but most notably in her small hometown of Cabot Cove, Maine; ''The New York Times'' estimated that, by the end of the series' 12-year run, nearly 2% of the town's residents had been killed.", "It is arguably more convincing if police, forensic experts or similar professionals are made the protagonist of a series of crime novels.The television series ''Monk'' has often made fun of this implausible frequency.", "The main character, Adrian Monk, is frequently accused of being a \"bad luck charm\" and a \"murder magnet\" as the result of the frequency with which murder happens in his vicinity.Likewise Kogoro Mori of the manga series ''Detective Conan'' got that kind of unflattering reputation.", "Although Mori is actually a private investigator with his own agency, the police never intentionally consult him as he stumbles from one crime scene to another.The role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since Ronald A. Knox categorically stated that \"no accident must ever help the detective\" (Commandment No.", "6 in his \"Decalogue\").===Effects of technology===Technological progress has also rendered many plots implausible and antiquated.", "For example, the predominance of mobile phones, pagers, and PDAs has significantly altered the previously dangerous situations in which investigators traditionally might have found themselves.One tactic that avoids the issue of technology altogether is the historical detective genre.", "As global interconnectedness makes legitimate suspense more difficult to achieve, several writers—including Elizabeth Peters, P. C. Doherty, Steven Saylor, and Lindsey Davis—have eschewed fabricating convoluted plots in order to manufacture tension, instead opting to set their characters in some former period.", "Such a strategy forces the protagonist to rely on more inventive means of investigation, lacking as they do the technological tools available to modern detectives.Conversely, some detective fiction embraces networked computer technology and deals in cybercrime, like the ''Daemon'' novel series by Daniel Suarez." ], [ "Detective Commandments", "Several authors have attempted to set forth a sort of list of “Detective Commandments” for prospective authors of the genre.According to \"Twenty Rules for Writing Detective Stories,\" by Van Dine in 1928: \"The detective story is a kind of intellectual game.", "It is more—it is a sporting event.", "And for the writing of detective stories there are very definite laws—unwritten, perhaps, but nonetheless binding; and every respectable and self-respecting concocter of literary mysteries lives up to them.", "Herewith, then, is a sort of credo, based partly on the practice of all the great writers of detective stories, and partly on the promptings of the honest author's inner conscience.\"", "Ronald Knox wrote a set of ''Ten Commandments'' or ''Decalogue'' in 1929, see article on the Golden Age of Detective Fiction.A general consensus among crime fiction authors is there is a specific set of rules that must be applied for a novel to truly be considered part of the detective fiction genre.", "As noted in \"Introduction to the Analysis of Crime Fiction\", crime fiction from the past 100 years has generally contained the following key rules to be a detective novel:* A crime, most often murder, is committed early in the narrative* There are a variety of suspects with different motives* A central character formally or informally acts as a detective* The detective collects evidence about the crimes and its victim* Usually the detective interviews the suspects, as well as the witnesses* The detective solves the mystery and indicates the real criminal* Usually this criminal is now arrested or otherwise punished" ], [ "Influential fictional detectives", "===Sherlock Holmes===Sherlock Holmes is the British fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.", "After first appearing in A Study in Scarlet, the Sherlock Holmes stories were not an immediate success.", "However, after being published in the Strand Magazine in 1891, the detective became unquestionably popular.", "Following the success of Sherlock Holmes, many mystery writers imitated Doyle's structure in their own detective stories and copied Sherlock Holmes's characteristics in their own detectives.Sherlock Holmes as a series is perhaps the most popular form of detective fiction.", "Doyle attempted to kill the character off after twenty-three stories, but after popular request, he continued to pen the Holmes tales.", "The popularity of Sherlock Holmes extends beyond the written medium.", "For example, the BBC-produced TV series Sherlock gained a very large following after first airing in 2010, imbuing a renewed interest in the character in the general public.", "Because of the popularity of Holmes, Conan Doyle was often regarded as being “as well-known as Queen Victoria”.===Hercule Poirot===Hercule Poirot is a fictional Belgian private detective, created by Agatha Christie.", "As one of Christie's most famous and long-lived characters, Poirot appeared in 33 novels, one play (''Black Coffee''), and more than 50 short stories, published between 1920 and 1975.Hercule Poirot first appeared in ''The Mysterious Affair at Styles,'' published in 1920, and died in ''Curtain'', published in 1975, which is Agatha Christie's last work.", "On August 6, 1975, The New York Times published the obituary of Poirot's death with the cover of the newly published novel on their front page.===C.", "Auguste Dupin===Le Chevalier C. Auguste Dupin is a fictional character created by Edgar Allan Poe.", "Dupin made his first appearance in Poe's \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\" (1841), widely considered the first detective fiction story.", "He reappears in \"The Mystery of Marie Rogêt\" (1842) and \"The Purloined Letter\" (1844).C.", "Auguste Dupin is generally acknowledged as the prototype for many fictional detectives that were created later, including Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle and Hercule Poirot by Agatha Christie.", "Conan Doyle once wrote, \"Each of Poe's detective stories is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?", "\"===Ellery Queen===Ellery Queen is a fictional detective created by American writers Manfred Bennington Lee and Frederic Dannay, as well as the joint pseudonym for the cousins Dannay and Lee.", "He first appeared in ''The Roman Hat Mystery'' (1929), and starred in more than 30 novels and several short story collections.", "During the 1930s and much of the 1940s, Ellery Queen was possibly the best known American fictional detective." ], [ "Detective debuts and swan songs", "Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story.", "Here is a list of a few debut stories and final appearances.", "Detective Author Debut Final appearance Misir Ali Humayun Ahmed ''Devi'' ''Jakhan Namibe Andhar'' Roderick Alleyn Ngaio Marsh ''A Man Lay Dead'' ''Light Thickens'' Lew Archer Ross Macdonald ''The Moving Target'' ''The Blue Hammer'' Byomkesh Bakshi Sharadindu Bandyopadhyay ''Satyanweshi'' ''Bishupal Badh'' Alan Banks Peter Robinson ''Gallows View'' Parashor Barma Premendra Mitra ''Goenda Kobi Parashar'' ''Ghanada O Dui Doshor Mamababu O Parashar'' Tom Barnaby Caroline Graham ''The Killings at Badger's Drift'' ''A Ghost in the Machine'' J. P. Beaumont J.", "A. Jance ''Until Proven Guilty'' Martin Beck Maj Sjöwall and Per Wahlöö ''Roseanna'' ''The Terrorists'' Bimal Hemendra Kumar Roy ''Jakher Dhan'' Anita Blake Laurell K. Hamilton ''Guilty Pleasures'' Sexton Blake Harry Blyth, George Hamilton Teed, Edwy Searles Brooks ''The Missing Millionaire'' Harry Bosch Michael Connelly ''The Black Echo'' Joanna Brady J.", "A. Jance ''Desert Heat'' Jackson Brodie Kate Atkinson ''Case Histories'' Father Brown G. K. Chesterton \"The Blue Cross\" \"The Mask of Midas\" Brother Cadfael Ellis Peters ''A Morbid Taste for Bones'' ''Brother Cadfael's Penance'' Jack Caffery Mo Hayder ''Birdman'' ''Wolf'' Vincent Calvino Christopher G. Moore ''Spirit House'' Albert Campion Margery Allingham ''The Crime at Black Dudley'' ''The Mind Readers'' (last story completed by Allingham) ''Mr.", "Campion's Falcon'' (last story completed by Philip Youngman Carter) ''(Series continues written by Mike Ripley)'' Georgia Cantini Grazia Verasani '' Quo Vadis, Baby?''", "Nick and Nora Charles Dashiell Hammett ''The Thin Man'' Cao Chen Xiaolong Qiu ''Death of a Red Heroine'' Elvis Cole Robert Crais ''The Monkey's Raincoat'' Quinn Colson Ace Atkins ''The Ranger'' The Continental Op Dashiell Hammett ''Arson Plus'' ''The Dain Curse'' Lord Edward Corinth and Verity Browne David Roberts ''Sweet Poison'' ''Sweet Sorrow'' Jerry Cornelius Michael Moorcock ''The Final Programme'' Dr. Phil D'Amato Paul Levinson \"The Chronology Protection Case\" Harry D'Amour Clive Barker \"The Last Illusion\" Adam Dalgliesh PD James ''Cover Her Face'' ''The Private Patient'' Andrew Dalziel and Peter Pascoe Reginald Hill ''A Clubbable Woman'' ''Midnight Fugue'' Peter Decker Faye Kellerman ''The Ritual Bath'' Alex Delaware Jonathan Kellerman ''When the Bough Breaks'' Harry Devlin Martin Edwards ''All the Lonely People'' Peter Diamond Peter Lovesey ''The Last Detective'' Harry Dresden Jim Butcher ''Storm Front'' Nancy Drew Carolyn Keene ''The Secret of the Old Clock'' Auguste Dupin Edgar Allan Poe ''The Murders in the Rue Morgue'' ''The Purloined Letter'' Marcus Didius Falco Lindsey Davis ''The Silver Pigs'' Feluda Satyajit Ray ''Feludar Goendagiri'' ''Robertson-er Ruby'' Erast Fandorin Boris Akunin ''The Winter Queen'' Kate Fansler Amanda Cross ''In the Last Analysis'' ''The Edge of Doom'' Dr. Gideon Fell John Dickson Carr ''Hag's Nook'' ''Dark of the Moon'' Sir John Fielding and Jeremy Proctor Bruce Alexander ''Blind Justice'' Tecumseh Fox Rex Stout ''Double for Death'' ''The Broken Vase'' Rei Furuya Gosho Aoyama ''Detective Conan'' Dirk Gently (Svlad Cjelli) Douglas Adams ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency'' ''The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul'' (last completed work) ''The Salmon of Doubt'' (unfinished) Ganesh Ghote H. R. F. Keating ''The Perfect Murder'' ''A Small Case for Inspector Ghote?''", "George Gideon John Creasey ''Gideon's Day'' ''Gideon's Drive'' Gordianus the Finder Steven Saylor ''Roman Blood'' Saguru Hakuba Gosho Aoyama ''Magic Kaito'' Mike Hammer Mickey Spillane ''I, the Jury'' ''Black Alley'' (last story completed by Spillane) ''(Series continues from unfinished Spillane manuscripts completed by Max Allan Collins)'' The Hardy Boys (ghostwriters) ''The Tower Treasure'' Heiji Hattori Gosho Aoyama ''Detective Conan'' Tony Hill Val McDermid ''The Mermaids Singing'' Neil Hockaday Thomas Adcock ''Sea of Green'' ''Grief Street'' Sherlock Holmes Sir Arthur Conan Doyle ''A Study in Scarlet'' ''The Adventure of Shoscombe Old Place'' Jayanta Hemendra Kumar Roy ''Jayanter Keerti'' Art Keller Don Winslow ''The Power of the Dog'' Craig Kennedy Arthur B. Reeve ''The Silent Bullet'' ''The Stars Scream Murder'' Sammy Keyes Wendelin Van Draanen Sammy Keyes and the Hotel Thief Kikira Bimal Kar ''Kapalikera Ekhono Ache'' ''Ekti Photo Churir Rahasya'' Shinichi Kudo / Conan Edogawa Gosho Aoyama ''Detective Conan'' Jake Lassiter Paul Levine \"To Speak For The Dead\" Charles Latimer Eric Ambler ''The Mask of Dimitrios'' (AKA ''A Coffin for Dimitrios'') ''The Intercom Conspiracy'' Joe Leaphorn Tony Hillerman ''The Blessing Way'' Nelson Lee Maxwell Scott ''A Dead Man's Secret'' ''Waldo, the Gang Buster'' Inspector Lund Willy Corsari ''Het Mysterie van de Mondscheinsonate'' (''The Mystery of the Moonlight Sonata'') ''Spelen met de Dood'' (''Playing with Death'') Thomas Lynley and Barbara Havers Elizabeth George ''A Great Deliverance'' John Madden Rennie Airth ''River of Darkness'' Jules Maigret Georges Simenon ''The Strange Case of Peter the Lett'' ''Maigret and Monsieur Charles'' Philip Marlowe Raymond Chandler ''The Big Sleep'' ''Playback'' Miss Marple Agatha Christie ''The Murder at the Vicarage'' ''Sleeping Murder'' Darren Matthews Attica Locke ''Bluebird, Bluebird'' Travis McGee John D. MacDonald ''The Deep Blue Good-by'' ''The Lonely Silver Rain'' Sir Henry Merrivale Carter Dickson ''The Plague Court Murders'' ''The Cavalier's Cup'' Kinsey Millhone Sue Grafton ''\"A\" Is for Alibi'' ''\"Y\" Is for Yesterday'' Kiyoshi Mitarai Soji Shimada ''The Tokyo Zodiac Murders'' ''Final Pitch'' Kogoro Mori Gosho Aoyama ''Detective Conan'' Inspector Morse Colin Dexter ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' ''Remorseful Day'' Thursday Next Jasper Fforde ''The Eyre Affair'' Gideon Oliver Aaron Elkins ''Fellowship of Fear'' Jimmy Perez Ann Cleeves ''Raven Black'' Stephanie Plum Janet Evanovich ''One for the Money'' Hercule Poirot Agatha Christie ''The Mysterious Affair at Styles'' ''Curtain'' Ellery Queen Ellery Queen ''The Roman Hat Mystery'' ''A Fine and Private Place'' Jack Reacher Lee Child ''Killing Floor'' Precious Ramotswe Alexander McCall Smith ''The No.", "1 Ladies' Detective Agency'' John Rebus Ian Rankin ''Knots and Crosses'' Dave Robicheaux James Lee Burke ''The Neon Rain'' Kiriti Roy Nihar Ranjan Gupta ''Kalo Bhramar'' ''Avagunthita'' Lincoln Rhyme Jeffery Deaver ''The Bone Collector''Huo Sang Chen Xiaoqing''The Shadow in the Lamplight'' Matthew Scudder Lawrence Block The Sins of the Fathers Masumi Sera Gosho Aoyama ''Detective Conan'' Dan Shepherd Stephen Leather ''True Colours'' Miss Silver Patricia Wentworth ''Grey Mask'' ''The Girl in the Cellar'' Arthur Simpson Eric Ambler ''The Light of Day'' ''Dirty Story'' Rabbi David Small Harry Kemelman ''Friday the Rabbi Slept Late'' ''That Day the Rabbi Left Town'' Sam Spade Dashiell Hammett ''The Maltese Falcon'' ''They Can Only Hang You Once'' Spenser Robert B. Parker ''The Godwulf Manuscript'' ''Sixkill'' (last novel completed by Parker) ''(Series continues written by Ace Atkins)'' Vera Stanhope Ann Cleeves ''The Crow Trap'' Cormoran Strike J.K. Rowling (under the pen name Robert Galbraith) ''The Cuckoo's Calling'' Tintin Hergé ''Tintin in the Land of the Soviets'' ''Tintin and the Picaros'' (last completed work) ''Tintin and Alph-Art'' (unfinished) Tommy and Tuppence (Thomas and Prudence Beresford) Agatha Christie ''The Secret Adversary'' ''Postern of Fate'' Philip Trent E. C. Bentley ''Trent's Last Case'' ''Trent Intervenes'' Kurt Wallander Henning Mankell ''Faceless Killers'' ''The Troubled Man'' V.I.", "Warshawski Sara Paretsky ''Indemnity Only'' Willam Warwick Jeffrey Archer ''Nothing Ventured'' Reginald Wexford Ruth Rendell ''From Doon with Death'' ''No Man's Nightingale'' Lord Peter Wimsey Dorothy L. Sayers ''Whose Body?''", "''Busman's Honeymoon'' (last novel completed by Sayers) \"Talboys\" (last story written by Sayers)''The Late Scholar'' (last story completed by Jill Paton Walsh) Nero Wolfe Rex Stout ''Fer-de-Lance'' ''A Family Affair'' (last novel completed by Stout) ''(Series continues written by Robert Goldsborough)'' Manabu Yukawa Keigo Higashino ''Tantei Galileo'' (AKA ''Detective Galileo'')" ], [ "Books", "''Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel – A History'' by Julian Symons Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), ''The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film,'' Greenwood, 2001.", "''The Manichean Investigators: A Postcolonial and Cultural Rereading of the Sherlock Holmes and Byomkesh Bakshi Stories'' by Pinaki Roy, New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2008, ''Killer Books'' by Jean Swanson & Dean James, Berkley Prime Crime edition 1998, Penguin Putnam Inc. New York ''Delightful Murder: A Social History of the Crime Story'' by Ernest Mandel, 1985.Univ.", "of Minnesota Press.", "''Clifford's War: The Bluegrass Battleground'' by J. Denison Reed" ], [ "See also", "Closed circle of suspectsList of Ace mystery double titlesList of Ace mystery letter-series single titlesList of Ace mystery numeric-series single titlesList of crime writersList of detective fiction authorsList of female detective charactersMafiaMystery film" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* An exhibition of detective fiction , Monash University Libraryms:Cereka detektif" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daniel Defoe" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Defoe''' (; born '''Daniel Foe'''; 1660 – 24 April 1731) was an English novelist, journalist, merchant, pamphleteer and spy.", "He is most famous for his novel ''Robinson Crusoe'', published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations.", "He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson.", "Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison.", "Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him.Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works—books, pamphlets, and journals—on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology and the supernatural.", "He was also a pioneer of business journalism and economic journalism." ], [ "Early life", "Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London.", "Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding \"De\" to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux.", "\"De\" is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames.", "His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely.", "His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of probable Flemish descent, and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers.", "In Defoe's early childhood, he lived through several significant historical events: in 1665, seventy thousand were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe's and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood.", "In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway.", "His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten.=== Education ===Defoe was educated at the Rev.", "James Fisher's boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey.", "His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton's dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there.", "He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos.", "95–103.During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the established Church of England." ], [ "Business career", "Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine.", "His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt.", "On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph's Aldgate.", "She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day.", "Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys.", "Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, and Defoe became one of William's close allies and a secret agent.", "Some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe.", "In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, in the face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to declare bankruptcy.", "He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.Following his release from debtors' prison, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland, and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon.", "By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name \"Defoe\" and serving as a \"commissioner of the glass duty\", responsible for collecting taxes on bottles.", "In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary nearby." ], [ "Writing", "As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes.=== Pamphleteering and prison ===Daniel Defoe in the pillory, 1862 line engraving by James Charles Armytage after Eyre CroweDefoe's first notable publication was ''An Essay Upon Projects'', a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697.From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years' War (1688–1697).", "His most successful poem, ''The True-Born Englishman'' (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally.", "In 1701, Defoe presented the ''Legion's Memorial'' to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality.", "It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists.", "Defoe was a natural target, and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled ''The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church'', purporting to argue for their extermination.", "In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called \"occasional conformity\", such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney.", "It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested.", "He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell.", "Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks (£336 then, £ in ), to public humiliation in a pillory, and to an indeterminate length of imprisonment which would only end upon the discharge of the punitive fine.", "According to legend, the publication of his poem ''Hymn to the Pillory'' caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health.", "The truth of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that \"no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men\".After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison.", "Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's cooperation as an intelligence agent for the Tories.", "In exchange for such cooperation with the rival political side, Harley paid some of Defoe's outstanding debts, improving his financial situation considerably.Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged through the night of 26/27 November.", "It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea.", "The event became the subject of Defoe's ''The Storm'' (1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest.", "Many regard it as one of the world's first examples of modern journalism.In the same year, he set up his periodical ''A Review of the Affairs of France'', which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714).", "The ''Review'' ran three times a week without interruption until 1713.Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the ''Review'' to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714.The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing \"Tory\" pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.Not all of Defoe's pamphlet writing was political.", "One pamphlet was originally published anonymously, entitled ''A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury The 8th of September, 1705''.", "It deals with the interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt's ''The Christian Defence against the Fears of Death'' (1651).", "It describes Mrs. Bargrave's encounter with her old friend Mrs. Veal after she had died.", "It is clear from this piece and other writings that the political portion of Defoe's life was by no means his only focus.=== Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707 ===Title page from Daniel Defoe's: ''The History of the Union of Great Britain'' dated 1709 and printed in Edinburgh by the Heirs of AndersonIn despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case, Defoe wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, leading minister and spymaster in the English government.", "Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in 1703.He immediately published ''The Review'', which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself.", "This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707.Defoe began his campaign in ''The Review'' and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an \"inexhaustible treasury of men\", a valuable new market increasing the power of England.", "By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the Treaty of Union.", "He was conscious of the risk to himself.", "Thanks to books such as ''The Letters of Daniel Defoe'' (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union.", "\"A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind\", he reported.", "Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin: Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland.", "He told Harley that he was \"privy to all their folly\" but \"Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England\".", "He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported,For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty.", "Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time.", "The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works.", "Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union but always having the last word for himself.He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him.", "Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate.==== Aftermath ====In 1709, Defoe authored a rather lengthy book entitled ''The History of the Union of Great Britain'', an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson.", "The book cites Defoe twice as being its author, and gives details leading up to the ''Acts of Union 1707'' by means of presenting information that dates all the way back to 6 December 1604 when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification.", "And so, such a so-called \"first draft\" for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord, which, respectively, preceded the commencement of ''Robinson Crusoe'' by another ten years.Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706.He received very little reward from his paymasters and of course no recognition for his services by the government.", "He made use of his Scottish experience to write his ''Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain'', published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was \"not the case, but rather the contrary\".Glasgow Bridge as Defoe might have seen it in the 18th centuryDefoe's description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a \"Dear Green Place\" has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town's name.", "The Gaelic ''Glas'' could mean grey or green, while ''chu'' means dog or hollow.", "''Glaschu'' probably means \"Green Hollow\".", "The \"Dear Green Place\", like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union.", "The local Tron minister urged his congregation \"to up and anent for the City of God\".The \"Dear Green Place\" and \"City of God\" required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland.", "When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was \"because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against\".=== Late writing ===The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe's writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of ''Robinson Crusoe'' in 1719.Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia ''Appeal to Honour and Justice'' (1715), a defence of his part in Harley's Tory ministry (1710–1714).", "Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include ''The Family Instructor'' (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; ''Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr.", "Mesnager'' (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and ''A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy'' (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.Memorial to \"Daniel De-Foe\", Bunhill Fields, City Road, Borough of Islington, LondonFrom 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below).", "In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including ''Religious Courtship'' (1722), ''The Complete English Tradesman'' (1726) and ''The New Family Instructor'' (1727).", "He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as ''The Great Law of Subordination Considered'' (1724) and ''Everybody's Business is Nobody's Business'' (1725) and works on the supernatural, like ''The Political History of the Devil'' (1726), ''A System of Magick'' (1727) and ''An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions'' (1727).", "His works on foreign travel and trade include ''A General History of Discoveries and Improvements'' (1727) and ''Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis'' (1728).", "Perhaps his most significant work, apart from the novels, is ''A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain'' (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.==== ''The Complete English Tradesman'' ====Published in 1726, ''The Complete English Tradesman'' is an example of Defoe's political works.", "In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior.", "Defoe also implied that trade was the backbone of the British economy: \"estate's a pond, but trade's a spring.\"", "In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well.", "Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy.", "Oftentimes younger members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to a tradesman's daughter by a nobleman was also common.", "Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for '''tradesmen''', being one himself.Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman, but he praised the entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade.", "Trade, Defoe argues, is a much better catalyst for social and economic change than war.", "Defoe also argued that through the expansion of the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to \"increase commerce at home\" through job creations and increased consumption.", "He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part of British society further out of poverty.=== Novels ======= ''Robinson Crusoe'' ====A house where Defoe once lived, near London, EnglandPublished when Defoe was in his late fifties, ''Robinson Crusoe'' relates the story of a man's shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures.", "Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe's struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances.", "He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience.In the opening pages of ''The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe'', the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures.", "Bedford is also the place where the brother of \"H. F.\" in ''A Journal of the Plague Year'' retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe's family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered.", "Defoe went to school Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands, but his experience is inconsistent with the details of the narrative.", "The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land) was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966.It has been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as \"Abubacer\" in Europe.", "The Latin edition was entitled ''Philosophus Autodidactus''; Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled ''The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan''.==== ''Captain Singleton'' ====Defoe's next novel was ''Captain Singleton'' (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy.", "The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters.", "Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience.==== ''Memoirs of a Cavalier'' ====''Memoirs of a Cavalier'' (1720) is set during the Thirty Years' War and the English Civil War.==== ''A Journal of the Plague Year'' ====''A Journal of the Plague Year'', published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction.", "It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials \"H. F.\", suggesting the author's uncle Henry Foe as its primary source.", "It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred.==== ''Colonel Jack'' ====''Colonel Jack'' (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a \"gentleman.", "\"==== ''Moll Flanders'' ====Also in 1722, Defoe wrote ''Moll Flanders'', another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England.", "The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader's sympathy.", "Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward.", "Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story.", "However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents.", "''Moll Flanders'' is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society.", "More recently it has come to be misunderstood as an example of erotica.==== ''Roxana'' ====Defoe's final novel, ''Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress'' (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story.==== Patterns ====In Defoe's writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works.", "Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background).", "Connected to Defoe's didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in ''Robinson Crusoe''.", "Another common feature of Defoe's fictional works is that he claimed them to be the true stories of their subjects.=== Attribution and de-attribution ===Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names.", "It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously.", "As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime.", "If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name \"the author of the True-Born Englishman,\" there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him.Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe.", "Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe.", "In ''History of the Union'', he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as \"Books which are supposed to be De Foe's.\"", "Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.", "Many of the attributions of Defoe's novels came long after his death.", "Notably, ''Moll Flanders'' and ''Roxana'' were published anonymously for over fifty years until Francis Noble named Daniel Defoe on their title pages in edition publication in 1775 and 1774.Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe's work, without a means to be absolutely certain.", "In the ''Cambridge History of English Literature'', the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe.", "J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe's work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe." ], [ "Death", "Bunhill Fields monument detailDefoe died on 24 April 1731, probably while in hiding from his creditors.", "He was often in debtors' prison.", "The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke.", "He was interred in Bunhill Fields (today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now the Borough of Islington, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1870.A street in the Bronx, New York is named in his honour (De Foe Place)." ], [ "Selected works", "=== Novels ===* ''The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon: Translated from the Lunar Language'' (1705)* ''Robinson Crusoe'' (1719) – originally published in two volumes: ''The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who Lived Eight and Twenty Years ...'' ''The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Being the Second and Last Part of His Life ...''* ''Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his Vision of the Angelick World'' (1720)* ''Captain Singleton'' (1720)* ''Memoirs of a Cavalier'' (1720)* ''A Journal of the Plague Year'' (1722)* ''Colonel Jack'' (1722)* ''Moll Flanders'' (1722)* ''Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress'' (1724)* ''The Four Years Voyages of Capt.", "George Roberts'' (1726)=== Nonfiction ===* ''An Essay Upon Projects'' (1697) – subsections of the text include: \"The History of Projects,\" \"Of Projectors,\" \"Of Banks,\" \"Of the Highways,\" \"Of Assurances,\" \"Of Friendly Societies,\" \"The Proposal is for a Pension Office,\" \"Of Wagering,\" \"Of Fools,\" \"A Charity-Lottery,\" \"Of Bankrupts,\" \"Of Academies\" (including a section proposing an academy for women), \"Of a Court Merchant,\" and \"Of Seamen.", "\"* ''The Storm'' (1704) – describes the worst storm ever to hit Britain in recorded times.", "Includes eyewitness accounts.", "* ''Atlantis Major'' (1711)* ''The Family Instructor'' (1715)* ''Memoirs of the Church of Scotland'' (1717)* ''The History of the Remarkable Life of John Sheppard'' (1724) – describing Sheppard's life of crime and concluding with the miraculous escapes from prison for which he had become a public sensation.", "* ''A Narrative of All The Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard'' (1724) – written by or taken from Sheppard himself in the condemned cell before he was hanged for theft, apparently by way of conclusion to the Defoe work.", "According to the Introduction to Volume 16 of the works of Defoe published by J M Dent in 1895, Sheppard handed the manuscript to the publisher Applebee from the prisoners' cart as he was taken away to be hanged.", "It included a correction of a factual detail and an explanation of how his escapes from prison were achieved.", "* ''A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies'' (1724–1727)* ''A New Voyage Round the World'' (1724)* ''The Political History of the Devil'' (1726)* ''The Complete English Tradesman'' (1726)* ''A treatise concerning the use and abuse of the marriage bed...'' (1727)* ''A Plan of the English Commerce'' (1728) – describes how the English woolen textile industrial base was developed by protectionist policies by Tudor monarchs, especially by Henry VII of England and Elizabeth I, including such policies as high tariffs on the importation of finished woolen goods, high taxes on raw wool leaving England, bringing in artisans skilled in wool textile manufacturing from the Low Countries, selective government-granted monopoly rights, and government-sponsored industrial espionage.=== Pamphlets or essays in prose ===* ''The Poor Man's Plea'' (1698)* ''The History of the Kentish Petition'' (1701)* ''The Shortest Way with the Dissenters'' (1702)* ''The Great Law of Subordination Consider'd'' (1704)* ''Giving Alms No Charity, and Employing the Poor'' (1704)* ''The Apparition of Mrs. Veal'' (1706)* ''An Appeal to Honour and Justice, Tho' it be of his Worst Enemies, by Daniel Defoe, Being a True Account of His Conduct in Publick Affairs'' (1715)* ''A Vindication of the Press: Or, An Essay on the Usefulness of Writing, on Criticism, and the Qualification of Authors'' (1718)* ''Every-body's Business, Is No-body's Business'' (1725)* ''The Protestant Monastery'' (1726)* ''Parochial Tyranny'' (1727)* ''Augusta Triumphans'' (1728)* ''Second Thoughts are Best'' (1729)* ''An Essay Upon Literature'' (1726)* ''Mere Nature Delineated'' (1726)* ''Conjugal Lewdness'' (1727) – Anti-Contraception Essay=== Pamphlets or essays in verse ===* ''The True-Born Englishman: A Satyr'' (1701)* ''Hymn to the Pillory'' (1703)* ''An Essay on the Late Storm'' (1704)=== Some contested works attributed to Defoe ===* ''A Friendly Epistle by way of reproof from one of the people called Quakers, to T. B., a dealer in many words'' (1715).", "* ''The King of Pirates'' (1719) – purporting to be an account of the pirate Henry Avery.", "* ''The Pirate Gow'' (1725) – an account of John Gow.", "* ''A General History of the Pyrates'' (1724, 1725, 1726, 1828) – published in two volumes by Charles Rivington, who had a shop near St. Paul's Cathedral, London.", "Published under the name of Captain Charles Johnson, it sold in many editions.", "* Captain Carleton's ''Memoirs of an English Officer'' (1728).", "* ''The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross'' (1740) – published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe but more recently not accepted by Moore." ], [ "See also", "* Apprentice complex* Moubray House* Robert Drury (sailor) – whose book has been suggested by some was written by Defoe" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Backscheider, Paula R. ''Daniel Defoe: His Life'' (1989).", "* Backscheider, Paula R. ''Daniel Defoe: Ambition and Innovation'' (UP of Kentucky, 2015).", "* Baines, Paul.", "''Daniel Defoe-Robinson Crusoe/Moll Flanders'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).", "* * * * Gregg, Stephen H. ''Defoe's Writings and Manliness: Contrary Men'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* Guilhamet, Leon.", "''Defoe and the Whig Novel: A Reading of the Major Fiction'' (U of Delaware Press, 2010).", "* Hammond, John R. ed.", "''A Defoe companion'' (Macmillan, 1993).", "* * Novak, Maximillian E. ''Daniel Defoe: Master of Fictions: His Life and Ideas'' (2001) * * Novak, Maximillian E. ''Realism, myth, and history in Defoe's fiction'' (U of Nebraska Press, 1983).", "* Richetti, John.", "''The Life of Daniel Defoe: A Critical Biography'' (2015).", "* * Sutherland, J.R. ''Defoe'' (Taylor & Francis, 1950)=== Primary sources ===* Curtis, Laura Ann, ed.", "''The Versatile Defoe: An Anthology of Uncollected Writings by Daniel Defoe'' (Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).", "* Defoe, Daniel.", "''The Best of Defoe's Review: An Anthology'' (Columbia University Press, 1951).", "* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds.", "''The True-Born Englishman and Other Writings'' (Penguin Books, 1997).", "* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds.", "''Political and Economic Writings of Daniel Defoe'' (Pickering & Chatto, 2000).", "* W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds.", "''Writings on Travel, Discovery, and History'' (Pickering & Chatto, 2001–2002)." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * Full online versions of various copies of Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades* Full texts in German and English – eLibrary Projekt (eLib)* The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain (from a Vision of Britain)* * * Russian toponyms in Daniel Defoe's novels* Defoe, Daniel 1661?–1731 WorldCat Identity* A System of Magick* ''The Thief-Taker Hangings: How Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard Captivated London and Created the Celebrity Criminal'' by Aaron Skirboll" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 8" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 395 – Later Yan is defeated by its former vassal Northern Wei at the Battle of Canhe Slope.", "757 – The poet Du Fu returns to Chang'an as a member of Emperor Xuanzong's court, after having escaped the city during the An Lushan Rebellion.", " 877 – Louis the Stammerer (son of Charles the Bald) is crowned king of the West Frankish Kingdom at Compiègne.", "1504 – Ahmad ibn Abi Jum'ah writes his Oran fatwa, arguing for the relaxation of Islamic law requirements for the forcibly converted Muslims in Spain.===1601–1900===1660 – A woman (either Margaret Hughes or Anne Marshall) appears on an English public stage for the first time, in the role of Desdemona in a production of Shakespeare's play ''Othello''.", "1851 – Conservative Santiago-based government troops defeat rebels at the Battle of Loncomilla, signaling the end of the 1851 Chilean Revolution.", "1854 – In his Apostolic constitution ''Ineffabilis Deus'', Pope Pius IX proclaims the dogmatic definition of Immaculate Conception, which holds that the Blessed Virgin Mary was conceived free of Original Sin.", "1864 – Pope Pius IX promulgates the encyclical ''Quanta cura'' and its appendix, the ''Syllabus of Errors'', outlining the authority of the Catholic Church and condemning various liberal ideas.===1901–present===1907 – King Gustaf V of Sweden accedes to the Swedish throne.", "1912 – Leaders of the German Empire hold an Imperial War Council to discuss the possibility that war might break out.", "1914 – World War I: A squadron of Britain's Royal Navy defeats the Imperial German East Asia Squadron in the Battle of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic.", "1922 – Two days after coming into existence, the Irish Free State executes four leaders of the Irish Republican Army: Liam Mellows, Rory O'Connor, Joe McKelvey and Dick Barrett.", "1941 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt declares December 7 to be \"a date which will live in infamy\", after which the U.S. declares war on Japan.", "* 1941 – World War II: Japanese forces simultaneously invade Shanghai International Settlement, Malaya, Thailand, Hong Kong, the Philippines, and the Dutch East Indies.", "(See December 7 for the concurrent attack on Pearl Harbor in the Western Hemisphere.", ")1943 – World War II: The German 117th Jäger Division destroys the monastery of Mega Spilaio in Greece and executes 22 monks and visitors as part of reprisals that culminated a few days later with the Massacre of Kalavryta.", "1953 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower delivers his \"Atoms for Peace\" speech, which leads to an American program to supply equipment and information on nuclear power to schools, hospitals, and research institutions around the world.", "1955 – The Flag of Europe is adopted by Council of Europe.", "1962 – Workers at four New York City newspapers (this later increases to nine) go on strike for 114 days.", "1963 – Pan Am Flight 214, a Boeing 707, is struck by lightning and crashes near Elkton, Maryland, killing all 81 people on board.", "1966 – The Greek ship sinks in a storm in the Aegean Sea, killing over 200.", "1969 – Olympic Airways Flight 954 strikes a mountain outside of Keratea, Greece, killing 90 people in the worst crash of a Douglas DC-6 in history.", "1971 – Indo-Pakistani War: The Indian Navy launches an attack on West Pakistan's port city of Karachi.", "1972 – United Airlines Flight 553, a Boeing 737, crashes after aborting its landing attempt at Chicago Midway International Airport, killing 45.This is the first-ever loss of a Boeing 737.", "1974 – A plebiscite results in the abolition of monarchy in Greece.", "1980 – John Lennon is murdered by Mark David Chapman in front of The Dakota in New York City.", "1985 – The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the regional intergovernmental organization and geopolitical union in South Asia, is established.", "1987 – Cold War: The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the White House.", " 1987 – An Israeli army tank transporter kills four Palestinian refugees and injures seven others during a traffic accident at the Erez Crossing on the Israel–Gaza Strip border, which has been cited as one of the events which sparked the First Intifada.", "1988 – A United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II crashes into an apartment complex in Remscheid, Germany, killing five people and injuring 50 others.", "1990 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the first time.", "1991 – The leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine sign an agreement dissolving the Soviet Union and establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States.", "1992 – The Galileo spacecraft flies past Earth for the second time.", "1998 – Eighty-one people are killed by armed groups in Algeria.", "2001 – A raid conducted by the Internal Security Department (ISD) of Singapore foils a Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) plot to bomb foreign embassies in Singapore.", "2004 – The Cusco Declaration is signed in Cusco, Peru, establishing the South American Community of Nations.", " 2004 – Columbus nightclub shooting: Nathan Gale opens fire at the Alrosa Villa nightclub in Columbus, Ohio, killing former Pantera guitarist Dimebag Darrell and three others before being shot dead by a police officer.", "2009 – Bombings in Baghdad, Iraq, kill 127 people and injure 448 others.", "2010 – With the second launch of the Falcon 9 and the first launch of the Dragon, SpaceX becomes the first private company to successfully launch, orbit and recover a spacecraft.", "* 2010 – The Japanese solar-sail spacecraft IKAROS passes the planet Venus at a distance of about .", "2013 – Riots break out in Singapore after a fatal accident in Little India.", " 2013 – Metallica performs a show in Antarctica, making them the first band to perform on all seven continents.", "2019 – First confirmed case of COVID-19 in China." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===65 BC – Horace, Roman poet (d. 8 BC)1021 – Wang Anshi, Chinese economist and chancellor (d. 1086)1412 – Astorre II Manfredi, Italian lord (d. 1468)1418 – Queen Jeonghui, Queen consort of Korea (d. 1483)1424 – Anselm Adornes, Belgian merchant, politician and diplomat (d. 1483)1538 – Miklós Istvánffy, Hungarian politician (d. 1615)1542 – Mary, Queen of Scots, daughter of James V of Scotland and Mary of Guise (d. 1587)1558 – François de La Rochefoucauld, Catholic cardinal (d. 1645)===1601–1900===1678 – Antonio de Benavides, colonial governor of Florida (d. 1762) * 1678 – Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole, English politician and diplomat, British Ambassador to France (d. 1757)1699 – Maria Josepha of Austria (d. 1757)1708 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1765)1724 – Claude Balbastre, French organist and composer (d. 1799)1730 – Jan Ingenhousz, Dutch physician, physiologist, and botanist (d. 1799)1731 – František Xaver Dušek, Czech pianist and composer (d. 1799)1756 – Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria (d. 1801)1765 – Eli Whitney, American engineer, invented the cotton gin (d. 1825)1795 – Peter Andreas Hansen, Danish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1874)1807 – Friedrich Traugott Kützing, German pharmacist, botanist and phycologist (d. 1893)1813 – August Belmont, Prussian-American financier and diplomat, 16th United States Ambassador to the Netherlands (d. 1890)1815 – Adolph Menzel, German painter and illustrator (d. 1905)1817 – Christian Emil Krag-Juel-Vind-Frijs, Danish lawyer and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1896)1818 – Charles III, Prince of Monaco (d. 1889)1822 – Jakov Ignjatović, Hungarian-Serbian author (d. 1889)1832 – Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian-French author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)1860 – Amanda McKittrick Ros, Irish author and poet (d. 1939)1861 – William C. Durant, American businessman, founded General Motors and Chevrolet (d. 1947) 1861 – Aristide Maillol, French sculptor and painter (d. 1944)* 1861 – Georges Méliès, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1938)1862 – Georges Feydeau, French playwright (d. 1921)1863 – Charles Lincoln Edwards, American zoologist (d. 1937)1864 – Camille Claudel, French illustrator and sculptor (d. 1943)1865 – Rüdiger von der Goltz, German general (d. 1946)* 1865 – Jacques Hadamard, French mathematician and academic (d. 1963)* 1865 – Jean Sibelius, Finnish violinist and composer (d. 1957)1874 – Ernst Moro, Austrian physician and pediatrician (d. 1951)1875 – Frederik Buch, Danish actor and screenwriter (d. 1925)1877 – Paul Ladmirault, French pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 1944)1880 – Johannes Aavik, Estonian linguist and philologist (d. 1973)1881 – Tuomas Bryggari, Finnish politician (d. 1964) 1881 – Albert Gleizes, French painter (d. 1953)1884 – Francis Balfour, English colonel and politician (d. 1965)1886 – Diego Rivera, Mexican painter and educator (d. 1957)1887 – Elizabeth Daryush, English poet (d. 1977) 1890 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech-American pianist and composer (d. 1959)1892 – Marcus Lee Hansen, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1938)1894 – E. C. Segar, American cartoonist, created ''Popeye'' (d. 1938)* 1894 – James Thurber, American humorist and cartoonist (d. 1961)1899 – Arthur Leslie, English-Welsh actor and playwright (d. 1970) 1899 – John Qualen, Canadian-American actor (d. 1987)1900 – Sun Li-jen, Chinese general and politician (d. 1990) 1900 – Ants Oras, Estonian-American author and academic (d. 1982)===1901–present===1902 – Wifredo Lam, Cuban-French painter (d. 1982)1903 – Zelma Watson George, Black American opera singer (d. 1994)1908 – Concha Piquer, Spanish singer and actress (d. 1990) 1908 – John A. Volpe, American soldier and politician, 61st Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1994)1911 – Lee J. Cobb, American actor (d. 1976) 1911 – Nikos Gatsos, Greek poet and songwriter (d. 1992)1913 – Delmore Schwartz, American poet and short story writer (d. 1966)1914 – Floyd Tillman, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)* 1914 – Ernie Toshack, Australian cricketer (d. 2003)1915 – Ernest Lehman, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)1916 – Richard Fleischer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006)1917 – Ian Johnson, Australian cricketer and administrator (d. 1998)1919 – Peter Tali Coleman, Samoan-American lawyer and politician, 43rd Governor of American Samoa (d. 1997)* 1919 – Julia Bowman, American mathematician and theorist (d. 1985)* 1919 – Kateryna Yushchenko, Ukrainian computer scientist and academic (d. 2001)1920 – McDonald Bailey, Trinidadian-English sprinter and rugby player (d. 2013)1922 – Lucian Freud, German-English painter and illustrator (d. 2011)* 1922 – Jean Ritchie, American singer-songwriter (d. 2015)1923 – Dewey Martin, American actor (d. 2018) 1923 – Rudolph Pariser, Chinese-American soldier and chemist (d. 2021)1924 – Lionel Gilbert, Australian historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)1925 – Sammy Davis, Jr., American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1990)* 1925 – Nasir Kazmi, Pakistani Urdu poet (d. 1972)* 1925 – Carmen Martín Gaite, Spanish author and poet (d. 2000)* 1925 – Jimmy Smith, American organist (d. 2005)1927 – Niklas Luhmann, German thinker and social theorist (d. 1998) 1927 – Vladimir Shatalov, Kazakhstani general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2021)1928 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian journalist and sportscaster (d. 1996) 1928 – Ulric Neisser, German-American psychologist, neuroscientist, and academic (d. 2012)1929 – Victor Nosach, chronicler of the history of workers and trade union of Russia (d. 2011)1930 – Julian Critchley, English journalist and politician (d. 2000)* 1930 – Maximilian Schell, Austrian-Swiss actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)1931 – Bob Arum, American boxing promoter, founded Top Rank1932 – Claus Luthe, German automotive designer (d. 2008)1933 – Johnny Green, American basketball player (d. 2023) 1933 – Flip Wilson, American actor and comedian (d. 1998)1935 – Dharmendra, Indian actor, producer, and politician 1935 – Tatiana Zatulovskaya, Russian-Israeli chess player (d. 2017)1936 – David Carradine, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2009) 1936 – Michael Hobson, American publisher (d. 2020)* 1936 – Peter Parfitt, English cricketer 1937 – James MacArthur, American actor (d. 2010) 1937 – Arne Næss, Jr., German-Norwegian mountaineer and businessman (d. 2004)1939 – Red Berenson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1939 – Jerry Butler, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1939 – James Galway, Irish flute player* 1939 – Felipe Gozon, Filipino lawyer and businessman* 1939 – Dariush Mehrjui, Iranian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2023)* 1939 – Soko Richardson, American drummer (d. 2004)1940 – Brant Alyea, American baseball player1941 – Ed Brinkman, American baseball player and coach (d. 2008)* 1941 – Bob Brown, American football player (d. 2023)* 1941 – Duke Cunningham, American commander and politician* 1941 – Bobby Elliott, English drummer * 1941 – Geoff Hurst, English footballer and manager1942 – Bob Love, American basketball player1943 – Larry Martin, American paleontologist and ornithologist (d. 2013)* 1943 – Jim Morrison, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 1971)* 1943 – James Tate, American poet (d. 2015)* 1943 – Bodo Tümmler, German runner* 1943 – Mary Woronov, American actress, director, and screenwriter1944 – George Baker, Dutch singer-songwriter 1944 – Bertie Higgins, American singer-songwriter* 1944 – Ted Irvine, Canadian ice hockey player* 1944 – Vince MacLean, Canadian educator and politician1945 – John Banville, Irish novelist and screenwriter 1945 – Julie Heldman, American tennis player 1946 – Chava Alberstein, Polish-Israeli singer-songwriter and guitarist 1946 – John Rubinstein, American actor, director, and composer1947 – Gregg Allman, American musician (d. 2017) 1947 – Gérard Blanc, French singer, guitarist, and actor (d. 2009)* 1947 – Thomas Cech, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1947 – Kati-Claudia Fofonoff, Finnish author and poet (d. 2011)* 1947 – Margaret Geller, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic1948 – Luis Caffarelli, Argentinian-American mathematician and academic 1948 – John Waters, English-Australian actor, singer-songwriter, and guitarist1949 – Mary Gordon, American author, critic, and academic 1949 – Nancy Meyers, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1949 – Robert Sternberg, American psychologist and academic1950 – Rick Baker, American actor and makeup artist 1950 – Tim Foli, American baseball player, coach, and manager* 1950 – Dan Hartman, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 1994)1951 – Bill Bryson, American essayist, travel and science writer 1951 – Richard Desmond, English publisher and businessman, founded Northern & Shell* 1951 – Jan Eggum, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Steve Atkinson, English-Hong Kong cricketer 1952 – Khaw Boon Wan, Malayan-Singaporean politician, Singaporean Minister of Health1953 – Kim Basinger, American actress 1953 – Norman Finkelstein, American author, academic, and activist* 1953 – Roy Firestone, American sportscaster and journalist* 1953 – Sam Kinison, American comedian (d. 1992)* 1953 – Władysław Kozakiewicz, Lithuanian-Polish pole vaulter and coach* 1953 – Steve Yates, English footballer1954 – Harold Hongju Koh, American lawyer, academic, and politician 1954 – Frits Pirard, Dutch cyclist1955 – Milenko Zablaćanski, Serbian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008)1956 – Warren Cuccurullo, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1956 – Andrius Kubilius, Lithuanian academic and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Lithuania* 1956 – Slick, American wrestler and manager1957 – Mike Buchanan, British men's rights advocate 1957 – James Cama, American martial artist and educator (d. 2014)* 1957 – Phil Collen, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Rob Byrnes, American author and blogger 1958 – Rob Curling, Malayan-English journalist* 1958 – Michel Ferté, French race car driver* 1958 – Bob Greene, American physiologist and author* 1958 – Mirosław Okoński, Polish footballer* 1958 – George Rogers, American football player1959 – Stephen Jefferies, South African cricketer and coach 1959 – Mark Steyn, Canadian-American author and critic1960 – Aaron Allston, American game designer and author (d. 2014) 1960 – Lim Guan Eng, Malaysian accountant and politician1961 – Mark Bugden, Australian rugby league player 1961 – Ann Coulter, American political commentator and author* 1961 – Conceição Lima, São Toméan poet* 1961 – Mikey Robins, Australian comedian and television host1962 – Steve Elkington, Australian-American golfer 1962 – Marty Friedman, American-Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and television host * 1962 – Nikos Karageorgiou, Greek footballer and manager* 1962 – Berry van Aerle, Dutch footballer1963 – Greg Howe, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1963 – Toshiaki Kawada, Japanese wrestler* 1963 – Wendell Pierce, American actor* 1963 – Ricky Walford, Australian rugby league player1964 – James Blundell, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Teri Hatcher, American actress* 1964 – Chigusa Nagayo, Japanese wrestler* 1964 – Óscar Ramírez, Costa Rican footballer and coach1965 – David Harewood, English actor 1965 – Theo Maassen, Dutch actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1965 – Teresa Weatherspoon, American basketball player and coach1966 – Bushwick Bill, Jamaican-American rapper (d. 2019) 1966 – Les Ferdinand, English footballer and coach* 1966 – Matthew Labyorteaux, American actor* 1966 – Tyler Mane, Canadian wrestler and actor* 1966 – Sinéad O'Connor, Irish singer-songwriter (d. 2023)1967 – Jeff George, American football player 1967 – Andy Kapp, German curler* 1967 – Kotono Mitsuishi, Japanese voice actress and singer* 1967 – Darren Sheridan, English footballer and manager1968 – Michael Cole, American sportscaster and journalist 1968 – Mike Mussina, American baseball player and coach* 1968 – Doriano Romboni, Italian motorcycle racer (d. 2013)1969 – Kristin Lauter, American mathematician and cryptographer1971 – Abdullah Ercan, Turkish footballer and manager1972 – Indrek Allmann, Estonian architect 1972 – Janae Kroc, American powerlifter* 1972 – Édson Ribeiro, Brazilian sprinter1973 – Corey Taylor, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actor 1974 – Cristian Castro, Mexican singer* 1974 – Nick Zinner, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1975 – Kevin Harvick, American race car driver1976 – Brettina, Bahamian-American singer-songwriter and actress* 1976 – Reed Johnson, American baseball player* 1976 – Zoe Konstantopoulou, Greek lawyer and politician* 1976 – Dominic Monaghan, German-British actor1977 – Ryan Newman, American race car driver 1977 – Aleksandra Olsza, Polish tennis player* 1977 – Anita Weyermann, Swiss runner and journalist1978 – John Oster, English-Welsh footballer 1978 – Frédéric Piquionne, French footballer* 1978 – Anwar Siraj, Ethiopian footballer* 1978 – Ian Somerhalder, American actor* 1978 – Vernon Wells, American baseball player1979 – Daniel Fitzhenry, Australian rugby player 1979 – Johan Forssell, Swedish lawyer and politician* 1979 – Raymond Lam, Chinese actor and singer* 1979 – Ingrid Michaelson, American singer-songwriter and pianist* 1979 – Christian Wilhelmsson, Swedish footballer1980 – Yuliya Krevsun, Ukrainian runner1981 – Jeremy Accardo, American baseball player* 1981 – Simon Finnigan, English rugby league player* 1981 – Philip Rivers, American football player1982 – Alfredo Aceves, Mexican baseball player 1982 – Chrisette Michele, American singer-songwriter* 1982 – Nicki Minaj, Trinidadian-American rapper and actress* 1982 – Serena Ryder, Canadian singer-songwriter 1983 – Matt Ellison, Canadian ice hockey player 1983 – Neel Jani, Swiss race car driver* 1983 – Valéry Mézague, Cameroonian footballer (d. 2014)1984 – Emma Green Tregaro, Swedish high jumper 1984 – Greg Halford, English footballer* 1984 – Sam Hunt, American singer-songwriter1985 – Josh Donaldson, American baseball player 1985 – Meagan Duhamel, Canadian figure skater* 1985 – Dwight Howard, American basketball player* 1985 – Oleksiy Pecherov, Ukrainian basketball player1986 – Enzo Amore, American wrestler and rapper 1986 – Amir Khan, English boxer* 1986 – Sam Tagataese, New Zealand-Samoan rugby league player* 1986 – Kate Voegele, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress1989 – Drew Doughty, Canadian ice hockey player 1989 – Jen Ledger, English musician and singer* 1989 – Andrew Nicholson, Canadian basketball player* 1989 – Jesse Sene-Lefao, New Zealand rugby league player1991 – Philip Holm, Swedish ice hockey player1991 – Bhavini Purohit, Indian television actress and YouTuber1992 – Yui Yokoyama, Japanese idol, model, and actress1993 – Janari Jõesaar, Estonian basketball player* 1993 – Cara Mund, American model, Miss America 2018* 1993 – Jordan Obita, English footballer* 1993 – AnnaSophia Robb, American actress 1994 – Conseslus Kipruto, Kenyan runner 1994 – Raheem Sterling, English footballer1995 – Thatcher Demko, American ice hockey player1996 – Scott McTominay, Scottish footballer1997 – Sam Hauser, American basketball player1998 – Owen Teague, American actor" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 855 – Drogo of Metz, illegitimate son of Charlemagne (b.", "801)* 899 – Arnulf of Carinthia (b.", "850)* 964 – Zhou the Elder, Chinese queen consort1186 – Berthold IV, Duke of Zähringen (b.c 1125)1292 – John Peckham, Archbishop of Canterbury1365 – Nicholas II, Duke of Opava (b.", "1288)1431 – Hedwig Jagiellon, Polish and Lithuanian princess (b.", "1408)1550 – Gian Giorgio Trissino, Italian humanist, poet, dramatist and diplomat (b.", "1478)1596 – Luis de Carvajal the Younger, Marrano writer and martyr (b.", "1566/1567)===1601–1900===1626 – John Davies, English poet, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1569)1632 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b.", "1561)1638 – Ivan Gundulić, Croatian poet (b.", "1589)1643 – John Pym, English politician (b.", "1583)1649 – Noël Chabanel, French missionary and saint (b.", "1613)1680 – Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1606)1691 – Richard Baxter, English minister, poet, and hymn-writer (b.", "1615)1695 – Barthélemy d'Herbelot, French orientalist and academic (b.", "1625)1709 – Thomas Corneille, French playwright and philologist (b.", "1625)1722 – Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine (b.", "1652)1734 – James Figg, English prizefighter1744 – Marie Anne de Mailly, French mistress of Louis XV of France (b.", "1717)1745 – Étienne Fourmont, French orientalist and academic (b.", "1683)1746 – Charles Radclyffe, English courtier and soldier (b.", "1693)1756 – William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington, English politician and diplomat, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b.", "1690)1768 – Jean Denis Attiret, French painter and missionary (b.", "1702)1779 – Nathan Alcock, English physician (b.", "1707)1815 – Mary Bosanquet Fletcher, Methodist preacher and philanthropist (b.", "1739)1830 – Benjamin Constant, Swiss-French philosopher and author (b.", "1767)1856 – Theobald Mathew, Irish social reformer and temperance movement leader (b.", "1790)1859 – Thomas De Quincey, English journalist and author (b.", "1785)1864 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1815)1869 – Narcisa de Jesús, Ecuadorian saint (b.", "1832)1885 – William Henry Vanderbilt, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1821)1886 – Isaac Lea, American conchologist, geologist, and publisher (b.", "1792)1894 – Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematician and theorist (b.", "1821)===1901–present===1903 – Herbert Spencer, English biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and philosopher (b.", "1820)1907 – King Oscar II of Sweden (b.", "1829)1913 – Camille Jenatzy, Belgian race car driver (b.", "1868)1914 – Melchior Anderegg, Swiss mountain guide (b.", "1828)* 1914 – Maximilian von Spee, Danish-German admiral (b.", "1861)1917 – Mendele Mocher Sforim, Russian author (b.", "1836)1918 – Josip Stadler, Bosnian Catholic archbishop (b.", "1843)1919 – J. Alden Weir, American painter (b.", "1852)1922 – Joe McKelvey and three other prominent Irish Republican Army officers are executed during the Irish Civil War1929 – José Vicente Concha, Colombian politician and 8th President of Colombia (b.", "1867)1932 – Gertrude Jekyll, British horticulturist and writer (b.", "1843)1937 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (b.", "1856)1938 – Friedrich Glauser, Swiss author (b.", "1896)1940 – George Lloyd, English-Canadian bishop and theologian (b.", "1861)1941 – Izidor Kürschner, Hungarian football player and coach (b.", "1885)1942 – Albert Kahn, American architect, Fisher Building, Packard Automotive Plant, Ford River Rouge Complex (b.", "1869)1952 – Charles Lightoller, English sailor (b.", "1874)1954 – Claude Cahun, French artist, photographer, and writer (b.", "1894) 1954 – Gladys George, American actress (b.", "1904)* 1954 – Joseph B. Keenan, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1888)1958 – Tris Speaker, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1888)1963 – Sarit Thanarat, Thai field marshal and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Thailand (b.", "1908)1966 – Ward Morehouse, American playwright, author, and critic (b.", "1899)1971 – Ernst Krenkel, Russian geographer and explorer (b.", "1903)* 1971 – Eleni Ourani, Greek poet and critic (b.", "1896)1975 – Gary Thain, New Zealand bass player (b.", "1948)1978 – Golda Meir, Ukrainian-Israeli educator and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Israel (b.", "1898)1980 – John Lennon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1940)1982 – Bram Behr, Surinamese journalist and politician (b.", "1951)* 1982 – André Kamperveen, Surinamese footballer and manager (b.", "1924)* 1982 – Marty Robbins, American singer-songwriter and race car driver (b.", "1925)* 1982 – Haim Laskov, Israel Defense Forces fifth Chief of Staff (b.", "1919)1983 – Keith Holyoake, New Zealand farmer and politician, 26th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b.", "1904) 1983 – Slim Pickens, American actor (b.", "1919)1984 – Luther Adler, American actor (b.", "1903) 1984 – Robert Jay Mathews, American militant leader, founded The Order (b.", "1953)* 1984 – Razzle, English drummer (b.", "1960)* 1984 – Semih Sancar, Turkish general (b.", "1911)1991 – Buck Clayton, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1911)1992 – William Shawn, American journalist (b.", "1917)1993 – Yevgeny Minayev, Russian weightlifter (b.", "1933)1994 – Antônio Carlos Jobim, Brazilian singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1927)1996 – Howard Rollins, American actor (b.", "1950) 1996 – Kashiwado Tsuyoshi, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 47th Yokozuna (b.", "1938)1997 – Bob Bell, American clown and actor (b.", "1922)1999 – Péter Kuczka, Hungarian poet and author (b.", "1923)2001 – Mirza Delibašić, Bosnian basketball player and coach (b.", "1954) 2001 – Betty Holberton, American computer scientist and programmer (b.", "1917)2003 – Rubén González, Cuban pianist (b.", "1919)2004 – Dimebag Darrell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1966)2005 – Rose Heilbron, British barrister and judge (b.", "1914)2006 – Martha Tilton, American singer (b.", "1915)* 2006 – José Uribe, Dominican baseball player (b.", "1959)2007 – Gerardo García Pimentel, Mexican journalist (b.", "1983)2008 – Oliver Postgate, English voice actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1925)* 2008 – Robert Prosky, American actor (b.", "1930)2009 – Luis Días, Dominican singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1952)2012 – Jerry Brown, American football player (b.", "1987)* 2012 – John Gowans, Scottish-English 16th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1934)* 2012 – Johnny Lira, American boxer (b.", "1951)2013 – John Cornforth, Australian-English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917) 2013 – Sándor Szokolay, Hungarian composer and academic (b.", "1931)* 2013 – Richard S. Williamson, American lawyer and diplomat (b.", "1949)2014 – Tom Gosnell, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1951) 2014 – Russ Kemmerer, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Knut Nystedt, Norwegian organist and composer (b.", "1915)2015 – Mattiwilda Dobbs, American soprano and actress (b.", "1925) 2015 – Alan Hodgkinson, English footballer and coach (b.", "1936)* 2015 – Douglas Tompkins, American businessman, co-founded The North Face and Esprit Holdings (b.", "1943)* 2015 – John Trudell, American author, poet, and actor (b.", "1946)* 2015 – Elsie Tu, English-Hong Kong educator and politician (b.", "1913)2016 – John Glenn, American astronaut and senator, first American to go into orbit (b.", "1921)2018 – David Weatherall, English physician, geneticist, and academic (b.", "1933)2019 – René Auberjonois, American actor (b.", "1940) 2019 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (b.", "1998)* 2019 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and actor (b.", "1933)2021 – Robbie Shakespeare, Jamaican bass guitarist and record producer (b.", "1953)2023 – Ryan O'Neal, American actor (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Battle Day (Falkland Islands)Bodhi Day (Japan)CARICOM–Cuba Day (Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba)Christian feast day:Budoc (Beuzec) of DolClement of Ohrid (Julian Calendar), and its related observances:*Student's Day (Bulgaria)EuchariusFeast of the Immaculate Conception (public holiday in several countries, a holy day of obligation in others), and its related observances:Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Anglican Communion), lesser commemorationFesta da Conceição da Praia, celebrating Yemanjá, Queen of the Ocean in Umbanda (Salvador, Bahia)Festival of Lights (Lyon)Mother's Day (Panama)Lady of Camarin Day (Guam)Patapios of ThebesPope EutychianRichard Baxter (US Episcopal Church)Romaric* December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Constitution Day (Romania)Constitution Day (Uzbekistan)Day of Finnish Music (Finland)Earliest day on which National Tree Planting Day can fall, while December 14 is the latest; celebrated on the second Monday in December.", "(Malawi)Hari-Kuyō (Kansai region, Japan)National Youth Day (Albania)* Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Day (Ethiopia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 8" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Desmond Morris" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Desmond John Morris''' FLS ''hon.", "caus.''", "(born 24 January 1928) is an English zoologist, ethologist and surrealist painter, as well as a popular author in human sociobiology.", "He is known for his 1967 book ''The Naked Ape'', and for his television programmes such as ''Zoo Time''." ], [ "Early life and education", "Morris was born in Purton, Wiltshire, to Marjorie (née Hunt) and children's fiction author Harry Morris.", "In 1933, the Morrises moved to Swindon where Desmond developed an interest in natural history and writing.", "He was educated at Dauntsey's School, a boarding school in Wiltshire.In 1946, Morris joined the British Army for two years of national service, becoming a lecturer in fine arts at the Chiseldon Army College in Wiltshire.", "After being demobilised in 1948, he held his first one-man show of his own paintings at the Swindon Arts Centre, and studied zoology at the University of Birmingham.", "In 1950 he held a surrealist art exhibition with Joan Miró at the London Gallery.", "He held many other exhibitions in later years.", "Also in 1950, Desmond Morris wrote and directed two surrealist films, ''Time Flower'' and ''The Butterfly and the Pin''.", "In 1951 he began a doctorate at the Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, in animal behaviour.", "In 1954, he earned a Doctor of Philosophy for his work on the reproductive behaviour of the ten-spined stickleback." ], [ "Career", "Morris stayed at Oxford, researching the reproductive behaviour of birds.", "In 1956 he moved to London as Head of the Granada TV and Film Unit for the Zoological Society of London, and studied the picture-making abilities of apes.", "The work included creating programmes for film and television on animal behaviour and other zoology topics.", "He hosted Granada TV's weekly ''Zoo Time'' programme until 1959, scripting and hosting 500 programmes, and 100 episodes of the show ''Life in the Animal World'' for BBC2.In 1957 he organised an exhibition at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London, showing paintings and drawings composed by common chimpanzees.", "In 1958 he co-organised an exhibition, ''The Lost Image'', which compared pictures by infants, human adults, and apes, at the Royal Festival Hall in London.", "In 1959 he left ''Zoo Time'' to become the Zoological Society's Curator of Mammals.", "In 1964, he delivered the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on ''Animal Behaviour''.", "In 1967 he spent a year as executive director of the London Institute of Contemporary Arts.Morris's books include ''The Naked Ape: A Zoologist's Study of the Human Animal'', published in 1967.The book sold well enough for Morris to move to Malta in 1968 to write a sequel and other books.", "In 1973 he returned to Oxford to work for the ethologist Niko Tinbergen.", "From 1973 to 1981, Morris was a Research Fellow at Wolfson College, Oxford.", "In 1979 he undertook a television series for Thames TV, ''The Human Race'', followed in 1982 by ''Man Watching in Japan'', ''The Animals Road Show'' in 1986 and then several other series.", "Morris wrote and presented the BBC documentary The Human Animal and its accompanying book in 1994.National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/16) with Desmond Morris in 2015 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library.Morris is a Fellow ''honoris causa'' of the Linnean Society of London." ], [ "Personal life", "Morris's father suffered lung damage in World War I, and died when Morris was 14.He was not allowed to go to the funeral and said later; \"It was the beginning of a lifelong hatred of the establishment.", "The church, the government and the military were all on my hate list and have remained there ever since.\"", "His grandfather William Morris, an enthusiastic Victorian naturalist and founder of the Swindon local newspaper, greatly influenced him during his time living in Swindon.In July 1952, Morris married Ramona Baulch; they had one son, Jason.", "In 1978 Morris was elected vice-chairman of Oxford United.", "While a director of the club, he designed its ox-head badge based on a Minoan-style bull’s head, which remains in use to this day.Morris lived in the same house in North Oxford as the 19th-century lexicographer James Murray who worked on the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.", "He has exhibited at the Taurus Gallery in North Parade, Oxford, close to where he lived.", "He is the patron of the Friends of Swindon Museum and Art Gallery and gave a talk to launch the charity in 1993.Since the death of his wife in 2018 he has lived with his son and family in Ireland." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Books===* * ''The Big Cats'' (1965) – part of The Bodley Head Natural Science Picture Books, looking at the habits of the five Big Cats.", "* ''The Mammals: A Guide to the Living Species'' (1965) – a listing of mammal genera, non-rodent non-bat species, and additional information on select species.", "* ''Men and Pandas'' (1966) with Ramona Morris – third volume in the Ramona and Desmond Morris animal series.", "* – a look at the humanity's animalistic qualities and its similarity with other apes.", "In 2011, ''Time'' magazine placed it on its list of the 100 best or most influential non-fiction books written in English since 1923.", "* ''Men and Snakes'' (1968) with Ramona Morris – an exploration of the various complex relationships between humans and snakes* ''The Human Zoo'' (1969) – a continuation of ''The Naked Ape'', analysing human behaviour in big modern societies and their resemblance to animal behaviour in captivity.", "* ''Patterns of Reproductive Behavior'' (1970)* ''Intimate Behaviour'' (1971) – A study of the human side of intimate behaviour, examining how natural selection shaped human physical contact.", "* ''Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour'' (1978) – includes discussion of topic \"Tie Signs\"* ''Gestures: Their Origin and Distribution'' (1979)* ''Animal Days'' (1979) * ''The Soccer Tribe'' (1981)* ''Pocket Guide to Manwatching'' (1982)* ''Inrock'' (1983)* ''Bodywatching – A Field Guide to the Human Species'' (1985) * ''The Book of Ages: Who Did What When'' (1985)* ''The Art of Ancient Cyprus (1985)* ''Catwatching and Cat Lore'' (1986) * ''Dogwatching'' (1986) * ''Horsewatching'' (1989) * ''Animalwatching'' (1990)* ''Babywatching'' (1991)* ''Christmas Watching'' (1992)* ''Bodytalk'' (1994)* ''The Human Animal'' (1994) – book and BBC documentary TV series* ''The Human Sexes'' (1997) – Discovery/BBC documentary TV series* ''Cat World: A Feline Encyclopedia'' (1997)* ''The Secret Surrealist: The Paintings of Desmond Morris'' (1999)* ''Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms'' (1999)* ''The Naked Eye'' (2001)* ''Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1,000 Dog Breeds'' (2001)* ''Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language'' (2002)* ''The Naked Woman: A Study of the Female Body'' (2004)* ''Linguaggio muto (Dumb Language)'' (2004)* ''The Nature of Happiness'' (2004)* ''Watching'' (2006) - autobiography* ''Fantastic Cats'' (2007)* ''The Naked Man: A Study of the Male Body'' (2008)* ''Baby: A Portrait of the First Two Years of Life'' (2008)* ''Planet Ape'' (2009) (co-authored with Steve Parker)* ''Owl'' (2009) – Part of the ''Reaktion Books'' ''Animal'' series* ''The Artistic Ape'' (2013)* ''Monkey'' (2013) – Part of the ''Reaktion Books'' ''Animal'' series* ''Leopard'' (2014) – Part of the ''Reaktion Books'' ''Animal'' series* ''Bison'' (2015) – Part of the ''Reaktion Books'' ''Animal'' series* ''Cats in Art'' (2017) – Part of the ''Reaktion Books'' ''Animal'' series* ''The Lives of the Surrealists'' (2018)* ''Postures: Body Language in Art'' (2019)* ''The British Surrealists'' (2022)===Book reviews===YearReview articleWork(s) reviewed1994" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Zootime'' (Weekly, 1956–67)* ''Life'' (1965–67)* ''The Human Race'' (1982)* ''The Animals Roadshow'' (1987–89)* ''The Animal Contract'' (1989)* ''Animal Country'' (1991–96)* ''The Human Animal'' (1994)* ''The Human Sexes'' (1997)" ], [ "Criticism", "Some of Morris's theories have been criticized as untestable.", "For instance, geneticist Adam Rutherford writes that Morris commits \"the scientific sin of the 'just-so' story – speculation that sounds appealing but cannot be tested or is devoid of evidence\".", "However, this is also a criticism of adaptationism in evolutionary biology, not just of Morris.Morris is also criticized for suggesting that gender roles have an evolutionary rather than a purely cultural background." ], [ "References", "" ], [ "External links", " Official website including a complete biography* * Dinjet il-Qattus/Catlore by Desmond Morris, translated into Maltese by Toni Aquilina, D es Litt.", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 28" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 418 – A papal election begins, resulting in the election of Pope Boniface I.", "* 457 – Majorian is acclaimed as Western Roman emperor.", "* 484 – Alaric II succeeds his father Euric and becomes king of the Visigoths.", "He establishes his capital at Aire-sur-l'Adour (Southern Gaul).", "* 893 – An earthquake destroys the city of Dvin, Armenia.", "1065 – Edward the Confessor's Romanesque monastic church at Westminster Abbey is consecrated.", "1308 – The reign of Emperor Hanazono of Japan begins.===1601–1900===1659 – The Marathas defeat the Adilshahi forces in the Battle of Kolhapur.", "1768 – King Taksin's coronation achieved through conquest as a king of Thailand and established Thonburi as a capital.", "1795 – Construction of Yonge Street, formerly recognized as the longest street in the world, begins in York, Upper Canada (present-day Toronto).", "1832 – John C. Calhoun becomes the first Vice President of the United States to resign.", "He resigned after being elected Senator from South Carolina.", "1835 – Osceola leads his Seminole warriors in Florida into the Second Seminole War against the United States Army.", "1836 – South Australia and Adelaide are founded.", "* 1836 – Spain recognizes the independence of Mexico with the signing of the Santa María–Calatrava Treaty.", "1846 – Iowa is admitted as the 29th U.S.", "state.", "1879 – Tay Bridge disaster: The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom collapses as a train passes over it, killing 75.", "1885 – Indian National Congress, a political party of India, is founded in Bombay Presidency, British India.", "1895 – The Lumière brothers perform for their first paying audience at the Grand Cafe in ''Boulevard des Capucines''.", "* 1895 – Wilhelm Röntgen publishes a paper detailing his discovery of a new type of radiation, which later will be known as x-rays.===1901–present===1902 – The Syracuse Athletic Club defeat the New York Philadelphians, 5–0, in the first indoor professional football game, which was held at Madison Square Garden.", "1908 – The 7.1 Messina earthquake shakes Southern Italy with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), killing between 75,000 and 200,000.", "1912 – The first municipally owned streetcars take to the streets in San Francisco.", "1918 – Constance Markievicz, while detained in Holloway prison, becomes the first woman to be elected Member of Parliament (MP) to the British House of Commons.", "1941 – World War II: Operation Anthropoid, the plot to assassinate high-ranking Nazi officer Reinhard Heydrich, commences.", "1943 – Soviet authorities launch Operation Ulussy, beginning the deportation of the Kalmyk nation to Siberia and Central Asia.", "* 1943 – World War II: After eight days of brutal house-to-house fighting, the Battle of Ortona concludes with the victory of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division over the German 1st Parachute Division and the capture of the Italian town of Ortona.", "1944 – Maurice Richard becomes the first player to score eight points in one game of NHL ice hockey.", "1948 – The DC-3 airliner ''NC16002'' disappears south of Miami.", "1956 – Chin Peng, David Marshall and Tunku Abdul Rahman meet in Baling, Malaya to try and resolve the Malayan Emergency situation.", "1958 – \"Greatest Game Ever Played\": The Baltimore Colts defeat the New York Giants in the first ever National Football League sudden death overtime game at New York's Yankee Stadium to win the NFL Championship.", "1967 – American businesswoman Muriel Siebert becomes the first woman to own a seat on the New York Stock Exchange.", "1972 – The last scheduled day for induction into the military by the Selective Service System.", "Due to the fact that President Richard Nixon declared this day a national day of mourning due to former President Harry S Truman's death, approximately 300 men were not able to report due to most Federal offices being closed.", "Since the draft was not resumed in 1973, they were never drafted.", "1973 – The United States Endangered Species Act is signed into law by President Richard Nixon.", "1978 – United Airlines Flight 173 crashes in a residential neighborhood near Portland International Airport, killing 10 people.", "1989 – A magnitude 5.6 earthquake hits Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, killing 13 people.", "2006 – War in Somalia: The militaries of Somalia's Transitional Federal Government and Ethiopian troops capture Mogadishu unopposed.", "2009 – Forty-three people die in a suicide bombing in Karachi, Pakistan, where Shia Muslims are observing the Day of Ashura.", "2014 – Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashes into the Karimata Strait en route from Surabaya to Singapore, killing all 162 people aboard.", "* 2014 – Nine people die and another 19 are reported missing, when the MS ''Norman Atlantic'' catches fire in the Strait of Otranto, in the Adriatic Sea, in Italian waters." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1461 – Louise of Savoy, French nun (d. 1503)1510 – Nicholas Bacon, English politician (d. 1579)1535 – Martin Eisengrein, German theologian (d. 1578)===1601–1900===1619 – Antoine Furetière, French author and scholar (d. 1688)1635 – Elizabeth Stuart, second daughter of King Charles I of England (d. 1650)1651 – Johann Krieger, German organist and composer (d. 1735)1655 – Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk (d. 1698)1665 – George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1716)1722 – Eliza Lucas, Caribbean-American agriculturalist (d. 1793)1724 – Christoph Franz von Buseck, Prince-Bishop of Bamberg (d. 1805)1763 – John Molson, English-Canadian brewer, founded the Molson Brewery (d. 1836)1775 – Jean-Gabriel Eynard, Swiss banker and photographer (d. 1863)1789 – Catharine Maria Sedgwick, American novelist of \"domestic fiction\" (d. 1867)1798 – Thomas Henderson, Scottish astronomer and mathematician (d. 1844)1818 – Carl Remigius Fresenius, German chemist and academic (d. 1897)1842 – Calixa Lavallée, Canadian-American lieutenant and composer (d. 1891)1856 – Woodrow Wilson, American historian and politician, 28th President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)1865 – Félix Vallotton, Swiss/French painter (d. 1925)1870 – Charles Bennett, English runner (d. 1949)1882 – Arthur Eddington, English astronomer, physicist, and mathematician (d. 1944)* 1882 – Lili Elbe, Danish model and painter (d. 1931)1887 – Werner Kolhörster, German physicist and academic (d. 1946)1888 – F. W. Murnau, German-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1931)1890 – Quincy Wright, American political scientist, historian, and academic (d. 1970)1895 – Carol Ryrie Brink, American author and playwright (d. 1981)1898 – Carl-Gustaf Rossby, Swedish-American meteorologist and academic (d. 1957) 1898 – Shigematsu Sakaibara, Japanese admiral (d. 1947)1900 – Ted Lyons, American baseball player (d. 1986)===1901–present===1902 – Mortimer J. Adler, American philosopher and author (d. 2001)* 1902 – Shen Congwen, Chinese author and educator (d. 1988)1903 – Earl Hines, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1983) 1903 – John von Neumann, Hungarian-American mathematician and physicist (d. 1957)1907 – Ze'ev Ben-Haim, Ukrainian-Israeli linguist and academic (d. 2013)1908 – Lew Ayres, American actor (d. 1996)1910 – Billy Williams, American singer (d. 1972)1911 – Wil van Beveren, Dutch sprinter and journalist (d. 2003)1913 – Lou Jacobi, Canadian-American actor (d. 2009)1914 – Bidia Dandaron, Russian author and educator (d. 1974)* 1914 – Pops Staples, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000)1917 – Ellis Clarke, Trinidadian politician, 1st President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2010)1919 – Emily Cheney Neville, American author (d. 1997)1920 – Tufty Mann, South African cricketer (d. 1952) 1920 – Bruce McCarty, American architect, designed the Knoxville City-County Building (d. 2013)* 1920 – Steve Van Buren, Honduran-American football player (d. 2012)* 1920 – Al Wistert, American football player and coach (d. 2016)1921 – Johnny Otis, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012)1922 – Lionel Bowen, Australian politician, 6th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2012)* 1922 – Stan Lee, American publisher, producer, and actor (d. 2018)1924 – Girma Wolde-Giorgis, Ethiopian politician; President of Ethiopia (d. 2018)1925 – Hildegard Knef, German actress and singer (d. 2002)* 1925 – Milton Obote, Ugandan engineer and politician, 2nd President of Uganda (d. 2005)1926 – Donald Carr, German-English cricketer and referee (d. 2016)1928 – Moe Koffman, Canadian flute player, saxophonist, and composer (d. 2001)1929 – Brian Redhead, English journalist and author (d. 1994) 1929 – Terry Sawchuk, Canadian-American ice hockey player (d. 1970)* 1929 – Maarten Schmidt, Dutch astronomer (d. 2022)1930 – Mariam A. Aleem, Egyptian illustrator and academic (d. 2010)1931 – Guy Debord, French theorist and author (d. 1994)* 1931 – Martin Milner, American actor (d. 2015)1932 – Dhirubhai Ambani, Indian businessman, founded Reliance Industries (d. 2002) 1932 – Dorsey Burnette, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)* 1932 – Roy Hattersley, English journalist and politician, Shadow Home Secretary* 1932 – Harry Howell, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019)* 1932 – Nichelle Nichols, American actress (d. 2022)* 1932 – Manuel Puig, Argentine author and playwright (d. 1990)1933 – John Y.", "Brown Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 55th Governor of Kentucky (d. 2022)1934 – Rudi Faßnacht, German footballer and manager (d. 2000)* 1934 – Maggie Smith, English actress1936 – Alan Coleman, English-Australian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1936 – Lawrence Schiller, American journalist, director, and producer1937 – Ratan Tata, Indian businessman and philanthropist1938 – Dick Sudhalter, American trumpet player, scholar, and critic (d. 2008)1939 – Philip Anschutz, American businessman, founded Anschutz Entertainment Group 1939 – Frank McLintock, Scottish footballer and manager* 1939 – Michelle Urry, American journalist and illustrator (d. 2006)1940 – A. K. Antony, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Defence 1940 – Don Francisco, Chilean-American journalist and talk show host1941 – Intikhab Alam, Indian-Pakistani cricketer and coach1942 – Roger Swerts, Belgian cyclist1943 – Juan Luis Cipriani Thorne, Peruvian cardinal 1943 – David Peterson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Ontario* 1943 – Joan Ruddock, Welsh politician1944 – Sandra Faber, American astronomer and academic 1944 – Johnny Isakson, American sergeant and politician (d. 2021)* 1944 – Kary Mullis, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)* 1944 – Gordon Taylor, English footballer1945 – Birendra, King of Nepal (d. 2001) 1945 – Max Hastings, English journalist, historian, and author1946 – Mike Beebe, American lawyer and politician, 45th Governor of Arkansas 1946 – Pierre Falardeau, Canadian director, screenwriter, and activist (d. 2009)* 1946 – Hubert Green, American golfer (d. 2018)* 1946 – Tim Johnson, American lawyer and politician* 1946 – Barbara, Lady Judge, American-English lawyer and businesswoman (d. 2020)* 1946 – Bill Lee, American baseball player and author* 1946 – Laffit Pincay Jr., Panamanian jockey* 1946 – Edgar Winter, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer 1947 – Dick Diamonde, Dutch-Australian rock bass player 1947 – Aurelio Rodríguez, Mexican baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2000)1948 – Ziggy Modeliste, American drummer1950 – Alex Chilton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)* 1950 – Clifford Cocks, English mathematician and cryptographer* 1950 – Rainer Maria Latzke, German-American painter and academic1952 – Arun Jaitley, Indian lawyer and politician, 9th Indian Minister of Law and Justice (d. 2019) 1952 – Bridget Prentice, Scottish educator and politician1953 – Richard Clayderman, French pianist 1953 – Tatsumi Fujinami, Japanese wrestler and promoter, founded Dradition wrestling promotion * 1953 – Charlie Pierce, American journalist and author* 1953 – Martha Wash, American singer-songwriter 1954 – Gayle King, American television journalist 1954 – Denzel Washington, American actor, director, and producer1955 – Stephen Frost, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter 1955 – Liu Xiaobo, Chinese author, academic, and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2017)1956 – Nigel Kennedy, English violinist1958 – Terry Butcher, English footballer and manager* 1958 – Curt Byrum, American golfer* 1958 – Zoran Gajić, Serbian volleyball trainer1959 – Hansjörg Kunze, German runner and sportscaster 1959 – Daniel Léo Simpson, American composer* 1959 – Ana Torroja, Spanish singer-songwriter 1960 – Ray Bourque, Canadian ice hockey player 1960 – John Fitzgerald, Australian tennis player, coach, and sportscaster* 1960 – Chad McQueen, American actor* 1960 – Melvin Turpin, American basketball player (d. 2010)1961 – Kent Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager1962 – Michel Petrucciani, French jazz pianist (d. 1999)1964 – Tex Perkins, Australian singer-songwriter 1964 – Maite Zúñiga, Spanish runner1965 – Allar Levandi, Estonian skier1967 – Chris Ware, American illustrator1968 – Akihiko Hoshide, Japanese engineer and astronaut1969 – Linus Torvalds, Finnish-American computer programmer, developed Linux kernel1970 – Elaine Hendrix, American actress 1970 – James Jett, American sprinter and football player* 1970 – Brenda Schultz-McCarthy, Dutch tennis player1971 – Benny Agbayani, American baseball player 1971 – Sergi Barjuán, Spanish footballer and manager* 1971 – Anita Doth, Dutch singer-songwriter * 1971 – William Gates, American basketball player1972 – Roberto Palacios, Peruvian footballer 1972 – Patrick Rafter, Australian-Bermudian tennis player and model* 1972 – Adam Vinatieri, American football player1973 – Holger Blume, German sprinter 1973 – Marc Blume, German sprinter* 1973 – Seth Meyers, American actor, producer, screenwriter, and talk show host* 1973 – Ids Postma, Dutch speed skater1974 – Jocelyn Enriquez, American singer 1974 – Rob Niedermayer, Canadian ice hockey player* 1974 – Markus Weinzierl, German footballer and manager1975 – B. J. Ryan, American baseball player1976 – Brendan Hines, American actor and singer* 1976 – Joe Manganiello, American actor* 1976 – Trond Nymark, Norwegian race walker* 1976 – Ben Tune, Australian rugby player* 1976 – Igor Žiković, Croatian footballer1977 – Derrick Brew, American sprinter 1977 – Shane Elford, Australian rugby league player* 1977 – Vanessa Ferlito, American actress* 1977 – Seun Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter1978 – Chris Coyne, Australian footballer and manager 1978 – John Legend, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor1979 – James Blake, American tennis player 1979 – Senna Gammour, German singer-songwriter * 1979 – Bill Hall, American baseball player* 1979 – Zach Hill, American musician and artist* 1979 – André Holland, American actor* 1979 – Noomi Rapace, Swedish actress1980 – Lomana LuaLua, Congolese footballer 1980 – Ryta Turava, Belarusian race walker1981 – Khalid Boulahrouz, Dutch footballer 1981 – Elizabeth Jordan Carr, American journalist* 1981 – Sienna Miller, American-British actress and fashion designer* 1981 – David Moss, American ice hockey player* 1981 – Narsha, South Korean singer and dancer* 1981 – Frank Turner, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1981 – Mika Väyrynen, Finnish footballer1982 – Cedric Benson, American football player (d. 2019) 1982 – Beau Garrett, American actress and model* 1982 – François Gourmet, Belgian decathlete* 1982 – Curtis Glencross, Canadian hockey player1984 – Martin Kaymer, German golfer 1984 – Duane Solomon, American runner1986 – Tom Huddlestone, English footballer1987 – Thomas Dekker, American actor and musician1989 – Austin Barnes, American baseball player 1989 – Mackenzie Rosman, American actress1990 – Ayele Abshero, Ethiopian runner 1990 – David Archuleta, American singer* 1990 – John Henson, American basketball player* 1990 – Bastiaan Lijesen, Dutch swimmer1992 – Tomáš Jurčo, Slovak ice hockey player1994 – Adam Peaty, English swimmer2001 – Maitreyi Ramakrishnan, Canadian actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 925 – Wang Zongbi, general of the Chinese state of Former Shu1218 – Robert II, Count of Dreux (b.", "1154)1297 – Hugh Aycelin, French cardinal (b.", "1230)1326 – Sir David II Strathbogie, Earl of Atholl, Constable of Scotland, and Chief Warden of Northumberland1367 – Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shōgun (b.", "1330)1394 – Maria Angelina Doukaina Palaiologina, queen of Epirus (b.", "1350)1446 – Antipope Clement VIII (b.", "1369)1491 – Bertoldo di Giovanni, Italian sculptor (b. c. 1435)1503 – Piero the Unfortunate, Italian ruler (b.", "1471)1538 – Andrea Gritti, Doge of Venice (b.", "1455)1547 – Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (b.", "1465)1558 – Hermann Finck, German organist and composer (b.", "1527)===1601–1900===1622 – Francis de Sales, French bishop and saint (b.", "1567)1663 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician and physicist (b.", "1618)1671 – Johann Friedrich Gronovius, German scholar and critic (b.", "1611)1694 – Mary II of England (b.", "1662)1706 – Pierre Bayle, French philosopher and author (b.", "1647)1708 – Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, French botanist and mycologist (b.", "1656)1715 – William Carstares, Scottish minister and academic (b.", "1649)1734 – Rob Roy MacGregor, Scottish outlaw (b.", "1671)1736 – Antonio Caldara, Italian composer (b.", "1670)1785 – Peter Ernst Wilde, Polish-Estonian physician and journalist (b.", "1732)1795 – Eugenio Espejo, Ecuadorian physician and lawyer (b.", "1747)1859 – Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, English historian and politician, Secretary at War (b.", "1800)1872 – James Van Ness, American lawyer and politician, 7th Mayor of San Francisco (b.", "1808)1890 – Dennis Miller Bunker, American painter (b.", "1861)1897 – William Corby, American priest and academic (b.", "1833)1900 – Alexandre de Serpa Pinto, Portuguese soldier and explorer (b.", "1846)===1901–present===1907 – Louise Granberg, Swedish playwright (b.", "1812)1913 – Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Turkish journalist and translator (b.", "1844)1916 – Eduard Strauss, Austrian violinist and composer (b.", "1835)1917 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (b.", "1892)1918 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian poet and journalist (b.", "1865)1919 – Johannes Rydberg, Swedish physicist and academic (b.", "1854)1924 – Léon Bakst, Russian painter and costume designer (b.", "1866)1932 – Jack Blackham, Australian cricketer (b.", "1854)1935 – Clarence Day, American author and illustrator (b.", "1874)1937 – Maurice Ravel, French pianist and composer (b.", "1875)1938 – Florence Lawrence, Canadian actress (b.", "1886)1942 – Alfred Flatow, German gymnast (b.", "1869)1943 – Steve Evans, American baseball player (b.", "1885)1945 – Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (b.", "1871)1946 – Elie Nadelman, Polish-American sculptor (b.", "1882)1947 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (b.", "1869)1949 – Jack Lovelock, New Zealand runner and soldier (b.", "1910)1959 – Ante Pavelić, Croatian fascist dictator during World War II (b.", "1889)1960 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (b.", "1895)1963 – Paul Hindemith, German violist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1895)1967 – Katharine McCormick, American biologist and philanthropist (b.", "1875)1968 – David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie, Scottish peer, soldier and courtier (b.", "1893)1971 – Max Steiner, Austrian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1888)1976 – Katharine Byron, American politician (b.", "1903)1981 – Allan Dwan, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1885)1983 – Dennis Wilson, American drummer, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1944)1984 – Sam Peckinpah, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1925)* 1984 – Mary Stewart, Baroness Stewart of Alvechurch, British politician and educator (b.", "1903)1986 – John D. MacDonald, American colonel and author (b.", "1916) 1986 – Jan Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter (b.", "1922)1989 – Hermann Oberth, Romanian-German physicist and engineer (b.", "1894)1990 – Warren Skaaren, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1946)1992 – Sal Maglie, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1917)1993 – William L. Shirer, American journalist and historian (b.", "1904)1994 – Jean-Louis Lévesque, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1911)1999 – Clayton Moore, American actor (b.", "1914)2001 – Samuel Abraham Goldblith, American lieutenant, biologist, and engineer (b.", "1919) 2001 – William X. Kienzle, American priest and author (b.", "1928)2003 – Benjamin Thurman Hacker, American admiral (b.", "1935)2004 – Jerry Orbach, American actor and singer (b.", "1935)* 2004 – Susan Sontag, American novelist, essayist, critic, and playwright (b.", "1933)2006 – Jamal Karimi-Rad, Iranian politician, Iranian Minister of Justice (b.", "1956)2008 – Irene Lieblich, Polish-American painter and illustrator (b.", "1923)2009 – Jimmy Sullivan, American musician, composer and songwriter.", "Known by his stage name The Rev (b.", "1981)2010 – Billy Taylor, American pianist and composer (b.", "1921)* 2010 – Terry Peder Rasmussen, American serial killer (b.", "1943)2012 – Nicholas Ambraseys, Greek-English seismologist and engineer (b.", "1929) 2012 – Mark Crispin, American computer scientist and academic, designed the IMAP (b.", "1956)* 2012 – Václav Drobný, Czech footballer (b.", "1980)* 2012 – Frankie Walsh, Irish hurler and manager (b.", "1936)2013 – Halton Arp, American-German astronomer and critic (b.", "1927) 2013 – Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (b.", "1913)* 2013 – Andrew Jacobs, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1932)* 2013 – Alfred Marshall, American businessman, founded Marshalls (b.", "1919)* 2013 – Joseph Ruskin, American actor and producer (b.", "1924)* 2013 – Ilya Tsymbalar, Ukrainian-Russian footballer and manager (b.", "1969)2014 – Vahan Hovhannisyan, Armenian politician (b.", "1956) 2014 – Frankie Randall, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Leelah Alcorn, American transgender teenager (b.", "1997)2015 – John Bradbury, English drummer and songwriter (b.", "1953) 2015 – Eloy Inos, Mariana Islander businessman and politician, 8th Governor of the Northern Mariana Islands (b.", "1949)* 2015 – Lemmy, English musician, singer, and songwriter (b.", "1945)2016 – Debbie Reynolds, American actress, singer and dancer (b.", "1932) 2016 – Jean-Christophe Victor, French political scientist (b.", "1947)2017 – Rose Marie, American actress and comedienne (b.", "1923)2021 – Grichka Bogdanoff, French television presenter and scientific essayist (b.", "1949)* 2021 – John Madden, American football Hall of Fame coach and commentator (b.", "1936)* 2021 – Harry Reid, American lawyer, politician, and former Senate majority leader (b.", "1939)2023 – Vijayakanth, Indian actor and politician (b.", "1952)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Christian feast day: Abel (Coptic Church) Caterina Volpicelli Feast of the Holy Innocents or Childermas; in Spain and Latin American countries the festival is celebrated with pranks (''inocentadas''), similar to April Fools' Day (Catholic Church, Church of England, Lutheran Church), and its related observances:Els Enfarinats (Ibi, Spain)* Simon the Athonite** December 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* King Taksin Memorial Day (Thailand)* Proclamation Day (South Australia), celebration started on the day following Christmas (South Australia)* Republic Day (South Sudan)* The fourth of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 28" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Denis Diderot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denis Diderot''' (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the ''Encyclopédie'' along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.", "He was a prominent figure during the Age of Enlightenment.Diderot initially studied philosophy at a Jesuit college, then considered working in the church clergy before briefly studying law.", "When he decided to become a writer in 1734, his father disowned him.", "He lived a bohemian existence for the next decade.", "In the 1740s he wrote many of his best-known works in both fiction and non-fiction, including the 1748 novel ''Les Bijoux indiscrets'' (The Indiscreet Jewels).In 1751 Diderot co-created the ''Encyclopédie'' with Jean le Rond d'Alembert.", "It was the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors and the first to describe the mechanical arts.", "Its secular tone, which included articles skeptical about Biblical miracles, angered both religious and government authorities; in 1758 it was banned by the Catholic Church and, in 1759, the French government banned it as well, although this ban was not strictly enforced.", "Many of the initial contributors to the ''Encyclopédie'' left the project as a result of its controversies and some were even jailed.", "D'Alembert left in 1759, making Diderot the sole editor.", "Diderot also became the main contributor, writing around 7,000 articles.", "He continued working on the project until 1765.He was increasingly despondent about the ''Encyclopédie'' by the end of his involvement in it and felt that the entire project might have been a waste.", "Nevertheless, the ''Encyclopédie'' is considered one of the forerunners of the French Revolution.Diderot struggled financially throughout most of his career and received very little official recognition of his merit, including being passed over for membership in the Académie française.", "His fortunes improved significantly in 1766, when Empress Catherine the Great, who heard of his financial troubles, generously bought his 3,000-volume personal library, amassed during his work on the Encyclopédie, for 15,000 livres, and offered him in addition a thousand more livres per year to serve as its custodian while he lived.", "He received 50 years' \"salary\" up front from her, and stayed five months at her court in Saint Petersburg in 1773 and 1774, sharing discussions and writing essays on various topics for her several times a week.Diderot's literary reputation during his life rested primarily on his plays and his contributions to the ''Encyclopédie''; many of his most important works, including ''Jacques the Fatalist'', ''Rameau's Nephew'', ''Paradox of the Actor'', and ''D'Alembert's Dream'', were published only after his death." ], [ "Early life", "''N° 9 de la place dans le centre ville de Langres'': in the background on the right side is Diderot's birthplaceStatue of Denis Diderot in the city of Langres, his birthplaceDenis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne.", "His parents were Didier Diderot, a cutler, ''maître coutelier'', and Angélique Vigneron.", "Of Denis' five siblings, three survived to adulthood: Denise Diderot, their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot and, their sister Angélique Diderot.", "Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, sometimes referring to her as \"a female Socrates\".Diderot began his formal education at a Jesuit college in Langres.", "In 1732 he received the degree of Master of Arts from the University of Paris.", "He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy in 1735 and, instead, decided to study at the Paris Law Faculty.", "His study of law was short-lived, however, and in the early 1740s he decided to become a writer and translator.", "Because of his refusal to enter one of the learned professions, he was disowned by his father and, for the next ten years, he lived a bohemian existence.In 1742 he formed a friendship with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whom he met while watching games of chess and drinking coffee at the Café de la Régence.", "In 1743, he further alienated his father by marrying, in October 1743, Antoinette Champion (1710–1796), a devout Catholic.", "Diderot senior considered the match inappropriate, given Champion's low social standing, poor education, fatherless status, and lack of a dowry.", "She was about three years older than Diderot.", "She bore Diderot one surviving child, a girl, named Angélique, after both Diderot's dead mother and his sister.", "The death of his sister Angélique in 1749, a nun, in her convent, may have affected Diderot's opinion of religion.", "She is assumed to have been the inspiration for his novel about a nun, ''La Religieuse'', in which he depicts a woman who is forced to enter a convent, where she suffers at the hands of her fellow nuns.Diderot was unfaithful to his wife, and had affairs with Anne-Gabrielle Babuty (who would marry and later divorce the artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze), Madeleine de Puisieux, Sophie Volland, and Mme de Maux (Jeanne-Catherine de Maux), to whom he wrote numerous surviving letters and who eventually left him for a younger man.", "Diderot's letters to Sophie Volland are known for their candor and are regarded to be \"among the literary treasures of the eighteenth century\"." ], [ "Early works", "Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Temple Stanyan's ''History of Greece'' (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's ''Medicinal Dictionary'' (1746–1748).", "In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesbury's ''Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit'', to which he had added his own \"reflections\".===''Philosophical Thoughts''===In 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work: the ''Philosophical Thoughts'' (''Pensées philosophiques'').", "In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony.", "According to Diderot, without feeling there is a detrimental effect on virtue, and no possibility of creating sublime work.", "However, since feeling without discipline can be destructive, reason is necessary to control feeling.At the time Diderot wrote this book he was a deist.", "Hence there is a defense of deism in this book, and some arguments against atheism.", "The book also contains criticism of Christianity.===''The Skeptic's Walk''===In 1747, Diderot wrote ''The Skeptic's Walk'' (''Promenade du sceptique'') in which a deist, an atheist, and a pantheist have a dialogue on the nature of divinity.", "The deist gives the argument from design.", "The atheist says that the universe is better explained by physics, chemistry, matter, and motion.", "The pantheist says that the cosmic unity of mind and matter, which are co-eternal and comprise the universe, is God.", "This work remained unpublished until 1830.Accounts differ as to why.", "It was either because the local police, warned by the priests of another attack on Christianity, seized the manuscript, or because the authorities forced Diderot to give an undertaking that he would not publish this work.===''The Indiscreet Jewels''===In 1748, Diderot needed to raise money on short notice.", "His wife had born him a child, and his mistress Madeleine de Puisieux was making financial demands of him.", "At this time, Diderot had told his mistress that writing a novel was a trivial task, whereupon she challenged him to write one.", "As a result Diderot produced ''The Indiscreet Jewels'' (''Les bijoux indiscrets'').", "The book is about the magical ring of a Sultan that induces any woman's \"discreet jewels\" to confess their sexual experiences when the ring is pointed at them.", "In all, the ring is pointed at thirty different women in the book—usually at a dinner or a social meeting—with the Sultan typically being visible to the woman.", "However, since the ring has the additional property of making its owner invisible when required, a few of the sexual experiences recounted are through direct observation with the Sultan making himself invisible and placing his person in the unsuspecting woman's boudoir.Besides the bawdiness, there are several digressions into philosophy, music, and literature in the book.", "In one such philosophical digression, the Sultan has a dream in which he sees a child named \"Experiment\" growing bigger and stronger till the child demolishes an ancient temple named \"Hypothesis\".", "The book proved to be lucrative for Diderot even though it could only be sold clandestinely.", "It is Diderot's most published work.The book is believed to draw upon the 1742 libertine novel ''Le Sopha'' by Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon (Crébillon fils).===Scientific work===Diderot kept writing on science in a desultory way all his life.", "The scientific work of which he was most proud was ''Memoires sur differents sujets de mathematique'' (1748).", "This work contains original ideas on acoustics, tension, air resistance, and \"a project for a new organ\" that could be played by all.", "Some of Diderot's scientific works were applauded by contemporary publications of his time such as ''The Gentleman's Magazine'', the ''Journal des savants''; and the Jesuit publication ''Journal de Trevoux,'' which invited more such work: \"on the part of a man as clever and able as M. Diderot seems to be, of whom we should also observe that his style is as elegant, trenchant, and unaffected as it is lively and ingenious.", "\"On the unity of nature Diderot wrote, \"Without the idea of the whole, philosophy is no more,\" and, \"Everything changes; everything passes; nothing remains but the whole.\"", "He wrote of the temporal nature of molecules, and rejected ''emboîtement'', the view that organisms are pre-formed in an infinite regression of non-changing germs.", "He saw minerals and species as part of a spectrum, and he was fascinated with hermaphroditism.", "His answer to the universal attraction in corpuscular physics models was universal elasticity.", "His view of nature's flexibility foreshadows the discovery of evolution, but it is not Darwinistic in a strict sense.===''Letter on the Blind''===Diderot's celebrated ''Letter on the Blind'' (''Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient'') (1749) introduced him to the world as an original thinker.", "The subject is a discussion of the relation between reasoning and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses).", "The title of his book also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were \"the blind\" under discussion.", "In the essay, blind English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson argues that, since knowledge derives from the senses, mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree on.", "It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch.", "(A later essay, ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'', considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute.)", "According to Jonathan Israel, what makes the ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection.This powerful essay, for which La Mettrie expressed warm appreciation in 1751, revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a deist clergyman who endeavours to win him around to a belief in a providential God during his last hours.", "Saunderson's arguments are those of a neo-Spinozist Naturalist and fatalist, using a sophisticated notion of the self-generation and natural evolution of species without creation or supernatural intervention.", "The notion of \"thinking matter\" is upheld and the \"argument from design\" discarded (following La Mettrie) as hollow and unconvincing.The work appeared anonymously in Paris in June 1749, and was vigorously suppressed by the authorities.", "Diderot, who had been under police surveillance since 1747, was swiftly identified as the author, had his manuscripts confiscated, and he was imprisoned for some months, under a ''lettre de cachet'', on the outskirts of Paris, in the dungeons at Vincennes where he was visited almost daily by Rousseau, at the time his closest and most assiduous ally.Voltaire wrote an enthusiastic letter to Diderot commending the ''Lettre'' and stating that he had held Diderot in high regard for a long time, to which Diderot had sent a warm response.", "Soon after this, Diderot was arrested.Science historian Conway Zirkle has written that Diderot was an early evolutionary thinker and noted that his passage that described natural selection was \"so clear and accurate that it almost seems that we would be forced to accept his conclusions as a logical necessity even in the absence of the evidence collected since his time.\"" ], [ "Incarceration and release", "Angered by public resentment over the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the government started incarcerating many of its critics.", "It was decided at this time to rein in Diderot.", "On 23 July 1749, the governor of the Vincennes fortress instructed the police to incarcerate Diderot, and the next day he was arrested and placed in solitary confinement at Vincennes.", "It was at this period that Rousseau visited Diderot in prison and came out a changed man, with newfound ideas about the disadvantages of knowledge, civilization, and Enlightenment – the so-called ''illumination de Vincennes''.Diderot had been permitted to retain one book that he had in his possession at the time of his arrest, ''Paradise Lost'', which he read during his incarceration.", "He wrote notes and annotations on the book, using a toothpick as a pen, and ink that he made by scraping slate from the walls and mixing it with wine.In August 1749, Mme du Chatelet, presumably at Voltaire's behest, wrote to the governor of Vincennes, who was her relative, pleading for Diderot to be lodged more comfortably during his incarceration.", "The governor then offered Diderot access to the great halls of the Vincennes castle and the freedom to receive books and visitors providing he wrote a document of submission.", "On 13 August 1749, Diderot wrote to the governor:On 20 August, Diderot was moved to a comfortable room in the fortess, allowed to meet visitors, and to walk within the gardens.", "On 23 August, Diderot signed another letter promising never to leave the prison without permission.", "On 3 November 1749, he was given his freedom.", "Subsequently, in 1750, he released the prospectus for the ''Encyclopédie''." ], [ "Encyclopédie", "===Genesis===Title page of the ''Encyclopédie''André le Breton, a bookseller and printer, approached Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation of Ephraim Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' into French, first undertaken by the Englishman John Mills, and followed by the German Gottfried Sellius.", "Diderot accepted the proposal, and transformed it.", "He persuaded Le Breton to publish a new work, which would consolidate ideas and knowledge from the Republic of Letters.", "The publishers found capital for a larger enterprise than they had first planned.", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert was persuaded to become Diderot's colleague, and permission was procured from the government.In 1750, an elaborate prospectus announced the project, and the first volume was published in 1751.This work was unorthodox and advanced for the time.", "Diderot stated that \"An encyclopedia ought to make good the failure to execute such a project hitherto, and should encompass not only the fields already covered by the academies, but each and every branch of human knowledge.\"", "Comprehensive knowledge will give \"the power to change men's common way of thinking.\"", "The work combined scholarship with information on trades.", "Diderot emphasized the abundance of knowledge within each subject area.", "Everyone would benefit from these insights.===Controversies===Diderot's work, however, was mired in controversy from the beginning; the project was suspended by the courts in 1752.Just as the second volume was completed, accusations arose regarding seditious content, concerning the editor's entries on religion and natural law.", "Diderot was detained and his house was searched for manuscripts for subsequent articles: but the search proved fruitless as no manuscripts could be found.", "They had been hidden in the house of an unlikely confederate—Chretien de Lamoignon Malesherbes, who originally ordered the search.", "Although Malesherbes was a staunch absolutist, and loyal to the monarchy—he was sympathetic to the literary project.", "Along with his support, and that of other well-placed influential confederates, the project resumed.", "Diderot returned to his efforts only to be constantly embroiled in controversy.These twenty years were to Diderot not merely a time of incessant drudgery, but harassing persecution and desertion of friends.", "The ecclesiastical party detested the ''Encyclopédie'', in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies.", "By 1757, they could endure it no longer—the subscribers had grown from 2,000 to 4,000, a measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power.", "Diderot wanted the ''Encyclopédie'' to give all the knowledge of the world to the people of France.", "However, the ''Encyclopédie'' threatened the governing social classes of France (aristocracy) because it took for granted the justice of religious tolerance, freedom of thought, and the value of science and industry.", "It asserted the doctrine that the main concern of the nation's government ought to be the nation's common people.", "It was believed that the ''Encyclopédie'' was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that the dangerous ideas they held were made truly formidable by their open publication.", "In 1759, the ''Encyclopédie'' was formally suppressed.", "The decree did not stop the work, which went on, but its difficulties increased by the necessity of being clandestine.", "Jean le Rond d'Alembert withdrew from the enterprise and other powerful colleagues, including Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, declined to contribute further to a book that had acquired a bad reputation.===Diderot's contribution===Diderot was left to finish the task as best he could.", "He wrote approximately 7,000 articles, some very slight, but many of them laborious, comprehensive, and long.", "He damaged his eyesight correcting proofs and editing the manuscripts of less scrupulous contributors.", "He spent his days at workshops, mastering manufacturing processes, and his nights writing what he had learned during the day.", "He was incessantly harassed by threats of police raids.", "The last copies of the first volume were issued in 1765.In 1764, when his immense work was drawing to an end, he encountered a crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, Le Breton, fearing the government's displeasure, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he considered too dangerous.", "\"He and his printing-house overseer\", writes Furbank, \"had worked in complete secrecy, and had moreover deliberately destroyed the author's original manuscript so that the damage could not be repaired.\"", "The monument to which Diderot had given the labor of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.", "It was 12 years, in 1772, before the subscribers received the final 28 folio volumes of the ''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'' since the first volume had been published.When Diderot's work on the ''Encyclopédie'' project came to an end in 1765, he expressed concerns to his friends that the twenty-five years he had spent on the project had been wasted." ], [ "Mature works", "Although the ''Encyclopédie'' was Diderot's most monumental product, he was the author of many other works that sowed nearly every intellectual field with new and creative ideas.", "Diderot's writing ranges from a graceful trifle like the ''Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre'' (''Regrets for my Old Dressing Gown'') up to the heady ''D'Alembert's Dream'' (''Le Rêve de d'Alembert'') (composed 1769), a philosophical dialogue in which he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life.", "''Jacques le fataliste'' (written between 1765 and 1780, but not published until 1792 in German and 1796 in French) is similar to ''Tristram Shandy'' and ''The Sentimental Journey'' in its challenge to the conventional novel's structure and content.===''La Religieuse'' (''The Nun'' or ''Memoirs of a Nun'')===''La Religieuse'' was a novel that claimed to show the corruption of the Catholic Church's institutions.====Plot====The novel began not as a work for literary consumption, but as an elaborate practical joke aimed at luring the Marquis de Croismare, a companion of Diderot's, back to Paris.", "''The Nun'' is set in the 18th century, that is, contemporary France.", "Suzanne Simonin is an intelligent and sensitive sixteen-year-old French girl who is forced against her will into a Catholic convent by her parents.", "Suzanne's parents initially inform her that she is being sent to the convent for financial reasons.", "However, while in the convent, she learns that she is actually there because she is an illegitimate child, as her mother committed adultery.", "By sending Suzanne to the convent, her mother thought she could make amends for her sins by using her daughter as a sacrificial offering.At the convent, Suzanne suffers humiliation, harassment and violence because she refuses to make the vows of the religious community.", "She eventually finds companionship with the Mother Superior, Sister de Moni, who pities Suzanne's anguish.", "After Sister de Moni's death, the new Mother Superior, Sister Sainte-Christine, does not share the same empathy for Suzanne that her predecessor had, blaming Suzanne for the death of Sister de Moni.", "Suzanne is physically and mentally harassed by Sister Sainte-Christine, almost to the point of death.Suzanne contacts her lawyer, Monsieur Manouri, who attempts to legally free her from her vows.", "Manouri manages to have Suzanne transferred to another convent, Sainte-Eutrope.", "At the new convent, the Mother Superior is revealed to be a lesbian, and she grows affectionate towards Suzanne.", "The Mother Superior attempts to seduce Suzanne, but her innocence and chastity eventually drives the Mother Superior to insanity, leading to her death.Suzanne escapes the Sainte-Eutrope convent using the help of a priest.", "Following her liberation, she lives in fear of being captured and taken back to the convent as she awaits the help from Diderot's friend the Marquis de Croismare.====Analysis====Diderot's novel was not aimed at condemning Christianity as such but at criticizing cloistered religious life.", "In Diderot's telling, some critics have claimed, the Church is depicted as fostering a hierarchical society, exemplified in the power dynamic between the Mother Superior and the girls in the convent, forced as they are against their will to take the vows and endure what is to them the intolerable life of the convent.", "On this view, the subjection of the unwilling young women to convent life dehumanized them by repressing their sexuality.", "Moreover, their plight would have been all the more oppressive since it should be remembered that in France at this period, religious vows were recognized, regulated and enforced not only by the Church but also by the civil authorities.", "Some broaden their interpretation to suggest that Diderot was out to expose more general victimization of women by the Catholic Church, that forced them to accept the fate imposed upon them by a hierarchical society.====Posthumous publication====Although ''The Nun'' was completed in about 1780, the work was not published until 1796, after Diderot's death.===''Rameau's Nephew''===The dialogue ''Rameau's Nephew'' (French: ''Le Neveu de Rameau'') is a \"farce-tragedy\" reminiscent of the ''Satires'' of Horace, a favorite classical author of Diderot's whose lines \"Vertumnis, quotquot sunt, natus iniquis\" (\"Born under (the influence of) the unfavorable (gods) Vertumnuses, however many they are\") appear as epigraph.", "According to Nicholas Cronk, ''Rameau's Nephew'' is \"arguably the greatest work of the French Enlightenment's greatest writer.", "\"''Un dîner de philosophes'' painted by Jean Huber.", "Denis Diderot is the second from the right (seated).====Synopsis====The narrator in the book recounts a conversation with Jean-François Rameau, nephew of the famous composer Jean-Philippe Rameau.", "The nephew composes and teaches music with some success but feels disadvantaged by his name and is jealous of his uncle.", "Eventually he sinks into an indolent and debauched state.", "After his wife's death, he loses all self-esteem and his brusque manners result in him being ostracized by former friends.", "A character profile of the nephew is now sketched by Diderot: a man who was once wealthy and comfortable with a pretty wife, who is now living in poverty and decadence, shunned by his friends.", "And yet this man retains enough of his past to analyze his despondency philosophically and maintains his sense of humor.", "Essentially he believes in nothing—not in religion, nor in morality; nor in the Roussean view about nature being better than civilization since in his opinion every species in nature consumes one another.", "He views the same process at work in the economic world where men consume each other through the legal system.", "The wise man, according to the nephew, will consequently practice hedonism:The dialogue ends with Diderot calling the nephew a wastrel, a coward, and a glutton devoid of spiritual values to which the nephew replies: \"I believe you are right.", "\"====Analysis====Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue—whether as a satire on contemporary manners, a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original—is disputed.", "In political terms it explores \"the bipolarisation of the social classes under absolute monarchy,\" and insofar as its protagonist demonstrates how the servant often manipulates the master, ''Le Neveu de Rameau'' can be seen to anticipate Hegel's master–slave dialectic.====Posthumous publication====The publication history of the ''Nephew'' is circuitous.", "Written between 1761 and 1774, Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, and apparently did not even share it with his friends.", "After Diderot's death, a copy of the text reached Schiller, who gave it to Goethe, who, in 1805, translated the work into German.", "Goethe's translation entered France, and was retranslated into French in 1821.Another copy of the text was published in 1823, but it had been expurgated by Diderot's daughter prior to publication.", "The original manuscript was only found in 1891." ], [ "Visual arts", "Diderot's most intimate friend was the philologist Friedrich Melchior Grimm.", "They were brought together by their common friend at that time, Jean-Jacques Rousseau.", "In 1753, Grimm began writing a newsletter, the ''La Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique'', which he would send to various high personages in Europe.In 1759, Grimm asked Diderot to report on the biennial art exhibitions in the Louvre for the ''Correspondance''.", "Diderot reported on the Salons between 1759 and 1771 and again in 1775 and 1781.Diderot's reports would become \"the most celebrated contributions to La Correspondance.", "\"According to Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Diderot's reports initiated the French into a new way of laughing, and introduced people to the mystery and purport of colour by ideas.", "\"Before Diderot\", Anne Louise Germaine de Staël wrote, \"I had never seen anything in pictures except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am indebted to his genius\".Diderot had appended an ''Essai sur la peinture'' to his report on the 1765 Salon in which he expressed his views on artistic beauty.", "Goethe described the ''Essai sur la peinture'' as \"a magnificent work; it speaks even more usefully to the poet than to the painter, though for the painter too it is a torch of blazing illumination\".Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725–1805) was Diderot's favorite contemporary artist.", "Diderot appreciated Greuze's sentimentality, and more particularly Greuze's portrayals of his wife who had once been Diderot's mistress." ], [ "Theatre", "Diderot wrote sentimental plays, ''Le Fils naturel'' (1757) and ''Le Père de famille'' (1758), accompanying them with essays on theatrical theory and practice, including \"Les Entretiens sur ''Le Fils Naturel''\" (Conversations on ''The Natural Son''), in which he announced the principles of a new drama: the 'serious genre', a realistic midpoint between comedy and tragedy that stood in opposition to the stilted conventions of the classical French stage.", "In 1758, Diderot introduced the concept of the fourth wall, the imaginary \"wall\" at the front of the stage in a traditional three-walled box set in a proscenium theatre, through which the audience sees the action in the world of the play.", "He also wrote ''Paradoxe sur le comédien'' (''Paradox of the Actor''), written between 1770 and 1778 but first published after his death in 1830, which is a dramatic essay elucidating a theory of acting in which it is argued that great actors do not experience the emotions they are displaying.", "That essay is also of note for being where the term ''l'esprit de l'escalier'' (or ''l'esprit d'escalier'') comes from.", "It is a French term used in English for the predicament of thinking of the perfect reply too late." ], [ "Diderot and Catherine the Great", "===Journey to Russia===Diderot's travel from Paris to Saint Petersburg in 1773–1774.The '''blue line''' marks the outward from 3 June 1773 until 9 October 1773, and the '''red line''' marks the return journey 5 March 1774 to 21 October 1774.When the Russian Empress Catherine the Great heard that Diderot was in need of money, she arranged to buy his library and appoint him caretaker of it until his death, at a salary of 1,000 livres per year.", "She even paid him 50 years salary in advance.", "Although Diderot hated traveling, he was obliged to visit her.On 9 October 1773, he reached Saint Petersburg, met Catherine the next day and they had several discussions on various subjects.", "During his five-month stay at her court, he met her almost every day.", "During these conversations, he would later state, they spoke 'man to man'.He would occasionally make his point by slapping her thighs.", "In a letter to Madame Geoffrin, Catherine wrote:One of the topics discussed was Diderot's ideas about how to transform Russia into a utopia.", "In a letter to Comte de Ségur, the Empress wrote that if she followed Diderot's advice, chaos would ensue in her kingdom.===Back in France===When returning, Diderot asked the Empress for 1,500 rubles as reimbursement for his trip.", "She gave him 3,000 rubles, an expensive ring, and an officer to escort him back to Paris.", "He wrote a eulogy in her honor upon reaching Paris.In 1766, when Catherine heard that Diderot had not received his annual fee for editing the ''Encyclopédie'' (an important source of income for the philosopher), she arranged for him to receive a massive sum of 50,000 livres as an advance for his services as her librarian.In July 1784, upon hearing that Diderot was in poor health, Catherine arranged for him to move into a luxurious suite in the ''Rue de Richelieu''.", "Diderot died two weeks after moving there—on 31 July 1784.Among Diderot's last works were notes \"On the Instructions of her Imperial Majesty...for the Drawing up of Laws\".", "This commentary on Russia included replies to some arguments Catherine had made in the Nakaz.", "Diderot wrote that Catherine was certainly despotic, due to circumstances and training, but was not inherently tyrannical.", "Thus, if she wished to destroy despotism in Russia, she should abdicate her throne and destroy anyone who tries to revive the monarchy.", "She should publicly declare that \"there is no true sovereign other than the nation, and there can be no true legislator other than the people.\"", "She should create a new Russian legal code establishing an independent legal framework and starting with the text: \"We the people, and we the sovereign of this people, swear conjointly these laws, by which we are judged equally.\"", "In the ''Nakaz'', Catherine had written: \"It is for legislation to follow the spirit of the nation.\"", "Diderot's rebuttal stated that it is for legislation to ''make'' the spirit of the nation.", "For instance, he argued, it is not appropriate to make public executions unnecessarily horrific.Ultimately, Diderot decided not to send these notes to Catherine; however, they were delivered to her with his other papers after he died.", "When she read them, she was furious and commented that they were an incoherent gibberish devoid of prudence, insight, and verisimilitude." ], [ "Philosophy", "Dmitry Levitzky, ''Denis Diderot'', 1773, Musée d'Art et d'Histoire, GenevaIn his youth, Diderot was originally a follower of Voltaire and his deist ''Anglomanie'', but gradually moved away from this line of thought towards materialism and atheism, a move which was finally realised in 1747 in the philosophical debate in the second part of his ''The Skeptic's Walk'' (1747).", "Diderot opposed mysticism and occultism, which were highly prevalent in France at the time he wrote, and believed religious truth claims must fall under the domain of reason, not mystical experience or esoteric secrets.", "However, Diderot showed some interest in the work of Paracelsus.", "He was \"a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another\" (Rosenkranz).In his 1754 book ''On the interpretation of Nature'', Diderot expounded on his views about nature, evolution, materialism, mathematics, and experimental science.", "It is speculated that Diderot may have contributed to his friend Baron d'Holbach's 1770 book ''The System of Nature''.", "Diderot had enthusiastically endorsed the book stating that: In conceiving the ''Encyclopédie'', Diderot had thought of the work as a fight on behalf of posterity and had expressed confidence that posterity would be grateful for his effort.", "According to Diderot, \"posterity is for the philosopher what the 'other world' is for the man of religion.", "\"According to Andrew S. Curran, the main questions of Diderot's thought are the following :* Why be moral in a world without god?", "* How should we appreciate art?", "* What are we and where do we come from?", "* What are sex and love?", "* How can a philosopher intervene in political affairs?" ], [ "Death and burial", "Diderot died of pulmonary thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch.", "His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia.", "He has several times been denied burial in the Panthéon with other French notables.Diderot's remains were unearthed by grave robbers in 1793, leaving his corpse on the church's floor.", "His remains were then presumably transferred to a mass grave by the authorities.The French government considered memorializing him on the 300th anniversary of his birth, but this did not come to pass." ], [ "Appreciation and influence", "Jean-Simon Berthélemy, Young man admiring Denis Diderot's bustMarmontel and Henri Meister commented on the great pleasure of having intellectual conversations with Diderot.", "Morellet, a regular attendee at D'Holbach's salon, wrote: \"It is there that I heard...Diderot treat questions of philosophy, art, or literature, and by his wealth of expression, fluency, and inspired appearance, hold our attention for a long stretch of time.\"", "Diderot's contemporary, and rival, Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his ''Confessions'' that after a few centuries Diderot would be accorded as much respect by posterity as was given to Plato and Aristotle.", "In Germany, Goethe, Schiller, and Lessing expressed admiration for Diderot's writings, Goethe pronouncing Diderot's ''Rameau's Nephew'' to be \"the classical work of an outstanding man\" and that \"Diderot is Diderot, a unique individual; whoever carps at him and his affairs is a philistine.", "\"As atheism fell out of favor during the French Revolution, Diderot was vilified and considered responsible for the excessive persecution of the clergy.In the next century, Diderot was admired by Balzac, Delacroix, Stendhal, Zola, and Schopenhauer.", "According to Comte, Diderot was the foremost intellectual in an exciting age.", "Historian Michelet described him as \"the true Prometheus\" and stated that Diderot's ideas would continue to remain influential long into the future.", "Marx chose Diderot as his \"favourite prose-writer.\"" ], [ "Modern tributes", "6th arrondissement, by Jean GautherinOtis Fellows and Norman Torrey have described Diderot as \"the most interesting and provocative figure of the French eighteenth century.", "\"In 1993, American writer Cathleen Schine published ''Rameau's Niece'', a satire of academic life in New York that took as its premise a woman's research into an (imagined) 18th-century pornographic parody of Diderot's ''Rameau's Nephew''.", "The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in the ''New York Times'' as \"a nimble philosophical satire of the academic mind\" and \"an enchanting comedy of modern manners.", "\"French author Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt wrote a play titled ''Le Libertin'' (''The Libertine'') which imagines a day in Diderot's life including a fictional sitting for a woman painter which becomes sexually charged but is interrupted by the demands of editing the ''Encyclopédie''.", "It was first staged at Paris' Théâtre Montparnasse in 1997 starring Bernard Giraudeau as Diderot and Christiane Cohendy as Madame Therbouche and was well received by critics.In 2013, the tricentennial of Diderot's birth, his hometown of Langres held a series of events in his honor and produced an audio tour of the town highlighting places that were part of Diderot's past, including the remains of the convent where his sister Angélique took her vows.", "On 6 October 2013, a museum of the Enlightenment focusing on Diderot's contributions to the movement, the Maison des Lumières Denis Diderot, was inaugurated in Langres." ], [ "Bibliography", "* ''Essai sur le mérite et la vertu'', written by Shaftesbury French translation and annotation by Diderot (1745)* ''Philosophical Thoughts'', essay (1746)* ''La Promenade du sceptique'' (1747)* ''The Indiscreet Jewels'', novel (1748)* ''Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient'' (1749)* ''Encyclopédie,'' (1750–1765)* ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'' (1751)* ''Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature'', essai (1751)* \"Systeme de la Nature,\" (1754)* ''Le Fils naturel'' (1757)* ''Entretiens sur le Fils naturel'' (1757)* ''Le père de famille'' (1758)* ''Discours sur la poesie dramatique'' (1758)* ''Salons'', critique d'art (1759–1781)* ''La Religieuse'', Roman (1760; revised in 1770 and in the early 1780s; the novel was first published as a volume posthumously in 1796).", "* ''Le neveu de Rameau'', dialogue (written between 1761 and 1774).", "* ''Lettre sur le commerce de la librairie'' (1763)* ''Jacques le fataliste et son maître'', novel (written between 1765 and 1780; first published posthumously in 1796)* ''Mystification ou l’histoire des portraits'' (1768)* ''Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' (1769)* ''Le rêve de D'Alembert'', dialogue (1769)* ''Suite de l'entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' (1769)* ''Paradoxe sur le comédien'' (written between 1770 and 1778; first published posthumously in 1830)* ''Apologie de l'abbé Galiani'' (1770)* ''Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement'', essai (1770)* ''Entretien d'un père avec ses enfants'' (1771)* ''Ceci n'est pas un conte'', story (1772)* ''Madame de La Carlière'', short story and moral fable, (1772)* ''Supplément au voyage de Bougainville'' (1772)* ''Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes'', in collaboration with Raynal (1772–1781)* ''Voyage en Hollande'' (1773)* ''Éléments de physiologie'' (1773–1774)* ''Réfutation d'Helvétius'' (1774)* ''Observations sur le Nakaz'' (1774)* ''Essai sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron'' (1778)* ''Est-il Bon?", "Est-il méchant?''", "(1781)* ''Lettre apologétique de l'abbé Raynal à Monsieur Grimm'' (1781)* ''Aux insurgents d'Amérique'' (1782)" ], [ "See also", "* Contributions to liberal theory* Diderot effect* Encyclopedist* Encyclopédistes* Euler, Leonhard* List of liberal theorists* Society of the Friends of Truth* Paris Diderot University* Denis Diderot House of Enlightenment" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Anderson, Wilda C. ''Diderot's Dream.''", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.", "* App, Urs (2010).", "''The Birth of Orientalism''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, , pp.", "133–187 on Diderot's role in the European discovery of Hinduism and Buddhism.", "* Azurmendi, Joxe (1984).", "Entretien d'un philosophe: Diderot (1713–1784), ''Jakin'', 32: 111–121.", "* Ballstadt, Kurt P.A.", "''Diderot: Natural Philosopher.''", "Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2008.", "* Blom, Philipp (2010).", "''The Wicked Company''.", "New York: Basic Books* Blum, Carol (1974).", "''Diderot: The Virtue of a Philosopher''* Brewer, Daniel.", "''Using the Encyclopédie: Ways of Knowing, Ways of Reading.''", "Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2002.", "** Clark, Andrew Herrick.", "''Diderot's Part.''", "Aldershot, Hampshire, England: Ashgate, 2008.", "* Caplan, Jay.", "''Framed Narratives: Diderot's Genealogy of the Beholder.''", "Manchester: Manchester UP, 1986.", "* Crocker, Lester G. (1974).", "''Diderot's Chaotic Order: Approach to a Synthesis''* Curran, Andrew S. (2019).", "''Diderot and the Art of Thinking Freely''* D'Antuono, Giuseppina.", "(2021) \"Historiographical heritages: Denis Diderot and the men of the French Revolution.\"", "''Diciottesimo Secolo'' 6 (2021): 161–168.online* De la Carrera, Rosalina.", "''Success in Circuit Lies: Diderot's Communicational Practice.''", "Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1991.", "* Dlugach, Tamara. ''", "Denis Diderot''.", "Moscow: Progress Publishers.", "1988.", "* Fellows, Otis E. (1989).", "''Diderot''* France, Peter (1983).", "''Diderot''* Fontenay, Elisabeth de, and Jacques Proust.", "''Interpréter Diderot Aujourd'hui.''", "Paris: Le Sycomore, 1984.", "* Furbank, P.N.", "(1992).", "''Diderot: A Critical Biography.''", "New York: A.A. Knopf,.", ".", "* Gregory Efrosini, Mary (2006).", "''Diderot and the Metamorphosis of Species'' (Studies in Philosophy).", "New York: Routledge.", ".", "* Havens, George R. (1955) ''The Age of Ideas.''", "New York: Holt .", "* Hayes, Julia Candler.", "''The Representation of the Self in the Theater of La Chaussée, Diderot, and Sade.''", "Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International, 1982.", "* Hazard, Paul.", "''European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954).", "pp.", "378–394* Kavanagh, Thomas.", "\"The Vacant Mirror: A Study of Mimesis through Diderot's ''Jacques le Fataliste'',\" in ''Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century'' 104 (1973).", "* Korolev, Serguei V. La Bibliothèque de Diderot: Vers une reconstitution.", "Ferney-Voltaire: Centre international d'etude du XVIIIe siecle, 2014.", "* * Lentin, A.", "\"Catherine the Great and Denis Diderot\" ''History Today'' (May 1972), pp. 313–332.", "* Mason, John H. (1982).", "''The Irresistible Diderot'' * Peretz, Eyal (2013).", "\"Dramatic Experiments: Life according to Diderot\" State University of New York Press* Rex, Walter E. ''Diderot's Counterpoints: The Dynamics of Contrariety in His Major Works.''", "Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1998.", "* Saint-Amand, Pierre.", "''Diderot.''", "Saratoga, CA: Anma Libri, 1984.", "* Simon, Julia (1995).", "''Mass Enlightenment.''", "Albany: State University of New York Press,.", ".", "* Tunstall, Kate E. (2011).", "''Blindness and Enlightenment.", "An Essay.", "With a new translation of Diderot's Letter on the Blind''.", "Continuum* Wilson, Arthur McCandless (1972).", "''Diderot'', the standard biography* Vasco, Gerhard M. (1978).", "\"Diderot and Goethe, A Study in Science and Humanism\", ''Librairei Slatkine'', ''Libraire Champion''.", "* === Primary sources ===* Diderot, Denis, ed.", "''A Diderot Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trades and Industry, Vol.", "1'' (1993 reprint) excerpt and text search* Diderot, Denis.", "''Diderot: Political Writings'' ed.", "by John Hope Mason and Robert Wokler (1992) excerpt and text search, with introduction* Diderot, Denis.", "''Thoughts on Religion'' (2002 edition) Translated and edited by Nicolas Walter.", "G.W.", "Foote & Co. Ltd. Freethinker's Classics No.", "4..* Main works of Diderot in English translation* Hoyt, Nellie and Cassirer, Thomas.", "''Encyclopedia, Selections: Diderot, D'Alembert, and a Society of Men of Letters.''", "New York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965..", ".", "* Kemp, Jonathan (ed). ''", "Diderot, Interpreter of Nature: Selected Writings''.", "New York: International Publishers, 1963." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Diderot Search engine in French for human sciences in tribute to Diderot* Denis Diderot: Rêve d'Alembert (d'Alembert's Dream) (French and English texts) * Conversation between D'Alembert and Diderot (alternate translation of the first part of the above)* Denis Diderot Archive * Denis Diderot Website (in French)* On line version of the Encyclopédie.", "The articles are classified in alphabetical order (26 files).", "* The ARTFL Encyclopédie, provided by the ARTFL Project of the University of Chicago (articles in French, scans of 18th century print copies provided)* The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project, product of the Scholarly Publishing Office of the University of Michigan Library (an effort to translate the Encyclopédie into English)* Short biography* Denis Diderot Bibliography * Le Neveu de Rameau – Diderot et Goethe* The Encyclopédie, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Judith Hawley, Caroline Warman and David Wootton (''In Our Time'', 26 October 2006)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Discovery of chemical elements" ], [ "Introduction", "The discoveries of the 118 chemical elements known to exist as of 2024 are presented here in chronological order.", "The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately determined.", "There are plans to synthesize more elements, and it is not known how many elements are possible.Each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and notes related to the discovery are listed." ], [ "Periodic table of elements", " Periodic table by era of discovery 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Group → ↓ Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7" ], [ "Graphical timeline", "ImageSize = width:1600 height:120 # barincrement:0PlotArea = top:70 bottom:30 right:10 left:10AlignBars = justifyColors = id:gray1 value:gray(0.85) legend:Independent id:gray2 value:gray(0.95)DateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:1665 till:2024TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:1670ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1665TextData = textcolor:black fontsize:s pos:(10,110) text:\"C: 26000 BC\" pos:(10,100) text:\"Cu: 9000 BC\" pos:(10,90) text:\"Pb: 7000 BC\" pos:(10,80) text:\"Au: by 6000 BC\" pos:(10,70) text:\"Ag,\" pos:(28,70) text:\"Fe: by 5000 BC\" pos:(110,110) text:\"Sn: 3500 BC\" pos:(110,100) text:\"Sb: 3000 BC\" pos:(110,90) text:\"S: by 2000 BC\" pos:(110,80) text:\"Hg: 1500 BC\" pos:(110,70) text:\"Zn: by 1000 BC\" pos:(200,110) text:\"Pt: c. 600 BC–AD 200\" # pos:(200,110) text:\"Au: 6000 BC\" pos:(200,100) text:\"As: c. AD 300\" pos:(200,90) text:\"Bi: c. 1500\"PlotData = # bar:elements width:20 from:1660 till:2020 align:center fontsize:S width:15 shift:(0,10) at:1671 mark:(line,black) text:\"H\" shift:(0,10) at:1868 mark:(line,black) text:\"He\" shift:(0,10) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:\"Li\" shift:(0,20) at:1798 mark:(line,black) text:\"Be\" shift:(-2,10) at:1787 mark:(line,black) text:\"B\" shift:(0,30) at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:\"N\" shift:(0,10) at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:\"O\" shift:(0,20) at:1771 mark:(line,black) text:\"F\" shift:(0,30) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ne\" shift:(0,10) at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:\"Na\" at:1755 mark:(line,black) text:\"Mg\" at:1746 mark:(line,black) text:\"Al\" shift:(0,10) at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:\"Si\" at:1669 mark:(line,black) text:\"P\" shift:(0,10) at:1774 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cl\" shift:(0,10) at:1894 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ar\" shift:(0,20) at:1702 mark:(line,black) text:\"K\" shift:(0,20) at:1739 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ca\" shift:(0,30) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:\"Sc\" shift:(0,10) at:1791 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ti\" shift:(0,10) at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:\"V\" shift:(0,10) at:1797 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cr\" shift:(0,20) at:1774 mark:(line,black) text:\"Mn\" shift:(0,10) at:1735 mark:(line,black) text:\"Co\" at:1751 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ni\" shift:(0,10) at:1875 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ga\" shift:(0,20) at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ge\" shift:(0,20) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:\"Se\" shift:(0,10) at:1825 mark:(line,black) text:\"Br\" shift:(0,40) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:\"Kr\" shift:(0,20) at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:\"Rb\" shift:(-2,20) at:1787 mark:(line,black) text:\"Sr\" shift:(0,10) at:1794 mark:(line,black) text:\"Y\" shift:(0,10) at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:\"Zr\" shift:(0,20) at:1801 mark:(line,black) text:\"Nb\" shift:(0,10) at:1778 mark:(line,black) text:\"Mo\" shift:(0,10) at:1937 mark:(line,black) text:\"Tc\" shift:(0,10) at:1844 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ru\" at:1804 mark:(line,black) text:\"Rh\" shift:(0,30) at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:\"Pd\" shift:(0,30) at:1817 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cd\" shift:(0,10) at:1863 mark:(line,black) text:\"In\" shift:(0,20) at:1782 mark:(line,black) text:\"Te\" shift:(0,10) at:1811 mark:(line,black) text:\"I\" shift:(0,50) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:\"Xe\" shift:(0,10) at:1860 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cs\" shift:(0,40) at:1772 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ba\" shift:(0,10) at:1838 mark:(line,black) text:\"La\" shift:(0,50) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ce\" shift:(0,10) at:1885 mark:(line,black) text:\"Pr\" shift:(0,20) at:1841 mark:(line,black) text:\"Nd\" shift:(0,10) at:1945 mark:(line,black) text:\"Pm\" shift:(0,40) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:\"Sm\" shift:(0,20) at:1896 mark:(line,black) text:\"Eu\" shift:(0,60) at:1880 mark:(line,black) text:\"Gd\" shift:(0,30) at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:\"Tb\" shift:(0,30) at:1886 mark:(line,black) text:\"Dy\" shift:(0,10) at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ho\" shift:(0,40) at:1843 mark:(line,black) text:\"Er\" shift:(0,50) at:1879 mark:(line,black) text:\"Tm\" shift:(0,20) at:1878 mark:(line,black) text:\"Yb\" shift:(0,10) at:1906 mark:(line,black) text:\"Lu\" shift:(0,10) at:1922 mark:(line,black) text:\"Hf\" shift:(0,40) at:1802 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ta\" shift:(0,10) at:1781 mark:(line,black) text:\"W\" shift:(0,20) at:1908 mark:(line,black) text:\"Re\" shift:(0,60) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:\"Os\" shift:(0,70) at:1803 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ir\" shift:(0,30) at:1861 mark:(line,black) text:\"Tl\" shift:(0,60) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:\"Po\" shift:(0,30) at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:\"At\" shift:(0,10) at:1899 mark:(line,black) text:\"Rn\" shift:(0,20) at:1939 mark:(line,black) text:\"Fr\" shift:(0,70) at:1898 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ra\" shift:(0,10) at:1902 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ac\" shift:(0,10) at:1829 mark:(line,black) text:\"Th\" shift:(0,10) at:1913 mark:(line,black) text:\"Pa\" shift:(0,20) at:1789 mark:(line,black) text:\"U\" shift:(0,40) at:1940 mark:(line,black) text:\"Np\" shift:(0,10) at:1941 mark:(line,black) text:\"Pu\" shift:(0,30) at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:\"Am\" shift:(0,20) at:1944 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cm\" shift:(0,10) at:1949 mark:(line,black) text:\"Bk\" shift:(0,20) at:1950 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cf\" shift:(0,10) at:1952 mark:(line,black) text:\"Es\" shift:(0,20) at:1953 mark:(line,black) text:\"Fm\" shift:(0,10) at:1955 mark:(line,black) text:\"Md\" shift:(0,10) at:1965 mark:(line,black) text:\"No\" shift:(0,10) at:1961 mark:(line,black) text:\"Lr\" shift:(0,10) at:1969 mark:(line,black) text:\"Rf\" shift:(0,20) at:1970 mark:(line,black) text:\"Db\" shift:(0,10) at:1974 mark:(line,black) text:\"Sg\" shift:(0,10) at:1981 mark:(line,black) text:\"Bh\" shift:(0,10) at:1984 mark:(line,black) text:\"Hs\" shift:(0,20) at:1982 mark:(line,black) text:\"Mt\" shift:(0,10) at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ds\" shift:(0,20) at:1994 mark:(line,black) text:\"Rg\" shift:(0,30) at:1996 mark:(line,black) text:\"Cn\" shift:(0,20) at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:\"Nh\" shift:(0,10) at:1999 mark:(line,black) text:\"Fl\" shift:(0,30) at:2003 mark:(line,black) text:\"Mc\" shift:(0,20) at:2000 mark:(line,black) text:\"Lv\" shift:(0,10) at:2009 mark:(line,black) text:\"Ts\" shift:(0,10) at:2002 mark:(line,black) text:\"Og\"" ], [ "Pre-modern and early modern discoveries", " Z ElementEarliest useOldest existing sample Discoverer(s) Place of oldest sample Notes 6 Carbon26000 BC26000 BC Earliest humans Charcoal and soot were known to the earliest humans, with the oldest known charcoal paintings dating to about 28000 years ago, e.g.", "Gabarnmung in Australia.", "The earliest known use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and Sumerians.", "Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BC.", "True chemical analyses were made in the 18th century, and in 1772 Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all composed of the same substance.", "In 1787, de Morveau, Fourcroy, and Lavoisier listed carbon (in French, ''carbone'') as an element, distinguishing it from coal (in French, ''charbon'').", "29 Copper9000 BC6000 BC Middle East Asia Minor Copper was probably the first metal mined and crafted by humans.", "It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores.", "Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BC in the Middle East.", "It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages.", "Copper beads dating from 6000 BC have been found in Çatalhöyük, Anatolia and the archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper smelting from 5000 BC.", "Recognised as an element by Louis Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Berthollet, and Antoine-François de Fourcroy in 1787.82 Lead7000 BC3800 BC Asia Minor Abydos, Egypt It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of Abydos dated around 3800 BC.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.79 GoldBefore 6000 BCBefore 4000 BC Levant Wadi Qana The earliest gold artifacts were discovered at the site of Wadi Qana in the Levant.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.47 SilverBefore 5000 BCca.", "4000 BC Asia Minor Asia Minor Estimated to have been discovered in Asia Minor shortly after copper and gold.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.26 IronBefore 5000 BC4000 BC Middle East Egypt There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BC.", "The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BC.", "The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the Iron Age around 1200 BC and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.50 Tin3500 BC2000 BC Asia Minor Kestel First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce bronze (and thus giving place to the Bronze Age in those places where Iron Age did not intrude directly on Neolithic of the Stone Age).", "Kestel, in southern Turkey, is the site of an ancient Cassiterite mine that was used from 3250 to 1800 BC.", "The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.51 Antimony3000 BC3000 BC Sumerians Middle East An artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of very pure antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq).", "Dioscorides and Pliny both describe the accidental production of metallic antimony from stibnite, but only seem to recognize the metal as lead.", "The intentional isolation of antimony is described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (–950).", "In Europe, the metal was being produced and used by 1540, when it was described by Vannoccio Biringuccio.", "Described again by Georgius Agricola ''De re metallica'' in 1556.Probably first recognised as an element by Lavoisier in 1787.16 SulfurBefore 2000 BC Middle East Middle East First used at least 4,000 years ago.", "According to the Ebers Papyrus, a sulfur ointment was used in ancient Egypt to treat granular eyelids.", "(The Ebers papyrus was written c. 1550 BC, but is believed to have been copied from earlier texts.)", "Designated as one of the two elements of which all metals are composed in the sulfur-mercury theory of metals, first described in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's ''Sirr al-khaliqa'' ('Secret of Creation') and in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (both 8th or 9th century).", "Designated as a universal element (one of the ''tria prima'') by Paracelsus in the early 16th century.", "Recognized as an element by Lavoisier in 1777, which was supported by John Dalton in 1808 and confirmed by Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard in 1810.80 Mercury1500 BC1500 BC Egyptians Egypt Cinnabar (the most common mineral form of mercury(II) sulfide, HgS) was used as a pigment from prehistory, dating as far back as the 9th millennium BC in the Middle East.", "Cinnabar deposits in Turkey, exploited from 8000 years ago, also contain minor amounts of mercury metal.", "Found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.", "Recognised as an element by Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy in 1787.30 ZincBefore 1000 BC1000 BC Indian metallurgists Indian subcontinent Used as a component of brass since antiquity (before 1000 BC) by Indian metallurgists, but its true nature was not generally understood in ancient times.", "A 4th century BC vase from Taxila is made of brass with a zinc content of 34%, too high to be produced by cementation, providing strong evidence that metallic zinc was known in India by the 4th century BC.", "Zinc smelting was done in China and India around 1300.Identified as a distinct metal in the ''Rasaratna Samuccaya'' around the 14th century of the Christian era and by the alchemist Paracelsus in 1526, who gave it its present name and described it as a new metal.", "P. M. de Respour isolated it from zinc oxide in 1668; the first detailed documentation of zinc isolation was given by Andreas Sigismund Marggraf in 1746.78 Platinumc.", "600 BC – AD 200c.", "600 BC – AD 200 Pre-Columbian South Americans South America Used by pre-Columbian Americans near modern-day Esmeraldas, Ecuador to produce artifacts of a white gold-platinum alloy, although precise dating is difficult.", "A small box from the burial of the Pharaoh Shepenupet II (died around 650 BC) was found to be decorated with gold-platinum hieroglyphics, but the Egyptians may not have recognised that there was platinum in their gold.", "First European description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger.", "Antonio de Ulloa was on an expedition to Peru in 1735, where he observed the metal; he published his findings in 1748.Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741.First reference to it as a new metal was made by William Brownrigg in 1750.33 Arsenicc.", "AD 300c.", "AD 300 Egyptians Middle East The use of metallic arsenic was described by the Egyptian alchemist Zosimos.", "The purification of arsenic was later described in the works attributed to the Muslim alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (–950).", "Albertus Magnus (–1280) is typically credited with the description of the metal in the West, though some question his work and instead credit Vannoccio Biringuccio, whose ''De la pirotechnia'' (1540) distinguishes orpiment from crystalline arsenic.", "The first to unquestionably have prepared metallic arsenic was Johann Schröder in 1641.Recognised as an element after Lavoisier's definition in 1787.83 Bismuth European alchemists and Inca civilisation Europe and South America Bismuth was known since ancient times, but often confused with tin and lead, which are chemically similar.", "The Incas used bismuth (along with the usual copper and tin) in a special bronze alloy for knives.", "Agricola (1530 and 1546) states that bismuth is a distinct metal in a family of metals including tin and lead.", "This was based on observation of the metals and their physical properties.", "Miners in the age of alchemy also gave bismuth the name '','' or \"silver being made\" in the sense of silver still in the process of being formed within the Earth.", "Beginning with Johann Heinrich Pott in 1738, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and Torbern Olof Bergman, the distinctness of lead and bismuth became clear, and Claude François Geoffroy demonstrated in 1753 that this metal is distinct from lead and tin." ], [ "Modern discoveries", "For 18th-century discoveries, around the time that Antoine Lavoisier first questioned the phlogiston theory, the recognition of a new \"earth\" has been regarded as being equivalent to the discovery of a new element (as was the general practice then).", "For some elements (e.g.", "Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, Mn, Co, Ni, Zr, Mo), this presents further difficulties as their compounds were widely known since medieval or even ancient times, even though the elements themselves were not.", "Since the true nature of those compounds was sometimes only gradually discovered, it is sometimes very difficult to name one specific discoverer.", "In such cases the first publication on their chemistry is noted, and a longer explanation given in the notes.ZElement Observed or predicted Isolated Notes Year By Year By 15 Phosphorus 1669 H. Brand ''1669'' ''H.", "Brand'' Prepared and isolated from urine, it was the first element whose discovery date and discoverer are recorded.", "Its name first appears in print in the work of in 1676.Recognised as an element by Lavoisier.", "1 Hydrogen 1671 R. Boyle ''1671'' ''R.", "Boyle'' Robert Boyle produced it by reacting iron filings with dilute acid.", "Henry Cavendish in 1766 was the first to distinguish from other gases.", "Lavoisier named it in 1783.It was the first elemental gas known.", "11 Sodium 1702 G. E. Stahl 1807 H. DavyGeorg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736.Andreas Sigismund Marggraf again recognised the difference between soda ash and potash in 1758, but not all chemists accepted his conclusion.", "In 1797, Martin Heinrich Klaproth suggested the names ''natron'' and ''kali'' for the two alkalis (whence the symbols).", "Davy isolated sodium metal a few days after potassium, by using electrolysis on sodium hydroxide and potash respectively.", "19 Potassium 1702 G. E. Stahl 1807 H. Davy 27 Cobalt 1735 G. Brandt ''1735'' ''G.", "Brandt'' Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought previously.", "20 Calcium 1739 J. H. Pott 1808 H. Davy Lime was known as a substance for centuries, but only in the 18th century was its chemical nature recognised.", "Pott recognised ''terra calcarea'' (calcareous earth) as an individual \"earth\" in his treatise of 1739.Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, and Fourcroy suggested in 1787 that it was the oxide of an element.", "Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from quicklime.", "14 Silicon 1739 J. H. Pott 1823 J. Berzelius Silicon compounds (rock crystals and glass) were known to the ancients, but its chemical investigation dates only to the 17th century.", "Johann Joachim Becher (of the phlogiston theory) identified silica as the ''terra vitrescibilis'', and Johann Heinrich Pott recognised it as an individual \"earth\" in his treatise of 1739.Silica appears as a \"simple earth\" in the ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'', and in 1789 Lavoisier concluded that the element must exist.", "Davy thought in 1800 that silica was a compound, not an element, and in 1808 he proved this although he could not isolate the element, and suggested the name ''silicium''.", "In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard probably prepared impure silicon, and Berzelius obtained the pure element in 1823.The name was proposed to be changed to ''silicon'' by Thomas Thomson in 1817, and this was eventually accepted because of its analogies to boron and carbon.", "13 Aluminium 1746 J. H. Pott 1824 H.C.Ørsted Paracelsus recognised ''aluminis'' as separate from vitriol in 1570, and Andreas Libavius proposed in his 1597 treatise to name the unknown earth of alum ''alumina''.", "In 1746, Johann Heinrich Pott published a treatise distinguishing alum from lime and chalk, and Marggraf precipitated the new earth in 1756.Antoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 that alumina is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Davy tried to decompose it.", "Although he failed, he proved Lavoisier correct and suggested the present name.", "Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to isolate metallic aluminium in 1824.28 Nickel 1751 F. Cronstedt ''1751'' ''F.", "Cronstedt'' Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as ''fake copper'' (now known as niccolite).", "12 Magnesium 1755 J.", "Black 1808 H. Davy Joseph Black observed that ''magnesia alba'' (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO) in 1755; until then, both substances had been confused.", "Davy isolated the metal electrochemically from magnesia.", "9 Fluorine 1771 W. Scheele 1886 H. Moissan Fluorspar was described by Georgius Agricola in 1529.Scheele studied fluorspar and correctly concluded it to be the lime (calcium) salt of an acid.", "''Radical fluorique'' appears on the list of elements in Lavoisier's ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie'' from 1789, but ''radical muriatique'' also appears instead of chlorine.", "André-Marie Ampère again predicted in 1810 that hydrofluoric acid contained an element analogous to chlorine, and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain it.", "It was eventually isolated by Moissan.", "8 Oxygen 1771 W. Scheele 1771 W. Scheele Scheele obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777.Joseph Priestley also prepared this new ''air'' by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777.Before him, Sendivogius had produced oxygen by heating saltpetre, correctly identifying it as the \"food of life\".", "7 Nitrogen 1772 D. Rutherford ''1772'' ''D.", "Rutherford'' Rutherford discovered nitrogen while studying at the University of Edinburgh.", "He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle.", "Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in 1775–6.56 Barium 1772 W. Scheele 1808 H. Davy Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in pyrolusite in 1772.He did not name his discovery; Guyton de Morveau suggested ''barote'' in 1782.It was changed to ''baryte'' in the ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' of Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy (1787).", "Davy isolated the metal by electrolysis.", "25 Manganese 1774 W. Scheele 1774 J. G. Gahn Distinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal.", "Ignatius Gottfred Kaim might have isolated it in 1770, but there is uncertainty on that.", "It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide with carbon.", "Given its present name in 1779 by Guyton de Morveau; prior to that it was called ''magnesia''.", "17 Chlorine 1774 W. Scheele ''1774'' ''W.", "Scheele'' Obtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide.", "Only in 1808 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.", "42 Molybdenum 1778 W. Scheele 1788 J. Hjelm Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of molybdena.", "Before that, Axel Cronstedt had assumed that molybdena contained a new earth in 1758.74 Tungsten 1781 W. Scheele 1783 J. and F. Elhuyar Scheele showed that scheelite (then called tungsten) was a salt of calcium with a new acid, which he called tungstic acid.", "The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid from wolframite and reduced it with charcoal, naming the element \"volfram\".", "Since that time both names, tungsten and wolfram, have been used depending on language.", "In 1949 IUPAC made wolfram the scientific name, but this was repealed after protest in 1951 in favour of recognising both names pending a further review (which never materialised).", "Currently only tungsten is recognised for use in English.", "52 Tellurium 1782 F.-J.M.", "von Reichenstein 1798 H. Klaproth Muller observed it as an impurity in gold ores from Transylvania.", "Klaproth isolated it in 1798.38 Strontium 1787 W. Cruikshank 1808 H. Davy W. Cruikshank in 1787 and Adair Crawford in 1790 concluded that strontianite contained a new earth.", "It was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Davy.", "5 Boron 1787 L. Guyton de Morveau, A. Lavoisier, C. L. Berthollet, and A. de Fourcroy 1809 H. Davy Borax was known from ancient times.", "In 1787, ''radical boracique'' appeared in the ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' of Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Lavoisier, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy.", "It also appears in Lavoisier's ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie'' from 1789.In 1808, Lussac and Thénard announced a new element in sedative salt and named it ''bore''.", "Davy announced the isolation of a new substance from boracic acid in 1809, naming it ''boracium''.", "As the element turned out not to be a metal, he revised his proposal to ''boron'' in 1812.'''1789''''''A.", "Lavoisier'''Lavoisier writes the first modern list of chemical elements – containing 33 elements including light and heat but omitting Na, K (he was unsure of whether soda and potash without carbonic acid, i.e.", "Na2O and K2O, are simple substances or compounds like NH3), Sr, Te; some elements were listed in the table as unextracted \"radicals\" (Cl, F, B) or as oxides (Ca, Mg, Ba, Al, Si).", "He also redefines the term \"element\".", "Until then, no metals except mercury were considered elements.", "40 Zirconium 1789 H. Klaproth 1824 J. Berzelius Martin Heinrich Klaproth identified a new oxide in zircon in 1789, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.", "92 Uranium 1789 H. Klaproth 1841 E.-M. Péligot Klaproth mistakenly identified a uranium oxide obtained from pitchblende as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planet Uranus.", "22 Titanium 1791 W. Gregor 1825 J. Berzelius Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite; Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it.", "The pure metallic form was only obtained in 1910 by Matthew A.", "Hunter.", "39 Yttrium 1794 J. Gadolin 1843 H. Rose Johan Gadolin discovered the earth in gadolinite in 1794.He did not name his discovery, but Andreas Ekeberg did so when he confirmed it in 1797.Mosander showed later that its ore, yttria, contained more elements.", "In 1808, Davy showed that yttria is a metallic oxide, although he could not isolate the metal.", "Wöhler mistakenly thought he had isolated the metal in 1828 from a volatile chloride he supposed to be yttrium chloride, but Rose proved otherwise in 1843 and correctly isolated the element himself that year.", "24 Chromium 1797 N. Vauquelin 1798 ''N.", "Vauquelin'' Vauquelin analysed the composition of crocoite ore in 1797, and later isolated the metal by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven.", "4 Beryllium 1798 N. Vauquelin 1828 F. Wöhler and A. Bussy Vauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald in 1798, and in 1808 Davy showed that this oxide has a metallic base although he could not isolate it.", "Vauquelin was uncertain about the name to give to the oxide: in 1798 he called it ''la terre du beril'', but the journal editors named it ''glucine'' after the sweet taste of beryllium compounds (which are highly toxic).", "Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link proposed in 1799 to change the name from ''Glucine'' to ''Beryllerde'' or ''Berylline'' (because ''glucine'' resembled glycine), a suggestion taken up by Klaproth in 1800 in the form ''beryllina''.", "Klaproth had independently worked on beryl and emerald and likewise concluded that a new element was present.", "The name ''beryllium'' for the element was first used by Wöhler upon its isolation (Davy used the name ''glucium'').", "Both names ''beryllium'' and ''glucinium'' were used (the latter mostly in France) until IUPAC decided on the name beryllium in 1949.23 Vanadium 1801 A. M. del Río 1867 H. E. Roscoe Andrés Manuel del Río found the metal (calling it ''erythronium'') in vanadinite in 1801, but the claim was rejected after Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils dismissed it as chromium based on erroneous and superficial testing.", "Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in 1830 and named it vanadium.", "Friedrich Wöhler then showed that vanadium was identical to erythronium and thus that del Río had been right in the first place.", "Del Río then argued passionately that his old claim be recognised, but the element kept the name vanadium.", "41 Niobium 1801 C. Hatchett 1864 W. Blomstrand Hatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it ''columbium''.", "In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.", "Heinrich Rose proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed it ''niobium''.", "American scientists generally used the name ''columbium'', while European ones used ''niobium''.", "Niobium was officially accepted by IUPAC in 1949.73 Tantalum 1802 G. Ekeberg Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite, and named it after Tantalus from Greek mythology because of its inability to be dissolved by acids (just as Tantalus was tantalised by water that receded when he tried to drink it).", "In 1809, W. H. Wollaston claimed that columbium and tantalum are identical, which proved to be false.", "In 1844, Heinrich Rose proved that the elements were distinct and renamed columbium to niobium (Niobe is the daughter of Tantalus).", "46 Palladium 1802 W. H. Wollaston ''1802'' ''W.", "H. Wollaston'' Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately.", "He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name.", "Wollaston named it after the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas.", "58 Cerium 1803 H. Klaproth, J. Berzelius, and W. Hisinger 1826 G. Mosander Berzelius and Hisinger discovered the element in ceria and named it after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres.", "Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples.", "Mosander proved later that the samples of all three researchers had at least another element in them, lanthanum.", "76 Osmium 1803 S. Tennant ''1803'' ''S.", "Tennant'' Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium.", "77 Iridium 1803 S. Tennant and H.-V. Collet-Descotils ''1803'' ''S.", "Tennant'' Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium, and published the iridium results in 1804.Collet-Descotils also found iridium the same year, but not osmium.", "45 Rhodium 1804 H. Wollaston ''1804'' ''H.", "Wollaston'' Wollaston discovered and isolated it from crude platinum samples from South America.", "53 Iodine 1811 B. Courtois ''1811'' ''B.", "Courtois'' Courtois discovered it in the ashes of seaweed.", "The name ''iode'' was given in French by Gay-Lussac and published in 1813.Davy gave it the English name ''iodine'' in 1814.3 Lithium 1817 A. Arfwedson 1821 W. T. Brande Arfwedson, a student of Berzelius, discovered the alkali in petalite.", "Brande isolated it electrolytically from lithium oxide.", "48 Cadmium 1817 S. L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H.", "Roloff ''1817'' ''S.", "L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, and J.C.H.", "Roloff'' All three found an unknown metal in a sample of zinc oxide from Silesia, but the name that Stromeyer gave became the accepted one.", "34 Selenium 1817 J. Berzelius and G. Gahn ''1817'' ''J.", "Berzelius and G. Gahn'' While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it was different.", "35 Bromine 1825 J. Balard and C. Löwig ''1825'' ''J.", "Balard and C. Löwig'' They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825.Balard published his results the next year, but Löwig did not publish until 1827.90 Thorium 1829 J. Berzelius 1914 D. Lely, Jr. and L. Hamburger Berzelius obtained the oxide of a new earth in thorite.", "57 Lanthanum 1838 G. Mosander 1841 ''G.", "Mosander'' Mosander found a new element in samples of ceria and published his results in 1842, but later he showed that this lanthana contained four more elements.", "60 Neodymium 1841 G. Mosander 1885 C. A. von Welsbach Discovered by Mosander and called didymium.", "Carl Auer von Welsbach later split it into two elements, praseodymium and neodymium.", "Neodymium had formed the greater part of the old didymium and received the prefix \"neo-\".", "68 Erbium 1843 G. Mosander 1879 T. Cleve Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper and erbia, and later terbia too.", "The names underwent some confusion: Mosander's erbia was yellow and his terbia was red.", "But in 1860, Nils Johan Berlin could only find the rose-coloured earth, confusingly renamed as erbia, and questioned the existence of the yellow earth.", "Marc Delafontaine adopted Berlin's nomenclature where erbia was the rose-coloured earth, but proved that the yellow earth also existed.", "At the prompting of Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, he named the yellow earth terbia; thus Mosander's names were swapped from his original choices.", "65 Terbium 1843 G. Mosander 1886 J.C.G.", "de Marignac Mosander managed to split the old yttria into yttria proper and erbia, and later terbia too.", "44 Ruthenium 1844 K. Claus 1844 ''K.", "Claus'' Gottfried Wilhelm Osann thought that he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples in 1826, which he named polinium, pluranium, and ruthenium in 1828.But his results were questioned and he did not have enough quantities to isolate them, so he withdrew his claims in 1829.However, in 1844 Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was one new metal, and reused Osann's name \"ruthenium\".", "55 Caesium 1860 R. Bunsen and R. Kirchhoff 1882 C. Setterberg Bunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis.", "They discovered caesium by its two blue emission lines in a sample of Dürkheim mineral water.", "The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 by Setterberg.", "37 Rubidium 1861 R. Bunsen and G. R. Kirchhoff 1863 R. Bunsen Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite.", "The metal was isolated by Bunsen around 1863.81 Thallium 1861 W. Crookes 1862 C.-A.", "Lamy Shortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample; later that year, Lamy found the element to be metallic.", "49 Indium 1863 F. Reich and T. Richter 1864 T. Richter Reich and Richter first identified it in sphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line.", "Richter isolated the metal the next year.", "2 Helium 1868 N. Lockyer 1895 W. Ramsay, T. Cleve, and N. Langlet P. Janssen and Lockyer observed independently a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element.", "However, only Lockyer made the correct conclusion that it was due to a new element.", "This was the first observation of a noble gas, located in the Sun.", "Years later after the isolation of argon on Earth, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently helium trapped in cleveite.", "'''1869''' '''D.", "I. Mendeleev''' Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time (omitting terbium, as chemists were unsure of its existence, and helium, as it was not found on Earth) into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.", "31 Gallium 1875 P. E. L. de Boisbaudran 1878 P. E. L. de Boisbaudran and E. Jungfleisch Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminium that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871.He and Jungfleisch isolated the metal three years later by electrolysis.", "70 Ytterbium 1878 J.C.G.", "de Marignac 1906 C. A. von Welsbach On October 22, 1878, Marignac reported splitting terbia into two new earths, terbia proper and ytterbia.", "67 Holmium 1878 J.-L. Soret and M. Delafontaine 1879 T. Cleve Soret found it in samarskite and later, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.", "Delafontaine's ''philippium'' turned out to be identical to what Soret found.", "21 Scandium 1879 F. Nilson ''1879'' ''F.", "Nilson'' Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched Mendeleev's 1871 predicted eka-boron.", "69 Thulium 1879 T. Cleve ''1879'' ''T.", "Cleve'' Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium and holmium.", "62 Samarium 1879 P.E.L.", "de Boisbaudran ''1879'' ''P.E.L.", "de Boisbaudran'' Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and named it samaria after the mineral.", "64 Gadolinium 1880 J. C. G. de Marignac 1886 ''P.E.L.", "de Boisbaudran'' Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure sample from samarskite.", "59 Praseodymium 1885 C. A. von Welsbach Carl Auer von Welsbach discovered it in Mosander's didymia.", "32 Germanium 1886 C. A. Winkler In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in 1871.66 Dysprosium 1886 P.E.L.", "de Boisbaudran 1905 G. Urbain De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia.", "18 Argon 1894 Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay ''1894'' ''Lord Rayleigh and W. Ramsay'' They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means.", "It is the first noble gas to be isolated.", "63 Europium 1896 E.-A.", "Demarçay 1901 ''E.-A.", "Demarçay'' Demarçay found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, and separated this element several years later.", "36 Krypton 1898 W. Ramsay and W. Travers 1898 ''W.", "Ramsay and W. Travers'' On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.", "10 Neon 1898 W. Ramsay and W. Travers 1898 ''W.", "Ramsay and W. Travers'' In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.", "54 Xenon 1898 W. Ramsay and W. Travers 1898 ''W.", "Ramsay and W. Travers'' On July 12, 1898, Ramsay separated a third noble gas within three weeks, from liquid argon by difference in boiling point.", "84 Polonium 1898 P. and M. Curie 1902 W. Marckwald In an experiment done on July 13, 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende, which they ascribed to an unknown element.", "Independently rediscovered and isolated in 1902 by Marckwald, who named it radiotellurium.", "88 Radium 1898 P. and M. Curie 1902 M. Curie The Curies reported on December 26, 1898, a new element different from polonium, which Marie later isolated from uraninite.", "86 Radon 1899 E. Rutherford and R. B. Owens 1910 W. Ramsay and R. Whytlaw-Gray Rutherford and Owens discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of thorium, isolated later by Ramsay and Gray.", "In 1900, Friedrich Ernst Dorn discovered a longer-lived isotope of the same gas from the radioactive decay of radium.", "Since \"radon\" was first used to specifically designate Dorn's isotope before it became the name for the element, he is often mistakenly given credit for the latter instead of the former.", "89 Actinium 1902 F. O. Giesel ''1903'' ''F.", "O. Giesel'' Giesel obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of lanthanum and named it ''emanium''.", "André-Louis Debierne had previously (in 1899 and 1900) reported the discovery of a new element ''actinium'' that was supposedly similar to titanium and thorium, which cannot have included much actual element 89.But by 1904, when Giesel and Debierne met, both had radiochemically pure element 89, and so Debierne has generally been given credit for the discovery.", "71 Lutetium 1906 C. A. von Welsbach and G. Urbain ''1906'' ''C.", "A. von Welsbach'' von Welsbach proved that the old ytterbium also contained a new element, which he named ''cassiopeium'' (he renamed the larger part of the old ytterbium to ''aldebaranium'').", "Urbain also proved this at about the same time (von Welsbach's paper was published first, but Urbain sent his to the editor first), naming the new element ''lutetium'' and the old one ''neoytterbium'' (which later reverted to ytterbium).", "However, Urbain's samples were very impure and only contained trace quantities of the new element.", "Despite this, his chosen name ''lutetium'' was adopted by the International Committee of Atomic Weights, whose membership included Urbain.", "The German Atomic Weights Commission adopted ''cassiopeium'' for the next forty years.", "Finally in 1949 IUPAC decided in favour of the name ''lutetium'' as it was more often used.", "75 Rhenium 1908 M. Ogawa ''1919'' M. Ogawa Masataka Ogawa found it in thorianite in 1908, but assigned it as element 43 and named it ''nipponium''.", "(Elements 43 and 75 are in the same group of the periodic table.)", "Because of the erroneous assignment, and because some of his key results were published only in Japanese, his claim was not widely recognised.", "However, the optical emission spectrum described by Ogawa and the X-ray photographic plate for one of his samples match element 75, and his claim has thus been rehabilitated in much of the modern literature.", "In 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite, identified it correctly as element 75, and gave it the present name.", "91 Protactinium 1913 O. H. Göhring and K. Fajans 1927 A. von Grosse The two obtained the first isotope of this element, 234mPa, that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as a member of the natural decay of 238U: they named it brevium.", "A longer-lived isotope 231Pa was found in 1918 by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, and was named by them protoactinium: since it is longer-lived, it gave the element its name.", "Protoactinium was changed to protactinium in 1949.Originally isolated in 1900 by William Crookes, who nevertheless did not recognize that it was a new element.", "72 Hafnium 1922 D. Coster and G. von Hevesy 1922 D. Coster and G. von Hevesy Georges Urbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while Vladimir Vernadsky independently found it in orthite.", "Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I, and neither could be confirmed later, as the chemistry they reported does not match that now known for hafnium.", "After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon.", "Hafnium was the last stable element to be discovered (noting however the difficulties regarding the discovery of rhenium).", "43 Technetium 1937 C. Perrier and E. Segrè ''1937'' ''C.", "Perrier & E. Segrè'' The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a cyclotron, the first element to be discovered by synthesis.", "It had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as eka-manganese.", "In 1952, Paul W. Merrill found its spectral lines in S-type red giants.", "Minuscule trace quantities were finally found on Earth in 1962 by B. T. Kenna and Paul K. Kuroda: they isolated it from Belgian Congo pitchblende, where it occurs as a spontaneous fission product of uranium.", "The Noddacks (rediscoverers of rhenium) claimed to have discovered element 43 in 1925 as well and named it ''masurium'' (after Masuria), but their claims were disproven by Kuroda, who calculated that there cannot have been enough technetium in their samples to have enabled a true detection.", "87 Francium 1939 M. Perey Perey discovered it as a decay product of 227Ac.", "Francium was the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although four of the \"synthetic\" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine, and promethium) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well.", "Before Perey, it is likely that Stefan Meyer, Viktor F. Hess, and Friedrich Paneth had observed the decay of 227Ac to 223Fr in Vienna in 1914, but they could not follow up and secure their work because of the outbreak of World War I.", "93 Neptunium 1940 E.M. McMillan and H. Abelson Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it was the first transuranium element discovered.", "Shortly before that, Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered the uranium isotope 237U and found that it beta decays into 23793, but were unable to measure the activity of the element 93 product because its half-life was too long.", "McMillan and Abelson succeeded because they used 239U, as 23993 has a much shorter half-life.", "McMillan and Abelson found that 23993 itself undergoes beta decay and must produce an isotope of element 94, but the quantities they used were not enough to isolate and identify element 94 along with 93.Natural traces were found in Belgian Congo pitchblende by D. F. Peppard et al.", "in 1952.85 Astatine 1940 D. R. Corson, K. R. MacKenzie and E. Segrè Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles.", "In 1943, Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert found it in nature; due to World War II, they were initially unaware of Corson et al.", "'s results.", "Horia Hulubei and Yvette Cauchois had previously claimed its discovery as a natural radioelement from 1936, naming it ''dor'': they likely did have the isotope 218At, and probably did have enough sensitivity to distinguish its spectral lines.", "But they could not chemically identify their discovery, and their work was doubted because of an earlier false claim by Hulubei to having discovered element 87.94 Plutonium 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl, W. Kennedy and E.M. McMillan Prepared by bombardment of uranium with deuterons.", "Seaborg and Morris L. Perlman then found it as traces in natural Canadian pitchblende in 1941–1942, though this work was kept secret until 1948.96 Curium 1944 Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James and Albert Ghiorso Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles during the Manhattan Project 95 Americium 1944 G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, O. Morgan and A. Ghiorso Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons during the Manhattan Project.", "61 Promethium 1945\t Charles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, and Lawrence E. Glendenin ''1945'' Charles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, and Lawrence E. Glendenin It was probably first prepared at the Ohio State University in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out.", "Isolation was performed under the Manhattan Project in 1945.Found on Earth in trace quantities by Olavi Erämetsä in 1965; so far, promethium is the most recent element to have been found on Earth.", "97 Berkelium 1949 G. Thompson, A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) Created by bombardment of americium with alpha particles.", "98 Californium 1950 S. G. Thompson, K. Street, Jr., A. Ghiorso and G. T. Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) Bombardment of curium with alpha particles.", "99 Einsteinium 1952 A. Ghiorso et al.", "(Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) 1952 Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; kept secret for several years.", "100 Fermium 1953 A. Ghiorso et al.", "(Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory and University of California, Berkeley) Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with neutrons; first identified in early 1953; kept secret for several years.", "101 Mendelevium 1955 A. Ghiorso, G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson and G. T. Seaborg (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with alpha particles.", "103 Lawrencium 1961 A. Ghiorso, T. Sikkeland, E. Larsh and M. Latimer (Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) First prepared by bombardment of californium with boron atoms.", "102 Nobelium 1965 E. D. Donets, V. A. Shchegolev and V. A. Ermakov (JINR in Dubna) First prepared by bombardment of uranium with neon atoms 104 Rutherfordium 1969 A. Ghiorso et al.", "(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and I. Zvara et al.", "(JINR in Dubna) Prepared by bombardment of californium with carbon atoms by Albert Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of plutonium with neon atoms by Zvara's team.", "105 Dubnium 1970 A. Ghiorso et al.", "(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) and V. A. Druin et al.", "(JINR in Dubna) Prepared by bombardment of californium with nitrogen atoms by Ghiorso's team and by bombardment of americium with neon atoms by Druin's team.", "106 Seaborgium 1974 A. Ghiorso et al.", "(Berkeley Radiation Laboratory) Prepared by bombardment of californium with oxygen atoms.", "107 Bohrium 1981 G.Münzenberg et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Obtained by bombarding bismuth with chromium.", "109 Meitnerium 1982 G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron atoms.", "108 Hassium 1984 G. Münzenberg, P. Armbruster et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron atoms 110 Darmstadtium 1994 S. Hofmann et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Prepared by bombardment of lead with nickel 111 Roentgenium 1994 S. Hofmann et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with nickel 112 Copernicium 1996 S. Hofmann et al.", "(GSI in Darmstadt) Prepared by bombardment of lead with zinc.", "114 Flerovium 1999 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna) Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with calcium.", "It may have already been found at Dubna in 1998, but that result has not been confirmed.", "116 Livermorium 2000 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna) Prepared by bombardment of curium with calcium 118Oganesson 2002 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna)Prepared by bombardment of californium with calcium 115Moscovium 2003 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna)Prepared by bombardment of americium with calcium 113Nihonium 2003–2004 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna) and K. Morita et al.", "(RIKEN in Wako, Japan) Prepared by decay of moscovium by Oganessian's team and bombardment of bismuth with zinc by Morita's team.", "Both teams began their experiments in 2003; Oganessian's team detected its first atom in 2003, but Morita's only in 2004.However, both teams published in 2004.117Tennessine 2009 Y. Oganessian et al.", "(JINR in Dubna)Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with calcium" ], [ "See also", "* History of the periodic table* Periodic table* Extended periodic table* ''The Mystery of Matter: Search for the Elements'' (2014/2015 PBS film)* Transfermium Wars" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers Last updated by Boris Pritychenko on March 30, 2004* History of Elements of the Periodic Table* Timeline of Element Discoveries * The Historyscoper* Discovery of the Elements – The Movie – YouTube (1:18)* The History Of Metals Timeline .", "A timeline showing the discovery of metals and the development of metallurgy.", "*—Eric Scerri, 2007, ''The periodic table: Its story and its significance,'' Oxford University Press, New York," ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diatonic scale" ], [ "Introduction", "In music theory, a '''diatonic scale''' is any heptatonic scale that includes five whole steps (whole tones) and two half steps (semitones) in each octave, in which the two half steps are separated from each other by either two or three whole steps, depending on their position in the scale.", "This pattern ensures that, in a diatonic scale spanning more than one octave, all the half steps are maximally separated from each other (i.e.", "separated by at least two whole steps).The seven pitches of any diatonic scale can also be obtained by using a chain of six perfect fifths.", "For instance, the seven natural pitch classes that form the C-major scale can be obtained from a stack of perfect fifths starting from F::F–C–G–D–A–E–BAny sequence of seven successive natural notes, such as C–D–E–F–G–A–B, and any transposition thereof, is a diatonic scale.", "Modern musical keyboards are designed so that the white-key notes form a diatonic scale, though transpositions of this diatonic scale require one or more black keys.", "A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone.", "In musical set theory, Allen Forte classifies diatonic scales as set form 7–35.The term ''diatonic'' originally referred to the diatonic genus, one of the three genera of the ancient Greeks, and comes from , of uncertain etymology.", "Most likely, it refers to the intervals being \"stretched out\" in that tuning, in contrast to the other two genera (chromatic and enharmonic).This article does not concern alternative seven-note scales such as the harmonic minor or the melodic minor which, although sometimes called \"diatonic\", do not fulfill the condition of maximal separation of the semitones indicated above." ], [ "History", "Western music from the Middle Ages until the late 19th century (see common practice period) is based on the diatonic scale and the unique hierarchical relationships created by this system of organizing seven notes.===Antiquity===Canadian musicologist Bob Fink concluded from his analysis of the 45,000-year-old Divje Babe flute that it \"could produce four notes ... of a minor diatonic scale\" and that this suggests human perception of \"what constitutes harmony is at least partly hard wired\".Evidence that the Sumerians and Babylonians used a version of the diatonic scale is found in cuneiform inscriptions that contain both musical compositions and a tuning system.", "Despite the conjectural nature of reconstructions of the Hurrian songs, the diatonic nature of the tuning system is demonstrated by the fact that it involves a series of six perfect fifths, which is a recipe for the construction of a diatonic scale.The 9,000-year-old flutes found in Jiahu, China, indicate the evolution over 1,200 years of flutes having 4, 5 and 6 holes to having 7 and 8 holes, the latter exhibiting striking similarity to diatonic hole spacings and sounds.===Middle Ages===The scales corresponding to the medieval church modes were diatonic.", "Depending on which of the seven notes of the diatonic scale you use as the beginning, the positions of the intervals fall at different distances from the starting tone (the \"reference note\"), producing seven different scales.", "One of these, the one starting on B, has no pure fifth above its reference note (B–F is a diminished fifth): it is probably for this reason that it was not used.", "Of the six remaining scales, two were described as corresponding to two others with a B instead of a B:# A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A was described as D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D (the modern Aeolian modes whose reference notes are A and D, respectively, corresponding to the Aeolian modes of C major and F major, respectively)# C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C was described as F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F (the modern Ionian modes whose reference notes are C and F, respectively, corresponding to the Ionian modes of C major and F major, respectively).As a result, medieval theory described the church modes as corresponding to four diatonic scales only (two of which had the variable B/).", "They were the modern Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes of C major, plus the Aeolian and Ionian modes of F major when B was substituted into the Dorian and Lydian modes of C major, respectively.===Renaissance===Heinrich Glarean considered that the modal scales including a B had to be the result of a transposition.", "In his ''Dodecachordon'', he not only described six \"natural\" diatonic scales (still neglecting the seventh one with a diminished fifth above the reference note), but also six \"transposed\" ones, each including a B, resulting in the total of twelve scales that justified the title of his treatise.", "These were the 6 non-Locrian modes of C major and F major.===Modern===By the beginning of the Baroque period, the notion of the musical key was established, describing additional possible transpositions of the diatonic scale.", "Major and minor scales came to dominate until at least the start of the 20th century, partly because their intervallic patterns are suited to the reinforcement of a central triad.", "Some church modes survived into the early 18th century, as well as appearing in classical and 20th-century music, and jazz (see chord-scale system)." ], [ "Theory", "The modern piano keyboard is based on the interval patterns of the diatonic scale.", "Any sequence of seven successive white keys plays a diatonic scale.Of Glarean's six natural scales, three have a major third/first triad: (Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian), and three have a minor one: Dorian, Phrygian, and Aeolian).", "To these may be added the seventh diatonic scale, with a diminished fifth above the reference note, the Locrian scale.", "These could be transposed not only to include one flat in the signature (as described by Glarean), but to all twelve notes of the chromatic scale, resulting in a total of eighty-four diatonic scales.The modern musical keyboard originated as a diatonic keyboard with only white keys.", "The black keys were progressively added for several purposes:* improving the consonances, mainly the thirds, by providing a major third on each degree;* allowing all twelve transpositions described above;* and helping musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard.The pattern of elementary intervals forming the diatonic scale can be represented either by the letters T (tone) and S (semitone) respectively.", "With this abbreviation, a major scale, for instance, can be represented as:T–T–S–T–T–T–S===Major scale===The major scale or Ionian mode is one of the diatonic scales.", "It is made up of seven distinct notes, plus an eighth that duplicates the first an octave higher.", "The pattern of seven intervals separating the eight notes is T–T–S–T–T–T–S.", "In solfège, the syllables used to name each degree of the scale are ''Do–Re–Mi–Fa–Sol–La–Ti–Do''.", "A sequence of successive natural notes starting from C is an example of major scale, called C-major scale.", "Notes in C major: C D E F G A B C Degrees in solfège: ''Do'' ''Re'' ''Mi'' ''Fa'' ''Sol'' ''La'' ''Ti'' ''Do'' Interval sequence: T T S T T T S The eight degrees of the scale are also known by traditional names, especially when used in a tonal context::1st – Tonic (key note):2nd – Supertonic:3rd – Mediant:4th – Subdominant:5th – Dominant:6th – Submediant:7th – Leading tone:8th – Tonic (Octave)===Natural minor scale===For each major scale, there is a corresponding natural minor scale, sometimes called its relative minor.", "It uses the same sequence of notes as the corresponding major scale but starts from a different note.", "That is, it begins on the sixth degree of the major scale and proceeds step-by-step to the first octave of the sixth degree.", "A sequence of successive natural notes starting from A is an example of a natural minor scale, called the A natural minor scale.", "Notes in A minor: A B C D E F G A Interval sequence: T S T T S T T The degrees of the natural minor scale, especially in a tonal context, have the same names as those of the major scale, except the seventh degree, which is known as the subtonic because it is a whole step below the tonic.", "The term leading tone is generally reserved for seventh degrees that are a ''half step'' (semitone) below the tonic, as is the case in the major scale.Besides the natural minor scale, five other kinds of scales can be obtained from the notes of a major scale, by simply choosing a different note as the starting note.", "All these scales meet the definition of diatonic scale.===Modes===The whole collection of diatonic scales as defined above can be divided into seven different scales.As explained above, all major scales use the same interval sequence T–T–S–T–T–T–S.", "This interval sequence was called the ''Ionian mode'' by Glarean.", "It is one of the seven modern modes.", "From any major scale, a new scale is obtained by taking a different degree as the tonic.", "With this method it is possible to generate six other scales or modes from each major scale.", "Another way to describe the same result would be to consider that, behind the diatonic scales, there exists an underlying diatonic system which is the series of diatonic notes without a reference note; assigning the reference note in turn to each of the seven notes in each octave of the system produces seven diatonic scales, each characterized by a different interval sequence: Mode Also known as Starting note relativeto major scale Interval sequence Example with white keys Example with tonic C Ionian Major scale I T–T–S–T–T–T–S C–D–E–F–G–A–B–C Dorian II T–S–T–T–T–S–T D–E–F–G–A–B–C–D C–D–E♭–F–G–A–B♭–C Phrygian III S–T–T–T–S–T–T E–F–G–A–B–C–D–E C–D♭–E♭–F–G–A♭–B♭–C Lydian IV T–T–T–S–T–T–S F–G–A–B–C–D–E–F C–D–E–F♯–G–A–B–C Mixolydian V T–T–S–T–T–S–T G–A–B–C–D–E–F–G C–D–E–F–G–A–B♭–C Aeolian Natural minor scale VI T–S–T–T–S–T–T A–B–C–D–E–F–G–A C–D–E♭–F–G–A♭–B♭–C Locrian VII S–T–T–S–T–T–T B–C–D–E–F–G–A–B C–D♭–E♭–F–G♭–A♭–B♭–CThe first column examples shown above are formed by natural notes (i.e.", "neither sharps nor flats, also called \"white-notes\", as they can be played using the white keys of a piano keyboard).", "However, any transposition of each of these scales (or of the system underlying them) is a valid example of the corresponding mode.", "In other words, transposition preserves mode.", "This is shown in the second column, with each mode transposed to start on C. The whole set of diatonic scales is commonly defined as the set composed of these seven natural-note scales, together with all of their possible transpositions.", "As discussed elsewhere, different definitions of this set are sometimes adopted in the literature.Pitch constellations of the modern musical modes===Diatonic scales and tetrachords===A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone.", "For example, under this view the two tetrachord structures of C major would be::C–D–E–F – G–A–B–Ceach tetrachord being formed of two tones and a semitone, T–T–S,and the natural minor of A would be::A–B–C–D – E–F–G–Aformed two different tetrachords, the first consisting in a semitone between two tones, T–S–T, and the second of a semitone and two tones, S–T–T.The medieval conception of the tetrachordal structure, however, was based on one single tetrachord, that of the D scale,:D–E–F–G – A–B–C–Deach formed of a semitone between tones, T–S–T.", "It viewed other diatonic scales as differently overlapping disjunct and conjunct tetrachords::E scale: E–F–G \| A–B–C–D = D–E:F scale: F–G \| A–B–C–D = D–E–F:G scale: G \| A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G:A scale: A–B–C–D = D–E–F–G \| A:B scale: B–C–D = D–E–F–G \| A–B:C scale: C–D = D–E–F–G \| A–B–C(where G \| A indicates the disjunction of tetrachords, always between G and A, and D = D indicates their conjunction, always on the common note D)." ], [ "Tuning", "Diatonic scales can be tuned variously, either by iteration of a perfect or tempered fifth, or by a combination of perfect fifths and perfect thirds (Just intonation), or possibly by a combination of fifths and thirds of various sizes, as in well temperament.===Iteration of the fifth===If the scale is produced by the iteration of six perfect fifths, for instance F–C–G–D–A–E–B, the result is Pythagorean tuning: note F C G D A E B pitch bring into main octave sort into note orderCDEFGABC' interval above C interval between notes This tuning dates to Ancient Mesopotamia (see ), and was done by alternating ascending fifths with descending fourths (equal to an ascending fifth followed by a descending octave), resulting in the notes of a pentatonic or heptatonic scale falling within an octave.Six of the \"fifth\" intervals (C–G, D–A, E–B, F–C', G–D', A–E') are all = 1.5 (701.955 cents), but B–F' is the discordant tritone, here = 1.423828125 (611.73 cents).", "Tones are each = 1.125 (203.91 cents) and diatonic semitones are ≈ 1.0535 (90.225 cents).Extending the series of fifths to eleven fifths would result into the Pythagorean chromatic scale.===Equal temperament===Equal temperament is the division of the octave in twelve equal semitones.", "The frequency ratio of the semitone then becomes the twelfth root of two ( ≈ 1.059463, 100 cents).", "The tone is the sum of two semitone.", "Its ratio is the sixth root of two ( ≈ 1.122462, 200 cents).", "Equal temperament can be produced by a succession of tempered fifths, each of them with the ratio of 2 ≈ 1.498307, 700 cents.===Meantone temperament===The fifths could be tempered more than in equal temperament, in order to produce better thirds.", "See quarter-comma meantone for a meantone temperament commonly used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and sometimes after, which produces perfect major thirds.===Just intonation===Just intonation often is represented using Leonhard Euler's Tonnetz, with the horizontal axis showing the perfect fifths and the vertical axis the perfect major thirds.", "In the Tonnetz, the diatonic scale in just intonation appears as follows: A E B F C G DF–A, C–E and G–B, aligned vertically, are perfect major thirds; A–E–B and F–C–G–D are two series of perfect fifths.", "The notes of the top line, A, E and B, are lowered by the syntonic comma, , and the \"wolf\" fifth D–A is too narrow by the same amount.", "The tritone F–B is ≈ 1.40625.This tuning has been first described by Ptolemy and is known as Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale.", "It was also mentioned by Zarlino in the 16th century and has been described by theorists in the 17th and 18th centuries as the \"natural\" scale.", "notes C D E F G A B C' pitch interval between notes Since the frequency ratios are based on simple powers of the prime numbers 2, 3, and 5, this is also known as five-limit tuning." ], [ "See also", "* Circle of fifths text table* Diatonic and chromatic* History of music* Musical acoustics* Piano key frequencies* Prehistoric music" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Clough, John (1979).", "\"Aspects of Diatonic Sets\", ''Journal of Music Theory'' '''23''':45–61.", "Franklin, John C. (2002). \"", "Diatonic Music in Greece: a Reassessment of its Antiquity\", ''Mnemosyne'' '''56.1''':669–702Gould, Mark (2000).", "\"Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales\", ''Perspectives of New Music'' '''38/2''':88–105Ellen Hickmann, Anne D. Kilmer and Ricardo Eichmann, (ed.)", "''Studies in Music Archaeology III'', 2001, VML Verlag Marie Leidorf, Germany .", "Johnson, Timothy (2003).", "''Foundations of Diatonic Theory: A Mathematically Based Approach to Music Fundamentals''.", "Key College Publishing.", ".", "Kilmer, A. D. (1971) \"The Discovery of an Ancient Mesopotamian Theory of Music'\".", "''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'' '''115''':131–149.", "Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn; Crocker, Richard L.; Brown, Robert R.: ''Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music'', Volume 1.1976, Bit Enki Publications, Berkeley, California.", "David Rothenberg (1978). \"", "A Model for Pattern Perception with Musical Applications Part I: Pitch Structures as order-preserving maps\", ''Mathematical Systems Theory'' '''11''':199–234" ], [ "External links", "* Diatonic Scale , Eric Weisstein's Treasure Trove of Music* The diatonic scale on the guitar" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deutschlandlied" ], [ "Introduction", "The \"''''''\" (; \"Song of Germany\"), officially titled \"''''''\" (; \"The Song of the Germans\"), has been the national anthem of Germany either wholly or in part since 1922, except for a seven-year gap following World War II in West Germany.", "In East Germany, the national anthem was \"Auferstanden aus Ruinen\" (\"Risen from Ruins\") between 1949 and 1990.Since World War II and the fall of Nazi Germany, only the third stanza has been used as the national anthem.", "Its phrase \"\" (\"Unity and Justice and Freedom\") is considered the unofficial national motto of Germany, and is inscribed on modern German Army belt buckles and the rims of some German coins.The music is the hymn \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\", written in 1797 by the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn as an anthem for the birthday of Francis II, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and later of Austria.", "In 1841, the German linguist and poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the lyrics of \"\" as a new text for that music, counterposing the national unification of Germany to the eulogy of a monarch: lyrics that were considered revolutionary at the time.The \"\" was adopted as the national anthem of Germany in 1922, during the Weimar Republic, to which all three stanzas were used.", "West Germany retained it as its official national anthem in 1952, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions.", "After German reunification in 1990, in 1991 only the third stanza was reconfirmed as the national anthem.", "It is discouraged, although not illegal, to perform the first stanza (or to some degree, the second), due to association with the Nazi regime." ], [ "Title", "The \"\" is also well known by the incipit and refrain of the first stanza, \"\" (\"Germany, Germany above all\"), but this has never been its title.", "This line originally meant that the most important aim of 19th-century German liberal revolutionaries should be a unified Germany which would overcome loyalties to the local kingdoms, principalities, duchies and palatines (''Kleinstaaterei'') of then-fragmented Germany, essentially that the ''idea'' of a unified Germany should be above all else.", "Only later, and especially in Nazi Germany, did these words come to imply German superiority over and domination of other countries." ], [ "Melody", "Thomas Hardy, 1792The melody of the \"\", also known as “the Austria tune”, was written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\" (\"God save Francis the Emperor\") by Lorenz Leopold Haschka.", "The song was a birthday anthem honouring Francis II, Habsburg emperor, and was intended as a parallel to Great Britain's \"God Save the King\".", "Haydn's work is sometimes called the \"Emperor's Hymn\" (Kaiserhymne).", "It was the music of the National Anthem of Austria-Hungary until the abolition of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918.It is often used as the musical basis for the hymn \"Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken\".It has been conjectured that Haydn took the first four measures of the melody from a Croatian folk song.", "This hypothesis has never achieved unanimous agreement; an alternative theory reverses the direction of transmission, positing that Haydn's melody was adapted as a folk tune.", "For further discussion, see Haydn and folk music.", "Haydn later used the hymn as the basis for the second movement (''Poco adagio cantabile'') of his String Quartet No.", "62 in C major, Opus 76 No.", "3, often called the \"Emperor\" or \"Kaiser\" quartet.\\relative c'{ \\key es \\major \\time 4/4\\partial 2 \\repeat volta 2 { es4.f8 \| g4 f as g \| f8 (d) es4 c' bes \| as g f g8 (es) \| bes'2 }f4 g \| f8 (d) bes4 as' g \| f8 (d) bes4 bes' as \| g4.g8 a4 a8 (bes) \| bes2\\repeat volta 2 { es4.d8 \| d (c) bes4 c4.bes8 \| bes (as) g4 f4.g16 (as) \| bes8 (c) as (f) es4 g8 (f) \| es2 } }\\addlyrics {>Ei -- nig -- keit und Recht und Frei -- heitsind des Glü -- ckes Un -- ter -- pfand.Blüh im Glan -- ze die -- ses Glü -- ckes,blü -- he, deut -- sches Va -- ter -- land!", "}File:German national anthem performed by the US Navy Band.ogg" ], [ "Historical background", "The Holy Roman Empire, stemming from the Middle Ages, was already disintegrating when the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars altered the political map of Central Europe.", "However, hopes for human rights and republican government after Napoleon's defeat in 1815 were dashed when the Congress of Vienna reinstated many small German principalities.", "In addition, with the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich and his secret police enforced censorship, mainly in universities, to keep a watch on the activities of teachers and students, whom he held responsible for the spread of radical liberalist ideas.", "Since reactionaries among the monarchs were the main adversaries, demands for freedom of the press and other liberal rights were most often uttered in connection with the demand for a united Germany, even though many revolutionaries-to-be held differing opinions over whether a republic or a constitutional monarchy would be the best solution for Germany.The German Confederation (''Deutscher Bund'', 1815–1866) was a federation of 35 monarchical states and four republican free cities, with a Federal Assembly in Frankfurt.", "The federation was essentially a military alliance, but it was also abused by the larger powers to oppress liberal and national movements.", "Another federation, the German Customs Union (''Zollverein'') was formed among the majority of the states in 1834.In 1840 Hoffmann wrote a song about the ''Zollverein'', also to Haydn's melody, in which he ironically praised the free trade of German goods which brought Germans and Germany closer.After the 1848 March Revolution, the German Confederation handed over its authority to the Frankfurt Parliament.", "For a short period in the late 1840s, Germany was united with the borders described in the anthem, and a democratic constitution was being drafted, and with the black-red-gold flag representing it.", "However, after 1849, the two largest German monarchies, Prussia and Austria, put an end to this liberal movement towards national unification." ], [ "Hoffmann's lyrics", "August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben in 1841August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the text in 1841 while on holiday on the North Sea island Heligoland, then a possession of the United Kingdom (now part of Germany).Hoffmann von Fallersleben intended \"\" to be sung to Haydn's tune; the first publication of the poem included the music.", "The first line, \"\" (usually translated into English as \"Germany, Germany above all, above all in the world\"), was an appeal to the various German monarchs to give the creation of a united Germany a higher priority than the independence of their small states.", "In the third stanza, with a call for \"\" (unity and justice and freedom), Hoffmann expressed his desire for a united and free Germany where the rule of law, not arbitrary monarchy, would prevail.In the era after the Congress of Vienna, influenced by Metternich and his secret police, Hoffmann's text had a distinctly revolutionary and at the same time liberal connotation, since the appeal for a united Germany was most often made in connection with demands for freedom of the press and other civil rights.", "Its implication that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's local sovereign was then a revolutionary idea.The year after he wrote \"Das Deutschlandlied\", Hoffmann lost his job as a librarian and professor in Breslau, Prussia (now Wrocław, Poland) because of this and other revolutionary works, and was forced into hiding until he was pardoned following the revolutions of 1848 in the German states." ], [ "Text", "Only the third stanza, in bold, is used as the modern German national anthem.German originalLiteral translation'''1''' Deutschland, Deutschland über alles,Über alles in der Welt,Wenn es stets zu Schutz und TrutzeBrüderlich zusammenhält.Von der Maas bis an die Memel,Von der Etsch bis an den Belt,'''2''' Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue,Deutscher Wein und deutscher SangSollen in der Welt behaltenIhren alten schönen Klang,Uns zu edler Tat begeisternUnser ganzes Leben lang –'''3 Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit''''''Für das deutsche Vaterland!", "''''''Danach lasst uns alle streben''''''Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand!", "''''''Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit''''''Sind des Glückes Unterpfand –''''''Germany, Germany above allAbove all in the worldWhen it always, for protection and defenceBrotherly stands together.From the Meuse to the NemanFrom the Adige to the Little Belt,German women, German loyalty,German wine and German song,Shall retain, throughout the world,Their old respected fame,To inspire us to noble deedsFor the length of our lives.", "'''Unity and Justice and Freedom''''''For the German Fatherland!", "''''''After these let us all strive''''''Brotherly with heart and hand!", "''''''Unity and Justice and Freedom''''''Are the security of happiness –''''''" ], [ "Use before 1922", "The melody of the \"Deutschlandlied\" was originally written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem \"Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser\" (\"God save Franz the Emperor\") by Lorenz Leopold Haschka.", "The song was a birthday anthem to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor of the House of Habsburg, and was intended to rival in merit the British \"God Save the King\".After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, \"\" became the official anthem of the emperor of the Austrian Empire.", "After the death of Francis II new lyrics were composed in 1854, ''Gott erhalte, Gott beschütze'', that mentioned the Emperor, but not by name.", "With those new lyrics, the song continued to be the anthem of Imperial Austria and later of Austria-Hungary.", "Austrian monarchists continued to use this anthem after 1918 in the hope of restoring the monarchy.", "The adoption of the Austrian anthem's melody by Germany in 1922 was not opposed by Austria.\"\"", "was not played at an official ceremony until Germany and the United Kingdom had agreed on the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, when it appeared only appropriate to sing it at the ceremony on the now officially German island of Heligoland.", "During the time of the German Empire, it became one of the most widely known patriotic songs.The song became very popular after the 1914 Battle of Langemarck during World War I, when, supposedly, several German regiments, consisting mostly of students no older than 20, attacked the British lines on the Western front while singing the song, suffering heavy casualties.", "They are buried in the Langemark German war cemetery in Belgium.By December of 1914, according to George Haven Putnam, ''Deutschland über alles'' had \"come to express the .", ".", ".", "war spirit of the Fatherland\" and \"the supremacy of Germans over all other peoples\", despite being, in past years, \"an expression simply of patriotic devotion\".", "Morris Jastrow Jr., then an American apologist for Germany, maintained that it meant only \"that Germany is dearer to Germans than anything else\".", "J. William White wrote into the ''Public Ledger'' to confirm Putnam's view." ], [ "Official adoption", "The melody used by the \"Deutschlandlied\" was still in use as the anthem of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its demise in 1918.On 11 August 1922, German President Friedrich Ebert, a Social Democrat, made the \"Deutschlandlied\" the official German national anthem.", "In 1919 the black, red and gold tricolour, the colours of the 19th century liberal revolutionaries advocated by the political left and centre, was adopted (rather than the previous black, white and red of Imperial Germany).", "Thus, in a political trade-off, the conservative right was granted a nationalistic composition, although Ebert continued to advocate the use of the third stanza only (as after World War II).During the Nazi era, only the first stanza was used, followed by the SA song \"Horst-Wessel-Lied\".", "It was played at occasions of great national significance, such as the opening of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, when Hitler and his entourage, along with Olympic officials, walked into the stadium amid a chorus of three thousand Germans singing \"\".", "In this way, the first stanza became closely identified with the Nazi regime." ], [ "Use after World War II", "After its founding in 1949, West Germany did not have a national anthem for official events for some years, despite a growing need for one for the purpose of diplomatic procedures.", "In lieu of an official national anthem, popular German songs such as the \"Trizonesien-Song\", a self-deprecating carnival song, were used at some sporting events.", "A variety of musical compositions was used or discussed, such as the finale of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, which is a musical setting of Friedrich Schiller's poem \"An die Freude\" (\"Ode to Joy\").", "Though the black, red and gold colours of the national flag had been incorporated into Article 22 of the (West) German constitution, no national anthem had been specified.", "On 29 April 1952, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer asked President Theodor Heuss in a letter to accept \"\" as the national anthem, with only the third stanza to be sung on official occasions.", "However, the first and second stanzas were not outlawed, contrary to popular belief.", "President Heuss agreed to this on 2 May 1952.This exchange of letters was published in the Bulletin of the Federal Government.", "Since it was viewed as the traditional right of the President as head of state to set the symbols of the state, the \"\" thus became the national anthem.Meanwhile, East Germany had adopted its own national anthem, \"Auferstanden aus Ruinen\" (\"Risen from Ruins\").", "As the lyrics of this anthem called for \"Germany, united Fatherland\", they were no longer officially used from approximately 1972 onwards, when East Germany abandoned its goal of uniting Germany under communism.", "By design, with slight adaptations, the lyrics of \"\" can be sung to the melody of the \"\" and vice versa.In the 1970s and 1980s, efforts were made by conservatives in Germany to reclaim all three stanzas for the national anthem.", "The Christian Democratic Union of Baden-Württemberg, for instance, attempted twice (in 1985 and 1986) to require German high school students to study all three stanzas, and in 1989, CDU politician Christean Wagner decreed that all high school students in Hesse were to memorise the three stanzas.Bundeswehr belt buckleThe word \"FREIHEIT\" (freedom) on Germany's 2 euro coinOn 7 March 1990, months before reunification, the Federal Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of Hoffmann's poem to be legally protected as a national anthem under German criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (''Strafgesetzbuch'') makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is.", "This did not mean that stanzas one and two were no longer part of the national anthem, but that their peculiar status as \"part of the national anthem but unsung\" disqualified them for penal law protection, since the penal law must be interpreted in the narrowest manner possible.In November 1991, President Richard von Weizsäcker and Chancellor Helmut Kohl agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone to be the national anthem of the reunified republic.", "Hence, as of then, the national anthem of Germany is unmistakably the third stanza of the \"Deutschlandlied\", and only this stanza, set to Haydn's music.The incipit of the third stanza, \"\" (\"Unity and Justice and Freedom\"), is widely considered to be the national motto of Germany, although it has never been officially proclaimed as such.", "It appears on Bundeswehr soldiers' belt buckles (replacing the earlier \"Gott mit uns\" (\"God with Us\") of the Imperial German Army and the Nazi-era Wehrmacht) and on 2 euro coins minted in Germany, and on the edges of the obsolete 2 and 5 Deutsche Mark coins." ], [ "Criticisms", "===Geographical===Contemporary German conceptions of the \"German language\", political frameworks and the text's geographic references (bold blue):The first stanza, which is no longer part of the national anthem and is not sung on official occasions, names three rivers and one strait – the Meuse (''Maas'' in German), Adige (''Etsch'') and Neman (''Memel'') Rivers and the Little Belt strait – as natural boundaries of the German ''Sprachbund''.", "The song was written before German unification, and there was no intention to delineate borders of Germany as a nation-state.", "Nevertheless, these geographical references have been variously criticised as irredentist or misleading.", "Today, no part of any of these four natural boundaries lies in Germany.", "The Meuse and the Adige were parts of the German Confederation when the song was composed, and were no longer part of the German Reich as of 1871; the Little Belt strait and the Neman became German boundaries later (the Belt until 1920, and the Neman between 1920 and 1939).None of these natural boundaries formed a distinct ethnic border.", "The Duchy of Schleswig (to which the Belt refers) was inhabited by both Germans and Danes, with the Danes forming a clear majority near the strait.", "Around the Adige there was a mix of German, Venetian and Gallo-Italian speakers, and the area around the Neman was not homogeneously German, but also accommodated Prussian Lithuanians.", "The Meuse (if taken as referencing the Duchy of Limburg, nominally part of the German Confederation for 28 years due to the political consequences of the Belgian Revolution) was ethnically Dutch, with few Germans.Nevertheless, such nationalistic rhetoric was relatively common in 19th-century public discourse.", "For example, Georg Herwegh in his poem \"The German Fleet\" (1841) gives the Germans as the people \"between the Po and the Sund\" (Øresund), and in 1832 Philipp Jakob Siebenpfeiffer, a noted journalist, declared at the Hambach Festival that he considered all \"between the Alps and the North Sea\" to be ''Deutschtum'' (the ethnic and spiritual German community).===Textual===The anthem has frequently been criticised for its generally nationalistic tone, the immodest geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza, and an alleged male-chauvinistic attitude in the second stanza.", "A relatively early critic was Friedrich Nietzsche, who called the grandiose claim in the first stanza \"\" (the most idiotic slogan in the world), and in ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' said, \" – I fear that was the end of German philosophy.\"", "The pacifist Kurt Tucholsky was another critic, who published in 1929 a photo book sarcastically titled ''Deutschland, Deutschland über alles'', criticising right-wing groups in Germany.German grammar distinguishes between , i.e.", "above all else, and , meaning \"above everyone else\".", "However, for propaganda purposes, the latter translation was endorsed by the Allies during World War I.=== Modern use of the first stanza ===As the first stanza of the \"Deutschlandlied\" is historically associated with the Nazi regime and its crimes, the singing of the first stanza is considered taboo within modern German society.", "Although the first stanza is not forbidden within Germany based on the German legal system, any mention of the first stanza is considered to be incorrect, inaccurate, and improper during official settings and functions, within Germany or abroad.In 1974, the singer Nico released a recording of all three verses as the last track on her album The End....", "In 1977, the German pop singer Heino produced a record of the song which included all three stanzas for use in primary schools in Baden-Württemberg.", "The inclusion of the first two stanzas was met with criticism at the time.In 2009, the English rock musician Pete Doherty sang \"Deutschlandlied\" live on radio at Bayerischer Rundfunk in Munich with all three stanzas.", "As he sang the first stanza, he was booed by the audience.", "Three days later, Doherty's spokesperson declared that the singer was \"not aware of the historical background and regrets the misunderstanding\".", "A spokesperson for Bayerischer Rundfunk welcomed the apology, noting that further cooperation with Doherty would not have been possible otherwise.When the first stanza was played as the German national anthem at the canoe sprint world championships in Hungary in August 2011, German athletes were reportedly \"appalled\".", "Eurosport, under the headline of \"Nazi anthem\", erroneously reported that \"the first stanza of the piece had been banned in 1952.", "\"Similarly, in 2017, the first stanza was mistakenly sung by Will Kimble, an American soloist, during the welcome ceremony of the Fed Cup tennis match between Andrea Petkovic (Germany) and Alison Riske (U.S.) at the Center Court in Lahaina, Hawaii.", "In an attempt to drown out the soloist, German tennis players and fans began to sing the third stanza instead." ], [ "Variants and additions", "=== Additional or alternative stanzas ===Hoffmann von Fallersleben also intended the text to be used as a drinking song; the second stanza's toast to German wine, women and song is typical of this genre.", "The original Heligoland manuscript included a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions:...Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; ...Are the pledge of fortune.", "An alternative version called \"\" (Children's Hymn) was written by Bertolt Brecht shortly after his return from exile in the U.S. to a war-ravaged, bankrupt and geographically shrunken Germany at the end of World War II, and set to music by Hanns Eisler in the same year.", "It gained some currency after the 1990 unification of Germany, with a number of prominent Germans calling for his \"antihymn\" to be made official:Grace spare not and spare no labourPassion nor intelligenceThat a decent German nationFlourish as do other lands.That the people give up flinchingAt the crimes which we evokeAnd hold out their hand in friendshipAs they do to other folk.Neither over nor yet underOther peoples will we beFrom the North Sea to the AlpsFrom the Oder to the Rhine.And because we'll make it betterLet us guard and love our homeLove it as our dearest countryAs the others love their own.In the English version of this \"antihymn\", the second stanza refers ambiguously to \"people\" and \"other folk\", but the German version is more specific: the author encourages Germans to find ways to relieve the people of ''other'' nations from needing to flinch at the memory of things Germans have done in the past, so that people of other nations can feel ready to shake hands with a German again as they would with anyone else.=== Notable performances and recordings ===The German musician Nico sometimes performed the national anthem at concerts and dedicated it to militant Andreas Baader, leader of the Red Army Faction.", "She included a version of \"\" on her 1974 album ''The End...''.", "In 2006, the Slovenian industrial band Laibach incorporated Hoffmann's lyrics in a song titled \"Germania\", on the album ''Volk'', which contains fourteen songs with adaptations of national anthems.=== Influences ===The German composer Max Reger quotes the \"Deutschlandlied\" in the final section of his collection of organ pieces ''Sieben Stücke'', Op.", "145, composed in 1915–16 when it was a patriotic song but not yet the national anthem.An Afrikaans patriotic song, \"Afrikaners Landgenote\", has been written with an identical melody and similarly-structured lyrics to the \"Deutschlandlied\".", "The lyrics of this song consist of three stanzas, the first of which sets the boundaries of the Afrikaans homeland with the means of geographical areas, the second of which states the importance of \"Afrikaans mothers, daughters, sun, and field\", recalling the \"German women, loyalty, wine, and song\", and the third of which describes the importance of unity, justice, and freedom, along with love." ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''" ], [ "External links", " Die Nationalhymne der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, German Federal Government * \"Das Lied der Deutschen\", ingeb.org* \"Das Lied der Deutschen\" at Brandenburg Historica* * , during the official German Unity Day ceremony on 3 October 1990*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 31" ], [ "Introduction", " It is known by a collection of names including: Saint Sylvester's Day, New Year's Eve or Old Year’s Day/Night, as the following day is New Year's Day.", "It is the last day of the year; the following day is January 1, the first day of the following year." ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 406 – Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gaul.", "* 535 – Byzantine general Belisarius completes the conquest of Sicily, defeating the Gothic garrison of Palermo (Panormos), and ending his consulship for the year.", "* 870 – Battle of Englefield: The Vikings clash with ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire.", "The invaders are driven back to Reading (East Anglia); many Danes are killed.", "1105 – Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Henry V, in Ingelheim.", "1225 – The Lý dynasty of Vietnam ends after 216 years by the enthronement of the boy emperor Trần Thái Tông, husband of the last Lý monarch, Lý Chiêu Hoàng, starting the Trần dynasty.", "1229 – James I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, enters Medina Mayurqa (now known as Palma, Spain), thus consummating the Christian reconquest of the island of Majorca.", "1501 – The First Battle of Cannanore commences, seeing the first use of the naval line of battle.", "1600 – The British East India Company is chartered.===1601–1900===1660 – James II of England is named Duke of Normandy by Louis XIV of France.", "1670 – The expedition of John Narborough leaves Corral Bay, having surveyed the coast and lost four hostages to the Spanish.", "1687 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.", "1757 – Empress Elizabeth I of Russia issues her ukase incorporating Königsberg into Russia.", "1759 – Arthur Guinness signs a 9,000-year lease at £45 per annum and starts brewing Guinness.", "1775 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Quebec: British forces repulse an attack by Continental Army General Richard Montgomery.", "1790 – ''Efimeris'', the oldest Greek newspaper of which issues have survived till today, is published for the first time.", "1796 – The incorporation of Baltimore as a city.", "1831 – Gramercy Park is deeded to New York City.", "1844 – The Philippines skipped this date in order to align the country with the rest of Asia, as the trading interest switched to China, Dutch East Indies and neighboring territories after Mexico gained independence from Spain on 27 September 1821.In the islands, Monday, 30 December 1844 was immediately followed by Wednesday, 1 January 1845.", "1853 – A dinner party is held inside a life-size model of an iguanodon created by Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins and Sir Richard Owen in south London, England.", "1857 – Queen Victoria chooses Ottawa, then a small logging town, as the capital of the Province of Canada.", "1862 – American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln signs an act that admits West Virginia to the Union, thus dividing Virginia in two.", "* 1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Stones River begins near Murfreesboro, Tennessee.", "1878 – Karl Benz, working in Mannheim, Germany, files for a patent on his first reliable two-stroke gas engine.", "He was granted the patent in 1879.", "1879 – Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time, in Menlo Park, New Jersey.===1901–present===1906 – Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar signs the Persian Constitution of 1906.", "1907 – The first ever ball drop in Times Square.", "1942 – USS ''Essex'', first aircraft carrier of a 24-ship class, is commissioned.", " 1942 – World War II: The Royal Navy defeats the Kriegsmarine at the Battle of the Barents Sea.", "This leads to the resignation of Grand Admiral Erich Raeder a month later 1944 – World War II: Operation Nordwind, the last major Wehrmacht offensive on the Western Front, begins.", "1946 – President Harry S. Truman officially proclaims the end of hostilities in World War II.", "1951 – Cold War: The Marshall Plan expires after distributing more than US$13.3 billion in foreign aid to rebuild Western Europe.", "1955 – General Motors becomes the first U.S. corporation to make over US$1 billion in a year.", "1956 – The Romanian Television network begins its first broadcast in Bucharest.", "1961 – RTÉ, Ireland's state broadcaster, launches its first national television service.", "1963 – The Central African Federation officially collapses, subsequently becoming Zambia, Malawi and Rhodesia.", "1965 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, leader of the Central African Republic army, and his military officers begin a coup d'état against the government of President David Dacko.", "1968 – The first flight of the Tupolev Tu-144, the first civilian supersonic transport in the world.", " 1968 – MacRobertson Miller Airlines Flight 1750 crashes near Port Hedland, Western Australia, killing all 26 people on board.", "1981 – A coup d'état in Ghana removes President Hilla Limann's PNP government and replaces it with the Provisional National Defence Council led by Flight lieutenant Jerry Rawlings.", "1983 – The AT&T Bell System is broken up by the United States Government.", "* 1983 – Benjamin Ward is appointed New York City Police Department's first ever African American police commissioner.", "* 1983 – In Nigeria, a coup d'état led by Major General Muhammadu Buhari ends the Second Nigerian Republic.", "1991 – All official Soviet Union institutions have ceased operations by this date, five days after the Soviet Union is officially dissolved.", "1992 – Czechoslovakia is peacefully dissolved in what is dubbed by media as the ''Velvet Divorce'', resulting in the creation of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.", "1994 – This date is skipped altogether in Kiribati as the Phoenix Islands and Line Islands change time zones from UTC−11:00 to UTC+13:00 and UTC−10:00 to UTC+14:00, respectively.", " 1994 – The First Chechen War: The Russian Ground Forces begin a New Year's storming of Grozny.", "1998 – The European Exchange Rate Mechanism freezes the values of the legacy currencies in the Eurozone, and establishes the value of the euro currency.", "1999 – The first President of Russia, Boris Yeltsin, resigns from office, leaving Prime Minister Vladimir Putin as the acting President and successor.", "* 1999 – The U.S. government hands control of the Panama Canal (as well all the adjacent land to the canal known as the Panama Canal Zone) to Panama.", "This act complied with the signing of the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties.", "* 1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 hijacking ends after seven days with the release of 190 survivors at Kandahar Airport, Afghanistan.", "2000 – The last day of the 20th Century and 2nd Millennium.", "2004 – The official opening of Taipei 101, the tallest skyscraper at that time in the world, standing at a height of .", "2009 – Both a blue moon and a lunar eclipse occur.", "2010 – Tornadoes touch down in midwestern and southern United States, including Washington County, Arkansas; Greater St. Louis, Sunset Hills, Missouri, Illinois, and Oklahoma, with a few tornadoes in the early hours.", "A total of 36 tornadoes touched down, resulting in the deaths of nine people and $113 million in damages.", "2011 – NASA succeeds in putting the first of two Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory satellites in orbit around the Moon.", "2014 – A New Year's Eve celebration stampede in Shanghai kills at least 36 people and injures 49 others.", "2015 – A fire breaks out at the Downtown Address Hotel in Downtown Dubai, United Arab Emirates, located near the Burj Khalifa, two hours before the fireworks display is due to commence.", "Sixteen injuries were reported; one had a heart attack, another suffered a major injury, and fourteen others with minor injuries.", "2018 – Thirty-nine people are killed after a ten-story building collapses in the industrial city of Magnitogorsk, Russia.", "2019 – The World Health Organization is informed of cases of pneumonia with an unknown cause, detected in Wuhan.", "This later turned out to be COVID-19, the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic.", "2020 – The World Health Organization issues its first emergency use validation for a COVID-19 vaccine." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 695 – Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, Umayyad general (d. 715)1378 – Pope Callixtus III (d. 1458)1491 – Jacques Cartier, French navigator and explorer (d. 1557)1493 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino (d. 1570)1504 – Beatrice of Portugal, Duchess of Savoy (d. 1538)1514 – Andreas Vesalius, Belgian anatomist, physician, and author (d. 1564)1539 – John Radcliffe, English politician (d. 1568)1550 – Henry I, Duke of Guise (d. 1588)1552 – Simon Forman, English occultist and astrologer (d. 1611)1572 – Emperor Go-Yōzei of Japan, (d. 1617)1585 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and politician, 24th Governor of the Duchy of Milan (d. 1645)===1601–1900===1668 – Herman Boerhaave, Dutch botanist and physician (d. 1738)1714 – Arima Yoriyuki, Japanese mathematician and educator (d. 1783)1720 – Charles Edward Stuart, Scottish claimant to the throne of England (d. 1788)1738 – Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis, English general and politician, 3rd Governor-General of India (d. 1805)1741 – Gottfried August Bürger, German poet and academic (d. 1794)1763 – Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, French admiral (d. 1806)1776 – Johann Spurzheim, German-American physician and phrenologist (d. 1832)1798 – Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Estonian physician, philologist, and academic (d. 1850)1805 – Marie d'Agoult, German-French historian and author (d. 1876)1815 – George Meade, American general and engineer (d. 1872)1830 – Isma'il Pasha, Egyptian ruler (d. 1895) 1830 – Alexander Smith, Scottish poet and critic (d. 1867)1833 – Hugh Nelson Scottish-Australian politician, 11th Premier of Queensland (d. 1906)1834 – Queen Kapiolani of Hawaii (d. 1899)1838 – Émile Loubet, French lawyer and politician, 7th President of France (d. 1929)1842 – Giovanni Boldini, Italian painter (d. 1931)1851 – Henry Carter Adams, American economist and academic (d. 1921)1855 – Giovanni Pascoli, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1912)1857 – King Kelly, American baseball player and manager (d. 1894)1860 – Joseph S. Cullinan, American businessman, co-founded Texaco (d. 1937)1864 – Robert Grant Aitken, American astronomer and academic (d. 1951)1869 – Henri Matisse, French painter and sculptor (d. 1954)1872 – Fred Marriott, American race car driver (d. 1956)1873 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (d. 1936)1874 – Julius Meier, American businessman and politician, 20th Governor of Oregon (d. 1937)1877 – Lawrence Beesley, English journalist and author (d. 1967)1878 – Elizabeth Arden, Canadian businesswoman, founded Elizabeth Arden, Inc. (d. 1966) 1878 – Horacio Quiroga, Uruguayan-Argentinian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1937)1880 – Fred Beebe, American baseball player and coach (d. 1957) 1880 – George Marshall, American general and politician, 50th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)1881 – Max Pechstein, German painter and academic (d. 1955)1884 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (d. 1964)* 1884 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1960)1885 – Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (d. 1970)1899 – Silvestre Revueltas, Mexican violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1940)===1901–present===1901 – Karl-August Fagerholm, Finnish politician, ''valtioneuvos'', the Speaker of the Parliament and the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1984) 1901 – Nikos Ploumpidis, Greek educator and politician (d. 1954)1902 – Lionel Daunais, Canadian singer-songwriter (d. 1982) 1902 – Roy Goodall, English footballer (d. 1982)1903 – William Heynes, English engineer (d. 1989)1905 – Helen Dodson Prince, American astronomer and academic (d. 2002)* 1905 – Jule Styne, English-American composer (d. 1994)1908 – Simon Wiesenthal, Ukrainian-Austrian Nazi hunter and author (d. 2005)1909 – Jonah Jones, American trumpet player and saxophonist (d. 2000)1910 – Carl Dudley, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1973) 1910 – Enrique Maier, Spanish tennis player (d. 1981)1911 – Dal Stivens, Australian soldier and author (d. 1997)1912 – John Frost, Indian-English general (d. 1993)1914 – Mary Logan Reddick, American neuroembryologist (d. 1966)1915 – Sam Ragan, American journalist, author, and poet (d. 1996)1917 – Evelyn Knight, American singer (d. 2007) 1917 – Wilfrid Noyce, English mountaineer and author (d. 1962)1918 – Ray Graves, American football player and coach (d. 2015)1919 – Tommy Byrne, American baseball player, coach, and politician (d. 2007)* 1919 – Carmen Contreras-Bozak, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2017) 1920 – Rex Allen, American actor and singer-songwriter (d. 1999) 1922 – Tomás Balduino, Brazilian bishop (d. 2014)* 1922 – Halina Czerny-Stefańska, Polish pianist and educator (d. 2001)* 1922 – Luis Zuloaga, Venezuelan baseball player (d. 2013)1923 – Giannis Dalianidis, Greek actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)1924 – Taylor Mead, American actor and poet (d. 2013)1925 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1925 – Sri Lal Sukla, Indian author (d. 2011)* 1925 – Daphne Oram, British composer and electronic musician (d. 2003)1926 – Valerie Pearl, English historian and academic (d. 2016) 1926 – Billy Snedden, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Attorney-General for Australia (d. 1987)1928 – Ross Barbour, American pop singer (d. 2011) 1928 – Hugh McElhenny, American football player (d. 2022)* 1928 – Veijo Meri, Finnish author and translator (d. 2015)* 1928 – Tatyana Shmyga, Russian actress and singer (d. 2011) * 1928 – Siné, French cartoonist (d. 2016)1929 – Mies Bouwman, Dutch television host (d. 2018) 1929 – Peter May, English cricketer (d. 1994)1930 – Jaime Escalante, Bolivian-American educator (d. 2010) 1930 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (d. 2008)1931 – Bob Shaw, Northern Irish journalist and author (d. 1996)1932 – Don James, American football player and coach (d. 2013)* 1932 – Felix Rexhausen, German journalist and author (d. 1992)1933 – Edward Bunker, American author, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2005)1934 – Ameer Muhammad Akram Awan, Indian author, poet, and scholar (d. 2017)1935 – Salman of Saudi Arabia, King of Saudi Arabia1937 – Avram Hershko, Hungarian-Israeli biochemist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate* 1937 – Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor, director, and composer* 1937 – Barry Hughes, Welsh footballer and manager (d. 2019)* 1937 – Tess Jaray, Austrian-English painter and educator1938 – Rosalind Cash, American singer and actress (d. 1995) 1938 – Atje Keulen-Deelstra, Dutch speed skater (d. 2013)1939 – Willye White, American sprinter and long jumper (d. 2007)1940 – Mani Neumeier, German drummer1941 – Barbara Carrera, American actress and model 1941 – Alex Ferguson, Scottish footballer and manager* 1941 – Sarah Miles, English actress1942 – Andy Summers, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer1943 – John Denver, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1997)* 1943 – Ben Kingsley, English actor* 1943 – Pete Quaife, English bass player, author, and artist (d. 2010)1944 – Taylor Hackford, American director, producer, and screenwriter1945 – Connie Willis, American author1946 – Roy Greenslade, English journalist and academic 1946 – Bryan Hamilton, Northern Irish footballer and coach* 1946 – Raphael Kaplinsky, South African international development academic* 1946 – Pius Ncube, Zimbabwean archbishop* 1946 – Lyudmila Pakhomova, Russian ice dancer (d. 1986)* 1946 – Cliff Richey, American tennis player* 1946 – Eric Robson, Scottish journalist and author* 1946 – Nigel Rudd, English businessman, founded Williams Holdings* 1946 – Tim Stevens, English bishop* 1946 – Diane von Fürstenberg, Belgian-American fashion designer1947 – Burton Cummings, Canadian singer-songwriter and keyboard player 1947 – Rita Lee, Brazilian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (d. 2023)* 1947 – Tim Matheson, American actor, director, and producer1948 – Joe Dallesandro, American actor 1948 – Sandy Jardine, Scottish footballer and manager (d. 2014)* 1948 – Donna Summer, American singer-songwriter (d. 2012)1949 – Ellen Datlow, American anthologist and author 1949 – Flora Gomes, Bissau-Guinean filmmaker* 1949 – Susan Shwartz, American author1950 – Bob Gilder, American golfer 1950 – Inge Helten, German sprinter* 1950 – Cheryl Womack, American businesswoman1951 – Tom Hamilton, American bass player and songwriter 1951 – Kenny Roberts, American motorcycle racer1952 – Vaughan Jones, New Zealand mathematician and academic (d. 2020) 1952 – Jean-Pierre Rives, French rugby player, painter, and sculptor1953 – Jane Badler, American actress 1953 – James Remar, American actor1954 – Alex Salmond, Scottish economist and politician, First Minister of Scotland 1954 – Hermann Tilke, German racing driver, architect and engineer1956 – Robert Goodwill, English farmer and politician 1956 – Helma Knorscheidt, German shot putter* 1956 – Steve Rude, American author and illustrator1958 – Geoff Marsh, Australian cricketer and coach 1958 – Bebe Neuwirth, American actress and dancer1959 – Liveris Andritsos, Greek basketball player 1959 – Val Kilmer, American actor* 1959 – Phill Kline, American lawyer and politician, Kansas Attorney General* 1959 – Baron Waqa, Nauruan composer and politician, 14th President of Nauru* 1959 – Paul Westerberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1960 – Steve Bruce, English footballer and manager1961 – Rick Aguilera, American baseball player and coach* 1961 – Jeremy Heywood, English economist and civil servant (d. 2018)* 1961 – Nina Li Chi, Hong Kong actress1962 – Tyrone Corbin, American basketball player and coach 1962 – Chris Hallam, English-Welsh swimmer and wheelchair racer (d. 2013)* 1962 – Jennifer Higdon, American composer1963 – Scott Ian, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1964 – Winston Benjamin, Antiguan cricketer* 1964 – Michael McDonald, American comedian, actor, and director1965 – Tony Dorigo, Australian-English footballer and sportscaster 1965 – Julie Doucet, Canadian cartoonist and author* 1965 – Gong Li, Chinese actress* 1965 – Laxman Sivaramakrishnan, Indian cricketer* 1965 – Nicholas Sparks, American author, screenwriter, and producer1967 – Paul McGregor, Australian rugby league player and coach1968 – Gerry Dee, Canadian comedian, actor, and screenwriter* 1968 – Junot Diaz, Dominican-born American novelist, short story writer, and essayist1970 – Jorjão, Brazilian footballer 1970 – Danny McNamara, English singer-songwriter* 1970 – Carlos Morales Quintana, Spanish-Danish architect and sailor* 1970 – Bryon Russell, American basketball player1971 – Brent Barry, American basketball player and sportscaster 1971 – Esteban Loaiza, Mexican baseball player* 1971 – Heath Shuler, American football player and politician1972 – Grégory Coupet, French footballer 1972 – Scott Manley, Scottish YouTube personality* 1972 – Joey McIntyre, American singer-songwriter and actor1973 – Shandon Anderson, American basketball player 1973 – Malcolm Middleton, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1973 – Curtis Myden, Canadian swimmer1974 – Joe Abercrombie, English author 1974 – Mario Aerts, Belgian cyclist* 1974 – Tony Kanaan, Brazilian race car driver* 1974 – Ryan Sakoda, Japanese-American wrestler and trainer1975 – Rami Alanko, Finnish ice hockey player 1975 – Toni Kuivasto, Finnish footballer and coach* 1975 – Rob Penders, Dutch footballer* 1975 – Sander Schutgens, Dutch runner1976 – Luís Carreira, Portuguese motorcycle racer (d. 2012) 1976 – Matthew Hoggard, English cricketer1977 – Wardy Alfaro, Costa Rican footballer and coach 1977 – Psy, South Korean musician* 1977 – Donald Trump Jr., American businessman1979 – Bob Bryar, American musician 1979 – Paul O'Neill, English racing driver* 1979 – Jeff Waldstreicher, American lawyer and politician* 1979 – Ricky Whittle, English actor1980 – Jesse Carlson, American baseball player 1980 – Matt Cross, American wrestler* 1980 – Richie McCaw, New Zealand rugby player* 1980 – Carsten Schlangen, German runner1981 – Jason Campbell, American football player 1981 – Francisco García, Dominican basketball player* 1981 – Matthew Pavlich, Australian footballer* 1981 – Margaret Simpson, Ghanaian heptathlete* 1981 – Ricky Whittle, English actor1982 – Julio DePaula, Dominican baseball player 1982 – Craig Gordon, Scottish footballer* 1982 – Luke Schenscher, Australian basketball player* 1982 – The Rocket Summer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer1983 – Jana Veselá, Czech basketball player1984 – Corey Crawford, Canadian ice hockey player* 1984 – Ben Hannant, Australian rugby league player* 1984 – Édgar Lugo, Mexican footballer * 1984 – Calvin Zola, Congolese footballer1985 – Jonathan Horton, American gymnast 1985 – Jan Smit, Dutch singer and television host1986 – Nate Freiman, American baseball player 1986 – Kade Snowden, Australian rugby league player1987 – Javaris Crittenton, American basketball player 1987 – Danny Holla, Dutch footballer* 1987 – Nemanja Nikolić, Hungarian footballer1988 – Michal Řepík, Czech ice hockey player1989 – Ryo Aitaka, Japanese kickboxer and professional wrestler* 1989 – Kelvin Herrera, Dominican baseball player1990 – Patrick Chan, Canadian figure skater1991 – Dennis Everberg, Swedish ice hockey player* 1991 – ND Stevenson, American cartoonist1992 – Amy Cure, Australian track cyclist 1992 – Karl Kruuda, Estonian racing driver1995 – Gabby Douglas, American gymnast 1995 – Edmond Sumner, American basketball player1996 – J. J. Arcega-Whiteside, Spanish-American football player1997 – Cameron Carter-Vickers, English-American soccer player2000 – Alycia Parks, American tennis player2001 – Katie Volynets, American tennis player2002 – Joe Scally, American soccer player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===45 BC – Quintus Fabius Maximus, consul suffectus* 192 – Commodus, Roman emperor (b.", "161)* 335 – Pope Sylvester I* 669 – Li Shiji, Chinese general (b.", "594) * 914 – Ibn Hawshab, founder of the Isma'ili community in Yemen1032 – Ahmad Maymandi, Persian statesman, vizier of the Ghaznavid Empire1164 – Ottokar III of Styria (b.", "1124)1194 – Leopold V, Duke of Austria (b.", "1157)1298 – Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford, English politician, Lord High Constable of England (b.", "1249)1299 – Margaret, Countess of Anjou (b.", "1273)1302 – Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine (b.", "1238)1384 – John Wycliffe, English philosopher, theologian, and translator (b.", "1331)1386 – Johanna of Bavaria, Queen of Bohemia (b. c. 1362)1426 – Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter (b.", "1377)1439 – Margaret Holland, English noblewoman (b.", "1385)1460 – Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, English politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (b.", "1400)1510 – Bianca Maria Sforza, Holy Roman Empress (b.", "1472)1535 – William Skeffington, English-Irish politician, Lord Deputy of Ireland (b.", "1465)1568 – Shimazu Tadayoshi, Japanese daimyō (b.", "1493)1575 – Pierino Belli, Italian commander and jurist (b.", "1502)1583 – Thomas Erastus, Swiss physician and theologian (b.", "1524)===1601–1900===1610 – Ludolph van Ceulen, German-Dutch mathematician and academic (b.", "1540)1637 – Christian, Count of Waldeck-Wildungen, German count (b.", "1585)1650 – Dorgon, Chinese emperor (b.", "1612)1655 – Janusz Radziwiłł, Polish–Lithuanian politician (b.", "1612)* 1655 – Sir John Wray, 2nd Baronet, English politicians and Roundheads supporter (b.", "1586) 1673 – Oliver St John, English judge and politician, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas (b.", "1598)1679 – Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist (b.", "1608)1691 – Robert Boyle, Anglo-Irish chemist and physicist (b.", "1627) 1691 – Dudley North, English merchant and economist (b.", "1641)1705 – Catherine of Braganza (b.", "1638)1719 – John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (b.", "1646)1730 – Carlo Gimach, Maltese architect, engineer and poet (b.", "1651)1742 – Charles III Philip, Elector Palatine (b.", "1661)1775 – Richard Montgomery, American general (b.", "1738)1799 – Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and author (b.", "1723)1818 – Jean-Pierre Duport, French cellist (b.", "1741)1872 – Aleksis Kivi, Finnish author and playwright (b.", "1834)1876 – Catherine Labouré, French nun and saint (b.", "1806)1877 – Gustave Courbet, French-Swiss painter and sculptor (b.", "1819)1888 – Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi and scholar (b.", "1808)1889 – Ion Creangă, Romanian author and educator (b.", "1837)* 1889 – George Kerferd, English-Australian politician, 10th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1831)1890 – Pancha Carrasco, Costa Rican soldier (b.", "1826)1891 – Samuel Ajayi Crowther, Nigerian bishop and linguist (b.", "1809)1894 – Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch mathematician and academic (b.", "1856)===1901–present===1909 – Spencer Trask, American financier and philanthropist (b.", "1844)1910 – Archibald Hoxsey, American pilot (b.", "1884) 1910 – John Moisant, American pilot and engineer (b.", "1868)1921 – Boies Penrose, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1860)1934 – Cornelia Clapp, American marine biologist (b.", "1849)1936 – Miguel de Unamuno, Spanish philosopher, author, and poet (b.", "1864)1948 – Malcolm Campbell, English racing driver and journalist (b.", "1885)1949 – Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, Turkish philosopher, poet, and politician (b.", "1869) 1949 – Raimond Valgre, Estonian pianist and composer (b.", "1913)1950 – Charles Koechlin, French composer and educator (b.", "1867)1951 – Murtaza Hasan Chandpuri, Indian Muslim scholar (b.", "1868)1953 – Albert Plesman, Dutch businessman, founded KLM (b.", "1889)1964 – Bobby Byrne, American baseball and soccer player (b.", "1884)* 1964 – Ólafur Thors, Icelandic lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Iceland (b.", "1892)* 1964 – Henry Maitland Wilson, English field marshal (b.", "1881)1968 – George Lewis, American clarinet player and composer (b.", "1900)1970 – Cyril Scott, English composer, writer, and poet (b.", "1879)1972 – Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and Marine (b.", "1934) 1972 – Henry Gerber, German-American activist, founded the Society for Human Rights (b.", "1892)1978 – Basil Wolverton, American illustrator (b.", "1909)1980 – Marshall McLuhan, Canadian philosopher and theorist (b.", "1911)* 1980 – Raoul Walsh, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1887)1983 – Sevim Burak, Turkish author and playwright (b.", "1931)1985 – Ricky Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1940)1987 – Jerry Turner, American journalist (b.", "1929)1988 – Nicolas Calas, Greek-American poet and critic (b.", "1907)1990 – George Allen, American football player and coach (b.", "1918) 1990 – Vasily Lazarev, Russian physician, colonel, and astronaut (b.", "1928)* 1990 – Giovanni Michelucci, Italian architect and urban planner, designed the Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station (b.", "1891)1993 – Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Georgian anthropologist and politician, 1st President of Georgia (b.", "1939) 1993 – Brandon Teena, American murder victim (b.", "1972)* 1993 – Big Bertha, Irish cattle and twice Guinness World Record holder (oldest cow, cow with most offspring) (b.", "1945)1994 – Woody Strode, American football player, wrestler, and actor (b.", "1914)1996 – Wesley Addy, American actor (b.", "1913)1997 – Floyd Cramer, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1933) 1997 – Billie Dove, American actress (b.", "1903)1998 – Ted Glossop, Australian rugby league player and coach (b.", "1934)1999 – Elliot Richardson, American lawyer and politician, 69th United States Attorney General (b.", "1920)* 1999 – Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi, Indian Muslim scholar and author (b.", "1914)2000 – Alan Cranston, American journalist and politician (b.", "1914) 2000 – José Greco, Italian-American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1918)* 2000 – Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, American-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b.", "1966)2001 – Eileen Heckart, American actress (b.", "1919)2002 – Kevin MacMichael, Canadian guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1951)2003 – Arthur R. von Hippel German-American physicist and author (b.", "1898)2004 – Gérard Debreu, French economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1921)2005 – Enrico Di Giuseppe, American tenor and educator (b.", "1932) 2005 – Phillip Whitehead, English screenwriter, producer, and politician (b.", "1937)2006 – Ya'akov Hodorov, Israeli footballer (b.", "1927) 2006 – Seymour Martin Lipset, American sociologist, author, and academic (b.", "1922)* 2006 – George Sisler, Jr., American businessman (b.", "1917)2007 – Roy Amara, American scientific researcher (b.", "1925) 2007 – Michael Goldberg, American painter and educator (b.", "1924)* 2007 – Bill Idelson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1919)* 2007 – Milton L. Klein, Canadian lawyer and politician (b.", "1910)* 2007 – Ettore Sottsass, Austrian-Italian architect and designer (b.", "1917)2008 – Donald E. Westlake, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1933)2009 – Cahal Daly, Irish cardinal and philosopher (b.", "1917)* 2009 – Justin Keating, Irish surgeon, journalist, and politician, Minister for Industry and Commerce (b.", "1930)2010 – Raymond Impanis, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1925) 2010 – Per Oscarsson, Swedish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1927)2012 – Peter Ebert, English director and producer (b.", "1918) 2012 – Tarak Mekki, Tunisian businessman and politician (b.", "1958)* 2012 – Jovette Marchessault, Canadian author and playwright (b.", "1938)* 2012 – Günter Rössler, German photographer and journalist (b.", "1926)2013 – James Avery, American actor (b.", "1945) 2013 – Roberto Ciotti, Italian guitarist and composer (b.", "1953)* 2013 – Bob Grant, American radio host (b.", "1929)* 2013 – Irina Korschunow, German author and screenwriter (b.", "1925)2014 – Edward Herrmann, American actor (b.", "1943) 2014 – Abdullah Hussain, Malaysian author (b.", "1920)* 2014 – Norm Phelps, American author and activist (b.", "1939)* 2014 – S. Arthur Spiegel, American captain, lawyer, and judge (b.", "1920)* 2014 – Valerian Wellesley, 8th Duke of Wellington, British soldier and politician (b.", "1915)2015 – Natalie Cole, American singer-songwriter and actress (b.", "1950) 2015 – Wayne Rogers, American actor and investor (b.", "1933)2016 – William Christopher, American actor (b.", "1932)2018 – Kader Khan, Indian actor (b.", "1937)2021 – Betty White, American actress, comedian and producer (b.", "1922)2022 – Pope Benedict XVI, German Roman Catholic cardinal and theologian, pope (2005–2013) and archbishop of Munich and Freising (1977–1982) (b.", "1927)* 2022 – Barry Lane, English golfer (b.", "1960)* 2023 – Cale Yarborough, American Hall of Fame racing driver and founder of Cale Yarborough Motorsports, NASCAR Cup Series champion (1976, 1977, 1978) (b.", "1939)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Pope Sylvester I (Catholic Church)December 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)International Solidarity Day of Azerbaijanis (Azerbaijan)New Year's Eve (International observance), and its related observances:First Night (United States)Last Day of the Year or ''Bisperás ng Bagong Taón'', special holiday between Rizal Day and New Year's Day (Philippines)Novy God Eve (Russia) Ōmisoka (Japan)The first day of Hogmanay or \"Auld Year's Night\" (Scotland)The seventh of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)The sixth and penultimate day of Kwanzaa (United States)" ], [ "See also", "January 0" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 31" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deng Xiaoping" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deng Xiaoping''' (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary and politician who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989.After Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong's death in 1976, Deng rose to power and led China through its process of Reform and Opening Up and the development of China's socialist market economy.", "Deng developed a reputation as the \"Architect of Modern China\".Born in Sichuan during the end of the Qing dynasty, Deng moved to France in 1921 as a teenager, where he worked and studied; in the coming years he became attracted to the theories of Vladimir Lenin, and in 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).", "In early 1926, Deng travelled to Moscow to study political science, becoming a commissar for the Red Army upon his return to China.", "Near the end of 1929, Deng led local Red Army uprisings in Guangxi.", "In 1931, he was demoted within the party due to his support for Mao, but was again promoted during the Zunyi Conference.", "Deng was an important figure throughout the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949), including during the Long March (1934–1935) and in fighting against the Japanese (1937–1945).", "He, Liu Bocheng and Chen Yi led the newly formed People's Liberation Army (PLA) into the former Kuomintang capital of Nanjing during the final stretch of the civil war.", "Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949, Deng served in Tibet and southwestern China as the regional party chief, working to consolidate party control in the region.", "In 1952, he returned to Beijing and held a central position in the State Council.", "In 1955, when the PLA adopted Russian-style military ranks, Deng was offered the position of marshal, which he declined.", "As the party's Secretary-General under Chairman Mao Zedong, and Vice Premier under Premier Zhou Enlai during the 1950s, Deng presided over the Anti-Rightist Campaign spearheaded by Mao, and became instrumental in China's economic reconstruction following the Great Leap Forward (1958–1960).", "However, his right-leaning political and economic stances eventually caused him to fall out of favor with Mao, and he was the target of purges twice during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976).Following Mao's death in September 1976, Deng outmaneuvered Mao’s chosen successor Hua Guofeng, and became China's paramount leader during the 3rd Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee in December 1978.Having inherited a country beset with institutional disorder and disenchantment with communism as orchestrated by Mao, resulting from the chaotic political movements of the previous decades, Deng and his allies launched the ''Boluan Fanzheng'' program.", "Among other things, the program sought to rehabilitate veteran CCP leadership, as well as millions of others that were persecuted during the Cultural Revolution, and sought to gradually bring the country back to order.", "From 1977 to early 1979, he resumed the National College Entrance Examination that had not taken place for ten years, and initiated the Reform and Opening-up program that introduced elements of market capitalism to the Chinese economy.", "This included designating special economic zones, such as Shenzhen.", "Still embroiled in the Sino-Soviet split that began during the 1960s, Deng's China fought a one-month war with Vietnam.", "On 1 January 1979, the PRC officially established diplomatic relations with the United States after years of prelude, and Deng became the first paramount leader of China to visit the US.", "In August 1980, Deng embarked on a series of political reforms, setting constitutional term limits for state officials and other systematic revisions, which were incorporated in the country's third constitution (1982).", "In the 1980s, Deng advocated for the one-child policy to deal with China's perceived overpopulation crisis, helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, launched the 863 Program for science and technology, and downsized the PLA by one million.", "Deng also proposed the One Country, Two Systems principle for the governance of Hong Kong and Macau, as well as the future unification with Taiwan.", "During Deng's tenure, his protégés Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang were head of the party and the government, but both of whom were later ousted from power.", "Deng stepped down from all his official positions in November 1989, in the wake of an eruption of protests in Tiananmen Square.The reforms carried out by Deng and his allies gradually led China away from a planned economy and Maoist ideologies, opened it up to foreign investments and technology, and introduced its vast labor force to the global market, thus elevating a billion people from poverty and turning China into one of the world's fastest-growing economies.", "Deng and his chosen successors Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao contributed to China becoming the world's second-largest economy by nominal GDP in 2010.He was eventually characterized as the \"architect\" of a new brand of thinking combining socialist ideology with free enterprise, dubbed \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\" (now known as Deng Xiaoping Theory).", "Despite never holding office as either the PRC's state representative or head of government nor as the head of CCP, Deng is generally viewed as the \"core\" of the CCP's second-generation leadership, a status enshrined within the party's constitution.", "Deng was named the ''Time'' Person of the Year for 1978 and 1985.He was criticized for ordering a military crackdown on the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, yet was praised for his reaffirmation of the reform program in his Southern Tour of 1992 as well as the reversion of Hong Kong to Chinese control in 1997 and the return of Macau in 1999." ], [ "Early life and family", "Deng Xiaoping at age 16, studying in France (1921)Deng's ancestors can be traced back to Jiaying County (now renamed as Meixian), Guangdong, a prominent ancestral area for the Hakka people, and had settled in Sichuan for several generations.", "Deng's daughter Deng Rong wrote in the book ''My Father Deng Xiaoping'' () that his ancestry was probably, but not definitely, Hakka.", "Sichuan was originally the origin of the Deng lineage until one of them was hired as an official in Guangdong during the Ming dynasty, but when the Qing dynasty planned to increase the population in 1671, they moved back to Sichuan.", "Deng was born in Guang'an District, Guang'an on 22 August 1904 in Sichuan province.Deng's father, Deng Wenming, was a mid-level landowner who had studied at the University of Law and Political Science in Chengdu, Sichuan.", "He was locally prominent.", "His mother, surnamed Dan, died early in Deng's life, leaving Deng, his three brothers, and three sisters.", "At the age of five, Deng was sent to a traditional Chinese-style private primary school, followed by a more modern primary school at the age of seven.Deng's first wife, one of his schoolmates from Moscow, died aged 24 a few days after giving birth to their first child, a baby girl who also died.", "His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after Deng came under political attack in 1933.His third wife, Zhuo Lin, was the daughter of an industrialist in Yunnan.", "She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and married Deng a year later in front of Mao's cave dwelling in Yan'an.", "They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, Deng Nan and Deng Rong) and two sons (Deng Pufang and Deng Zhifang).", "Deng quit smoking when he was 86.=== Education and early career ===Hutchinson shoe factory in Châlette-sur-Loing, France, where he worked for eight months in 1922, and for another stint in 1923 where he was fired after one month, with the bottom note reading 'refused to work, do not take him back'When Deng first attended school, his tutor objected to his having the given name \"Xiansheng\" (), calling him \"Xixian\" (), which includes the characters \"to aspire to\" and \"goodness\", with overtones of wisdom.In the summer of 1919, Deng graduated from the Chongqing School.", "He and 80 schoolmates travelled by ship to France (travelling steerage) to participate in the Diligent Work-Frugal Study Movement, a work-study program in which 4,001 Chinese would participate by 1927.Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students in the group, had just turned 15.Wu Yuzhang, the local leader of the Movement in Chongqing, enrolled Deng and his paternal uncle, Deng Shaosheng, in the program.", "Deng's father strongly supported his son's participation in the work-study abroad program.", "The night before his departure, Deng's father took his son aside and asked him what he hoped to learn in France.", "He repeated the words he had learned from his teachers: \"To learn knowledge and truth from the West in order to save China.\"", "Deng was aware that China was suffering greatly, and that the Chinese people must have a modern education to save their country.On 19 October 1920, a French packet ship, the ''André Lebon'', sailed into Marseille with 210 Chinese students aboard including Deng.", "The sixteen-year-old Deng briefly attended middle schools in Bayeux and Châtillon, but he spent most of his time in France working, including at a Renault factory and as a fitter at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel Plant in La Garenne-Colombes, a north-western suburb of Paris where he moved in April 1921.Coincidentally, when Deng's later political fortunes were down and he was sent to work in a tractor factory in 1969 during the Cultural Revolution, he found himself a fitter again and proved to still be a master of the skill.In La Garenne-Colombes Deng met future CCP leaders Zhou Enlai, Chen Yi, Nie Rongzhen, Li Fuchun, Li Lisan and Li Weihan.", "In June 1923 he joined the Chinese Communist Youth League in Europe.", "In the second half of 1924, he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe.", "In 1926 Deng traveled to the Soviet Union and studied at Moscow Sun Yat-sen University, where one of his classmates was Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek.=== Return to China ===In late 1927, Deng left Moscow to return to China, where he joined the army of Feng Yuxiang, a military leader in northwest China, who had requested assistance from the Soviet Union in his struggle with other local leaders in the region.", "At that time, the Soviet Union, through the Comintern, an international organization supporting the Communist movements, supported the Communists' alliance with the Nationalists of the Kuomintang (KMT) party founded by Sun Yat-sen.He arrived in Xi'an, the stronghold of Feng Yuxiang, in March 1927.He was part of the Fengtian clique's attempt to prevent the break of the alliance between the KMT and the Communists.", "This split resulted in part from Chiang Kai-shek's forcing them to flee areas controlled by the KMT.", "After the breakup of the alliance between communists and nationalists, Feng Yuxiang stood on the side of Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists who participated in their army, such as Deng Xiaoping, were forced to flee." ], [ "Political rise", "Although Deng got involved in the Marxist revolutionary movement in China, the historian Mobo Gao has argued that \"Deng Xiaoping and many like him in the Chinese Communist Party were not really Marxists, but basically revolutionary nationalists who wanted to see China standing on equal terms with the great global powers.", "They were primarily nationalists and they participated in the Communist revolution because that was the only viable route they could find to Chinese nationalism.", "\"=== Activism in Shanghai and Wuhan ===After leaving the army of Feng Yuxiang in the northwest, Deng ended up in the city of Wuhan, where the Communists at that time had their headquarters.", "At that time, he began using the nickname \"Xiaoping\" and occupied prominent positions in the party apparatus.", "He participated in the historic emergency session on 7 August 1927 in which, by Soviet instruction, the Party dismissed its founder Chen Duxiu, and Qu Qiubai became the general secretary.", "In Wuhan, Deng first established contact with Mao Zedong, who was then little valued by militant pro-Soviet leaders of the party.Between 1927 and 1929, Deng lived in Shanghai, where he helped organize protests that would be harshly persecuted by the Kuomintang authorities.", "The death of many Communist militants in those years led to a decrease in the number of members of the Communist Party, which enabled Deng to quickly move up the ranks.", "During this stage in Shanghai, Deng married a woman he met in Moscow, Zhang Xiyuan.=== Military campaign in Guangxi ===From 1929 to 1931, Deng served as the chief representative of the Central Committee in Guangxi, where he helped lead the Baise and Longzhou Uprisings.", "Both at the time and later, Deng Xiaoping's leadership during the rebellion has come under serious criticism.", "He followed the \"Li Lisan Line\" that called for aggressive attacks on cities.", "In practice, this meant that the rural soviet in Guangxi was abandoned and that the Seventh Red Army under Deng's political leadership fought and lost several bloody battles.", "Eventually, Deng and the other Communist leaders in Guangxi decided to retreat to Jiangxi to join Mao Zedong.", "However, after a costly march across rough terrain, Deng left the army leaderless without prior authorization to do so.", "A Central Committee post-mortem in 1931 singled out Deng's behavior as an example of \"rightist opportunism and a rich peasant line\".", "In 1945, several former commanders of the Seventh Red Army spoke out against Deng for his actions during the uprising, although Mao Zedong protected Deng from any serious repercussions.", "During the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards learned about the events of the Baise Uprising and accused Deng of desertion.", "Deng admitted that leaving the army was one of the \"worst mistakes of his life\" and that \"although this action was allowed by the party, it was politically horribly wrong.\"", "Modern historians and biographers tend to agree.", "Uli Franz calls leaving the army a \"serious error\".", "Benjamin Yang calls it a \"tragic failure and dark period in Deng's political life.\"", "On the other hand, Diana Lary places blame for the disaster more broadly on the \"ineptitude\" of both the local leaders and the CCP Central Committee.=== At the Jiangxi Soviet ===The campaigns against the Communists in the cities represented a setback for the party and in particular to the Comintern Soviet advisers, who saw the mobilization of the urban proletariat as the force for the advancement of communism.", "Contrary to the urban vision of the revolution, based on the Soviet experience, the Communist leader Mao Zedong saw the rural peasants as the revolutionary force in China.", "In a mountainous area of Jiangxi province, where Mao went to establish a communist system, there developed the embryo of a future state of China under communism, which adopted the official name of the Chinese Soviet Republic, but was better known as the \"Jiangxi Soviet\".In one of the most important cities in the Soviet zone, Ruijin, Deng took over as secretary of the Party Committee in the summer of 1931.In the winter of 1932, Deng went on to play the same position in the nearby district of Huichang.", "In 1933 he became director of the propaganda department of the Provincial Party Committee in Jiangxi.", "It was then that he married a young woman he had met in Shanghai named Jin Weiying.The successes of the Soviet in Jiangxi made the party leaders decide to move to Jiangxi from Shanghai.", "The confrontation among Mao, the party leaders, and their Soviet advisers was increasingly tense and the struggle for power between the two factions led to the removal of Deng, who favored the ideas of Mao, from his position in the propaganda department.", "Despite the strife within the party, the Jiangxi Soviet became the first successful experiment of communist rule in rural China.", "It even issued stamps and paper money under the letterhead of the Soviet Republic of China, and the army of Chiang Kai-shek finally decided to attack the communist area.=== Long March ===Deng Xiaoping in NRA uniform, 1937Surrounded by the more powerful nationalist army, the Communists fled Jiangxi in October 1934.Thus began the epic movement that would mark a turning point in the development of Chinese communism.", "The evacuation was difficult because the Army of the nationalists had taken positions in all areas occupied by the Communists.", "Advancing through remote and mountainous terrain, some 100,000 men managed to escape Jiangxi, starting a long strategic retreat through the interior of China, which ended one year later when between 8,000 and 9,000 survivors reached the northern province of Shaanxi.During the Zunyi Conference at the beginning of the Long March, the so-called 28 Bolsheviks, led by Bo Gu and Wang Ming, were ousted from power and Mao Zedong, to the dismay of the Soviet Union, became the new leader of the Chinese Communist Party.", "The pro-Soviet Chinese Communist Party had ended and a new rural-inspired party emerged under the leadership of Mao.", "Deng had once again become a leading figure in the party.The confrontation between the two parties was temporarily interrupted, however, by the Japanese invasion, forcing the Kuomintang to form an alliance for the second time with the Communists to defend the nation against external aggression.=== Japanese invasion ===The invasion of Japanese troops in 1937 marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "During the invasion, Deng remained in the area controlled by the Communists in the north, where he assumed the role of deputy political director of the three divisions of the restructured Communist army.", "From September 1937 until January 1938, he lived in Buddhist monasteries and temples in the Wutai Mountains.", "In January 1938, he was appointed as Political Commissar of the 129th division of the Eighth Route Army commanded by Liu Bocheng, starting a long-lasting partnership with Liu.Deng stayed for most of the conflict with the Japanese in the war front in the area bordering the provinces of Shanxi, Henan and Hebei, then traveled several times to the city of Yan'an, where Mao had established the basis for Communist Party leadership.", "While in Henan, he delivered the famous report, \"The Victorious Situation of Leaping into the Central Plains and Future Policies and Strategies\", at a Gospel Hall where he lived for some time.", "In one of his trips to Yan'an in 1939, he married, for the third and last time in his life, Zhuo Lin, a young native of Kunming, who, like other young idealists of the time, had traveled to Yan'an to join the Communists.Deng was considered a \"revolutionary veteran\" because of his participation in the Long March.", "He took a leading role in the Hundred Regiments Offensive which boosted his standing among his comrades.=== Resumed war against the Nationalists ===Deng with Liu Bocheng (right)After Japan's defeat in World War II, Deng traveled to Chongqing, the city in which Chiang Kai-shek established his government during the Japanese invasion, to participate in peace talks between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party.", "The results of those negotiations were not positive and military confrontation between the two antagonistic parties resumed shortly after the meeting in Chongqing.While Chiang Kai-shek re-established the government in Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China, the Communists were fighting for control in the field.", "Following up with guerrilla tactics from their positions in rural areas against cities under the control of the government of Chiang and their supply lines, the Communists were increasing the territory under their control, and incorporating more and more soldiers who had deserted the Nationalist army.Deng played a major part in the Huaihai Campaign against the nationalists.In the final phase of the war, Deng again exercised a key role as political leader and propaganda master as Political Commissar of the 2nd Field Army commanded by Liu Bocheng where he was instrumental in the PLA's march into Tibet.", "He also participated in disseminating the ideas of Mao Zedong, which turned into the ideological foundation of the Communist Party.", "His political and ideological work, along with his status as a veteran of the Long March, placed him in a privileged position within the party to occupy positions of power after the Communist Party managed to defeat Chiang Kai-shek and founded the People's Republic of China.Deng Xiaoping with He Long (middle) and Zhu De (right) (1949)" ], [ "Political career under Mao", "=== Local leadership ===On 1 October 1949, Deng attended the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in Beijing.", "At that time, the Communist Party controlled the entire north, but there were still parts of the south held by the Kuomintang regime.", "He became responsible for leading the pacification of southwest China, in his capacity as the first secretary of the Department of the Southwest.", "This organization had the task of managing the final takeover of that part of the country still held by the Kuomintang; Tibet remained independent for another year.The Kuomintang government was being forced to leave Guangzhou (Canton), and established Chongqing (Chungking) as a new provisional capital.", "There, Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo, a former classmate of Deng in Moscow, wanted to stop the advance of the Communist Party forces.Under the political control of Deng, the Communist army took over Chongqing in late November 1949 and entered Chengdu, the last bastion of power of Chiang Kai-shek, a few days later.", "At that time Deng became mayor of Chongqing, while he simultaneously was the leader of the Communist Party in the southwest, where the Communist army, now proclaiming itself the People's Liberation Army, suppressed resistance loyal to the old Kuomintang regime.", "In 1950, the Communist Party-ruled state also seized control over Tibet.In a 1951 speech to cadres preparing to supervise campaigns in the land reform movement, Deng instructed that while cadres should help peasants carry out nonviolent \"speak reason struggle\", they also had to remember that as a mass movement, land reform was not a time to be \"refined and gentle\".", "Expressing his view as a rhetorical question, Deng stated that while ideally no landlords would die in the process, \"If some tightfisted landlords hang themselves, does that mean our policies are wrong?", "Are we responsible?", "\"Deng Xiaoping would spend three years in Chongqing, the city where he had studied in his teenage years before going to France.", "In 1952 he moved to Beijing, where he occupied different positions in the central government.=== Political rise in Beijing ===Deng Xiaoping (left) met with the 14th Dalai Lama (right) in 1954In July 1952, Deng came to Beijing to assume the posts of Vice Premier and Deputy Chair of the Committee on Finance.", "Soon after, he took the posts of Minister of Finance and Director of the Office of Communications.", "In 1954, he was removed from all these positions, holding only the post of Vice Premier.", "In 1956, he became Head of the Communist Party's Organization Department and member of the Central Military Commission.After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his Anti-Rightist Movement of 1957, Deng acted as Secretary-General of the Secretariat and ran the country's daily affairs with President Liu Shaoqi and Premier Zhou Enlai.", "Deng and Liu's policies emphasized economics over ideological dogma, an implicit departure from the mass fervor of the Great Leap Forward.Both Liu and Deng supported Mao in the mass campaigns of the 1950s, in which they attacked the bourgeois and capitalists, and promoted Mao's ideology.", "However, the economic failure of the Great Leap Forward was seen as an indictment on the ability of Mao to manage the economy.", "Peng Dehuai openly criticized Mao, while Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, though more cautious, began to take charge of economic policy, leaving Mao out of day-to-day affairs of the party and state.", "Mao agreed to cede the presidency of the People's Republic of China (China's ''de jure'' head of state position) to Liu Shaoqi, while retaining his positions as leader of the party and the army.In 1955, he was considered as a candidate for the PLA rank of Marshal of the People's Republic of China but he was ultimately not awarded the rank.At the 8th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party in 1956, Deng supported removing all references to \"Mao Zedong Thought\" from the party statutes.In 1963, Deng traveled to Moscow to lead a meeting of the Chinese delegation with Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev.", "Relations between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union had worsened since the death of Stalin.", "After this meeting, no agreement was reached and the Sino–Soviet split was consummated; there was an almost total suspension of relations between the two major communist powers of the time.After the \"Seven Thousand Cadres Conference\" in 1962, Liu and Deng's economic reforms of the early 1960s were generally popular and restored many of the economic institutions previously dismantled during the Great Leap Forward.", "Mao, sensing his loss of prestige, took action to regain control of the state.", "Appealing to his revolutionary spirit, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution, which encouraged the masses to root out the right-wing capitalists who had \"infiltrated the party\".", "Deng was ridiculed as the \"number two capitalist roader\".Deng was one of the primary drafters of the Third Five Year Plan.", "In draft form, it emphasized a consumer focus and further development in China's more industrialized coastal cities.", "When Mao argued for a massive campaign to develop basic and national security industry in China's interior as a Third Front in case of invasion by the United States or Soviet Union, Deng was among the key leadership that did not support the idea.", "Following increased concerns of attack from the United States after the Gulf of Tonkin incident, Deng and other key leadership ultimately supported the Third Front construction, and the focus of the Third Year Plan changed to industrialization of the interior.=== Target of two purges ======= Cultural Revolution ====Deng Xiaoping (left) with future president Li Xiannian (center) and Premier Zhou Enlai in 1963Mao feared that the reformist economic policies of Deng and Liu could lead to restoration of capitalism and end the Chinese Revolution.", "For this and other reasons, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his positions.During the Cultural Revolution, he and his family were targeted by Red Guards, who imprisoned Deng's eldest son, Deng Pufang.", "Deng Pufang was tortured and jumped out, or was thrown out, of the window of a four-story building in 1968, becoming a paraplegic.", "In October 1969 Deng Xiaoping was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker.", "In his four years there, Deng spent his spare time writing.", "He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than President Liu Shaoqi.In 1971, Mao's second official successor and the sole Vice Chairman of the party, Lin Biao, was killed in an air crash.", "According to official reports, Lin was trying to flee from China after a failed coup against Mao.", "Mao purged all of Lin's allies, who made up nearly all of the senior ranks of the PLA, leaving Deng (who had been political commissar of the 2nd Field Army during the civil war) the most influential of the remaining army leaders.", "In the time that followed, Deng wrote to Mao twice to say that he had learned a lesson from the Lin Biao incident, admitted that he had \"capitalist trends\" and did not \"hold high the great banner of Mao Zedong Thought\", and expressed the hope that he could work for the Party to make up for his mistakes.", "Premier Zhou Enlai was Mao's third successor but he fell ill with cancer and made Deng his choice as successor.", "In February 1973, Deng returned to Beijing, after Zhou brought him back from exile in order for Deng to focus on reconstructing the Chinese economy.", "Zhou was also able to convince Mao to bring Deng back into politics in October 1974 as First Vice-Premier, in practice running daily affairs.", "He remained careful, however, to avoid contradicting Maoist ideology on paper.", "In January 1975, he was additionally elected Vice Chairman of the party by the 10th Central Committee for the first time in his party career; Li Desheng had to resign in his favour.", "Deng was one of five Vice Chairmen, with Zhou being the First Vice Chairman.Deng Xiaoping (centre) with US president Gerald Ford (left), 1975During his brief ascendency in 1973, Deng established the Political Research Office, headed by intellectuals Hu Qiaomu, Yu Guangyuan and Hu Sheng, delegated to explore approaches to political and economic reforms.", "He led the group himself and managed the project within the State Council, in order to avoid rousing the suspicions of the Gang of Four.The Cultural Revolution was not yet over, and a radical leftist political group known as the Gang of Four, led by Mao's wife Jiang Qing, competed for power within the Party.", "The Gang saw Deng as their greatest challenge to power.", "Mao, too, was suspicious that Deng would destroy the positive reputation of the Cultural Revolution, which Mao considered one of his greatest policy initiatives.", "Beginning in late 1975, Deng was asked to draw up a series of self-criticisms.", "Although he admitted to having taken an \"inappropriate ideological perspective\" while dealing with state and party affairs, he was reluctant to admit that his policies were wrong in essence.", "His antagonism with the Gang of Four became increasingly clear, and Mao seemed to lean in the Gang's favour.", "Mao refused to accept Deng's self-criticisms and asked the party's Central Committee to \"discuss Deng's mistakes thoroughly\".==== \"Criticize Deng\" campaign ====Zhou Enlai died in January 1976, to an outpouring of national grief.", "Zhou was a very important figure in Deng's political life, and his death eroded his remaining support within the Party's Central Committee.", "After Deng delivered Zhou's official eulogy at the state funeral, the Gang of Four, with Mao's permission, began the \"Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend\" campaign.", "Hua Guofeng, not Deng, was selected to become Zhou's successor as Premier on 4 February 1976.On 2 February 1976, the Central Committee issued a Top-Priority Directive, officially transferring Deng to work on \"external affairs\" and thus removing him from the party's power apparatus.", "Deng stayed at home for several months, awaiting his fate.", "The Political Research Office was promptly dissolved, and Deng's advisers such as Yu Guangyuan suspended.", "As a result, the political turmoil halted the economic progress Deng had labored for in the past year.", "On 3 March, Mao issued a directive reaffirming the legitimacy of the Cultural Revolution and specifically pointed to Deng as an internal, rather than external, problem.", "This was followed by a Central Committee directive issued to all local party organs to study Mao's directive and criticize Deng.Deng's reputation as a reformer suffered a severe blow when the Qingming Festival, after the mass public mourning of Zhou on a traditional Chinese holiday, culminated in the Tiananmen Incident on 5 April 1976, an event the Gang of Four branded as counter-revolutionary and threatening to their power.", "Furthermore, the Gang deemed Deng the mastermind behind the incident, and Mao himself wrote that \"the nature of things has changed\".", "This prompted Mao to remove Deng from all leadership positions, although he retained his party membership.", "As a result, on 6 April 1976 Premier Hua Guofeng was also appointed to Deng's position as Vice Chairman and at the same time received the vacant position of First Vice Chairman, which Zhou had held, making him Mao's fourth official successor." ], [ "Leadership", "=== Paramount leader ===Deng Xiaoping and Jimmy Carter at the arrival ceremony of Deng's visit to the US (1979)\|alt=Following Mao's death on 9 September 1976 and the purge of the Gang of Four in October 1976, Premier Hua Guofeng succeeded as Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party and gradually emerged as the ''de facto'' leader of China.", "Prior to Mao's death, the only governmental position Deng held was that of First Vice Premier of the State Council, but Hua Guofeng wanted to rid the Party of extremists and successfully marginalised the Gang of Four.", "On 22 July 1977, Deng was restored to the posts of vice-chairman of the Central Committee, Vice-chairman of the Military Commission and Chief of the General Staff of the People's Liberation Army.By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the party, Deng outmaneuvered Hua, who had pardoned him, then ousted Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980.In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua to retain membership in the Central Committee and quietly retire, helping to set the precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm.During his paramount leadership, his official state positions were Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference from 1978 to 1983 and Chairman of the Central Military Commission (an ''ad hoc'' body comprising the most senior members of the party elite) of the People's Republic of China from 1983 to 1990, while his official party positions were Vice Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party from 1977 to 1982, Chairman of the Central Military Commission of the Chinese Communist Party from 1981 to 1989 and Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission from 1982 to 1987.He was offered the rank of General First Class in 1988 when the PLA restored military ranks, but as in 1955, he once again declined.", "Even after retiring from the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party in 1987 and the Central Military Commission in 1989, Deng continued to exert influence over China's policies until his death in 1997.Important decisions were always taken in Deng's home in Zhongnanhai with a caucus of eight senior party cadres, called \"Eight Elders\", especially with Chen Yun and Li Xiannian.", "Despite Deng's recognition as paramount leader, in practice these elders governed China as a small collective leadership.", "Deng ruled as \"paramount leader\" although he never held the top title of the party, and was able to successively remove three party leaders, including Hu Yaobang.", "Deng stepped down from the Central Committee and its Politburo Standing Committee.", "However, he remained as the chairman of the State and Party's Central Military Commission and was still seen as the paramount leader of China rather than General Secretary Zhao Ziyang and Presidents Li Xiannian and Yang Shangkun.=== Boluan Fanzheng ===Deng repudiated the Cultural Revolution and, in 1977, launched the \"Beijing Spring\", which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period, and restored the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) which was cancelled for ten years during the Cultural Revolution.", "Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolition of the class background system.", "Under this system, the CCP removed employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class; its removal allowed a faction favoring the restoration of the private market to enter the Communist Party.Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents.", "By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time.", "Deng also received a great deal of popular support.", "As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CCP, Hua was replaced by Zhao Ziyang as premier in 1980, and by Hu Yaobang as party chairman in 1981, despite the fact that Hua was Mao Zedong's designated successor as the \"paramount leader\" of the Chinese Communist Party and the People's Republic of China.", "During the \"Boluan Fanzheng\" period, the Cultural Revolution was invalidated, and victims of more than 3 million \"unjust, false, wrongful cases\" by 1976 were officially rehabilitated.Deng's elevation to China's new number-one figure meant that the historical and ideological questions around Mao Zedong had to be addressed properly.", "Because Deng wished to pursue deep reforms, it was not possible for him to continue Mao's hard-line \"class struggle\" policies and mass public campaigns.", "In 1982 the Central Committee of the Communist Party released a document entitled ''On the Various Historical Issues since the Founding of the People's Republic of China''.", "Mao retained his status as a \"great Marxist, proletarian revolutionary, militarist, and general\", and the undisputed founder and pioneer of the country and the People's Liberation Army.", "\"His accomplishments must be considered before his mistakes\", the document declared.", "Deng personally commented that Mao was \"seven parts good, three parts bad\".", "The document also steered the prime responsibility of the Cultural Revolution away from Mao (although it did state that \"Mao mistakenly began the Cultural Revolution\") to the \"counter-revolutionary cliques\" of the Gang of Four and Lin Biao.=== International affairs ===Deng Xiaoping (left) and his wife Zhuo Lin (right) are briefed by Johnson Space Center director Christopher C. Kraft (extreme right)Deng prioritized China's modernization and opening up to the outside world, stating that China's \"strategy in foreign affairs is to seek a peaceful environment\" for the Four Modernizations.", "Under Deng's leadership, China opened up to the outside world, to learn from more advanced countries.", "Deng developed the principle that in foreign affairs, China should keep a low-profile and bide its time.", "He continued to seek an independent position between the United States and the Soviet Union.", "Although Deng retained control over key national security decisions, he also delegated power to bureaucrats in routine matters, ratifying consensus decisions and stepping in if a bureaucratic consensus could not be reached.", "In contrast to the Mao-era, Deng involved more parties in foreign policy decision-making, decentralizing the foreign policy bureaucracy.", "This decentralized approach led to consideration of a number of interests and views, but also fragmentation of policy institutions and extensive bargaining between different bureaucratic units during the policy-making process.In November 1978, after the country had stabilized following political turmoil, Deng visited Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore and met with Singapore's Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew.", "Deng was very impressed with Singapore's economic development, greenery and housing, and later sent tens of thousands of Chinese to Singapore and countries around the world to learn from their experiences and bring back their knowledge.", "Lee Kuan Yew, on the other hand, advised Deng to stop exporting Communist ideologies to Southeast Asia, advice that according to Lee, Deng later followed.", "In late 1978, the aerospace company Boeing announced the sale of 747 aircraft to various airlines in the PRC, and the beverage company Coca-Cola made public their intention to open a production plant in Shanghai.On 1 January 1979, the United States recognized the People's Republic of China, leaving the (Taiwan) Republic of China's nationalist government to one side, and business contacts between China and the West began to grow.In early 1979, Deng undertook an official visit to the United States, meeting President Jimmy Carter in Washington as well as several Congressmen.", "The Chinese insisted that former President Richard Nixon be invited to the formal White House reception, a symbolic indication of their assertiveness on the one hand, and their desire to continue with the Nixon initiatives on the other.", "As part of the discussions with Carter, Deng sought United States approval for China's contemplated invasion of Vietnam in the Sino-Vietnamese war.", "According to United States National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski, Carter reserved judgment, an action which Chinese diplomats interpreted as tacit approval, and China launched the invasion shortly after Deng's return.During the visit, Deng visited the Johnson Space Center in Houston, as well as the headquarters of Coca-Cola and Boeing in Atlanta and Seattle, respectively.", "With these visits so significant, Deng made it clear that the new Chinese regime's priorities were economic and technological development.Deng took personal charge of the final negotiations with the United States on normalizing foreign relations between the two countries.", "In response to criticism from within the Party regarding his United States policy, Deng wrote, \"I am presiding over the work on the United States.", "If there are problems, I take full responsibility.", "\"Sino-Japanese relations improved significantly.", "Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing power that set a good example for China economically.Deng initially continued to adhere to the Maoist line of the Sino–Soviet split era that the Soviet Union was a superpower as \"hegemonic\" as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its close proximity.", "Relations with the Soviet Union improved after Mikhail Gorbachev took over the Kremlin in 1985, and formal relations between the two countries were finally restored at the 1989 Sino-Soviet Summit.Deng responded to the Western sanctions following the Tiananmen Square protests by adopting the \"twenty-four character guidelines\" for China's international affairs: observe carefully (冷静观察), secure China's positions (稳住阵脚), calmly cope with the challenges (沉着应付), hide China's capacities and bide its time (韬光养晦), be good at maintaining a low profile (善于守拙), and never claim leadership (绝不当头).The end of the Cold War and dissolution of the Soviet Union removed the original motives underlying rapprochement between China and the United States.", "Motivated by concerns that the United States might curtail support for China's modernization, Deng adopted a low-profile foreign policy to live with the fact of United States hegemony and focus primarily on domestic development.", "In this period of its foreign policy, China focused on building good relations with its neighbors and actively participating in multi-lateral institutions.", "As academic Suisheng Zhao writes in evaluating Deng's foreign policy legacy, \"Deng's developmental diplomacy helped create a favorable external environment for China's rise in the twenty-first century.", "His hand-picked successors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, faithfully followed his course.", "\"In 1990 when he met Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau he stated \"The key principle governing the new international order should be noninterference in other countries’ internal affairs and social systems.", "It won't work to require all the countries in the world to copy the patterns set by the United States, Britain and France.\"", "Deng championed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence stating that they should be used as the \"guiding norms of international relations\".=== Reform and Opening-up ===At the outset of China's reform and opening up, Deng set out the Four Cardinal Principles that had to be maintained in the process: (1) the leadership of the Communist Party, (2) the socialist road, (3) Marxism, and (4) the dictatorship of the proletariat.", "Overall, reform proceeded gradually, with Deng delegating specific issues to proteges such as Hu Yaobang or Zhao Ziyang, who in turn addressed them under the guiding principle of \"seeking truth from facts\" - meaning that the correctness of an approach had to be gauged by its economic results.", "Deng described reform and opening up as a \"large scale experiment\" requiring thorough \"experimentation in practice\" instead of textbook knowledge.==== Four modernizations ====Deng Xiaoping billboard in Lizhi Park, Shenzhen, one of China's first special economic zonesDeng quoted the old proverb \"it doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, if it catches mice it is a good cat.\"", "The point was that capitalistic methods worked.", "Deng worked with his team, especially as Zhao Ziyang, who in 1980 replaced Hua Guofeng as premier, and Hu Yaobang, who in 1981 did the same with the post of party chairman.", "Deng thus took the reins of power and began to emphasize the goals of \"four modernizations\" (economy, agriculture, scientific and technological development and national defense).", "He announced an ambitious plan of opening and liberalizing the economy.", "On Deng's initiative, the CCP revoked the position of Chairman and made the General Secretary the ''ex officio'' leader of the party.The last position of power retained by Hua Guofeng, chairman of the Central Military Commission, was taken by Deng in 1981.However, progress toward military modernization went slowly.", "A border war with Vietnam in 1977–1979 made major changes unwise.", "The war puzzled outside observers, but Xiaoming Zhang argues that Deng had multiple goals: stopping Soviet expansion in the region, obtain American support for his four modernizations, and mobilizing China for reform and integration into the world economy.", "Deng also sought to strengthen his control of the PLA, and demonstrate to the world that China was capable of fighting a real war.", "Zhang thinks punishment of Vietnam for its invasion of Cambodia was a minor factor.", "In the event, the Chinese forces did poorly, in terms of equipment, strategy, leadership, and battlefield performance.", "Deng subsequently used the PLA's poor performance to overcome resistance by military leaders to his military reforms.China's primary military threat came from the Soviet Union, which was much more powerful despite having fewer soldiers, owing to its more advanced weapons technology.", "In March 1981, Deng deemed a military exercise necessary for the PLA, and in September, the North China Military Exercise took place, becoming the largest exercise conducted by the PLA since the founding of the People's Republic.", "Moreover, Deng initiated the modernization of the PLA and decided that China first had to develop an advanced civilian scientific infrastructure before it could hope to build modern weapons.", "He therefore concentrated on downsizing the military, cutting 1 million troops in 1985 (百万大裁军), retiring the elderly and corrupt senior officers and their cronies.", "He emphasized the recruitment of much better educated young men who would be able to handle the advanced technology when it finally arrived.", "Instead of patronage and corruption in the officer corps, he imposed strict discipline in all ranks.", "In 1982 he established a new Commission for Science, Technology, and Industry for National Defense to plan for using technology developed in the civilian sector.==== Three steps to economic development ====In 1986, Deng explained to Mike Wallace on ''60 Minutes'' that some people and regions could become prosperous first in order to bring about common prosperity faster.", "In October 1987, at the Plenary Session of the National People's Congress, Deng was re-elected as Chairman of the Central Military Commission, but he resigned as Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission and was succeeded by Chen Yun.", "Deng continued to chair and develop the reform and opening up as the main policy, and he advanced the three steps suitable for China's economic development strategy within seventy years: the first step, to double the 1980 GNP and ensure that the people have enough food and clothing, was attained by the end of the 1980s; the second step, to quadruple the 1980 GNP by the end of the 20th century, was achieved in 1995 ahead of schedule; the third step, to increase per capita GNP to the level of the medium-developed countries by 2050, at which point, the Chinese people will be fairly well-off and modernization will be basically realized.==== Further reforms ====Improving relations with the outside world was the second of two important philosophical shifts outlined in Deng's program of reform termed ''Gaige Kaifang'' (''lit.''", "Reforms and Openness).", "China's domestic social, political, and most notably, economic systems would undergo significant changes during Deng's time.", "The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the Four Modernizations, those of agriculture, industry, science and technology, and the military.The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the socialist market economy.", "Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of socialism and that the duty of the party was to perfect so-called \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\", and \"seek truth from facts\".", "(This somewhat resembles the Leninist theoretical justification of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in the 1920s, which argued that the Soviet Union had not gone deeply enough into the capitalist phase and therefore needed limited capitalism in order to fully evolve its means of production.)", "The \"socialism with Chinese characteristics\" settles a benign structure for the implementation of ethnic policy and forming a unique method of ethnic theory.Deng's economic policy prioritized developing China's productive forces.", "In Deng's view, this development \"is the most fundamental revolution from the viewpoint of historical development,\" and \"poor socialism\" is not socialism.", "His theoretical justification for allowing market forces was:Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected outright simply because it was not associated with Mao.", "Unlike more conservative leaders such as Chen Yun, Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones that were found in capitalist nations.This political flexibility towards the foundations of socialism is strongly supported by quotes such as:Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, the general consensus amongst historians is that few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself.", "Premier Zhou Enlai, for example, pioneered the Four Modernizations years before Deng.", "In addition, many reforms would be introduced by local leaders, often not sanctioned by central government directives.", "If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally.", "An often cited example is the household responsibility system, which was first secretly implemented by a poor rural village at the risk of being convicted as \"counter-revolutionary\".", "This experiment proved very successful.", "Deng openly supported it and it was later adopted nationally.", "Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the East Asian Tigers.This was in sharp contrast to the pattern of ''perestroika'' undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev, in which most major reforms originated with Gorbachev himself.", "The bottom-up approach of Deng's reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of ''perestroika'', was likely a key factor in the success of the former.Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction.", "However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms.", "Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households.", "At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market value.==== Export focus ====In the move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing.", "Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth.", "Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base.", "With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in technologically more advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments.However, in sharp contrast to the similar, but much less successful reforms in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the People's Republic of Hungary, these investments were not government mandated.", "The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and most of that capital came from consumer deposits.", "One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference.", "In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China.These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance.", "China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from Japan and the West.", "By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development.", "From 1980, Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of Special Economic Zones, where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged.The reforms sought to improve labor productivity.", "New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced.", "Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived.", "Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well.", "With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Vladimir Lenin's NEP as well as those of Nikolai Bukharin's economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning.", "As academics Christopher Marquis and Kunyuan Qiao observe, Deng had been present in the Soviet Union when Lenin implemented the NEP, and it is reasonable to infer that it may have impacted Deng's view that markets could exist within socialism.", "In first meeting between Deng and Armand Hammer, Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the new economic policy as possible.=== Return of Hong Kong and Macau ===A model reconstruction of Deng Xiaoping's 1984 meeting with UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, ShenzhenFrom 1980 onwards, Deng led the expansion of the economy, and in political terms took over negotiations with the United Kingdom to return the territory of Hong Kong, meeting personally with then-Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.", "Thatcher had participated in the meetings with the hopes of keeping British rule over Hong Kong Island and Kowloon—two of the three constituent territories of the colony—but this was firmly rejected by Deng.", "The result of these negotiations was the Sino-British Joint Declaration, signed on 19 December 1984, which formally outlined the United Kingdom's return of the whole Hong Kong colony to China by 1997.The Chinese government pledged to respect the economic system and civil liberties of the British colony for fifty years after the handover.Deng's theory of one country, two systems applied to Hong Kong and Macau and Deng intended to also present it as an attractive option to the people of Taiwan for eventual incorporation of that island, where sovereignty over the territory is still disputed.", "In 1982, Deng first explained the concept of one country, two systems in relation to Taiwan.Deng's statements during the 1987 drafting of the Basic Law of Hong Kong showed his view of the principle in the Hong Kong context.", "At that time, Deng stated that the central government would not intervene in the daily business of Hong Kong, but predicted Hong Kong would sometimes have issues affecting national interests that would require the central government's involvement.", "Deng said, \"after 1997, we shall still allow people in Hong Kong to attack the Communist Party of China and China verbally, but what if the words were turned into action, trying to convert Hong Kong into a base of opposition to the Chinese mainland under the pretext of 'democracy'?", "Then there’s no choice but intervention.” In June 1988, Deng stated that \"Hong Kong's political system today is neither the British system nor the American system, and it should not transplant the Western ways in the future.", "\"=== Population control and crime control ===China's rapid economic growth presented several problems.", "The 1982 census revealed the extraordinary growth of the population, which already exceeded a billion people.", "Deng continued the plans initiated by Hua Guofeng to restrict birth to only one child, limiting women to one child under pain of administrative penalty.", "The policy applied to urban areas, and included forced abortions.In August 1983, Deng launched the \"Strike hard\" Anti-crime Campaign due to the worsening public safety after the Cultural Revolution.", "It was reported that the government set quotas for 5,000 executions by mid-November, and sources in Taiwan claimed that as many as 60,000 people were executed in that time, although more recent estimates have placed the number at 24,000 who were sentenced to death (mostly in the first \"battle\" of the campaign).", "A number of people arrested (some even received death penalty) were children or relatives of government officials at various levels, including the grandson of Zhu De, demonstrating the principle of \"all are equal before the law\".", "The campaign had an immediate positive effect on public safety, while controversies also arose such as whether some of the legal punishments were too harsh and whether the campaign had long-term positive effect on public safety.Increasing economic freedom was being translated into a greater freedom of opinion, and critics began to arise within the system, including the famous dissident Wei Jingsheng, who coined the term \"fifth modernization\" in reference to democracy as a missing element in the renewal plans of Deng Xiaoping.", "In the late 1980s, dissatisfaction with the authoritarian regime and growing inequalities caused the biggest crisis to Deng's leadership.=== Crackdown of Tiananmen Square protests ===The 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, culminating in the June Fourth Massacre, were a series of demonstrations in and near Tiananmen Square in the People's Republic of China (PRC) between 15 April and 5 June 1989, a year in which many other communist governments collapsed.The protests were sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang, a reformist official backed by Deng but ousted by the Eight Elders and the conservative wing of the politburo.", "Many people were dissatisfied with the party's slow response and relatively subdued funeral arrangements.", "Public mourning began on the streets of Beijing and universities in the surrounding areas.", "In Beijing this was centered on the Monument to the People's Heroes in Tiananmen Square.", "The mourning became a public conduit for anger against perceived nepotism in the government, the unfair dismissal and early death of Hu, and the behind-the-scenes role of the \"old men\".", "By the eve of Hu's funeral, the demonstration had reached 100,000 people on Tiananmen Square.", "While the protests lacked a unified cause or leadership, participants raised the issue of corruption within the government and some voiced calls for economic liberalization and democratic reform within the structure of the government while others called for a less authoritarian and less centralized form of socialism.During the demonstrations, Deng's pro-market ally General Secretary Zhao Ziyang supported the demonstrators and distanced himself from the Politburo.", "Martial law was declared on 20 May by the socialist hardliner, Chinese premier Li Peng, but the initial military advance on the city was blocked by residents.", "The movement lasted seven weeks.", "On 3–4 June, over two hundred thousand soldiers in tanks and helicopters were sent into the city to quell the protests by force, resulting in hundreds to thousands of casualties.", "Many ordinary people in Beijing believed that Deng had ordered the intervention, but political analysts do not know who was actually behind the order.", "However, Deng's daughter defends the actions that occurred as a collective decision by the party leadership.To purge sympathizers of Tiananmen demonstrators, the Communist Party initiated a one-and-a-half-year-long program similar to the Anti-Rightist Movement.", "Old-timers like Deng Fei aimed to deal \"strictly with those inside the party with serious tendencies toward bourgeois liberalization\", and more than 30,000 communist officers were deployed to the task.Zhao was placed under house arrest by hardliners and Deng himself was forced to make concessions to them.", "He soon declared that \"the entire imperialist Western world plans to make all socialist countries discard the socialist road and then bring them under the monopoly of international capital and onto the capitalist road\".", "A few months later he said that the \"United States was too deeply involved\" in the student movement, referring to foreign reporters who had given financial aid to the student leaders and later helped them escape to various Western countries, primarily the United States through Hong Kong and Taiwan.Although Deng initially made concessions to the socialist hardliners, he soon resumed his reforms after his 1992 southern tour.", "After his tour, he was able to stop the attacks of the socialist hardliners on the reforms through their \"named capitalist or socialist?\"", "campaign.", "Deng privately told former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau that factions of the Communist Party could have grabbed army units and the country had risked a civil war.", "Two years later, Deng endorsed Zhu Rongji, a Shanghai Mayor, as a vice-premier candidate.", "Zhu Rongji had refused to declare martial law in Shanghai during the demonstrations even though socialist hardliners had pressured him." ], [ "Resignation and 1992 southern tour", "A patrol boat in use during Deng Xiaoping's southern tour of 1992Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the Central Military Commission in November 1989 and his successor Jiang Zemin became the new Chairman of the Central Military Commission and paramount leader.", "China, however, was still in the ''era of Deng Xiaoping''.", "He continued to be widely regarded as the ''de facto'' leader of the country, believed to have backroom control despite no official position apart from being chairman of the Chinese Contract Bridge Association, and appointed Hu Jintao as Jiang's successor at the 14th Party Congress in 1992.Deng was recognized officially as \"the chief architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization\".", "To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age.", "He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life.", "He was often referred to as simply ''Comrade Xiaoping'', with no title attached.Because of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests, Deng's power had been significantly weakened and there was a growing formalist faction opposed to Deng's reforms within the Communist Party.", "To reassert his economic agenda, in the spring of 1992, Deng made a tour of southern China, visiting Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai and spending the New Year in Shanghai, using his travels as a method of reasserting his economic policy after his retirement from office.", "The 1992 Southern Tour is widely regarded as a critical point in the modern history of China, as it saved the Chinese economic reform and preserved the stability of the society.", "Deng’s health deteriorated drastically around two years before his death.", "In January 1995, Deng’s daughter told the press that “A year ago, he could walk for 30 minutes twice a day, but now he cannot walk … He needs two people to support him.” It was also reported that Parkinson's experts were sent to Beijing to help him in 1995." ], [ "Death", "Deng Xiaoping's ashes lie in state in Beijing whose banner reads \"Memorial Service of Comrade Deng Xiaoping\", February 1997Deng died on 19 February 1997 at 9:08 p.m. Beijing time, aged 92 from a lung infection and Parkinson's disease.", "The public was largely prepared for his death, as there had been rumors that his health was deteriorating.", "At 10:00 on the morning of 24 February, people were asked by Premier Li Peng to pause in silence for three minutes.", "The nation's flags flew at half-mast for over a week.", "The nationally televised funeral, which was a simple and relatively private affair attended by the country's leaders and Deng's family, was broadcast on all cable channels.", "After the funeral, his organs were donated to medical research, the remains were cremated at Babaoshan Revolutionary Cemetery, and his ashes were subsequently scattered at sea, according to his wishes.", "For the next two weeks, Chinese state media ran news stories and documentaries related to Deng's life and death, with the regular 19:00 ''National News'' program in the evening lasting almost two hours over the regular broadcast time.Deng's successor, Jiang Zemin, maintained Deng's political and economic philosophies.", "Deng was eulogized as a \"great Marxist, great Proletarian Revolutionary, statesman, military strategist, and diplomat; one of the main leaders of the Chinese Communist Party, the People's Liberation Army of China, and the People's Republic of China; the great architect of China's socialist opening-up and modernized construction; the founder of Deng Xiaoping Theory\".", "Some elements, notably modern Maoists and radical reformers (the far left and the far right), had negative views, however.", "In the following year, songs like \"Story of Spring\" by Dong Wenhua, which were created in Deng's honour shortly after Deng's southern tour in 1992, once again were widely played.Deng's death drew international reaction.", "UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan said Deng was to be remembered \"in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development\".", "French President Jacques Chirac said \"In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes\"; British Prime Minister John Major commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control; Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien called Deng a \"pivotal figure\" in Chinese history.", "The Kuomintang chair in Taiwan also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity.", "The Dalai Lama voiced regret that Deng died without resolving questions over Tibet." ], [ "Legacy", "Statue of Deng Xiaoping in ShenzhenDeng's view that \"development is the absolute principle\" continues to shape the Chinese approach to governance.", "At the Fourth Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee, Jiang Zemin and the third generation of leaders stated, \"Development is the Party's top priority in governing and rejuvenating the country.\"", "Likewise, Deng's emphasis on development as the absolute principle also shaped Hu Jintao's Scientific Outlook on Development and Xi Jinping's Chinese Dream, which emphasizes development as China's core task.===Memorials===Memorials to Deng have been low profile compared to other leaders, in keeping with Deng's image of pragmatism.", "Rather than being embalmed, as was Mao, he was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea.", "There are some public displays, however.", "A bronze statue was erected on 14 November 2000, at the grand plaza of Lianhua Mountain Park in Shenzhen.", "This statue is dedicated to Deng's role as a planner and contributor to the development of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone.", "The statue is high, with an additional 3.68-meter base, and shows Deng striding forward confidently.", "Many CCP high level leaders visit the statue.", "In addition, in coastal areas and on the island province of Hainan, Deng appeared on roadside billboards with messages emphasizing economic reform or his policy of one country, two systems.File:Deng Xiaoping billboard 06.jpg\|Deng Xiaoping billboard in Qingdao, ShandongFile:Deng Xiaoping billboard 08.JPG\|Deng Xiaoping billboard in Dujiangyan, SichuanFile:Deng Xiaoping billboard 10.JPG\|Deng Xiaoping billboard in Lijiang, YunnanA bronze statue to commemorate Deng's 100th birthday was dedicated 13 August 2004 in the city of Guang'an, Deng's hometown, in southwest China's Sichuan.", "Deng is dressed casually, sitting on a chair and smiling.", "The Chinese characters on the pedestal were written by Jiang Zemin, then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and Chairman of the Central Military Commission.Deng Xiaoping's Former Residence in his hometown of Paifang Village in Sichuan has been preserved as an historical museum.In Bishkek, capital of Kyrgyzstan, there is a six-lane boulevard, wide and long, the Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on 18 June 1997.A two-meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route.", "The epigraph is written in Chinese, Russian and Kirghiz.The documentary, ''Deng Xiaoping'', released by CCTV in January 1997, presents his life from his days as a student in France to his \"Southern Tour\" of 1993.In 2014, CCTV released a TV series, ''Deng Xiaoping at History's Crossroads'', in anticipation of the 110th anniversary of his birth.=== Assessment ===Deng has been called the \"architect of contemporary China\" and is widely considered to have been one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.", "He was the ''Time'' Person of the Year in 1978 and 1985, the third Chinese leader (after Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling) and the fourth time for a communist leader (after Joseph Stalin, picked twice; and Nikita Khrushchev) to be selected.Deng is remembered primarily for the economic reforms he initiated while paramount leader of the People's Republic of China, which pivoted China towards a market economy, led to high economic growth, increased standards of living of hundreds of millions, expanded personal and cultural freedoms, and substantially integrated the country into the world economy.", "More people were lifted out of poverty during his leadership than during any other time in human history, attributed largely to his reforms.", "For this reason, some have suggested that Deng should have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "Deng is also credited with reducing the cult of Mao Zedong and with bringing an end to the chaotic era of the Cultural Revolution.", "Furthermore, his strong-handed tactics have been credited with keeping the People's Republic of China unified, in contrast to the other major Communist power of the time, the Soviet Union, which collapsed in 1991.However, Deng is also remembered for human rights violations and for numerous instances of political violence.", "As paramount leader, he oversaw the Tiananmen Square massacre; afterwards, he was influential in the Communist Party's domestic cover-up of the event.", "Furthermore, he is associated with some of the worst purges during Mao Zedong's rule; for instance, he ordered an army crackdown on a Muslim village in Yunnan which resulted in the deaths of 1,600 people, including 300 children.As paramount leader, Deng also negotiated an end to the British colonial rule of Hong Kong and normalized relations with the United States and the Soviet Union.", "In August 1980, he started China's political reforms by setting term limits for officials and proposing a systematic revision of China's third Constitution which was made during the Cultural Revolution; the new Constitution embodied Chinese-style constitutionalism and was passed by the National People's Congress in December 1982, with most of its content still being effective as of today.", "He helped establish China's nine-year compulsory education, and revived China's political reforms." ], [ "Works", "* * * " ], [ "See also", " Chinese economic reform** Moderately prosperous society* Historical Museum of French-Chinese Friendship" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited sources ===* * * * * * * * * * Spence, Jonathan D. ''The Search for Modern China''.", "(W. W. Norton & Company, 1999).", ".", "* * ; focus on rise to power, with brief coverage of actions in power.", "" ], [ "Further reading", " * Dillon, Michael.", "''Deng Xiaoping: The Man Who Made Modern China'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014).", "* Hayford, Charles W. \"Where's the Omelet?", "Bad King Deng and the Challenges of Biography and History\".", "''Journal of Asian Studies'' (2016) 75#1 pp 19–30; historiography.", "online * Kau, Michael Y. M. ''China in the Era of Deng Xiaoping: A Decade of Reform'' (Routledge, 2016).", "* * * Pantsov, Alexander V., and Steven I. Levine.", "''Deng Xiaoping: A Revolutionary Life'' (Oxford UP, 2015).", ".", "* Vogel, Ezra F. ''Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China'' (2011) excerpt * Zhang, Xiaoming.", "\"Deng Xiaoping and China's Decision to go to War with Vietnam\".", "''Journal of Cold War Studies'' '''12'''.3 (Summer 2010): 3–29.online * Zhang, Xiaoming.", "''Deng Xiaoping's Long War: The Military Conflict Between China and Vietnam, 1979–1991'' (U North Carolina Press, 2015).", "excerpt ." ], [ "External links", "* ''The New York Times'' obituary on Deng Xiaoping* \"Reform and opening in China, 1978–\"—Online documents in English from the Wilson Center in Washington* ''Build Socialism with Chinese Characteristics'', speeches by Deng Xiaoping from 1982 to 1984* Foreign Relations Series.", "Includes US State Department reports: ''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980'', Volume XIII '' 1977–1980, China'', US State Dept, published 2013 ''Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976'', Volume XVIII '' 1969–1976, China 1973–1976'', US State Dept, published 2008*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "HM Prison Dartmoor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''HM Prison Dartmoor''' is a Category C men's prison, located in Princetown, high on Dartmoor in the English county of Devon.", "Its high granite walls dominate this area of the moor.", "The prison is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and is operated by His Majesty's Prison Service.Dartmoor Prison was given Grade II heritage listing in 1987." ], [ "History", "HM Dartmoor Prison, as it appeared in 1812===POW prison===In 1805, the United Kingdom was at war with Napoleonic France, a conflict during which thousands of prisoners were taken and confined in prison \"hulks\" or derelict ships.", "This was considered unsafe, partially due to the proximity of the Royal Naval dockyard at Devonport (then called Plymouth Dock), and as living conditions were appalling in the extreme, a prisoner of war depot was planned in the remote isolation of Dartmoor.The prison was designed by Daniel Asher Alexander.", "Construction by local labour started in 1806, taking three years to complete.", "In 1809, the first French prisoners arrived and the prison was full by the end of the year.From the spring of 1813 until March 1815, about 6,500 American sailors from the War of 1812 were imprisoned at Dartmoor in poor conditions (food was bad and the roofs leaked).", "These were either naval prisoners or impressed American seamen discharged from British vessels.", "Whilst the British were in overall charge of the prison, the prisoners created their own governance and culture.", "They had courts which meted out punishments, a market, a theatre and a gambling room.", "About 1,000 of the prisoners were Black.", "A recent examination of the General Entry Book of American Prisoners of War at Dartmoor, by Nicholas Guyatt, found \"Eight Hundred and Twenty - Nine Sailors of Colour had been entered into the register by the end of October 1814.", "\"===Escapes===Unlike many detention facilities of the period, Dartmoor Prison was purpose built in an isolated location, ringed by high stone walls, and manned by hundreds of armed militia sentries.", "In addition a rope ran around the entire circumference of the prison, linked to a series of bells, which quickly spread an alarm.", "Even if a determined prisoner made it beyond the walls, he would still have to traverse ten miles on foot, over wild moorland and bogs, an area frequently beset with fog and chilling winds, to reach the nearest town.", "Local residents turning in an escapee could expect a reward of a guinea.", "Yet, despite these daunting odds, scholar Nicholas Guyatt has tallied a total of twenty-four American POWs successfully making their way to freedom.", ";DisorderAlthough the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent on 24 December 1814, American prisoners of war remained in Dartmoor because the British government refused to let them go on parole or take any steps until the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on 17 February 1815.It took several weeks for the American agent to secure ships for their transportation home, and the men grew very impatient.", "On 4 April, a food contractor attempted to work off some damaged hardtack on them in place of soft bread and was forced to yield by their insurrection.", "The commandant, Captain T. G. Shortland, suspected them of a design to break out of the gaol.", "This was the reverse of the truth in general, as they would lose their chance of going on the ships, but a few had made threats of the sort, and the commandant was very uneasy.At about 6:00 pm on 6 April, Shortland discovered a hole from one of the five prisons to the barrack yard near the gun racks.", "Some prisoners were outside the fence, noisily pelting each other with turf, and many more were near the breach (and the gambling tables), though the signal for return to prisons had sounded.", "Shortland was convinced of a plot and rang the alarm bell to collect the officers and have the guards ready.", "This precaution brought back a crowd just going to quarters.", "Just then a prisoner broke a gate chain with an iron bar and a number of the prisoners pressed through to the prison market square.", "After attempts at persuasion, Shortland ordered a charge which drove some of the prisoners in.", "Those near the gate, however, hooted at and taunted the soldiery, who fired a volley over their heads.", "The crowd yelled louder and threw stones, and the soldiers, probably without orders fired a direct volley which killed and wounded a large number.", "Then they continued firing at the prisoners, many of whom were now struggling to get back inside the blocks.Finally the captain, a lieutenant and the hospital surgeon (the other officers being at dinner) succeeded in stopping the shooting and started caring for the wounded – about 60, 30 seriously, besides seven killed outright.", "The affair was examined by a joint commission, Charles King for the United States and F. S. Larpent for Great Britain, which exonerated Shortland, justified the initial shooting and blamed the subsequent deaths on unknown culprits.", "Following these findings, Shortland was rewarded with a promotion.", "Despite being labelled \"The Dartmoor Massacre\", the British government paid compensation to the American families of those killed and pensioned the disabled.A memorial has been erected to the 271 POWs (mostly seamen) who are buried in the prison grounds.", "By July 1815 at least 270 Americans and 1,200 French prisoners had died.===Closure and reopening ===The main gates of Dartmoor Prison host the inscription ''Parcere Subiectis'' (Trans: Spare the Vanquished) from Virgil's ''Aeneid''.After all American and French prisoners had been released, paroled and repatriated, the gaol on Dartmoor was left unused for 35 years until 1850.Work then began to rebuild and recommission the prison for civilian convicts.", "It reopened in 1851.The POW remains that had been originally buried on the moor were exhumed and re-interred in two cemeteries behind the prison when the prison farm was established in about 1852.During the First World War in 1917, criminals were removed from the gaol when it was converted into a Home Office Work Centre for conscientious objectors granted release from other prisons.", "The cells were left unlocked, inmates wore their own clothes and could go outside to visit the village in their off-duty time.===Notoriety===In 1920, the Dartmoor began housing UK criminals.", "It would develop a reputation for housing some of Britain's most serious offenders that included murderers, gangsters, thieves, spies, and robbers such as Jack “the Hat” McVitie, Jack “Spot” Comer, John George Haigh, and Frank Mitchell.", "Numerous escape attempts have been made by inmates to get out of the prison and onto the moors, leading to massive manhunts by the police and prison service.", "Instances of disobedience included a model prisoner attacking a popular guard with a razor blade and rough treatment by prisoners of a prisoner being removed to solitary.", ";MutinyThe prison's tough conditions eventually led to its worst outbreak of violence on 24 January 1932.The cause of the riots is generally attributed to prisoners' perceptions of poor quality of the food, not generally but on specific days prior to the disturbance when it was suspected it had been tampered with.", "At the parade later that day, 50 prisoners refused orders, and the rest were marched back to their cells but refused to enter.", "At this point, the prison governor and his staff fled to an unused part of the prison and secured themselves there.", "The prisoners then released those held in solitary.", "There was extensive damage to property, and a prisoner was shot by one of the staff, but no prison staff were injured.", "According to the du Parcq report into the riot: \"Reinforcements arrived, and within fifteen minutes these 'vicious brutes', who for some two hours had terrorized well-armed prison staff, and effectively controlled the prison, had surrendered and been locked up again\".", "; Notable prisonersÉamon de Valera was imprisoned at Dartmoor in 1919.", "Michael DavittPeter Hammond, founder of Hammond, Louisiana, USFred LongdenJohn RodkerMoondyne JoeThomas William Jones, Baron MaelorJohn Boyle O'ReillyArthur OwensÉamon de ValeraF. Digby HardyJohn WilliamsFrank MitchellReginald Horace BlythDarkie HuttonJohn George HaighBruno Tolentino, who eventually was deported to Brazil where the major part of his oeuvre was published.", "''\"A Balada do Cárcere\"'' (1996) is a poetic recollection of the time spent in Dartmoor.", "Fahad Mihyi, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine terrorist behind the 1978 London bus attackAravindan Balakrishnan" ], [ "Modern operations", "Dartmoor prison Dartmoor continues to suffer from its age, in 2001 a Board of Visitors report condemned sanitation, as well as highlighting a list of urgent repairs needed.", "A year later, the prison was converted to a Category C prison for less violent offenders.", "In 2002, the Prison Reform Trust warned that the prison may be breaching the Human Rights Act 1998 due to severe overcrowding at the jail.", "A year later, however, the Chief Inspector of Prisons declared that the prison had made substantial improvements to its management and regime.In March 2008, staff at the prison passed a vote of no confidence in the governor Serena Watts, claiming they felt bullied by managers and unsafe.Dartmoor is now a Category C prison, which means it houses mainly non-violent offenders and white-collar criminals.", "It also holds people with convictions for sexual offences, but it is designated as a support site only for these individuals and as such does not offer treatment programmes for them.Dartmoor offers cell accommodation on six wings.", "Education is available at the prison (full and part-time), and ranges from basic educational skills to Open University courses.", "Vocational training includes electronics, brickwork and carpentry courses up to City & Guilds and NVQ level, Painting and Decorating courses, industrial cleaning and desktop publishing.", "Full-time employment is also available in catering, farming, gardening, laundry, textiles, Braille, contract services, furniture manufacturing and polishing.", "Employment is supported with NVQ or City & Guilds vocational qualifications.", "All courses and qualifications at Dartmoor are operated by South Gloucestershire and Stroud College and Cornwall College.The \"Dartmoor Jailbreak\" is a yearly event, in which members of the public \"escape\" from the prison and must travel as far as possible in four days, without directly paying for transport.", "By doing so they raise money for charity.In September 2013, it was announced that discussions would commence with the Duchy of Cornwall about the long-term future of HMP Dartmoor.", "In January 2014 it was stated on the BBC news website that the notice period with the Duchy for closing is 10 years.", "In November 2015 the Ministry of Justice confirmed that, as part of a major programme to replace older prisons, it would not renew its lease on the prison.It was announced in October 2019 that HMP Dartmoor would close in 2023, but in December 2021 it was confirmed that, following negotiations with the Duchy, it would remain open beyond 2023 and for the foreseeable future.In 2023, 96 inmates of the prison had to be evacuated due to the presence of radon gas, caused by the decay of uranium in the prison bedrock and walls.", "No adverse health effects related to radon poisoning have been recorded at the prison." ], [ "Dartmoor Prison Museum", "The Dartmoor Prison Museum, located in the old dairy buildings, focuses on the history of HMP Dartmoor.", "Exhibits include the prison's role in housing prisoners of war from the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, manacles and weapons, memorabilia, clothing and uniforms, famous prisoners, and the changed focus of the prison.", "It also sells (2015) garden ornaments and other items made in the prison concrete and carpentry shops by prisoners engaged in educational courses.There are also displays and information on less well known aspects of the prison such as the incarceration of conscientious objectors during World War One." ], [ "In popular culture", "In the 1963 James Bond film ''From Russia with Love'', the main villainous henchman, SPECTRE assassin Red Grant (played by Robert Shaw) is described as a psychopathic paranoid and a convicted murderer, who once escaped from Dartmoor Prison.", "The adventure story ''A Rogue by Compulsion.", "An Affair of the Secret Service'' (1915) by Victor Bridges begins with a dramatic escape from Dartmoor.", "In ''Mutiny on the Bounty (1935)'', Mr. Christian states to Captain Bligh that Seaman Burkitt chose service in the Royal Navy as an alternative to imprisonment at Dartmoor.", "In the John Galsworthy play, ''Escape'', Dartmoor is the prison whence the hero, Captain Denman escapes.", "The stage production in 1927 starred Leslie Howard and the 1930 film version starred Sir Gerald du Maurier.", "The 1929 movie ''A Cottage on Dartmoor'' begins with an escapee from Dartmoor prison, and proceeds to a flashback as to how he came to be incarcerated.", "An escaped convict from Dartmoor figures in Nevil Shute's first novel ''Marazan'', published in 1926.", "''Decline and Fall'', a novel by Evelyn Waugh, first published in 1928 makes thinly disguised references to Dartmoor Prison.", "Dartmoor Prison is mentioned in ''The Thirteen Problems'', a short story collection written by Agatha Christie, and first published in 1932.Christie's ''The Sittaford Mystery'' (1931) is set on Dartmoor and features an escaped prisoner.", "Arthur Conan Doyle made reference to 'Princetown Prison' in four stories that he wrote between 1890 and 1903.In ''The Hound of the Baskervilles'' (1902), an escaped prisoner from Princetown serves as a red herring for Holmes and Watson.", "''Dressed to Kill'', a 1946 Sherlock Holmes film uses Dartmoor Prison in the plot as the supposed location where three music boxes were made that contain a secret code for a criminal gang.", "Referenced in Bob Miller's song, ''Twenty-One Years'', more recently recorded by Daniel O'Donnell on his debut album.", "In the ''Tales of Old Dartmoor'' episode (recorded in 1956) of The Goons radio comedy series, Grytpype-Thynne arranges for the prison to put to sea to visit the Château d'If in France as part of a plan to find the treasure of the Count of Monte Cristo hid there.", "A cardboard replica is left in its place, which is left standing after the original Dartmoor Prison sinks with all hands at the end of the episode.", "In an episode of ''The Saint'' television series entitled \"Escape Route\" (1966), Simon Templar (Roger Moore) is sent to Dartmoor to uncover a planned escape.", "Comedy band The Barron Knights' 1978 UK No.", "3 hit single \"A Taste of Aggro\", a medley of parodies, included a version of \"The Smurf Song\" featuring, in place of the Smurfs, a group of bank robbers from Catford who have escaped from Dartmoor Prison.", "Dartmoor is mentioned several times in the British comedy series ''You Rang, M'Lord?", "'', especially in connection with the scheming butler, Alf Stokes, who mentions on multiple occasions that he will end up in Dartmoor.", "In 1988, the prison played host to a storyline in ''EastEnders'', where Den Watts (played by Leslie Grantham) was being held on remand for arson.", "He was also joined for some of the storyline by Nick Cotton (played by John Altman), who was imprisoned for a different offence.", "The prison was called Dickens Hill.", "Dartmoor is frequently mentioned in the ''Agent Z'' series of comical children's books written by Mark Haddon.", "Dartmoor prison is implicated in the local Dartmoor 'Hairy hands' ghost story/legend.", "Dartmoor prison plays a central role in ''The Lively Lady'', American author Kenneth Roberts' 1931 historical novel taking place during The War of 1812In the first episode of the second series of ''James May's Man Lab'', James May and Oz Clarke were demonstrating map-reading skills by pretending to escape from Dartmoor prison and cross Dartmoor to their escape car (although they had to start their escape from outside the prison grounds as they were not allowed permission inside the prison).", "One of the intersecting story lines in Edward Marston's novel, ''Shadow of the Hangman'' (2013) involves two American seamen who escape during the 1815 riot.", "The prison and the American sailors imprisoned towards the end of the War of 1812 are central to Simon Mayo's 2018 novel ''Mad Blood Stirring''.", "In ''The Voice of Terror'' (1942), Sherlock Holmes is angrily confronted in a tavern by an ex-convict who says he had been sent to Dartmoor Prison by Holmes.", "In John Buchan's third Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast (1919), two passing references are made of Dartmoor as a place for conscientious objectors who are \"quodded\" (jailed) there.", "The narrator of the Hammond Innes novel Maddon's Rock is sentenced to (and escapes from) Dartmoor along with a co-conspirator after being wrongly convicted of mutiny." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " Ministry of Justice pages on Dartmoor* Dartmoor Prison Museum* HMP Dartmoor - HM Inspectorate of Prisons Reports" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dilation and curettage" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dilation''' (or '''dilatation''') '''and curettage''' ('''D&C''') refers to the dilation (widening or opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of part of the lining of the uterus or contents of the uterus by scraping and scooping (curettage).", "It is a gynecologic procedure used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, and is the most commonly used method for first-trimester miscarriage or abortion.D&C normally refers to a procedure involving a curette, also called ''sharp curettage''.", "However, some sources use the term ''D&C'' to refer to any procedure that involves the processes of dilation and removal of uterine contents, which includes the more common ''suction curettage'' procedures of manual and electric vacuum aspiration." ], [ "Clinical uses", "D&Cs may be performed in pregnant and non-pregnant patients, for different clinical indications.=== During pregnancy or postpartum ===A D&C may be performed early in pregnancy to remove pregnancy tissue, either in the case of a non-viable pregnancy, such as a missed or incomplete miscarriage, or an undesired pregnancy, as in a surgical abortion.", "Medical management of miscarriage and medical abortion using drugs such as misoprostol and mifepristone are safe, non-invasive and potentially less expensive alternatives to D&C.Because medication-based non-invasive methods of abortion now exist, dilation and curettage has been declining as a method of abortion, although suction curettage is still the most common method used for termination of a first-trimester pregnancy.", "The World Health Organization recommends D&C with a sharp curette as a method of surgical abortion only when manual vacuum aspiration with a suction curette is unavailable.For patients who have recently given birth, a D&C may be indicated to remove retained placental tissue that does not pass spontaneously or for postpartum hemorrhage.=== Non-pregnant patients ===D&Cs for non-pregnant patients are commonly performed for the diagnosis of gynecological conditions leading to abnormal uterine bleeding; to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome; to remove tissue in the uterus that may be causing abnormal uterine bleeding, such as endometrial polyps or uterine fibroids; or to diagnose the cause of post-menopausal bleeding, such as in the case of endometrial cancer.Hysteroscopy is a valid alternative or addition to D&C for many surgical indications, from diagnosis of uterine pathology to the removal of fibroids and even retained products of conception.", "It allows direct visualization of the inside of the uterus and may allow targeted sampling and removal of tissue inside the uterus." ], [ "Procedure", "An illustration of a dilation and curettage Depending on the anticipated duration and difficulty expected with the procedure, as well as the clinical indication and patient preferences, a D&C may be performed with local anesthesia, moderate sedation, deep sedation, or general anesthesia.", "The first step in a D&C is to place a speculum in the vagina so as to see the cervix.", "Often, a tenaculum is placed to steady the cervix.", "Next, the provider will dilate the cervix.", "This can be done with Hegar or similar dilators.", "The amount of dilation depends on the amount of tissue to be removed as well as the size of the instruments to be used.", "After sufficient dilation, a curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a loop on the other, is then inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix.", "The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus.", "If a suction curette is used, as in a vacuum aspiration, a plastic tubular curette will be introduced into the uterus and connected to suction to remove all tissue in the uterus.", "This tissue is examined for completeness (in the case of abortion or miscarriage treatment) or by pathology for abnormalities (in the case of treatment for abnormal bleeding)." ], [ "Complications", "The most common complications associated with D&C are infection, bleeding, or damage to nearby organs, including through uterine perforation.", "Aside from the surgery itself, complications related to anesthesia administration may also occur.Infection is uncommon after D&C for a non-pregnant patient, and society practice guidelines do not recommend routine prophylactic antibiotics to patients.", "However, for curettage of a pregnant patient, the risk of infection is higher, and patients should receive antibiotics that cover the bacteria commonly found in the vagina and gastrointestinal tract; doxycycline is a common recommendation, though azithromycin may also be used.Another risk of D&C is uterine perforation.", "The highest rate of uterine perforation appears to be in the setting of postpartum hemorrhage (5.1%) compared with a lower rate in diagnostic curettage in non-pregnant patients (0.3% in the premenopausal patient and 2.6% in the postmenopausal patient).", "Perforation may cause excessive bleeding or damage to organs outside the uterus.", "If the provider is concerned about ongoing bleeding or the possibility of injury to organs outside the uterus, a laparoscopy may be done to verify that there has been no undiagnosed injury.Another potential risk is Asherman’s syndrome, a condition where intrauterine adhesions lead to subfertility, amenorrhea, or recurrent pregnancy loss.", "Although older studies described a high (25-30%) risk of developing this condition after dilation and curettage for treatment of miscarriage, these procedures were likely done using sharp curettage, which is no longer routinely performed in modern miscarriage and abortion care.", "Newer studies reflect the common technique of suction curettage and demonstrate a much lower risk of Asherman’s syndrome, with incidence in large prospective trials ranging from 0.7-1.6%.", "A history of multiple (>3) procedures and sharp curettage were identified as risk factors for developing clinical Asherman’s syndrome.", "A systematic review in 2013 concluded that recurrent miscarriage treated with D&C is the main risk factors for intrauterine adhesions.", "There are currently no studies linking asymptomatic intrauterine adhesions and long-term reproductive outcomes, and similar pregnancy outcomes have been found after miscarriage regardless of whether surgical treatment, medication management, or conservative management (i.e.", "watchful waiting) was chosen." ], [ "See also", "* Dilation and evacuation* Menstrual extraction* Vacuum aspiration" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dilation and curettage (D&C) at Mayo Clinic*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doctor Who" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Doctor Who''''' is a British science fiction television series broadcast by the BBC since 1963.The series, created by Sydney Newman, C. E. Webber and Donald Wilson, depicts the adventures of an extraterrestrial being called the Doctor, part of a humanoid species called Time Lords.", "The Doctor travels in the universe and in time using a time travelling spaceship called the TARDIS, which externally appears as a British police box.", "While travelling, the Doctor works to save lives and liberate oppressed peoples by combating foes.", "The Doctor often travels with companions.Beginning with William Hartnell, fourteen actors have headlined the series as the Doctor; as of 2023, Ncuti Gatwa leads the series as the Fifteenth Doctor.", "The transition from one actor to another is written into the plot of the series with the concept of regeneration into a new incarnation, a plot device in which, when a Time Lord is fatally injured, their cells regenerate and they are reincarnated.", "Each actor's portrayal is distinct, but all represent stages in the life of the same character and, together, they form a single lifetime with a single narrative.", "The time-travelling nature of the plot means that different incarnations of the Doctor occasionally meet.", "In 2017, Jodie Whittaker, as the Thirteenth Doctor, became the first woman to be cast in the lead role.The series is a significant part of popular culture in Britain and elsewhere; it has gained a cult following.", "It has influenced generations of British television professionals, many of whom grew up watching the series.", "Fans of the series are sometimes referred to as ''Whovians''.", "The series has been listed in ''Guinness World Records'' as the longest-running science-fiction television series in the world, as well as the \"most successful\" science-fiction series of all time, based on its overall broadcast ratings, DVD and book sales.The series originally ran from 1963 to 1989.There was an unsuccessful attempt to revive regular production in 1996 with a backdoor pilot in the form of a television film titled ''Doctor Who''.", "The series was relaunched in 2005 and was produced in-house by BBC Wales in Cardiff.", "Since 2023, the show has been co-produced by Bad Wolf and BBC Studios Productions in Cardiff.", "''Doctor Who'' has also spawned numerous spin-offs, including comic books, films, novels and audio dramas, and the television series ''Torchwood'' (2006–2011), ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'' (2007–2011), ''K9'' (2009–2010) and ''Class'' (2016).", "It has been the subject of many parodies and references in popular culture." ], [ "Premise", "''Doctor Who'' follows the adventures of the title character, a rogue Time Lord with somewhat unknown origins who goes by the name \"the Doctor\".", "The Doctor fled Gallifrey, the planet of the Time Lords, in a stolen TARDIS (\"Time and Relative Dimension(s) in Space\"), a time machine that travels by materialising into, and dematerialising out of, the time vortex.", "The TARDIS has a vast interior but appears smaller on the outside, and is equipped with a \"chameleon circuit\" intended to make the machine take on the appearance of local objects as a disguise.", "Due to a malfunction, the Doctor's TARDIS remains fixed as a blue British police box.Across time and space, the Doctor's many incarnations often find events that pique their curiosity, and try to prevent evil forces from harming innocent people or changing history, using only ingenuity and minimal resources, such as the versatile sonic screwdriver.", "The Doctor rarely travels alone and is often joined by one or more companions on these adventures; these companions are usually humans, owing to the Doctor's fascination with planet Earth, which also leads to frequent collaborations with the international military task force UNIT when Earth is threatened.", "The Doctor is centuries old and, as a Time Lord, has the ability to regenerate when there is mortal damage to their body.", "The Doctor's various incarnations have gained numerous recurring enemies during their travels, including the Daleks, their creator Davros, the Cybermen, and the renegade Time Lord the Master." ], [ "History", "''Doctor Who'' first appeared on the BBC Television Service at 17:16:20 GMT on 23 November 1963; this was eighty seconds later than the scheduled programme time, because of announcements concerning the previous day's assassination of John F. Kennedy.", "It was to be a regular weekly programme, each episode 25 minutes of transmission length.", "Discussions and plans for the programme had been in progress for a year.", "The head of drama Sydney Newman was mainly responsible for developing the programme, with the first format document for the series being written by Newman along with the head of the script department (later head of serials) Donald Wilson and staff writer C. E. Webber; in a 1971 interview Wilson claimed to have named the series, and when this claim was put to Newman he did not dispute it.", "Writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series.The programme was originally intended to appeal to a family audience as an educational programme using time travel as a means to explore scientific ideas and famous moments in history.", "On 31 July 1963, Whitaker commissioned Terry Nation to write a story under the title ''The Mutants''.", "As originally written, the Daleks and Thals were the victims of an alien neutron bomb attack but Nation later dropped the aliens and made the Daleks the aggressors.", "When the script was presented to Newman and Wilson, it was immediately rejected as the programme was not permitted to contain any \"bug-eyed monsters\".", "According to Lambert, \"We didn't have a lot of choice—we only had the Dalek serial to go ... We had a bit of a crisis of confidence because Donald Wilson was so adamant that we shouldn't make it.", "Had we had anything else ready we would have made that.\"", "Nation's script became the second ''Doctor Who'' serial – ''The Daleks'' (also known as ''The Mutants'').", "The serial introduced the eponymous aliens that would become the series' most popular monsters, dubbed \"Dalekmania\", and was responsible for the BBC's first merchandising boom.The BBC drama department's serials division produced the programme for 26 seasons, broadcast on BBC One.", "Due to his increasingly poor health, William Hartnell, first actor to play the Doctor, was succeeded by Patrick Troughton in 1966.In 1970, Jon Pertwee replaced Troughton and the series began production in colour.", "In 1974, Tom Baker was cast as the Doctor.", "His eccentric personality became hugely popular, with viewing figures for the series returning to a level not seen since the height of \"Dalekmania\" a decade earlier.", "After seven years in the role, Baker was replaced by Peter Davison in 1981, and Colin Baker replaced Davison in 1984.In 1985, the channel's controller Michael Grade attempted to cancel the series, but it returned after an 18-month hiatus.", "He also had Colin Baker removed from the starring role in 1986.The role was recast with Sylvester McCoy, but falling viewing numbers, a decline in the public perception of the series and a less-prominent transmission slot saw production ended in 1989 by Peter Cregeen, the BBC's new head of series.", "Although it was effectively cancelled, the BBC repeatedly affirmed over several years that the series would return.While in-house production concluded, the BBC explored an independent production company to relaunch the series.", "Philip Segal, a British expatriate who worked for Columbia Pictures' television arm in the United States, had approached the BBC as early as July 1989, while the 26th season was still in production.", "Segal's negotiations eventually led to a ''Doctor Who'' television film as a pilot for an American series, broadcast on the Fox Network in 1996, as an international co-production between Fox, Universal Pictures, the BBC and BBC Worldwide.", "Starring Paul McGann as the Doctor, the film was successful in the UK (with 9.1 million viewers), but was less so in the United States and did not lead to a series.Licensed media such as novels and audio plays provided new stories, but as a television programme, ''Doctor Who'' remained dormant.", "In September 2003, BBC Television announced the in-house production of a new series, after several years of attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version.", "The 2005 revival of ''Doctor Who'' is a direct plot continuation of the original 1963–1989 series and the 1996 television film.", "The executive producers of the new incarnation of the series were ''Queer as Folk'' writer Russell T Davies and BBC Cymru Wales head of drama Julie Gardner.", "From 2005, the series switched from a multi-camera to a single-camera setup.The 50th anniversary of ''Doctor Who'' convention, held over three days at the ExCeL London in November 2013, included an appearance of three former Doctors: pictured left to right: Peter Davison, Sylvester McCoy and Colin Baker.Starring Christopher Eccleston as the Doctor, ''Doctor Who'' returned with the episode \"Rose\" on BBC One on 26 March 2005, after a 16-year hiatus of in-house production.", "Eccleston left after one series and was replaced by David Tennant.", "Davies left the production team in 2009.Steven Moffat, a writer under Davies, was announced as his successor, along with Matt Smith as the new Doctor.", "Smith decided to leave the role of the Doctor in 2013, the 50th anniversary year.", "He was replaced by Peter Capaldi.In January 2016, Moffat announced that he would step down after the 2017 finale, to be replaced by Chris Chibnall in 2018.Jodie Whittaker, the first female Doctor, appeared in three series, the last of which was shortened due to the COVID-19 pandemic.Both Whittaker and Chibnall announced that they would depart the series after a series of specials in 2022.Davies returned as showrunner from the 60th anniversary specials, twelve years after he had left the series previously.", "Bad Wolf co-produces the series in partnership with BBC Studios Productions.", "Bad Wolf's involvement sees Gardner return to the series alongside Davies and Jane Tranter, who recommissioned the series in 2005.The programme has been sold to many other countries worldwide .===Public consciousness===It has been claimed that the transmission of the first episode was delayed by ten minutes due to extended news coverage of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy the previous day; in fact, it went out after a delay of eighty seconds.", "The BBC believed that coverage of the assassination, as well as a series of power blackouts across the country, had caused many viewers to miss this introduction to a new series, and it was broadcast again on 30 November 1963, just before episode two.", "''Doctor Who Experience'' in Cardiff.", "The programme's broad appeal attracts audiences of children and families as well as science fiction fans.The programme soon became a national institution in the United Kingdom, with a large following among the general viewing audience.", "The show received controversy over the suitability of the series for children.", "Morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse repeatedly complained to the BBC over what she saw as the programme's violent, frightening and gory content.", "According to ''Radio Times'', the series \"never had a more implacable foe than Mary Whitehouse\".A BBC audience research survey conducted in 1972 found that, by their own definition of violence (\"any acts which may cause physical and/or psychological injury, hurt or death to persons, animals or property, whether intentional or accidental\"), ''Doctor Who'' was the most violent of the drama programmes the corporation produced at the time.", "The same report found that 3% of the surveyed audience believed the series was \"very unsuitable\" for family viewing.", "Responding to the findings of the survey in ''The Times'' newspaper, journalist Philip Howard maintained that, \"to compare the violence of ''Dr Who'', sired by a horse-laugh out of a nightmare, with the more realistic violence of other television series, where actors who look like human beings bleed paint that looks like blood, is like comparing Monopoly with the property market in London: both are fantasies, but one is meant to be taken seriously.", "\"During Jon Pertwee's second season as the Doctor, in the serial ''Terror of the Autons'' (1971), images of murderous plastic dolls, daffodils killing unsuspecting victims, and blank-featured policemen marked the apex of the series' ability to frighten children.", "Other notable moments in that decade include a disembodied brain falling to the floor in ''The Brain of Morbius'' and the Doctor apparently being drowned by a villain in ''The Deadly Assassin'' (both 1976).", "Mary Whitehouse's complaint about the latter incident prompted a change in BBC policy towards the series, with much tighter controls imposed on the production team, and the series' next producer, Graham Williams, was under a directive to take out \"anything graphic in the depiction of violence\".", "John Nathan-Turner produced the series during the 1980s and said in the documentary ''More Than Thirty Years in the TARDIS'' that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments because the ratings of the series would increase soon after she had made them.", "Nathan-Turner also got into trouble with BBC executives over the violence he allowed to be depicted for season 22 of the series in 1985, which was publicly criticised by controller Michael Grade and given as one of his reasons for suspending the series for 18 months.The phrase \"Hiding behind (or 'watching from behind') the sofa\" entered British pop culture, signifying the stereotypical but apocryphal early-series behaviour of children who wanted to avoid seeing frightening parts of a television programme while remaining in the room to watch the remainder of it.", "The phrase retains this association with ''Doctor Who'', to the point that in 1991 the Museum of the Moving Image in London named its exhibition celebrating the programme ''Behind the Sofa''.", "The electronic theme music too was perceived as eerie, novel, and frightening at the time.", "A 2012 article placed this childhood juxtaposition of fear and thrill \"at the center of many people's relationship with the series\", and a 2011 online vote at Digital Spy deemed the series the \"scariest TV show of all time\".The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the series in the public's consciousness; BBC scriptwriter Anthony Coburn, who lived in the resort of Herne Bay, Kent, was one of the people who conceived the idea of a police box as a time machine.", "In 1996, the BBC applied for a trademark to use the TARDIS' blue police box design in merchandising associated with ''Doctor Who''.", "In 1998, the Metropolitan Police Authority filed an objection to the trademark claim; but in 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC.The 21st-century revival of the programme became the centrepiece of BBC One's Saturday schedule and \"defined the channel\".", "Many renowned actors have made guest-starring appearances in various stories including Kylie Minogue, Sir Ian McKellen, and Andrew Garfield among others.", "According to an article in the ''Daily Telegraph'' in 2009, the revival of ''Doctor Who'' had consistently received high ratings, both in number of viewers and as measured by the Appreciation Index.", "In 2007, Caitlin Moran, television reviewer for ''The Times'', wrote that ''Doctor Who'' is \"quintessential to being British\".", "According to Steven Moffat, the American film director Steven Spielberg has commented that \"the world would be a poorer place without ''Doctor Who''\".On 4 August 2013, a live programme titled ''Doctor Who Live: The Next Doctor'' was broadcast on BBC One, during which the actor who was going to play the Twelfth Doctor was revealed.", "The live show was watched by an average of 6.27 million in the UK, and was also simulcast in the United States, Canada and Australia." ], [ "Episodes", "''Doctor Who'' originally ran for 26 seasons on BBC One, from 23 November 1963 until 6 December 1989.During the original run, each weekly episode formed part of a story (or \"serial\")—usually of four to six parts in earlier years and three to four in later years.", "Some notable exceptions were: ''The Daleks' Master Plan'', which aired twelve episodes (plus an earlier one-episode teaser, \"Mission to the Unknown\", featuring none of the regular cast); almost an entire season of seven-episode serials (season 7); the ten-episode serial ''The War Games''; and ''The Trial of a Time Lord'', which ran for fourteen episodes (albeit divided into three production codes and four narrative segments) during season 23.Occasionally, serials were loosely connected by a story line, such as season 8 focusing on the Doctor battling a rogue Time Lord called the Master, season 16's quest for the Key to Time, season 18's journey through E-Space and the theme of entropy, and season 20's Black Guardian trilogy.The programme was intended to be educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule.", "It initially alternated stories set in the past, which taught younger audience members about history, and with those in the future or outer space, focusing on science.", "This was also reflected in the Doctor's original companions, one of whom was a science teacher and another a history teacher.However, science fiction stories came to dominate the programme, and the history-oriented episodes, which were not popular with the production team, were dropped after ''The Highlanders'' (1967).", "While the show continued to use historical settings, they were generally used as a backdrop for science fiction tales, with one exception: ''Black Orchid'' (1982), set in 1920s England.The early stories were serialised in nature, with the narrative of one story flowing into the next and each episode having its own title, although produced as distinct stories with their own production codes.", "Following ''The Gunfighters'' (1966), however, each serial was given its own title, and the individual parts were assigned episode numbers.Of the programme's many writers, Robert Holmes was the most prolific, while Douglas Adams became the best known outside ''Doctor Who'' itself, due to the popularity of his ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' works.The serial format changed for the 2005 revival, with what was now called a series usually consisting of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with adverts, on overseas commercial channels) and an extended 60-minute episode broadcast on Christmas Day.", "This system was shortened to twelve episodes and one Christmas special following the revival's eighth series, and ten episodes from the eleventh series.", "Each series includes standalone and multiple episodic stories, often linked with a loose story arc resolved in the series finale.", "As in the early \"classic\" era, each episode has its own title, whether stand-alone or part of a larger story.", "Occasionally, regular-series episodes will exceed the 45-minute run time; notably, the episodes \"Journey's End\" from 2008 and \"The Eleventh Hour\" from 2010 were longer than an hour.", "''Doctor Who'' instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging between 25-minute episodes (the most common format for the classic era), 45/50-minute episodes (for ''Resurrection of the Daleks'' in the 1984 series, a single season in 1985, and the most common format for the revival era since 2005), two feature-length productions (1983's ''The Five Doctors'' and the 1996 television film), twelve Christmas specials (most of approximately 60 minutes' duration, one of 72 minutes), and four additional specials ranging from 60 to 75 minutes in 2009, 2010, and 2013.Four mini-episodes, running about eight minutes each, were also produced for the 1993, 2005, and 2007 Children in Need charity appeals, while another mini-episode was produced in 2008 for a ''Doctor Who''–themed edition of The Proms.", "The 1993 two-part story, entitled ''Dimensions in Time'', was made in collaboration with the cast of the BBC soap-opera ''EastEnders'' and was filmed partly on the ''EastEnders'' set.", "A two-part mini-episode was also produced for the 2011 edition of Comic Relief.", "Starting with the 2009 special \"Planet of the Dead\", the series was filmed in 1080i for HDTV and broadcast simultaneously on BBC One and BBC HD.To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the show, a special 3D episode, \"The Day of the Doctor\", was broadcast in 2013.In March 2013, it was announced that Tennant and Piper would be returning and that the episode would have a limited cinematic release worldwide.In June 2017, it was announced that due to the terms of a deal between BBC Worldwide and SMG Pictures in China, the company has first right of refusal on the purchase for the Chinese market of future series of the programme until and including Series 15.===Missing episodes===Between 1967 and 1978, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's various video tape and film libraries was either destroyed or wiped.", "This included many early episodes of ''Doctor Who'', those stories featuring the first two Doctors: William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton.", "In all, 97 of 253 episodes produced during the programme's first six years are not held in the BBC's archives (most notably seasons 3, 4, and 5, from which 79 episodes are missing).", "In 1972, almost all episodes then made were known to exist at the BBC, while by 1978 the practice of wiping tapes and destroying \"spare\" film copies had been brought to a stop.No 1960s episodes exist on their original videotapes (all surviving prints being film transfers), though some were transferred to film for editing before transmission and exist in their broadcast form.Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries that bought prints for broadcast or by private individuals who acquired them by various means.", "Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as excerpts filmed from the television screen onto 8 mm cine film and clips that were shown on other programmes.", "Audio versions of all lost episodes exist from home viewers who made tape recordings of the show.", "Short clips from every story with the exception of ''Marco Polo'' (1964), \"Mission to the Unknown\" (1965) and ''The Massacre'' (1966) also exist.In addition to these, there are off-screen photographs made by photographer John Cura, who was hired by various production personnel to document many of their programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including ''Doctor Who''.", "These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials.", "The BBC has tolerated these amateur reconstructions, provided they are not sold for profit and are distributed as low-quality copies.One of the most sought-after lost episodes is part four of the last William Hartnell serial, ''The Tenth Planet'' (1966), which ends with the First Doctor transforming into the Second.", "The only portion of this in existence, barring a few poor-quality silent 8 mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene, as it was shown on the children's magazine show ''Blue Peter''.", "With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now underway to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material.", "\"Official\" reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS, on MP3 CD-ROM, and as special features on DVD.", "The BBC, in conjunction with animation studio Cosgrove Hall, reconstructed the missing episodes 1 and 4 of ''The Invasion'' (1968), using remastered audio tracks and the comprehensive stage notes for the original filming, for the serial's DVD release in November 2006.The missing episodes of ''The Reign of Terror'' were animated by animation company Theta-Sigma, in collaboration with Big Finish, and became available for purchase in May 2013 through Amazon.com.", "Subsequent animations made in 2013 include ''The Tenth Planet'', ''The Ice Warriors'' (1967) and ''The Moonbase'' (1967).In April 2006, ''Blue Peter'' launched a challenge to find missing ''Doctor Who'' episodes with the promise of a full-scale Dalek model as a reward.", "In December 2011, it was announced that part 3 of ''Galaxy 4'' (1965) and part 2 of ''The Underwater Menace'' (1967) had been returned to the BBC by a fan who had purchased them in the mid-1980s without realising that the BBC did not hold copies of them.On 10 October 2013, the BBC announced that films of eleven episodes, including nine missing episodes, had been found in a Nigerian television relay station in Jos.", "Six of the eleven films discovered were the six-part serial ''The Enemy of the World'' (1968), from which all but the third episode had been missing.", "The remaining films were from another six-part serial, ''The Web of Fear'' (1968), and included the previously missing episodes 2, 4, 5 and 6.Episode 3 of ''The Web of Fear'' is still missing." ], [ "Characters", "===The Doctor===The Doctor portrayed by series leads in chronological order.", "Left to right from top row: William Hartnell, Patrick Troughton, Jon Pertwee, Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy, Paul McGann, Christopher Eccleston, David Tennant (first tenure), Matt Smith, Peter Capaldi, Jodie Whittaker, David Tennant (second tenure), and Ncuti Gatwa.The Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery.", "In the programme's early days, the character was an eccentric alien traveller of great intelligence who battled injustice while exploring time and space in an unreliable time machine, the \"TARDIS\" (an acronym for Time and Relative Dimension in Space), which notably appears much larger on the inside than on the outside (a quality referred to as \"dimensionally transcendental\").The initially irascible and slightly sinister Doctor quickly mellowed into a more compassionate figure and was eventually revealed to be a Time Lord, whose race are from the planet Gallifrey, which the Doctor fled by stealing the TARDIS.====Changes of appearance====Producers introduced the concept of regeneration to permit the recasting of the main character.", "This was prompted by the poor health of the original star, William Hartnell.", "The term \"regeneration\" was not conceived until the Doctor's third on-screen regeneration; Hartnell's Doctor merely described undergoing a \"renewal\", and the Second Doctor underwent a \"change of appearance\".", "The device has allowed for the recasting of the actor various times in the show's history, as well as the depiction of alternative Doctors either from the Doctor's relative past or future.The serials ''The Deadly Assassin'' (1976) and ''Mawdryn Undead'' (1983) established that a Time Lord can only regenerate 12 times, for a total of 13 incarnations.", "This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time.", "The episode \"The Time of the Doctor\" (2013) depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set.Although the idea of casting a woman as the Doctor had been suggested by the show's writers several times, including by Newman in 1986 and Davies in 2008, until 2017, all official depictions were played by men.", "Jodie Whittaker took over the role as the Thirteenth Doctor at the end of the 2017 Christmas special and is the first woman to be cast as the character.", "The show introduced the Time Lords' ability to change sex on regeneration in earlier episodes, first in dialogue, then with Michelle Gomez's version of The Master and T'Nia Miller's version of The General.Upon Jodie Whittaker's final appearance as the character in \"The Power of the Doctor\" on 23 October 2022, she regenerated into a form portrayed by David Tennant, who was confirmed to be the Fourteenth Doctor and the first actor to play two incarnations.", "In the same year, Ncuti Gatwa was revealed to be portraying the Fifteenth Doctor, making him the first black actor to headline the series.", "Series lead Incarnation Tenure William Hartnell First Doctor 1963–1966 Patrick Troughton Second Doctor 1966–1969 Jon Pertwee Third Doctor 1970–1974 Tom Baker Fourth Doctor 1974–1981 Peter Davison Fifth Doctor 1982–1984 Colin Baker Sixth Doctor 1984–1986 Sylvester McCoy Seventh Doctor 1987–1989 Paul McGann Eighth Doctor 1996 Christopher Eccleston Ninth Doctor 2005 David Tennant Tenth Doctor 2005–2010 Matt Smith Eleventh Doctor 2010–2013 Peter Capaldi Twelfth Doctor 2014–2017 Jodie Whittaker Thirteenth Doctor 2018–2022 David Tennant Fourteenth Doctor 2023 Ncuti Gatwa Fifteenth Doctor 2023–presentIn addition to those actors who have headlined the series, others have portrayed versions of the Doctor in guest roles.", "Notably, in 2013, John Hurt guest-starred as a hitherto unknown incarnation of the Doctor known as the War Doctor in the run-up to the show's 50th-anniversary special \"The Day of the Doctor\".", "He is shown in mini-episode \"The Night of the Doctor\" retroactively inserted into the show's fictional chronology between McGann's and Eccleston's Doctors, although his introduction was written so as not to disturb the established numerical naming of the Doctors.", "The show later introduced another such unknown past Doctor with Jo Martin's recurring portrayal of the Fugitive Doctor, beginning with \"Fugitive of the Judoon\" (2020).", "An example from the classic series comes from ''The Trial of a Time Lord'' (1986), in which Michael Jayston's character the Valeyard is described as an amalgamation of the darker sides of the Doctor's nature, somewhere between the twelfth and final incarnation.On rare occasions, other actors have stood in for the lead.", "In ''The Five Doctors'', Richard Hurndall played the First Doctor due to William Hartnell's death in 1975; 34 years later David Bradley similarly replaced Hartnell in \"Twice Upon a Time\".", "In ''Time and the Rani'', Sylvester McCoy briefly played the Sixth Doctor during the regeneration sequence, carrying on as the Seventh.", "In other media, the Doctor has been played by various other actors, including Peter Cushing in two films.The casting of a new Doctor has often inspired debate and speculation.", "Common topics of focus include the Doctor's sex (prior to the casting of Whittaker, all official incarnations were male), race (all Doctors were white prior to the casting of Jo Martin in \"Fugitive of the Judoon\") and age (the youngest actor to be cast is Smith at 26, and the oldest are Capaldi and Hartnell, both 55).====Meetings of different incarnations====There have been instances of actors returning later to reprise their specific Doctor's role.", "In 1973's ''The Three Doctors'', William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton returned alongside Jon Pertwee.", "For 1983's ''The Five Doctors'', Troughton and Pertwee returned to star with Peter Davison, and Tom Baker appeared in previously unseen footage from the uncompleted ''Shada'' serial.", "For this episode, Richard Hurndall replaced William Hartnell.", "Patrick Troughton again returned in 1985's ''The Two Doctors'' with Colin Baker.In 2007, Peter Davison returned in the Children in Need short \"Time Crash\" alongside David Tennant.", "In \"The Name of the Doctor\" (2013), the Eleventh Doctor meets a previously unseen incarnation of himself, subsequently revealed to be the War Doctor.", "In the following episode, \"The Day of the Doctor\", David Tennant's Tenth Doctor appeared alongside Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor and John Hurt as the War Doctor, as well as brief footage of all the previous actors.", "In 2017, the First Doctor (this time portrayed by David Bradley) returned alongside Peter Capaldi in \"The Doctor Falls\" and \"Twice Upon a Time\".In 2020's \"Fugitive of the Judoon\", Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor meets Jo Martin's incarnation of the Doctor, subsequently known as the Fugitive Doctor; they later interact in \"The Timeless Children\" later that year and \"Once, Upon Time\" in 2021.In her final episode, \"The Power of the Doctor\" (2022), Whittaker interacts with the Guardians of the Edge, manifestations of the Doctor's First (Bradley), Fifth (Davison), Sixth (Colin Baker), Seventh (McCoy), and Eighth (McGann) incarnations.", "Additionally, multiple incarnations of the Doctor have met in various audio dramas and novels based on the television show.===Companions===The companion figure – generally a human – has been a constant feature in ''Doctor Who'' since the programme's inception in 1963.One of the roles of the companion is to be a reminder for the Doctor's \"moral duty\".", "The Doctor's first companions seen on-screen were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and her teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell).", "These characters were intended to act as audience surrogates, through which the audience would discover information about the Doctor, who was to act as a mysterious father figure.", "The only story from the original series in which the Doctor travels alone is \"The Deadly Assassin\" (1976).", "Notable companions from the earlier series include Romana (Mary Tamm and Lalla Ward), a Time Lady; Sarah Jane Smith (Elisabeth Sladen); and Jo Grant (Katy Manning).", "Dramatically, these characters provide a figure with whom the audience can identify and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve.", "The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes—or loves—on worlds they have visited.", "Some have died during the course of the series.", "Companions are usually humans or humanoid aliens.Karen Gillan (pictured in 2010 with the eleventh Doctor, Matt Smith) played the Doctor's companion Amy Pond.Since the 2005 revival, the Doctor generally travels with a primary female companion, who occupies a larger narrative role.", "Steven Moffat described the companion as the main character of the show, as the story begins anew with each companion and she undergoes more change than the Doctor.", "The primary companions of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors were Rose Tyler (Billie Piper), Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman), and Donna Noble (Catherine Tate), with Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) and Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) recurring as secondary companion figures.", "The Eleventh Doctor became the first to travel with a married couple, Amy Pond (Karen Gillan) and Rory Williams (Arthur Darvill), whilst out-of-sync meetings with River Song (Alex Kingston) and Clara Oswald (Jenna Coleman) provided ongoing story arcs that continued with the Twelfth Doctor.", "The tenth series included the alien Nardole (Matt Lucas) and introduced Pearl Mackie as Bill Potts, the Doctor's first openly gay companion.", "Pearl Mackie said that the increased representation of LGBTQ people is important on a mainstream show.", "The Thirteenth Doctor has primarily travelled with Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole), Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh), Yasmin Khan (Mandip Gill), and Dan Lewis (John Bishop).Some companions have gone on to reappear, either in the main series or in spin-offs.", "Sarah Jane Smith became the central character in ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'' (2007–2011) following a return to ''Doctor Who'' in 2006.Guest stars in the series include former companions Jo Grant, K9, and Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney).", "The character of Jack Harkness also served to launch a spin-off, ''Torchwood'' (2006–2011), in which Martha Jones also appeared.===Foes===When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the \"bug-eyed monster\" of science fiction.", "However, monsters were popular with audiences and so became a staple of ''Doctor Who'' almost from the beginning.", "Daleks, Cybermen, and the Master are some of the most iconic foes the Doctor has battled in the series.With the show's 2005 revival, executive producer Russell T Davies stated his intention to reintroduce the classic monsters of ''Doctor Who''.", "The Autons with the Nestene Consciousness, first seen in 1970's Spearhead from Space, and Daleks, first seen in 1963's The Daleks, returned in series 1.Davies's successor, Steven Moffat, continued the trend by reviving the Silurians, also first seen in 1970, in series 5 and Zygons, first seen in 1975, in the 50th-anniversary special.", "Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new recurring aliens: Slitheen (Raxacoricofallapatorians), Ood, Judoon, Weeping Angels and the Silence.====Daleks====A Dalek at the ''Doctor Who'' Experience, CardiffThe Dalek race, which first appeared in the show's second serial in 1963, are ''Doctor Who''s oldest villains.", "The Daleks are Kaleds from the planet Skaro, mutated by the scientist Davros and housed in mechanical armour shells for mobility.", "The actual creatures resemble octopuses with large, pronounced brains.", "Their armour shells have a single eye-stalk, a sink-plunger-like device that serves the purpose of a hand, and a directed-energy weapon.", "Their main weakness is their eyestalk; attacks upon them using various weapons can blind a Dalek, making it go mad.", "Their chief role in the series plot, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to \"exterminate\" all non-Dalek beings.", "They even attack the Time Lords in the Time War, as shown during the 50th Anniversary of the show.", "They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the Doctor Who franchise, their most recent appearance being the 2022 episode \"The Power of the Doctor\".", "Davros has also been a recurring figure since his debut in ''Genesis of the Daleks'', although played by several different actors.The Daleks were created by the writer Terry Nation (who intended them to be an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick.", "The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, ''The Daleks'' (1963–1964), made both the Daleks and ''Doctor Who'' very popular.", "A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon.", "In \"Victory of the Daleks\" a new set of Daleks were introduced that come in a range of colours; the colour denoting its role within the species.====Cybermen====A CybermanCybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies.", "This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating cyborgs, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for.", "With the demise of Mondas, they acquired Telos as their new home planet.", "They continue to be a recurring 'monster' within the ''Doctor Who'' franchise.The 2006 series introduced a new variation of Cybermen.", "These Cybus Cybermen were created in a parallel universe by the mad inventor John Lumic; he was attempting to preserve the humans by transplanting their brains into powerful metal bodies, sending them orders using a mobile phone network and inhibiting their emotions with an electronic chip.====The Master====The Master is the Doctor's archenemy, a renegade Time Lord who desires to rule the universe.", "Conceived as \"Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes\", the character first appeared in 1971.As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, since the Master is a Time Lord as well and able to regenerate; the first of these actors was Roger Delgado, who continued in the role until his death in 1973.The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Who's hiatus in 1989.The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of ''Doctor Who'', and was played by American actor Eric Roberts.Following the series revival in 2005, Derek Jacobi provided the character's reintroduction in the 2007 episode \"Utopia\".", "During that story, the role was then assumed by John Simm, who returned to the role multiple times throughout the Tenth Doctor's tenure.", "As of the 2014 episode \"Dark Water\", it was revealed that the Master had become a female incarnation or \"Time Lady\", going by the name of \"Missy\" (short for Mistress, the feminine equivalent of \"Master\").", "This incarnation is played by Michelle Gomez.", "Simm returned to his role as the Master alongside Gomez in the tenth series.", "The Master returned for the 2020 twelfth series with Sacha Dhawan in the role.", "The dubbed himself the \"Spy Master\" referencing a role he had taken with MI6." ], [ "Music", "===Theme music===The ''Doctor Who'' theme music was one of the first electronic music signature tunes for television, and after more than a half century remains one of the most easily recognised.", "The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills, and was released as a single on Decca F 11837 in 1964.The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of season 17 (1979–1980).", "It is regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music recorded well before the availability of commercial synthesisers or multitrack mixers.", "Each note was individually created by cutting, splicing, speeding up and slowing down segments of analogue tape containing recordings of a single plucked string, white noise, and the simple harmonic waveforms of test-tone oscillators, intended for calibrating equipment and rooms, not creating music.", "New techniques were invented to allow mixing of the music, as this was before the era of multitrack tape machines.", "On hearing the finished result, Grainer asked, \"Jeez, Delia, did I write that?\"", "She answered, \"Most of it.\"", "Although Grainer was willing to give Derbyshire the co-composer credit, it was against BBC policy at the time.", "Derbyshire would not receive an on-screen credit until the 50th-anniversary story \"The Day of the Doctor\" in 2013.A different arrangement was recorded by Peter Howell for season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for the season-long serial ''The Trial of a Time Lord'' in season 23 (1986).", "Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era, which lasted from season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989.American composer John Debney created a new arrangement of Ron Grainer's original theme for ''Doctor Who'' in 1996.For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement, which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added in the 2005 Christmas episode \"The Christmas Invasion\".A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, \"Voyage of the Damned\".", "Gold returned as composer for the 2010 series, and was responsible for a new version of the theme which was reported to have had a hostile reception from some viewers.", "In 2011, the theme tune charted at number 228 of radio station Classic FM's Hall of Fame, a survey of classical music tastes.", "A revised version of Gold's 2010 arrangement had its debut over the opening titles of the 2012 Christmas special \"The Snowmen\", and a further revision of the arrangement was made for the 50th-anniversary special \"The Day of the Doctor\" in November 2013.Versions of the \"Doctor Who Theme\" have also been released as pop music.", "In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, \"Who Is the Doctor\".", "In 1978, a disco version of the theme in the UK, Denmark and Australia by the group Mankind, which reached number 24 in the UK charts.", "In 1988, the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single \"Doctorin' the Tardis\" under the name The Timelords, which reached No.", "1 in the UK and No.", "2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including \"Rock and Roll Part 2\" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of \"Doctorin' the Tardis\").", "Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital, Pink Floyd, the Australian string ensemble Fourplay, New Zealand punk band Blam Blam Blam, The Pogues, Thin Lizzy, Dub Syndicate, and the comedians Bill Bailey and Mitch Benn.", "Both the theme and obsessive fans were satirised on ''The Chaser's War on Everything''.", "The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs, and has made its way into mobile-phone ringtones.", "Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme.", "In January 2011, the Mankind version was released as a digital download on the album ''Gallifrey And Beyond''.On 26 June 2018, producer Chris Chibnall announced that the musical score for series 11 would be provided by Royal Birmingham Conservatoire alumnus Segun Akinola.===Incidental music===Most of the innovative incidental music for ''Doctor Who'' has been specially commissioned from freelance composers, although in the early years some episodes also used stock music, as well as occasional excerpts from original recordings or cover versions of songs by popular music acts such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys.", "Since its 2005 return, the series has featured occasional use of excerpts of pop music from the 1970s to the 2000s.The incidental music for the first ''Doctor Who'' adventure, ''An Unearthly Child'', was written by Norman Kay.", "Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose ''Doctor Who'' credits include ''The Daleks'', ''Marco Polo'', ''The Daleks' Master Plan'', ''The Gunfighters'' and ''The Mutants''.", "Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon.The most frequent musical contributor during the first 15 years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for ''Blake's 7'', and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of ''The Tomorrow People''.", "Simpson's first ''Doctor Who'' score was ''Planet of Giants'' (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee/Tom Baker periods, ending with ''The Horns of Nimon'' (1979).", "He also made a cameo appearance in ''The Talons of Weng-Chiang'' (as a Music hall conductor).In 1980 starting with the serial ''The Leisure Hive'' the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop.", "Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs.", "The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after 1986's ''The Trial of a Time Lord'' series, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer until the end of its run, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores.From the 2005 revival to the 2017 Christmas episode \"Twice Upon a Time\", all incidental music for the series was composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode \"The Christmas Invasion\" onwards.", "A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need.", "David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert.", "Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval, and Daleks and Cybermen appeared whilst music from their stories was played.", "The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006.A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms.", "The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based on the theme of space and time.", "The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings.", "It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode \"Music of the Spheres\", written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant.Six soundtracks have been released since 2005.The first featured tracks from the first two series, the second and third featured music from the third and fourth series respectively.", "The fourth was released on 4 October 2010 as a two-disc special edition and contained music from the 2008–2010 specials (''The Next Doctor'' to \"End of Time Part 2\").", "The soundtrack for Series 5 was released on 8 November 2010.In February 2011, a soundtrack was released for the 2010 Christmas special \"A Christmas Carol\", and in December 2011, the soundtrack for Series 6 was released, both by Silva Screen Records.In 2013, a 50th-anniversary boxed set of audio CDs was released featuring music and sound effects from Doctor Who's 50-year history.", "The celebration continued in 2016 with the release of Doctor Who: The 50th Anniversary Collection Four LP Box Set by New York City-based Spacelab9.The company pressed 1,000 copies of the set on \"Metallic Silver\" vinyl, dubbed the \"Cyberman Edition\"." ], [ "Viewership", "===United Kingdom===The image of the TARDIS is iconic in British popular culture.", "Here, a woman dresses as a TARDIS.Premiering the day after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the first episode of ''Doctor Who'' was repeated with the second episode the following week.", "''Doctor Who'' has always appeared initially on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers; The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings.", "The first of these was the \"Dalekmania\" period (), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought ''Doctor Who'' ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them.", "The second was the mid to late 1970s, when Tom Baker occasionally drew audiences of over 12 million.Exhibits in the ''Doctor Who Experience'', Cardiff Bay, in 2015During the ITV network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million.", "Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd series was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months.Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension.", "Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the ITV soap opera ''Coronation Street'', the most popular show at the time.", "During Tennant's run (the third notable period of high ratings), the show had consistently high viewership, with the Christmas specials regularly attracting over 10 million.The BBC One broadcast of \"Rose\", the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels.", "The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any drama on television.===International===Map of countries that have broadcast ''Doctor Who'' (as of 2014)''Doctor Who'' has been broadcast internationally outside of the United Kingdom since 1964, a year after the show first aired.", ", the modern series has been broadcast in more than 50 countries.", "The 50th anniversary was broadcast In 94 countries and screened to more than half a million people in cinemas across Australia, Latin America, North America and Europe.", "The scope of the broadcast was a world record, according to ''Guinness World Records''.", "''Doctor Who'' is one of the five top-grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm.", "BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that ''Doctor Who'' is one of a small number of \"Superbrands\" which Worldwide will promote heavily.Only four episodes have premiere showings on channels other than BBC One.", "The 1983 20th-anniversary special ''The Five Doctors'' had its début on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on a number of PBS stations two days before its BBC One broadcast.", "The 1988 story ''Silver Nemesis'' was broadcast with all three episodes airing back to back on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there.Starting with the 60th-anniversary specials in 2023, ''Doctor Who'' will be released on Disney+ outside of the United Kingdom and Ireland.====Oceania====New Zealand was the first country outside the United Kingdom to screen ''Doctor Who'', beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new revived series that aired on Prime Television from 2005 to 2017.In 2018, the series is aired on Fridays on TVNZ 2, and on TVNZ On Demand on the same episode as the UK.", "The series moved to TVNZ 1 in 2021.In Australia, the show has had a strong fan base since its inception, having been exclusively first run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) since January 1965.The ABC has periodically repeated episodes; of note were the daily screenings of all available classic episodes starting in 2003 for the show's 40th anniversary and the weekly screenings of all available revived episodes in 2013 for the show's 50th anniversary.", "The ABC broadcast the modern series' first run on ABC1 and ABC Me, with repeats on ABC2 and streaming available on ABC iview.====Americas====Dalek at the ''Icons of Science Fiction'' exhibition held at the Museum of Pop Culture, Seattle The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations.", "Doctor Who fans cosplay as the Doctor and his companion, Rose, at WonderCon, CaliforniaTVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with ''The Three Doctors'' and aired each series (several years late) through to series 24 in 1991.From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who introduced the episode and then, after the episode concluded, tried to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel.", "Its airing of ''The Talons of Weng-Chiang'' was cancelled as a result of accusations that the story was racist; the story was later broadcast in the 1990s on cable station YTV.", "CBC began showing the series again in 2005.The series moved to the Canadian cable channel Space in 2009.Series three began broadcasting on CBC on 18 June 2007 followed by the second Christmas special, \"The Runaway Bride\", at midnight, and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007, starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode.Series four aired in the United States on the Sci Fi Channel (now known as Syfy), beginning in April 2008.It aired on CBC beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the \"Voyage of the Damned\" special.", "The Canadian cable network Space (now known as CTV Sci-Fi Channel) broadcast \"The Next Doctor\" (in March 2009) and all subsequent series and specials.The series was aired in Brazil at the TV networks Syfy and, more frequently, at the public broadcaster TV Cultura.", "Expect international distribution rights holders, it had already been made available on local streaming platforms Looke and Globoplay.", "Starting from 2024, the previous 13 series will be available at the upcoming streaming service +SBT.====Asia====Series 1 through 3 of Doctor Who were broadcast on various NHK channels from 2006 to 2008 with Japanese subtitles.", "Beginning on 2 August 2009, upon the launch of Disney XD in Japan, the series has been broadcast with Japanese dubbing.===Home media===A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and the United States.", "Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD.", "The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable.", "Eight original series serials have been released on Laserdisc and many have also been released on Betamax tape and Video 2000.One episode of Doctor Who (The Infinite Quest) was released on VCD.", "Initially, only the series from 2005 onwards were also available on Blu-ray, along with the 1996 TV film ''Doctor Who'', released in September 2016.However in March 2021, it was announced that the classic run would be released on Blu-ray starting with seasons 12 and 19.Over 600 episodes of the classic series (the first 8 Doctors, from 1963 to 1996) are available to stream on BritBox (launched in 2017) and Pluto TV.", "From 2020, the revival series is available for streaming on HBO Max, as well as spin-offs ''Sarah Jane Adventures'' and ''Torchwood''.", "Ahead of the 60th anniversary of the series, BBC cleared the rights to allow almost every single non-missing episode of ''Doctor Who'' onto iPlayer.", "Additionally various spin-offs were also added to iPlayer including ''Torchwood'', ''The Sarah Jane Adventures'', ''Class'', and ''Doctor Who Confidential''." ], [ "Adaptations and other appearances", "===Films===There are two Dr. Who feature films: ''Dr.", "Who and the Daleks'', released in 1965 and ''Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.'' in 1966.Both are retellings of existing television stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials, ''The Daleks'' and ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' respectively) with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept.In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named \"Dr. Who\" who travels with his granddaughter, niece, and other companions in a time machine he has invented.", "The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strips and a short story, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series.", "In addition, several planned films were proposed, including a sequel, ''The Chase'', loosely based on the original series story, for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big-screen productions to revive the original ''Doctor Who'' after the original series was cancelled.Paul McGann starred in the only television film as the eighth incarnation of the Doctor.", "After the film, he continued the role in audio dramas and was confirmed as the eighth incarnation through flashback footage and a mini episode in the 2005 revival, effectively linking the two series and the television movie.In 2011, David Yates announced that he had started work with the BBC on a ''Doctor Who'' film, a project that would take three or more years to complete.", "Yates indicated that the film would take a different approach from ''Doctor Who'', although then showrunner Steven Moffat stated later that any such film would not be a reboot of the series and that a film should be made by the BBC team and star the current TV Doctor.===Spin-offs===''Doctor Who'' has appeared on stage numerous times.", "In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in ''Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday''.", "In the late 1980s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a play titled ''Doctor Who – The Ultimate Adventure''.", "For two performances, while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (better known for playing Cybermen) played the Doctor.", "Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote ''The Curse of the Daleks'', a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor.A pilot episode (\"A Girl's Best Friend\") for a potential spin-off series, ''K-9 and Company'', aired in 1981, with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K9, but was not picked up as a regular series.", "Concept art for an animated ''Doctor Who'' series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced.Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled ''Torchwood'' (an anagram of \"Doctor Who\"), set in modern-day Cardiff and investigating alien activities and crime.", "The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006.John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of ''Doctor Who''.", "Two other actresses who appeared in ''Doctor Who'' also star in the series: Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper, who played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 ''Doctor Who'' episode \"The Unquiet Dead\", and Naoko Mori, who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato, first seen in \"Aliens of London\".", "A second series of ''Torchwood'' aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her ''Doctor Who'' role of Martha Jones.", "A third series was broadcast from 6 to 10 July 2009, and consisted of a single five-part story called ''Children of Earth'' which was set largely in London.", "A fourth series, ''Torchwood: Miracle Day'' jointly produced by BBC Wales, BBC Worldwide and the American entertainment company Starz debuted in 2011.The series was predominantly set in the United States, though Wales remained part of the show's setting.", "''The Sarah Jane Adventures'', starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprised her role as investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith, was developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007, and a full series began on 24 September 2007.A second series followed in 2008, notable for (as noted above) featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart.", "A third in 2009 featured a crossover appearance from the main show by David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor.", "In 2010, a further such appearance featured Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor alongside former companion actress Katy Manning reprising her role as Jo Grant.", "A final, three-story fifth series was transmitted in autumn 2011 – uncompleted due to Sladen's death in early 2011.An animated serial, ''The Infinite Quest'', aired alongside the 2007 series of ''Doctor Who'' as part of the children's television series ''Totally Doctor Who''.", "The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 series.", "A second animated serial, ''Dreamland'', aired in six parts on the BBC Red Button service, and the official ''Doctor Who'' website in 2009.", "''Class'', featuring students of Coal Hill School, was first aired on-line on BBC Three from 22 October 2016, as a series of eight 45 minute episodes, written by Patrick Ness.", "Peter Capaldi as the Twelfth Doctor appears in the show's first episode.", "The series was picked up by BBC America on 8 January 2016 and by BBC One a day later.", "On 7 September 2017, BBC Three controller Damian Kavanagh confirmed that the series had officially been cancelled.On 27 January 2023, Russell T Davies confirmed via GQ that future ''Doctor Who'' spin-offs were in the works.", "It is currently unknown what form these spin-offs will take, aside from one centering around UNIT and starring Jemma Redgrave as Kate Stewart.Numerous other spin-off series have been created not by the BBC but by the respective owners of the characters and concepts.", "Such spin-offs include the novel and audio drama series ''Faction Paradox'', ''Iris Wildthyme'' and ''Bernice Summerfield''; as well as the made-for-video series ''P.R.O.B.E.", "''; the Australian-produced television series ''K-9'', which aired a 26-episode first season on Disney XD; and the audio spin-off ''Counter-Measures''.===Aftershows===When the revived series of ''Doctor Who'' was brought back, an aftershow series was created by the BBC, titled ''Doctor Who Confidential''.", "There have been three aftershow series created, with the latest one titled ''Doctor Who: The Fan Show'', which began airing from the tenth series.", "Each series follows behind-the-scenes footage on the making of ''Doctor Who'' through clips and interviews with the cast, production crew and other people, including those who have participated in the television series in some manner.", "Each episode deals with a different topic, and in most cases refers to the ''Doctor Who'' episode that preceded it.", "Series Episodes First aired Last aired Narrator / Presenter ''Doctor Who Confidential'' 87 26 March 2005 1 October 2011 David Tennant (2005)Simon Pegg (2005)Mark Gatiss (2005–2006)Anthony Head (2006–2010)Noel Clarke (2009)Alex Price (2010)Russell Tovey (2010–2011) ''Doctor Who Extra'' 90 23 August 2014 5 December 2015 Matt BottenRufus HoundMatt LucasCharity Wakefield ''Doctor Who: The Fan Show'' 166 8 May 2015 3 August 2018 Christel Dee (main host)Luke Spillane (co-host) ''Doctor Who: Access All Areas'' 10 13 October 2018 13 December 2018 Yinka Bokinni ''Doctor Who: Unleashed'' 17 November 2023 present Steffan Powell===Charity episodes and appearances===In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, ''The Five Doctors'' was shown as part of the annual BBC ''Children in Need'' Appeal, however it was not a charity-based production, simply scheduled within the line-up of Friday 25 November 1983.This was the programme's first co-production with Australian broadcaster ABC.", "At 90 minutes long it was the longest single episode of ''Doctor Who'' produced to date.", "It featured three of the first five Doctors, a new actor to replace the deceased William Hartnell, and unused footage to represent Tom Baker.In 1993, for the franchise's 30th anniversary, another charity special, ''Dimensions in Time'', was produced for ''Children in Need'', featuring all the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions.", "It also featured a crossover with the soap opera ''EastEnders'', the action taking place in the latter's Albert Square location and around Greenwich.", "The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the Pulfrich effect, requiring glasses with one darkened lens; the picture would look normal to those viewers who watched without the glasses.", "''Doctor Who''-themed Paddington Bear statue at the Royal Observatory, London, in 2014.Designed by the twelfth Doctor Peter Capaldi, it was auctioned for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).In 1999, another special, ''Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death'', was made for Comic Relief and later released on VHS.", "An affectionate parody of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with cliffhangers, and running down the same corridor several times when being chased (the version released on video was split into only two episodes).", "In the story, the Doctor (Rowan Atkinson) encounters both the Master (Jonathan Pryce) and the Daleks.", "During the special, the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, Richard E. Grant, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Grant, and Joanna Lumley.", "The script was written by Steven Moffat, later to be head writer and executive producer of the revived series.Since the return of ''Doctor Who'' in 2005, the franchise has produced two original \"mini-episodes\" to support Children in Need.", "The first, which aired in November 2005, was an untitled seven-minute scene introducing David Tennant as the Tenth Doctor.", "It was followed in November 2007 by \"Time Crash\", a 7-minute scene that featured the Tenth Doctor meeting the Fifth Doctor, Peter Davison.A set of two mini-episodes, titled \"Space\" and \"Time\" respectively, were produced to support Comic Relief.", "They were aired during the Comic Relief 2011 event.", "During ''Children in Need 2011'', an exclusively filmed segment showed the Doctor addressing the viewer, attempting to persuade them to purchase items of his clothing, which were going up for auction for Children in Need.", "''Children in Need 2012'' featured the mini-episode \"The Great Detective\".", "In 2014, the Twelfth Doctor Peter Capaldi designed a ''Doctor Who''-themed Paddington Bear statue, which was located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich (one of 50 placed around London), which was auctioned to raise funds for the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC).===Spoofs and cultural references===''Doctor Who'' has been satirised and spoofed on many occasions by comedians including Spike Milligan (a Dalek invades his bathroom—Milligan, naked, hurls a soap sponge at it) and Lenny Henry.", "Jon Culshaw frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC ''Dead Ringers'' series.", "''Doctor Who'' fandom has also been lampooned on programs such as ''Saturday Night Live'', ''The Chaser's War on Everything'', ''Mystery Science Theater 3000'', ''Family Guy'', ''American Dad!", "'', ''Futurama'', ''South Park'',''Community'' as Inspector Spacetime, ''The Simpsons'' and ''The Big Bang Theory''.", "As part of the 50th-anniversary programmes, former Fifth Doctor Peter Davison directed, wrote, and co-starred in the parody ''The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot'', which also starred two other former Doctors, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy, and had cameo appearances from cast and crew involved in the programme, including showrunner Steven Moffat and Doctors Paul McGann, David Tennant, and Matt Smith.The Doctor in his fourth incarnation has been represented on several episodes of ''The Simpsons'' and Matt Groening's other animated series ''Futurama''.", "A fan of ''Doctor Who'' since childhood, Groening favours Tom Baker's fourth Doctor, with ''Simpsons'' writer Ron Hauge stating, \"There are several ''Doctor Who'' actors but Tom Baker is the one we always go with.", "\"There have also been many references to ''Doctor Who'' in popular culture and other science fiction, including ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (\"The Neutral Zone\") and ''Leverage''.", "In the Channel 4 series ''Queer as Folk'' (created by later ''Doctor Who'' executive producer Russell T. Davies), the character of Vince was portrayed as an avid ''Doctor Who'' fan, with references appearing many times throughout in the form of clips from the programme.", "In a similar manner, the character of Oliver on ''Coupling'' (created and written by Steven Moffat) is portrayed as a ''Doctor Who'' collector and enthusiast.References to ''Doctor Who'' have also appeared in the young adult fantasy novels ''Brisingr'' and ''High Wizardry'', the video game ''Rock Band'', the Adult Swim comedy show ''Robot Chicken'', the ''Family Guy'' episodes \"Blue Harvest\" and \"420\", and the game ''RuneScape''.", "It has also been referenced in ''Destroy All Humans!", "2'', by civilians in the game's variation of England, and multiple times throughout the ''Ace Attorney'' series.", "''Doctor Who'' has been a reference in several political cartoons, from a 1964 cartoon in the ''Daily Mail'' depicting Charles de Gaulle as a Dalek to a 2008 edition of ''This Modern World'' by Tom Tomorrow in which the Tenth Doctor informs an incredulous character from 2003 that the Democratic Party will nominate an African-American as its presidential candidate.The word \"TARDIS\" is an entry in the ''Shorter Oxford English Dictionary'', and the iOS dictionary.===Museums and exhibitions===There have been various ''Doctor Who''–related exhibitions in the United Kingdom, including the now-closed exhibitions at:* Land's End (Cornwall)* Blackpool* Llangollen* Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow* Coventry Transport Museum, Coventry* Centre for Life, Newcastle upon Tyne* Melbourne, Australia* Kensington Olympia Two, London* Longleat, which ran for 30 years.", "* Cardiff (the city where the series is filmed).===Merchandise===Since its beginnings, ''Doctor Who'' has generated hundreds of products related to the show, from toys and games to collectible picture cards and postage stamps.", "These include board games, card games, gamebooks, computer games, roleplaying games, action figures and a pinball game.", "Many games have been released that feature the Daleks, including Dalek computer games.===Audio===The earliest ''Doctor Who''–related audio release was a 21-minute narrated abridgement of the First Doctor television story ''The Chase'' released in 1966.Ten years later, the first original Doctor Who audio was released on LP record; ''Doctor Who and the Pescatons'' featuring the Fourth Doctor.", "The first commercially available audiobook was an abridged reading of the Fourth Doctor story ''State of Decay'' in 1981.In 1988, during a hiatus in the television show, ''Slipback'', the first radio drama, was transmitted.Since 1999, Big Finish Productions has released several different series of Doctor Who audios on CD.", "The earliest of these featured the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Doctors, with Paul McGann's Eighth Doctor joining the line in 2001.Tom Baker's Fourth Doctor began appearing for Big Finish in 2012.Along with the main range, adventures of the First, Second and Third Doctors have been produced in both limited cast and full cast formats, as well as audiobooks.", "The 2013 series ''Destiny of the Doctor'', produced as part of the series' 50th-anniversary celebrations, marked the first time Big Finish created stories (in this case audiobooks) featuring the Doctors from the revived show.", "Along with this, in May 2016, the Tenth Doctor, David Tennant, appeared alongside Catherine Tate in a collection of three audio adventures.", "In August 2020, Big Finish announced a new series of audios beginning release in May 2021, featuring Christopher Eccleston reprising his role as the Ninth Doctor.The main range, ''Doctor Who: The Monthly Adventures'', holds the ''Guinness World Record'' for the longest-running science fiction audio play series.", "In 2020 Big Finish revealed that ''The Monthly Adventures'' would come to an end in favor of individual box sets.In 2022, BBC Sounds began airing ''Doctor Who: Redacted'', a 10-episode podcast written by Juno Dawson and starring Charlie Craggs and Jodie Whittaker.", "The podcast focuses on a trio of friends who host a paranormal conspiracy podcast, \"The Blue Box Files\", and end up getting involved in much more than they expected.===Books===''Doctor Who'' books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day.", "From 1965 to 1991 the books published were primarily novelised adaptations of broadcast episodes; beginning in 1991 an extensive line of original fiction was launched, the Virgin New Adventures and Virgin Missing Adventures.", "Since the relaunch of the programme in 2005, a new range of novels has been published by BBC Books.", "Numerous non-fiction books about the series, including guidebooks and critical studies, have also been published, and a dedicated ''Doctor Who Magazine'' (''DWM'') with newsstand circulation has been published regularly since 1979: ''DWM'' is recognised by ''Guinness World Records'' as the longest running TV tie-in magazine, celebrating 40 years of continuous publication on 11 October 2019.This is published by Panini, as is the ''Doctor Who Adventures'' magazine for younger fans.===Video games===Numerous ''Doctor Who'' video games have been created from the mid-80s through to the present day.", "A ''Doctor Who'' game was planned for the Sega Mega Drive but never released.", "One of the recent ones is a match-3 game released in November 2013 for iOS, Android, Amazon App Store and Facebook called ''Doctor Who: Legacy''.", "It has been constantly updated since its release and features all the Doctors as playable characters as well as over 100 companions.Another video game instalment is Lego Dimensions – in which Doctor Who is one of the many \"Level Packs\" in the game.", "The pack contains the Twelfth Doctor (who can reincarnate into the others), K9, the TARDIS and a Victorian London adventure level area.", "The game and pack released in November 2015.", "''Doctor Who: Battle of Time'' was a digital collectible card game developed by Bandai Namco Entertainment and released for iOS and Android.", "It was soft-launched on 30 May 2018 in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Thailand, but was shutdown on 26 November of that same year.", "''Doctor Who Infinity'' was released on Steam on 7 August 2018.It was nominated for \"Best Start-up\" at The Independent Game Developers' Association Awards 2018." ], [ "Chronology and canonicity", "Since the creation of the ''Doctor Who'' character by BBC Television in the early 1960s, a myriad of stories have been published about ''Doctor Who'', in different media: apart from the actual television episodes that continue to be produced by the BBC, there have also been novels, comics, short stories, audio books, radio plays, interactive video games, game books, webcasts, DVD extras, and stage performances.", "The BBC takes no position on the canonicity of any of such stories, and producers of the show have expressed distaste for the idea of canonicity." ], [ "Awards", "The show has received recognition as one of Britain's finest television programmes, winning the 2006 British Academy Television Award for Best Drama Series and five consecutive (2005–2010) awards at the National Television Awards during Russell T Davies' tenure as executive producer.", "In 2011, Matt Smith became the first Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA Television Award for Best Actor, and in 2016, Michelle Gomez became the first female to receive a BAFTA nomination for the series, getting a Best Supporting Actress nomination for her work as Missy.Matt Smith, Jenna-Louise Coleman and Steven Moffat accepting a Peabody Award for ''Doctor Who'' in 2013In 2013, the Peabody Awards honoured ''Doctor Who'' with an Institutional Peabody \"for evolving with technology and the times like nothing else in the known television universe.\"", "The programme is listed in ''Guinness World Records'' as the longest-running science-fiction television show in the world, as the \"most successful\" science-fiction series of all time—based on its overall broadcast ratings, DVD and book sales, and iTunes traffic—and for the largest ever simulcast of a TV drama with its 50th-anniversary special.In 1975, Season 11 of the series won a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best Writing in a Children's Serial.", "In 1996, BBC television held the \"Auntie Awards\" as the culmination of their \"TV60\" series, celebrating 60 years of BBC television broadcasting, where ''Doctor Who'' was voted as the \"Best Popular Drama\" the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as ''EastEnders'' and ''Casualty''.", "In 2000, ''Doctor Who'' was ranked third in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the 20th century, produced by the British Film Institute and voted on by industry professionals.", "In 2005, the series came first in a survey by ''SFX'' magazine of \"The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever\".", "In Channel 4's 2001 list of the 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows, ''Doctor Who'' was placed at number nine.", "In 2004 and 2007, ''Doctor Who'' was ranked number 18 and number 22 on TV Guide's Top Cult Shows Ever.", "In 2013, TV Guide ranked it as the sixth-best sci-fi show.The revived series has received recognition from critics and the public, across various awards ceremonies.", "It won five BAFTA TV Awards, including Best Drama Series, the highest-profile and most prestigious British television award for which the series has ever been nominated.", "It was very popular at the BAFTA Cymru Awards, with 25 wins overall including Best Drama Series (twice), Best Screenplay/Screenwriter (thrice) and Best Actor.", "It was also nominated for 7 Saturn Awards, winning the only Best International Series in the ceremony's history.", "In 2009, ''Doctor Who'' was voted the 3rd greatest show of the 2000s by Channel 4, behind ''Top Gear'' and ''The Apprentice''.", "The episode \"Vincent and the Doctor\" was shortlisted for a Mind Award at the 2010 Mind Mental Health Media Awards for its \"touching\" portrayal of Vincent van Gogh.It has won the Short Form of the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the oldest science fiction/fantasy award for films and series, six times since 2006.The winning episodes were \"The Empty Child\"/\"The Doctor Dances\" (2006), \"The Girl in the Fireplace\" (2007), \"Blink\" (2008), \"The Waters of Mars\" (2010), \"The Pandorica Opens\"/\"The Big Bang\" (2011), and \"The Doctor's Wife\" (2012).", "The 2016 Christmas special \"The Return of Doctor Mysterio\" was also a finalist for the 2017 Hugo Awards.", "''Doctor Who'' star Matt Smith won Best Actor in the 2012 National Television awards alongside Karen Gillan, who won Best Actress.As a British series, the majority of its nominations and awards have been for national competitions such as the BAFTAs, but it has occasionally received nominations in mainstream American awards, most notably a nomination for \"Favorite Sci-Fi Show\" in the 2008 People's Choice Awards, and the series has been nominated multiple times in the Spike Scream Awards, with Smith winning Best Science Fiction Actor in 2011.The Canadian Constellation Awards have also recognised the series.", "In 2019, ''Doctor Who'' was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame based in Seattle, Washington." ], [ "See also", "* Time travel in fiction* List of Welsh television series" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Cited texts===* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Matt Hills.", "''Triumph of a Time Lord: Regenerating \"Doctor Who\" in the Twenty-First Century'' (I.", "B. Tauris, 2010).", "261 pages.", "Discusses the revival of the BBC's ''Doctor Who'' in 2005 after it had been off the air as a regular series for more than 15 years; topics include the role of \"fandom\" in the sci-fi programme's return, and notions of \"cult\" and \"mainstream\" in television.===Scholarly views===* * * Charles, Alec.", "\"War Without End?", ": Utopia, the Family, and the Post-9/11 World in Russell T. Davies's ''Doctor Who''.", "''Science Fiction Studies'' (2008): 450–465.", "* Charles, Alec.", "2011.\"", "The crack of doom: The uncanny echoes of Steven Moffat's Doctor Who\".", "''Science Fiction Film and Television''; Vol.", "4, Issue 1, Spring 2011.Liverpool University Press.", "This analysis is framed specifically by the Freudian notion of the uncanny, and suggests that Moffat's work on ''Doctor Who'' confronts unconscious perceptions, repressed fears and death itself through storytelling techniques which attempt to connect directly with the audience by deconstructing the distance between material reality and the fantasy space of the series.", "* Fisher, R. Michael, and Barbara Bickel.", "\"The Mystery of Dr. Who?", "On A Road Less Traveled in Art Education\".", "''Journal of Social Theory in Art Education'' 26.1 (2006): 28–57.", "* Fiske, John.", "\"Popularity and ideology: A structuralist reading of Dr. Who\".", "''Interpreting television: Current research perspectives'' (1984): 165–198.", "* McCormack, Una (2011).", "\"He's Not the Messiah: Undermining Political and Religious Authority in New ''Doctor Who''\".", "In Bradshaw, S., Anthony Keen and Graham Sleight (eds.", "), ''The Unsilent Library: Essays on the Russell T. Davies Era of the New Doctor Who''.", "The Science Fiction Foundation.", "* Orthia, Lindy A.", "\"Antirationalist critique or fifth column of scientism?", "Challenges from ''Doctor Who'' to the mad scientist trope\".", "''Public Understanding of Science'' 20.4 (2011): 525–542.", "* Perryman, Neil.", "\"''Doctor Who'' and the Convergence of Media: A Case Study in Transmedia Storytelling\".", "''Convergence'' 14.1 (2008): 21–39." ], [ "External links", "===Official websites===* * * ''Doctor Who'' at BBC Worldwide* Archived websites: 1963–1996, 2005–2007, 2008* Production website ===Reference websites===* ''Doctor Who'' Reference Guide – synopses of all media based on the series (1963–2012)* ''Doctor Who'' at IMDb: 1963, 1996, 2005* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Democritus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Democritus''' (, ; , ''Dēmókritos'', meaning \"chosen of the people\"; – ) was an Ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher from Abdera, primarily remembered today for his formulation of an atomic theory of the universe.", "None of Democritus' original work has survived, except through second-hand references.", "Many of these references come from Aristotle, who viewed him as an important rival in the field of natural philosophy." ], [ "Life", "Although many anecdotes about Democritus' life survive, their authenticity cannot be verified and modern scholars doubt their accuracy.", "Democritus was said to be born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, an Ionian colony of Teos.", "Ancient accounts of his life have claimed that he lived to a very old age, with some writers claiming that he was over a hundred years old at the time of his death." ], [ "Philosophy and science", " states that the relation between Democritus and his predecessor Leucippus is not clear; while earlier ancient sources such as Aristotle and Theophrastus credit Leucippus with the invention of atomism and credit its doctrines to both philosophers, later sources credit only Democritus, making definitive identification of specific doctrines difficult.===Atomic hypothesis===Democritus among the AbderitesWe have various quotes from Democritus on atoms, one of them being:The theory of Democritus held that everything is composed of \"atoms,\" which are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible; that between atoms, there lies empty space; that atoms are indestructible, and have always been and always will be in motion; that there is an infinite number of atoms and of kinds of atoms, which differ in shape and size.", "Of the mass of atoms, Democritus said, \"The more any indivisible exceeds, the heavier it is.\"", "However, his exact position on atomic weight is disputed.", "His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from those of his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts.", "Their speculation on atoms, taken from Leucippus, bears a passing and partial resemblance to the 19th-century understanding of atomic structure that has led some to regard Democritus as more of a scientist than other Greek philosophers; however, their ideas rested on very different bases.Democritus, along with Leucippus and Epicurus, proposed the earliest views on the shapes and connectivity of atoms.", "They reasoned that the solidness of the material corresponded to the shape of the atoms involved.", "Using analogies from humans' sense experiences, he gave a picture or an image of an atom that distinguished them from each other by their shape, their size, and the arrangement of their parts.", "Moreover, connections were explained by material links in which single atoms were supplied with attachments: some with hooks and eyes, others with balls and sockets.The Democritean atom is an inert solid (merely excluding other bodies from its volume) that interacts with other atoms mechanically.", "In contrast, modern, quantum-mechanical atoms interact via electric and magnetic forces and are dynamic.==== Correlation with modern science ====The theory of the atomists appears to be more nearly aligned with that of modern science than any other theory of antiquity.", "However, the similarity with modern concepts of science can be confusing when trying to understand where the hypothesis came from.", "Classical atomists could not have had an empirical basis for modern concepts of atoms and molecules.The atomistic void hypothesis was a response to the paradoxes of Parmenides and Zeno, the founders of metaphysical logic, who put forth difficult-to-answer arguments in favor of the idea that there can be no movement.", "They held that any movement would require a void—which is nothing—but a nothing cannot exist.", "The Parmenidean position was \"You say there ''is'' a void; therefore the void is not nothing; therefore there is not the void.\"", "The position of Parmenides appeared validated by the observation that where there seems to be nothing there is air, and indeed even where there is not matter there is ''something'', for instance light waves.The atomists agreed that motion required a void, but simply rejected the argument of Parmenides on the grounds that motion was an observable fact.", "Therefore, they asserted, there must be a void.Democritus held that originally the universe was composed of nothing but tiny atoms churning in chaos, until they collided together to form larger units—including the earth and everything on it.", "He surmised that there are many worlds, some growing, some decaying; some with no sun or moon, some with several.", "He held that every world has a beginning and an end and that a world could be destroyed by collision with another world.=== Mathematics ===Democritus argued that the circular cross-section of a cone would need step-like sides, rather than being shaped like a cylinder.Democritus was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular.", "According to Archimedes, Democritus was among the first to observe that a cone and pyramid with the same base area and height has one-third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively, a result which Archimedes states was later proved by Eudoxus of Cnidus.", "Plutarch also reports that Democritus worked on a problem involving the cross-section of a cone that Thomas Heath suggests may be an early version of infinitesimal calculus.===Anthropology===Democritus thought that the first humans lived an anarchic and animal sort of life, going out to forage individually and living off the most palatable herbs and the fruit which grew wild on the trees.", "They were driven together into societies for fear of wild animals, he said.", "He believed that these early people had no language, but that they gradually began to articulate their expressions, establishing symbols for every sort of object, and in this manner came to understand each other.", "He says that the earliest men lived laboriously, having none of the utilities of life; clothing, houses, fire, domestication, and farming were unknown to them.", "Democritus presents the early period of mankind as one of learning by trial and error, and says that each step slowly led to more discoveries; they took refuge in the caves in winter, stored fruits that could be preserved, and through reason and keenness of mind came to build upon each new idea.===Ethics and politics===Charles-Antoine Coypel, ''Cheerful Democritus'', 1746.The ethics and politics of Democritus come to us mostly in the form of maxims.", "As such, the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' has gone as far as to say that: \"despite the large number of ethical sayings, it is difficult to construct a coherent account of Democritus's ethical views,\" noting that there is a \"difficulty of deciding which fragments are genuinely Democritean.", "\"===Aesthetics===Later Greek historians consider Democritus to have established aesthetics as a subject of investigation and study, as he wrote theoretically on poetry and fine art long before authors such as Aristotle.", "Specifically, Thrasyllus identified six works in the philosopher's oeuvre which had belonged to aesthetics as a discipline, but only fragments of the relevant works are extant; hence of all Democritus's writings on these matters, only a small percentage of his thoughts and ideas can be known." ], [ "Works", "Diogenes Laertius attributes several works to Democritus, but none of them have survived in a complete form.", "; Ethics: ''Pythagoras'', ''On the Disposition of the Wise Man'', ''On the Things in Hades'', ''Tritogenia'',''On Manliness or On Virtue'', ''The Horn of Amaltheia'', ''On Contentment'', ''Ethical Commentaries''; Natural science: ''The Great World-System'', ''Cosmography'',''On the Planets'', ''On Nature'', ''On the Nature of Man or On Flesh'' (two books), ''On the Mind'', ''On the Senses'',''On Flavours'', ''On Colours'',''On Different Shapes'', ''On Changing Shape'', ''Buttresses'', ''On Images'', ''On Logic'' (three books); Nature: ''Heavenly Causes'', ''Atmospheric Causes'',''Terrestrial Causes'', ''Causes Concerned with Fire and Things in Fire'', ''Causes Concerned with Sounds'', ''Causes Concerned with Seeds and Plants and Fruits'', ''Causes Concerned with Animals'' (three books), ''Miscellaneous Causes'', ''On Magnets''; Mathematics: ''On Different Angles or On contact of Circles and Spheres'', ''On Geometry'', ''Geometry'', ''Numbers'', ''On Irrational Lines and Solids'' (two books), ''Planispheres'', ''On the Great Year or Astronomy'' (a calendar) ''Contest of the Waterclock'', ''Description of the Heavens'', ''Geography'', ''Description of the Poles'', ''Description of Rays of Light'',; Literature: ''On the Rhythms and Harmony'', ''On Poetry'', ''On the Beauty of Verses'', ''On Euphonious and Harsh-sounding Letters'', ''On Homer'', ''On Song'', ''On Verbs'', ''Names''; Technical works: ''Prognosis'',''On Diet'', ''Medical Judgment'', ''Causes Concerning Appropriate and Inappropriate Occasions'', ''On Farming'', ''On Painting'', ''Tactics'', ''Fighting in Armor''; Commentaries: ''On the Sacred Writings of Babylon'', ''On Those in Meroe'', ''Circumnavigation of the Ocean'', ''On History'', ''Chaldaean Account'', ''Phrygian Account'', ''On Fever and Coughing Sicknesses'', ''Legal Causes'', ''Problems''A collections of sayings credited to Democritus have been preserved by Stobaeus, as well as a collection of sayings ascribed to \"Democrates\" which some scholars including Diels and Kranz have also ascribed to Democritus." ], [ "Legacy", "Diogenes Laertius claims that Plato disliked Democritus so much that he wished to have all of his books burned.", "He was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle, and was the teacher of Protagoras." ], [ "See also", "* Atom* John Dalton* Democritus University of Thrace* Kaṇāda* Mochus* National Centre of Scientific Research \"DEMOKRITOS\"* Pseudo-Democritus* Vaisheshika" ], [ "Notes", "=== Citations ===" ], [ "References", "=== Ancient testimony ===* Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC).", "''Bibliotheca historica''.", "* * Petronius (late 1st century AD).", "''Satyricon.''", "Trans.", "William Arrowsmith.", "New York: A Meridian Book, 1987.", "* Sextus Empiricus ().", "''Adversus Mathematicos''.=== Translations ===* Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005).", "''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics: Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing, .", "* Freeman, Kathleen (2008).", "''Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels'', Forgotten Books, .=== Sources ===* * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Bailey, C. (1928).", "''The Greek Atomists and Epicurus''.", "Oxford.", "* Barnes, Jonathan (1982).", "''The Presocratic Philosophers'', Routledge Revised Edition.", "* * * Guthrie, W. K. (1979) ''A History of Greek Philosophy – The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus'', Cambridge University Press.", "* Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven and M. Schofield (1983).", "''The Presocratic Philosophers'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition.", "* * " ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disc golf" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disc golf''', also known as '''frisbee golf''', is a flying disc sport in which players throw a disc at a target; it is played using rules similar to golf.", "The sport is usually played on a course with 9 or 18 holes (baskets).", "Players complete a hole by throwing a disc from a tee pad or tee area toward a basket, throwing again from where the previous throw landed, until the basket is reached.", "The baskets are formed by wire with hanging chains above the basket, designed to catch the incoming discs, which then fall into the basket.", "Usually, the number of throws a player uses to reach each basket is tallied (often in relation to par), and players seek to complete each hole in the lowest number of total throws.", "Par is the number of strokes an expert player is expected to make for a given hole or a group of holes (usually 9 or 18).", "The game is played in about 40 countries and, as of April 26, 2023, there are active members of the Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA) worldwide." ], [ "Origin and early history", "Modern disc golf started in the early 1960s, but there is debate over who came up with the idea first.", "The consensus is that multiple groups of people played independently throughout the 1960s.", "Students at Rice University in Houston, Texas, for example, held tournaments with trees as targets as early as 1964, and in the early 1960s, players in Pendleton King Park in Augusta, Georgia, would toss Frisbees into 50-gallon barrel trash cans designated as targets.", "In 1968 Frisbee Golf was also played in Alameda Park in Santa Barbara, California, by teenagers in the Anacapa and Sola street areas.", "Gazebos, water fountains, lamp posts, and trees were all part of the course.", "This took place for several years and an Alameda Park collectors edition disc still exists, though rare, as few were made.", "Clifford Towne from this group went on to hold a National Time Aloft record.=== 1970s ===Ed Headrick, also known as \"Steady\" Ed Headrick, (June 28, 1924 – August 12, 2002) was an American toy inventor.", "He is most well known as the father of both the modern-day Frisbee and of the sport and game of disc golf.In 1975 Headrick's tenure at Wham-O where he helped redesign the flying disc known as the frisbee ended, and ties between Headrick and Wham-O eventually split.", "Headrick left the company to start out on his own to focus all his efforts on his new interest, which he coined and trademarked \"Disc Golf\".In 1976 \"Steady\" Ed Headrick and his son Ken Headrick started the first disc golf company, the Disc Golf Association (DGA).", "The purpose of DGA was to manufacture discs and baskets and to formalize the sport.", "The first disc golf target was Ed's pole hole design which consisted of a pole sticking out of the ground." ], [ "Courses", "Most disc golf courses have 9 or 18 holes, and exceptions most often have holes in multiples of three.", "Courses with 6, 10, 12, 21, 24 or 27 holes are not uncommon.", "The PDGA recommends that courses average per hole, with holes no shorter than .", "The longest holes in the world measure more than long.", "Course designers use trees, bushes, elevation changes, water hazards, and distance variation, along with out-of-bounds zones and mandatory flight paths (often referred to as \"Mandos\") to make each hole challenging and unique.", "Many courses include multiple tee positions or multiple target positions to cater to players of different ability levels.Most disc golf courses are built in more natural and less manicured environments than golf and require minimal maintenance, although some courses aim for pristine conditions.", "Professional course designers consider safety a critical factor in course design, and are careful to minimize the danger of being hit by a flying disc while providing designs that create strategy in play and variety in shots for enjoyment.", "Holes are designed to require a range of different throws to challenge players with different strengths or particular skills.", "Many courses are central organizing points for local disc golf clubs, and some include shops selling disc golf equipment.", "More than 80% of the courses listed on Disc Golf Course Review are listed as public and free to play.=== List by country ===Three countries account for 85% of all disc golf courses worldwide: the United States (75%), Finland (7%) and Canada (3%).", "Other notable countries include Sweden and Estonia, which has the highest density of disc golf courses per km2 of dry land of any country and the second-highest number of courses per capita.", "Iceland and Finland have 150 and 111 courses per million inhabitants, respectively.", "Outside the North American and European continents, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and South Korea have the most courses.", "There are disc golf courses on every continent, including 24 in Latin America, 8 in Africa, and one in Antarctica.", "Åland has been defined as the world's largest single disc golf park, with one course in each of the 16 municipalities of Åland.", "'''''' indicates '''\"Disc golf in COUNTRY or TERRITORY\"''' links.Countryas % of world totalper 1M inhabitantsper 10,000 km2 of dry landDistribution # Holes (18+ 9+ 7,3797203602421501291241079997897675624936212117161212''Rest of the world''Total10,103Source: https://www.pdga.com/course-directory/advanced=== Tees ===A disc golf tee (commonly referred to as a tee box or the box) is the starting position of a hole.", "The PDGA recommends that the tee box be no smaller than 1.2 meters wide by 3 meters long, allowing ample space to run up and release the disc.", "The tee box is usually a pad of concrete, asphalt, rubber, gravel, or artificial turf.", "Some courses have natural turf with only the front of the tee position marked.", "In rare instances, there are no tee boxes and players begin from a general location based on the course layout.=== Signs ===Established courses have tee signs near each tee position.", "Signs may depict a simple map of the hole including the tee, target, expected disc flight, out-of-bounds areas, water hazards, trees, and mandatory paths.", "Signs typically include the distance to the hole and par.", "Some courses include a unique name for the hole and may have sponsor logos.", "Many courses include a larger sign near the course entrance which has a map of the entire course.=== Targets ===basket, the most common type of targetAlthough early courses were played using trees, fence posts, or park equipment as the target, standard disc golf baskets are by far the most common type of target on modern courses.", "Some courses feature tone targets that are designed to make a distinctive sound when hit with a disc.", "Disc golf baskets are constructed with a central pole holding a basket under an assembly of hanging chains.", "When a disc hits the chains, it is often, but not always, deflected into the basket.", "Per PDGA rules, in order to complete a hole with a basket target, the disc must come to rest supported by the tray or the chains below the chain support.", "There are many different brands of baskets made by numerous manufacturers." ], [ "Gameplay", "A red disc sailing towards a \"Tonal Pole\" style target at the disc golf course on Pender IslandThe sport of disc golf is set up similar to a game of golf.", "A \"round\" is played on a disc golf course consisting of a number of \"holes\", usually 9 or 18.Each hole includes a tee position for starting play and a disc golf target some distance away, often with obstacles such as trees, hills or bodies of water in between.", "Players begin by throwing a disc from the tee, without crossing over the front of the tee prior to releasing the disc when throwing.", "This could lead to a fault similar to a bowling foot fault in cricket.", "Players then navigate the hole by picking up the disc where it lands and throwing again until they reach the target.", "The object of the game is to get through the course with the lowest number of total throws.", "Play is usually in groups of five or fewer, with each player taking turn at the tee box, then progressing with the player furthest from the hole throwing first, while the other players stand aside.Each course is unique, and so requires a different combination of throws to complete, with the best players aiming to shape the flight of the disc to account for distance, terrain, obstacles and weather.", "In order to facilitate making different shots, players carry a variety of discs with different flight characteristics, choosing an appropriate disc for each throw.", "Some players also carry a mini marker disc, used to accurately mark the throwing position before each throw.", "Use of mini marker discs is particularly prevalent in formal competitive play.Many courses include out-of-bounds areas, commonly called \"OB zones\" or just \"OB\".", "If the disc lands in these areas, the player is usually required to add a penalty throw onto his or her score and continue play from near where the disc entered the out-of-bounds zone.", "Some courses include out-of-bounds areas with special rules requiring the player to resume play from a specified area called a drop zone or requiring the player to restart the hole from the tee.", "Some courses also include Mandatories (also called \"Mandos\") which require the path of the disc to be above, below or to one side of a specific line indicated by a sign.By tradition, players throw from the tee box in the order of their score on the previous hole, with the lowest scorer throwing first.", "Most players also follow a loose code of courtesy while playing, which includes norms such as standing out of the sight line of the throwing player and avoiding making distracting noises.", "Because a thrown disc could injure someone, the Professional Disc Golf Association recommends that players \"Never throw into a blind area or when spectators, pedestrians or facility users are within range.", "\"Formal competitive play is governed by the PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf and the PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf events." ], [ "Disc types", "Three discs showcasing different edge profiles.", "From top to bottom: a driver, a mid-range, and a putter.Disc golf discs are smaller than Ultimate flying discs or general-purpose recreational frisbees.", "They typically measure in diameter and weigh .", "All PDGA-approved discs measure in diameter and weigh no more than .", "Discs used for disc golf are designed and shaped for control, speed, and accuracy, while general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or ultimate, have a more traditional shape, similar to a catch disc.", "There is a wide variety of discs used in disc golf and they are generally divided into three categories: drivers, mid-range discs, and putters.=== Driver ===Drivers are recognized by their sharp, beveled edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout.", "They are optimized for aerodynamics and designed to travel maximum distances at high speeds.", "They are typically thrown by experienced players during tee-off and other long distance fairway throws.Some disc brands further sub-divide their drivers into different categories.", "For example, Innova has ''Distance Drivers'' and ''Fairway Drivers'', with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance driver and a mid-range disc.", "Discraft has three categories of drivers: ''Long Drivers'', ''Extra Long Drivers'', and ''Maximum Distance Drivers''.", "Another type of driver, used less frequently, is a roller.", "As the name indicates, it has an edge designed to roll rather than fly.", "(Although any disc can be used for a roller, some behave quite differently than others.", ")The world record distance for a golf disc was once , thrown by Simon Lizotte on October 25, 2014.David Wiggins, Jr. broke the record with a distance of on March 28, 2016.=== Mid-range ===Mid-range discs feature a dull, beveled edge and a moderate rim width.", "They offer more control than drivers, but they have a smaller range.", "Mid-range discs are typically used as approach discs.", "Beginner players will often use mid-ranges instead of drivers at tee-off, as they require less strength and technique to fly straight than higher speed drivers.=== Putter ===Putters are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers.", "They are typically used for tight, controlled shots that are close to the basket, although some players use them for short drives where trees or other obstacles come into play.", "Additionally, higher speed discs will not fly properly without a fast enough release snap, so a putter or mid-range with lower snap requirements is more forgiving and will behave in a more regular way.", "Professional players often carry multiple putters with varying flight characteristics.", "=== Stability ===Stability is the measurement of a disc's tendency to bank laterally during its flight.", "A disc that is over-stable will tend to track left (for a right-handed, backhand throw), whereas a disc that is under-stable will tend to track right (also for a right-handed, backhand throw).", "The stability rating of the discs differs depending on the manufacturer of the disc.", "Innova Discs rate stability as \"turn\" and \"fade\".", "\"Turn\" references how the disc will fly at high speed during the beginning and middle of its flight, and is rated on a scale of +1 to −5, where +1 is the most overstable and −5 is the most understable.", "\"Fade\" references how the disc will fly at lower speeds towards the end of its flight, and is rated on a scale of 0 to 6, where 0 has the least fade, and 6 has the most fade.", "For example, a disc with a turn of −5 and fade of 0 will fly to the right (for right handed, backhand throw) the majority of its flight then curl back minimally left at the end.", "A disc with a turn of −1 and a fade of +3 will turn slightly right during the middle of its flight and turn hard left as it slows down.", "These ratings can be found on the discs themselves or from the manufacturer's web site.", "Discraft prints the stability rating on all discs and also provides this information on their web site.", "The stability ranges from 3 to −2 for Discraft discs; however Discraft's ratings are more of a combination of turn and fade with the predominance being fade.Spin (rotation) has little influence on lift and drag forces but impacts a disc's stability during flight.", "Imagine a spinning top: a gentle nudge will knock it off its axis of rotation momentarily, but it will not topple over because spin adds gyroscopic stability.", "In the same way, a flying disc resists rolling (flipping over) because spin adds gyroscopic stability.", "A flying disc will maintain its spin rate even as it loses velocity.", "Toward the end of a disc's flight, when the spin and velocity lines cross, a flying disc will predictably begin to fade.", "The degree to which a disc will fade depends on its pitch angle and design.=== Plastics ===There are dozens of different types of plastic used for making discs by the various disc manufacturers.", "The type of plastic affects the feel of the disc's grip as well as its durability, which in turn affects its flight pattern as the disc becomes worn.", "Plastics such as DX, J-Pro, Pro-D, X-Line, D-line, retro, and R-Pro from Innova, Latitude 64°, Discmania, and Discraft are some of the less durable, but good for beginners due to their lower prices, compared to the higher end plastics.", "Plastics such as Champion, Titanium, FLX, GStar, Gold Line, Tournament Plastic, Fuzion and Star, which are the best offered from the same companies, have the best quality, durability and flight compared to the other types available.", "There are also plastics that provide additional functionality, e.g.", "glow in the dark plastic and plastic that allows the disc to float in water.", "Most companies also offer a line of plastic that is much lighter than the maximum throwing weight (normally filled with air bubbles) which is conducive to beginners or players with less arm speed.", "Players might prefer bright colored discs to contrast most green flora and recover their disc easier.", "The commercial production process typically used is injection molding for the low unit cost and reliability.", "For prototyping and small-scale offerings 3D printing is a growing option with the PDGA approved designs currently available for purchase from company's such as NSH custom discs.", "3D printed discs are typically produced using different plastics than traditional production methods, utilizing the printability characteristics of polymers such as TPU or specialized proprietary blends." ], [ "Throwing styles", "While there are many different grips and styles to throwing the disc, there are two basic throwing techniques: backhand and forehand (or sidearm).", "These techniques vary in effectiveness under different circumstances.", "Their understanding and mastery can greatly improve a player's game and offer diverse options in maneuvering the disc to the basket with greater efficacy.", "Many players use what is referred to as a ''run-up'' during their drive.", "This is practiced to build more forward disc momentum and distance.", "Throwing styles vary from player to player, and there is no standard throwing style.All discs when thrown will naturally fall to a certain direction determined by the rotation direction of the disc when released.", "This direction is termed ''hyzer'', the natural fall of the disc, or ''anhyzer'', making the disc fall against its natural flight pattern.", "For a right-handed backhand throw (RHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the left.", "For a right-handed forehand throw (RHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the right.", "For a left-handed, backhand throw (LHBH), the disc will naturally fall to the right.", "For a left-handed, forehand throw (LHFH), the disc will naturally fall to the left.=== Backhand ===To perform this throw, the disc is rapidly drawn from across the front of the body, and released towards a forward aimpoint.", "Due to the high level of potential spin generated with this technique, it often results in greater distance than with a forehand throw.", "Power is created by initiating momentum from the feet and allow it to travel up the body, hips, and shoulders, culminating in the transfer of energy to the disc.=== Forehand ===The forehand (sidearm) throw is performed by drawing the disc from behind and partially across the front of the body: similar to a sidearm throw in baseball.", "The term '''sidearm''' actually predates the term '''forehand''', which is seemingly in use today as a simpler means to communicate the technique, equating to a tennis forehand.=== Alternative throws ===The following examples of throws may be used to better deliver a disc where the former common two throws would be impeded by obstacles such as bushes, trees, boulders, or artificial structures.Common alternative stylesThe '''Hatchet''' (or Tomahawk).", "Gripped similarly to the sidearm toss but thrown with an overhand motion; the disc orientation is nearly perpendicular to the ground over much of the flight.", "The '''Thumber''' (or U.D.).", "Thrown in an overhand manner but with thumb held on the disc's underside.", "The '''Roller'''.", "Thrown either backhand or forehand, the disc will predominately be in contact with the ground.", "The disc remains in motion while travelling on its edge at a slight angle and can travel exceedingly far in ideal situations.", "Once perfected, the roller is an invaluably versatile tool in the golfer's arsenal.", "The '''Turbo-Putt''' Thrown with a putter when the player holds the disc upright, supported in the middle by the thumb, with the finger tips outside of the edge, somewhat like a waiter holding a platter.", "The player stands with the leg opposite from the throwing arm forward, reaches back, and then extends their arm towards the basket, throwing the disc in a motion similar to that of throwing a dart.", "Ideally the thrower does not rotate his wrist; the act of following through will give the disc its spin.", "The Turbo-Putt is a throw known for its accuracy, but it has extremely limited range.Other alternative stylesThe '''Baseball''' or '''Grenade'''.", "Thrown as in the backhand, but with the disc upside-down.", "This shot is used often to get up and down on a short shot where there is danger of a shot rolling away or going out of bounds if thrown too far.", "Primarily used on downhill shots but can be used to go up and over.", "Also due to the quick turn and backspin of this shot, it is sometimes used to get out of the woods.", "The '''Overhand wrist flip''' (or '''chicken-wing''' ambiguous origin ).", "This is a very difficult and stylized throw with which accomplished free-stylers and classic ultimate players are familiar; it is less used in disc golf.", "It is thrown in the same manner as the \"baseball\" but drawn on the sidearm side of the body, and by inverting the arm and disc.", "Using the thumb as the power finger, the disc is drawn from the thigh area rearwards and up from behind the body to over the shoulder, releasing toward a forward aimpoint.", "The disc flies in a conventional flight pattern.", "To the untrained eye, this appears to be an ungainly throw.", "It is, however, elegant and accurate.", "The term \"overhand wristflip\" has been in use since at least circa 1970." ], [ "Scoring", "Stroke play is the most common scoring method used in the sport but there are many other forms.", "These include match play, skins, speed golf and captain's choice, which in disc golf is referred to as \"doubles\" (not to be confused with partner or team play).Regardless of which form of play the participants choose, the main objectives of disc golf are conceptually the same as traditional golf in the sense that players follow the same scorekeeping technique.Scoring terms for a single hole: Condor – Where a player is four throws under par, or \"-4\".", "* Albatross (or double-eagle) – Where a player is three throws under par, or \"-3\".", "* Eagle (or double-birdie) – Where a player is two throws under par, or \"-2\".", "* Birdie – Where a player is one throw under par, or \"-1\".", "* Par – Where a player has thrown par, \"E\" or \"0\".", "* Bogey – Where a player is one throw over par, or \"+1\".", "* Double Bogey – Where a player is two throws over par, or \"+2\".", "* Triple Bogey – Where a player is three throws over par, or \"+3\".Doubles play is a unique style of play that many local courses offer on a weekly basis.", "In this format, teams of two golfers are determined.", "Sometimes this is done by random draw, and other times it is a pro-am format.", "On the course, it is a \"best-disc\" scramble, meaning both players throw their tee shot and then decide which lie they would like to play.", "Both players then play from the same lie, again choosing which lie is preferable.", "The World Amateur Doubles Format includes best shot, alternate shot, best score (players play singles and take the best result from the hole) and worst shot (both players must sink the putt)." ], [ "Tournaments", " Ken Climo teeing off at hole 5 of the 2008 USDGCTournaments are held nationwide and yearlong in the United States.", "Sanctioned Tournament play is communicated through the Professional Disc Golf Association Membership.", "The PDGA provides international, professional, and amateur disc golf tournaments as well as communicates event results, opinions and other information beneficial to the sport via electronic and printed media.", "In 1982 the PDGA hosted the first World Championship Tournament.", "Since then, the World Championships have been held in 17 different American states, as well as Toronto, Ontario.", "One of the largest disc golf tournaments is the United States Disc Golf Championship, held in October in Rock Hill, South Carolina.As a show of the year-round sustainability of the sport, annual winter tournaments, known as Ice Bowls, are held at courses around the world.", "Using the motto \"No Wimps, No Whiners\", Ice Bowls collectively create sport awareness and are considered charity events that typically benefit a local food bank.", "The official website reports that the 2010 Ice Bowls raised over $250,000 and donated over 67,000 pounds of food in the 222 tournaments for the year.", "Other charitable tournaments include the annual St. Jude Disc Golf Tournament which started in 2017 and has raised over $100,000 for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital." ], [ "Popularity", "A disc golf course in a public park.Disc golf is a rapidly growing sport worldwide, and is the 4th fastest growing sport in United States, behind mixed martial arts, roller derby, and parkour.", "DGCourseReview.com, which tracks courses worldwide along with opening dates, shows a rapid increase in installed permanent courses with an average of more than 400 new courses added each year between 2007 and 2017.The site lists 9744 courses worldwide (in Feb 2022).During the COVID-19 pandemic, as shutdowns and social distancing forced people to avoid indoor gatherings, disc golf experienced significant growth.", "Televised events were broadcast on CBS Sports and ESPN2 for the first time.", "Although most players play on a casual, amateur level, the professional disc golf scene is also growing rapidly, with the top professionals playing full-time and earning their livings through tournament winnings and sponsorship from equipment manufacturers.", "Online viewership of major tournaments and events has increased rapidly, with coverage of the 2019 world championship achieving more than 3 million views on YouTube, and a clip of an albatross by professional Philo Braithwaite gaining more than 1.4 million views.=== Post-round coverage ===Increased popularity of disc golf can be largely attributed to increased coverage of pro tour events, available for free on YouTube.", "Jomez Productions, Gatekeeper Media, and Gk Pro all film events the day of, and then air them the morning after.", "Often, these videos can have a reach of as many as 200,000 viewers.", "Jomez's coverage of the final round of the 2019 World Championships has more than 5.5 million Youtube views.", "In the 2020 season, Jomez Productions and the Disc Golf Pro Tour reached an agreement with CBS Sports and ESPN 2 to air post production coverage of a tournament on each network.", "The Dynamic Discs Open was shown on CBS Sports, and the Disc Golf Pro Tour championship was re-aired on ESPN2 November 24, 2020.With 225,000 viewers, it was the most-watched show on the channel that day.=== Women in disc golf ===While there are more male than female players, the Women's Disc Golf Association exists to encourage female players and arrange women's tournaments.", "A PDGA survey from 2020 states that out of its 71,016 active members, 4,752 are female.Women at the 2021 WGE event in MalaysiaSeveral companies have started programs and websites to help attract women to the sport.", "The PDGA Women's Committee is \"Dedicated to Attract, Encourage, and Retain Female Participation in Organized Disc Golf Events\".", "The PDGA Women's Committee set historical records on 12 May 2012 by running the Inaugural Women's Global Event that attracted 636 female players in 24 states and 4 countries.", "The Women's Global Event was expected to take place every two years from 2014, with hopes of increasing the number of participants.", "The 2021 Women's Global Event had 99 registered tournaments that spanned the globe, from Minnesota to Malaysia, with a combined turnout of 3224 women competing in 23 different PDGA divisions.There are also disc golf companies such as Disc-Diva, that have started up with a primary, though not exclusive, focus on women in the sport, promoting accessories geared towards women and using catch phrases like \"you wish you threw like a girl\".", "Sassy Pants is another group that focuses on getting more involvement from women in the sport, advocating for sponsorship of women to enter tournaments.Women's disc golf teams are involved in the National Collegiate Disc Golf Championship, and the Mississippi State Women's Team were the inaugural champions." ], [ "The Disc Golf Hall of Fame", "Inductees: Year Disc Golf Hall of Fame Inductees 1993Vanessa Chambers Dave Dunipace Ed Headrick Tom Monroe Jim Palmeri Dan Roddick Ted Smethers 1994Harold Duvall Nobuya Kobayashi Darrell Lynn Dan Mangone Doug Newland Snapper Pierson Lavone Wolfe 1995Ken Climo John David David Greenwell Johnny Roberts Dr. Rick Voakes1996Mike Conger Patti Kunkle Rick Rothstein1997Steve Slasor Elaine King Jim Kenner1998Gregg Hosfeld John Houck Carlton Howard1999Sam Ferrans Steve Wisecup Tim Selinske2000Tom Schot Royce Racinowski2001Stan McDaniel Johnny Sias2002Alan Beaver Gary Lewis2003Mark Horn Brian Hoeniger Dr. Stancil Johnson2004Derek Robins Geoff Lissaman Johnny Lissaman Marty Hapner2005Mats Bengtsson Sylvia Voakes2006Chuck Kennedy Kozo Shimbo2007Fred Salaz Michael Travers2008Dan Ginnelly Juliana Korver2009Crazy John Brooks Lynne Warren Michael Sullivan2010Charlie Callahan Tomas Ekstrom Brian Cummings2011Don Hoffman Joe Feidt Brent Hambrick2012Tim Willis Jeff Homburg Bob Gentil (New Zealand)2013Barry Schultz Becky Zallek Jim Challas Ken Westerfield2014Don Wilchek Jim Oates Italian Victor Parra2015Gail McColl Anni Kreml J Gary Dropcho2016Joseph Mela Ace Mason Tita Ugalde2017John Bird Des Reading Brian Graham2018Andi Young Jay Reading George Sappenfield2019Eric Marx Mitch McClellan2020Jesper LundmarkCliff TowneAl \"Speedy\" GuerreroBob HarrisValarie Jenkins-Doss2021Jared \"White Bear\" Owens" ], [ "Disc golf associations", " Est.", "Name Abbr.", "LocationRegion Reach1976Professional Disc Golf AssociationPDGAAppling, GeorgiaInternational1977French Flying Disc Federation ()FFFD and FFDFPoissyNational1986Swiss Disc Golf Association (; )(; )Reichenbach im Kandertal, BernNational1997Maui Disc Golf AssociationMDGALahaina, HawaiiState1998Finnish Disc Golf Association ()FDGA ()National2011Czech Disc Golf Association ()()PragueNational2013Regina Disc Golf AssociationRDGARegina, Saskatchewan Regina, SaskatchewanCity2014Estonian Disc Golf Association ()EDGA ()PärnuNational2016Swedish Disc Golf Association ()()GöteborgNational" ], [ "See also", "* Flying disc sports* Glossary of disc golf terms* List of disc golf players* List of disc golf brands and manufacturers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA) – official rules, course directory and list of members* PDGA Official Rules of Disc Golf* PDGA Competition Manual for Disc Golf Events* History of Early Frisbee Sports* History of Disc Golf, Ultimate and Frisbee Pioneers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decimal" ], [ "Introduction", "Place value of number in decimal systemThe '''decimal''' numeral system (also called the '''base-ten''' positional numeral system and '''denary''' or '''decanary''') is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers.", "It is the extension to non-integer numbers (''decimal fractions'') of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system.", "The way of denoting numbers in the decimal system is often referred to as ''decimal notation''.A '''decimal numeral''' (also often just ''decimal'' or, less correctly, ''decimal number''), refers generally to the notation of a number in the decimal numeral system.", "Decimals may sometimes be identified by a decimal separator (usually \".\"", "or \",\" as in or ).", "''Decimal'' may also refer specifically to the digits after the decimal separator, such as in \" is the approximation of to ''two decimals''\".", "Zero-digits after a decimal separator serve the purpose of signifying the precision of a value.The numbers that may be represented in the decimal system are the '''decimal fractions'''.", "That is, fractions of the form , where is an integer, and is a non-negative integer.", "Decimal fractions also result from the addition of an integer and a ''fractional part''; the resulting sum sometimes is called a ''fractional number''.Decimals are commonly used to approximate real numbers.", "By increasing the number of digits after the decimal separator, one can make the approximation errors as small as one wants, when one has a method for computing the new digits.", "Originally and in most uses, a decimal has only a finite number of digits after the decimal seperator.", "However, the decimal system has been extended to ''infinite decimals'' for representing any real number, by using an infinite sequence of digits after the decimal separator (see decimal representation).", "In this context, the usual decimals, with a finite number of non-zero digits after the decimal separator, are sometimes called '''terminating decimals'''.", "A ''repeating decimal'' is an infinite decimal that, after some place, repeats indefinitely the same sequence of digits (e.g., ).", "An infinite decimal represents a rational number, the quotient of two integers, if and only if it is a repeating decimal or has a finite number of non-zero digits." ], [ "Origin", "upright=1.2Many numeral systems of ancient civilizations use ten and its powers for representing numbers, possibly because there are ten fingers on two hands and people started counting by using their fingers.", "Examples are firstly the Egyptian numerals, then the Brahmi numerals, Greek numerals, Hebrew numerals, Roman numerals, and Chinese numerals.", "Very large numbers were difficult to represent in these old numeral systems, and only the best mathematicians were able to multiply or divide large numbers.", "These difficulties were completely solved with the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system for representing integers.", "This system has been extended to represent some non-integer numbers, called ''decimal fractions'' or ''decimal numbers'', for forming the ''decimal numeral system''." ], [ "Decimal notation", "For writing numbers, the decimal system uses ten decimal digits, a decimal mark, and, for negative numbers, a minus sign \"−\".", "The decimal digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; the decimal separator is the dot \"\" in many countries (mostly English-speaking), and a comma \"\" in other countries.For representing a non-negative number, a decimal numeral consists of* either a (finite) sequence of digits (such as \"2017\"), where the entire sequence represents an integer::or a decimal mark separating two sequences of digits (such as \"20.70828\")::.If , that is, if the first sequence contains at least two digits, it is generally assumed that the first digit is not zero.", "In some circumstances it may be useful to have one or more 0's on the left; this does not change the value represented by the decimal: for example, .", "Similarly, if the final digit on the right of the decimal mark is zero—that is, if —it may be removed; conversely, trailing zeros may be added after the decimal mark without changing the represented number; for example, and .For representing a negative number, a minus sign is placed before .The numeral represents the number:.The ''integer part'' or ''integral part'' of a decimal numeral is the integer written to the left of the decimal separator (see also truncation).", "For a non-negative decimal numeral, it is the largest integer that is not greater than the decimal.", "The part from the decimal separator to the right is the ''fractional part'', which equals the difference between the numeral and its integer part.When the integral part of a numeral is zero, it may occur, typically in computing, that the integer part is not written (for example, , instead of ).", "In normal writing, this is generally avoided, because of the risk of confusion between the decimal mark and other punctuation.In brief, the contribution of each digit to the value of a number depends on its position in the numeral.", "That is, the decimal system is a positional numeral system." ], [ "Decimal fractions", "'''Decimal fractions''' (sometimes called '''decimal numbers''', especially in contexts involving explicit fractions) are the rational numbers that may be expressed as a fraction whose denominator is a power of ten.", "For example, the decimal expressions represent the fractions , , , and , and therefore denote decimal fractions.", "An example of a fraction that cannot be represented by a decimal expression (with a finite number of digits) is , 3 not being a power of 10.More generally, a decimal with digits after the separator (a point or comma) represents the fraction with denominator , whose numerator is the integer obtained by removing the separator.It follows that a number is a decimal fraction if and only if it has a finite decimal representation.Expressed as fully reduced fractions, the decimal numbers are those whose denominator is a product of a power of 2 and a power of 5.Thus the smallest denominators of decimal numbers are:===Approximation using decimal numbers===Decimal numerals do not allow an exact representation for all real numbers.", "Nevertheless, they allow approximating every real number with any desired accuracy, e.g., the decimal 3.14159 approximates , being less than 10−5 off; so decimals are widely used in science, engineering and everyday life.More precisely, for every real number and every positive integer , there are two decimals and with at most '''' digits after the decimal mark such that and .Numbers are very often obtained as the result of measurement.", "As measurements are subject to measurement uncertainty with a known upper bound, the result of a measurement is well-represented by a decimal with digits after the decimal mark, as soon as the absolute measurement error is bounded from above by .", "In practice, measurement results are often given with a certain number of digits after the decimal point, which indicate the error bounds.", "For example, although 0.080 and 0.08 denote the same number, the decimal numeral 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error less than 0.001, while the numeral 0.08 indicates an absolute error bounded by 0.01.In both cases, the true value of the measured quantity could be, for example, 0.0803 or 0.0796 (see also significant figures)." ], [ "Infinite decimal expansion", "For a real number and an integer , let denote the (finite) decimal expansion of the greatest number that is not greater than '''' that has exactly digits after the decimal mark.", "Let denote the last digit of .", "It is straightforward to see that may be obtained by appending to the right of .", "This way one has:,and the difference of and amounts to:,which is either 0, if , or gets arbitrarily small as '''' tends to infinity.", "According to the definition of a limit, '''' is the limit of when '''' tends to infinity.", "This is written asor: ,which is called an '''infinite decimal expansion''' of ''''.Conversely, for any integer and any sequence of digits the (infinite) expression is an ''infinite decimal expansion'' of a real number ''''.", "This expansion is unique if neither all are equal to 9 nor all are equal to 0 for '''' large enough (for all '''' greater than some natural number ).If all for equal to 9 and , the limit of the sequence is the decimal fraction obtained by replacing the last digit that is not a 9, i.e.", ": , by , and replacing all subsequent 9s by 0s (see 0.999...).Any such decimal fraction, i.e.", ": for , may be converted to its equivalent infinite decimal expansion by replacing by and replacing all subsequent 0s by 9s (see 0.999...).In summary, every real number that is not a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion.", "Each decimal fraction has exactly two infinite decimal expansions, one containing only 0s after some place, which is obtained by the above definition of , and the other containing only 9s after some place, which is obtained by defining as the greatest number that is ''less'' than , having exactly '''' digits after the decimal mark.=== Rational numbers ===Long division allows computing the infinite decimal expansion of a rational number.", "If the rational number is a decimal fraction, the division stops eventually, producing a decimal numeral, which may be prolongated into an infinite expansion by adding infinitely many zeros.", "If the rational number is not a decimal fraction, the division may continue indefinitely.", "However, as all successive remainders are less than the divisor, there are only a finite number of possible remainders, and after some place, the same sequence of digits must be repeated indefinitely in the quotient.", "That is, one has a ''repeating decimal''.", "For example,: = 0.012345679012... (with the group 012345679 indefinitely repeating).The converse is also true: if, at some point in the decimal representation of a number, the same string of digits starts repeating indefinitely, the number is rational.For example, if ''x'' is 0.4156156156...then 10,000''x'' is 4156.156156156... and 10''x'' is 4.156156156...so 10,000''x'' − 10''x'', i.e.", "9,990''x'', is4152.000000000...and ''x'' is or, dividing both numerator and denominator by 6, ." ], [ "Decimal computation", "Diagram of the world's earliest known multiplication table () from the Warring States periodMost modern computer hardware and software systems commonly use a binary representation internally (although many early computers, such as the ENIAC or the IBM 650, used decimal representation internally).For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related octal or hexadecimal systems.For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to or from the equivalent decimal values for presentation to or input from humans; computer programs express literals in decimal by default.", "(123.1, for example, is written as such in a computer program, even though many computer languages are unable to encode that number precisely.", ")Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic.", "Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using some variant of binary-coded decimal, especially in database implementations, but there are other decimal representations in use (including decimal floating point such as in newer revisions of the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic).Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results of adding (or subtracting) values with a fixed length of their fractional part always are computed to this same length of precision.", "This is especially important for financial calculations, e.g., requiring in their results integer multiples of the smallest currency unit for book keeping purposes.", "This is not possible in binary, because the negative powers of have no finite binary fractional representation; and is generally impossible for multiplication (or division).", "See Arbitrary-precision arithmetic for exact calculations." ], [ "History", "The world's earliest decimal multiplication table was made from bamboo slips, dating from 305 BCE, during the Warring States period in China.Many ancient cultures calculated with numerals based on ten, perhaps because two human hands have ten fingers.", "Standardized weights used in the Indus Valley civilization () were based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, while their standardized ruler – the ''Mohenjo-daro ruler'' – was divided into ten equal parts.", "Egyptian hieroglyphs, in evidence since around 3000 BCE, used a purely decimal system, as did the Linear A script () of the Minoans and the Linear B script (c. 1400–1200 BCE) of the Mycenaeans.", "The number system of classical Greece also used powers of ten, including an intermediate base of 5, as did Roman numerals.", "Notably, the polymath Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) invented a decimal positional system in his Sand Reckoner which was based on 108.Hittite hieroglyphs (since 15th century BCE) were also strictly decimal.Some non-mathematical ancient texts such as the Vedas, dating back to 1700–900 BCE make use of decimals and mathematical decimal fractions.The Egyptian hieratic numerals, the Greek alphabet numerals, the Hebrew alphabet numerals, the Roman numerals, the Chinese numerals and early Indian Brahmi numerals are all non-positional decimal systems, and required large numbers of symbols.", "For instance, Egyptian numerals used different symbols for 10, 20 to 90, 100, 200 to 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, to 10,000.The world's earliest positional decimal system was the Chinese rod calculus.The world's earliest positional decimal system Upper row vertical form Lower row horizontal form=== History of decimal fractions ===counting rod decimal fraction 1/7Starting from the 2nd century BC, some Chinese units for length were based on divisions into ten; by the 3rd century AD, these metrological units were used to express decimal fractions of lengths, non-positionally.", "Calculations with decimal fractions of lengths were performed using positional counting rods, as described in the 3rd–5th century ''Sunzi Suanjing''.", "The 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi calculated a 7-digit approximation of .", "Qin Jiushao's book ''Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections'' (1247) explicitly writes a decimal fraction representing a number rather than a measurement, using counting rods.", "The number 0.96644 is denoted::18px 18px 18px 18px 18px 18px.Historians of Chinese science have speculated that the idea of decimal fractions may have been transmitted from China to the Middle East.Al Khwarizmi introduced fractions to Islamic countries in the early 9th century, written with a numerator above and denominator below, without a horizontal bar.", "This form of fraction remained in use for centuries.Positional decimal fractions appear for the first time in a book by the Arab mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi written in the 10th century.", "The Jewish mathematician Immanuel Bonfils used decimal fractions around 1350 but did not develop any notation to represent them.", "The Persian mathematician Jamshīd al-Kāshī used, and claimed to have discovered, decimal fractions in the 15th century.", "File:Stevin-decimal notation.svgA forerunner of modern European decimal notation was introduced by Simon Stevin in the 16th century.", "Stevin's influential booklet ''De Thiende'' (\"the art of tenths\") was first published in Dutch in 1585 and translated into French as ''La Disme''.John Napier introduced using the period (.)", "to separate the integer part of a decimal number from the fractional part in his book on constructing tables of logarithms, published posthumously in 1620.=== Natural languages ===A method of expressing every possible natural number using a set of ten symbols emerged in India.", "Several Indian languages show a straightforward decimal system.", "Many Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages have numbers between 10 and 20 expressed in a regular pattern of addition to 10.The Hungarian language also uses a straightforward decimal system.", "All numbers between 10 and 20 are formed regularly (e.g.", "11 is expressed as \"tizenegy\" literally \"one on ten\"), as with those between 20 and 100 (23 as \"huszonhárom\" = \"three on twenty\").A straightforward decimal rank system with a word for each order (10 , 100 , 1000 , 10,000 ), and in which 11 is expressed as ''ten-one'' and 23 as ''two-ten-three'', and 89,345 is expressed as 8 (ten thousands) 9 (thousand) 3 (hundred) 4 (tens) 5 is found in Chinese, and in Vietnamese with a few irregularities.", "Japanese, Korean, and Thai have imported the Chinese decimal system.", "Many other languages with a decimal system have special words for the numbers between 10 and 20, and decades.", "For example, in English 11 is \"eleven\" not \"ten-one\" or \"one-teen\".Incan languages such as Quechua and Aymara have an almost straightforward decimal system, in which 11 is expressed as ''ten with one'' and 23 as ''two-ten with three''.Some psychologists suggest irregularities of the English names of numerals may hinder children's counting ability.=== Other bases ===Some cultures do, or did, use other bases of numbers.", "* Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures such as the Maya used a base-20 system (perhaps based on using all twenty fingers and toes).", "* The Yuki language in California and the Pamean languages in Mexico have octal (base-8) systems because the speakers count using the spaces between their fingers rather than the fingers themselves.", "* The existence of a non-decimal base in the earliest traces of the Germanic languages is attested by the presence of words and glosses meaning that the count is in decimal (cognates to \"ten-count\" or \"tenty-wise\"); such would be expected if normal counting is not decimal, and unusual if it were.", "Where this counting system is known, it is based on the \"long hundred\" = 120, and a \"long thousand\" of 1200.The descriptions like \"long\" only appear after the \"small hundred\" of 100 appeared with the Christians.", "Gordon's Introduction to Old Norse p. 293, gives number names that belong to this system.", "An expression cognate to 'one hundred and eighty' translates to 200, and the cognate to 'two hundred' translates to 240.Goodare details the use of the long hundred in Scotland in the Middle Ages, giving examples such as calculations where the carry implies i C (i.e.", "one hundred) as 120, etc.", "That the general population were not alarmed to encounter such numbers suggests common enough use.", "It is also possible to avoid hundred-like numbers by using intermediate units, such as stones and pounds, rather than a long count of pounds.", "Goodare gives examples of numbers like vii score, where one avoids the hundred by using extended scores.", "There is also a paper by W.H.", "Stevenson, on 'Long Hundred and its uses in England'.", "* Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base-4 counting system, in which the names for numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16.", "* Many languages use quinary (base-5) number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot and Saraveca.", "Of these, Gumatj is the only true 5–25 language known, in which 25 is the higher group of 5.", "* Some Nigerians use duodecimal systems.", "So did some small communities in India and Nepal, as indicated by their languages.", "* The Huli language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-15 numbers.", "''Ngui'' means 15, ''ngui ki'' means 15 × 2 = 30, and ''ngui ngui'' means 15 × 15 = 225.", "* Umbu-Ungu, also known as Kakoli, is reported to have base-24 numbers.", "''Tokapu'' means 24, ''tokapu talu'' means 24 × 2 = 48, and ''tokapu tokapu'' means 24 × 24 = 576.", "* Ngiti is reported to have a base-32 number system with base-4 cycles.", "* The Ndom language of Papua New Guinea is reported to have base-6 numerals.", "''Mer'' means 6, ''mer an thef'' means 6 × 2 = 12, ''nif'' means 36, and ''nif thef'' means 36×2 = 72." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dorians" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dorians''' (; , , singular , ) were one of the four major ethnic groups into which the Hellenes (or Greeks) of Classical Greece divided themselves (along with the Aeolians, Achaeans, and Ionians).", "They are almost always referred to as just \"the Dorians\", as they are called in the earliest literary mention of them in the ''Odyssey'', where they already can be found inhabiting the island of Crete.They were diverse in way of life and social organization, varying from the populous trade center of the city of Corinth, known for its ornate style in art and architecture, to the isolationist, military state of Sparta; and yet, all Hellenes knew which localities were Dorian and which were not.", "Dorian states at war could more likely, but not always, count on the assistance of other Dorian states.", "Dorians were distinguished by the Doric Greek dialect and by characteristic social and historical traditions.In the 5th century BC, Dorians and Ionians were the two most politically important Greek , whose ultimate clash resulted in the Peloponnesian War.", "The degree to which fifth-century Hellenes self-identified as \"Ionian\" or \"Dorian\" has itself been disputed.", "At one extreme Édouard Will concludes that there was no true ethnic component in fifth-century Greek culture, in spite of anti-Dorian elements in Athenian propaganda.", "At the other extreme John Alty reinterprets the sources to conclude that ethnicity did motivate fifth-century actions.", "Moderns viewing these ethnic identifications through the 5th and 4th century BC literary tradition have been profoundly influenced by their own social politics.", "Also, according to E. N. Tigerstedt, nineteenth-century European admirers of virtues they considered \"Dorian\" identified themselves as \"Laconophile\" and found responsive parallels in the culture of their day as well; their biases contribute to the traditional modern interpretation of \"Dorians\"." ], [ "Origin", "Accounts vary as to the Dorians' place of origin.", "One theory, widely believed in ancient times, is that they originated in the mountainous regions of Greece, such as Macedonia and Epirus, and obscure circumstances brought them south into the Peloponnese, to certain Aegean islands.===Peloponnesian dialect replacement===The origin of the Dorians is a multifaceted concept.", "In modern scholarship, the term has often meant the location of the population disseminating the Doric Greek dialect within a hypothetical Proto-Greek speaking population.", "The dialect is known from records of classical northwestern Greece, the Peloponnesus and Crete and some of the islands.", "The geographic and ethnic information found in the west's earliest known literary work, the ''Iliad'', combined with the administrative records of the former Mycenaean states, prove to universal satisfaction that East Greek (Ionian) speakers were once dominant in the Peloponnesus but suffered a setback there and were replaced at least in official circles by West Greek (Doric) speakers.", "An historical event is associated with the overthrow, called anciently the ''Return of the Heracleidai'' and by moderns the Dorian Invasion.This theory of a return or invasion presupposes that West Greek speakers resided in northwest Greece but overran the Peloponnesus replacing the East Greek there with their own dialect.", "No records other than Mycenaean ones are known to have existed in the Bronze Age so a West Greek of that time and place can be neither proved nor disproved.", "West Greek speakers were in western Greece in classical times.", "Unlike the East Greeks, they are not associated with any evidence of displacement events.", "That provides circumstantial evidence that the Doric dialect disseminated among the Hellenes of northwest Greece, a highly-mountainous and somewhat-isolated region.===Dorian invasion===The Dorian invasion is a modern historical concept attempting to account for:* at least the replacement of dialects and traditions in southern Greece in pre-classical times* more generally, the distribution of the Dorians in Classical Greece* the presence of the Dorians in Greece at allOn the whole, none of the objectives has been met, but the investigations served to rule out various speculative hypotheses.", "Most scholars doubt that the Dorian invasion was the main cause of the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization.", "The source of the West Greek speakers in the Peloponnese remains unattested by any solid evidence.===Post-migrational distribution of the Dorians===Dorian site of Lato on the island of CreteThough most of the Dorians settled in the Peloponnese, they also settled on Rhodes and Sicily and in what is now Southern Italy.", "In Asia Minor existed the Dorian Hexapolis (the six great Dorian cities): Halikarnassos (Halicarnassus) and Knidos (Cnidus) in Asia Minor, Kos, and Lindos, Kameiros, and Ialyssos on the island of Rhodes.", "The six cities would later become rivals with the Ionian cities of Asia Minor.", "The Dorians also settled Crete.", "The origin traditions remained strong into classical times: Thucydides saw the Peloponnesian War in part as \"Ionians fighting against Dorians\" and reported the tradition that the Syracusans in Sicily were of Dorian descent.", "Other such \"Dorian\" colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus.", "Also Taras was a Spartan colony." ], [ "Identity", "===Ethnonym===Uplands of Greece - the Pindus Mountains====Dorian of Bronze Age Pylos====A man's name, ''Dōrieus'', occurs in the Linear B tablets at Pylos, one of the regions later invaded and subjugated by the Dorians.", "Pylos tablet Fn867 records it in the dative case as ''do-ri-je-we'', '''Dōriēwei''', a third- or consonant-declension noun with stem ending in w. An unattested nominative plural, ''Dōriēwes'', would have become ''Dōrieis'' by loss of the w and contraction.", "The tablet records the grain rations issued to the servants of \"religious dignitaries\" celebrating a religious festival of Potnia, the mother goddess.The nominative singular, ''Dōrieus'', remained the same in the classical period.", "Many Linear B names of servants were formed from their home territory or the places where they came into Mycenaean ownership.", "Carl Darling Buck sees the ''-eus'' suffix as very productive.", "One of its uses was to convert a toponym to an anthroponym; for example, Megareus, \"Megarian\", from Megara.A ''Dōrieus'' would be from Dōris, the only classical Greek state to serve as the basis for the name of the Dorians.", "The state was a small one in the mountains of west central Greece.", "However, classical Doris may not have been the same as Mycenaean Doris.====Dorians of upland Doris====A number of credible etymologies by noted scholars have been proposed.", "Julius Pokorny derives Δωριεύς, ''Dōrieus'' from δωρίς, ''dōris'', \"woodland\" (which can also mean upland).", "The ''dōri-'' segment is from the o-grade (either ''ō'' or ''o'') of Proto-Indo-European ''deru-'', \"tree\", which also gives the Homeric Δούρειος Ἵππος (''Doureios Hippos'', \"Wooden Horse\").", "This derivation has the advantage of naming the people after their wooded, mountainous country.====Lancers====A second popular derivation was given by the French linguist, Émile Boisacq, from the same root, but from Greek (''doru'') 'spear-shaft' (which was made of wood); i.e., \"the people of the spear\" or \"spearmen.\"", "In this case the country would be named after the people, as in Saxony from the Saxons.", "However, R. S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and asserted that no good etymology exists.====Chosen Greeks====It sometimes happens that different derivations of an Indo-European word exploit similar-sounding Indo-European roots.", "Greek ''doru'', \"lance,\" is from the o-grade of Indo-European ''deru'', \"solid,\" in the sense of wood.", "It is similar to an extended form, ''dō-ro-'', of ''dō-'', (give), as can be seen in the modern Greek imperative δώσε (''dose'', \"give sing.!\")", "appearing in Greek as δῶρον (''dōron'', \"gift\").", "This is the path taken by Jonathan Hall, relying on elements taken from the myth of the Return of the Herakleidai.Hall cites the tradition, based on a fragment of the poet, Tyrtaeus, that \"Sparta is a divine gift granted by Zeus and Hera\" to the Heracleidae.", "In another version, Tyndareus gives his kingdom to Heracles in gratitude for restoring him to the throne, but Heracles \"asks the Spartan king to safeguard the gift until his descendants might claim it.", "\"Hall, therefore, proposes that the Dorians are the people of the gift.", "They assumed the name on taking possession of Lacedaemon.", "Doris was subsequently named after them.", "Hall makes comparisons of Spartans to Hebrews as a chosen people maintaining a covenant with God and being assigned a Holy Land.", "To arrive at this conclusion, Hall relies on Herodotus' version of the myth (see below) that the Hellenes under Dorus did not take his name until reaching the Peloponnesus.", "In other versions the Heracleidae enlisted the help of their Dorian neighbors.", "Hall does not address the problem of the Dorians not calling Lacedaemon Doris, but assigning that name to some less holy and remoter land.", "Similarly, he does not mention the Dorian servant at Pylos, whose sacred gift, if such it was, was still being ruled by the Achaean Atreid family at Lacedaemon.A minor, and perhaps regrettably forgotten, episode in the history of scholarship was the attempt to emphasize the etymology of Doron with the meaning of 'hand'.", "This in turn was connected to an interpretation of the famous lambda on Spartan shields, which was to rather stand for a hand with outstanding thumb than the initial letter of Lacedaimon.", "Given the origin of the Spartan shield lambda legend, however, in a fragment by Eupolis, an Athenian comic poet, there has been a recent attempt to suggest that a comic confusion between the letter and the hand image may yet have been intended.===Social structure===Dorian social structure was characterized by a communal social structure and separation of the sexes.", "The lives of free men centered around military campaigns.", "When not abroad, men stayed in all-male residences focusing on military training until the age of 30, regardless of marital status.Dorian women had greater freedom and economic power than women of other Greek ethnicities.", "Unlike other Hellenic women, Dorian women were able to own property, manage their husbands' estate, and delegate many domestic tasks to slaves.", "Women in ancient Sparta possessed the greatest agency and economic power, likely due to the prolonged absences of men during military campaigns.", "Dorian women wore the peplos, which was once common to all Hellenes.", "This tunic was pinned at the shoulders by brooches and had slit skirts which bared the thighs and permitted more freedom of movement than the voluminous Ionian chiton (costume).===Distinctions of language===The Doric dialect was spoken in northwest Greece, the Peloponnese, Crete, southwest Asia Minor, the southernmost islands of the Aegean Sea, and the various Dorian colonies of Magna Graecia in Southern Italy and Sicily.", "After the classical period, it was mainly replaced by the Attic dialect upon which the Koine or \"common\" Greek language of the Hellenistic period was based.", "The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of Proto-Indo-European , long , which in Attic-Ionic became , .", "A famous example is the valedictory phrase uttered by Spartan mothers to their sons before sending them off to war: ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς (''ḕ tàn ḕ epì tâs'', literally \"either with it or on it\": return alive with your shieldor dead upon it) would have been ἢ τὴν ἢ ἐπὶ τῆς (''ḕ t'''ḕ'''n ḕ epì t'''ê'''s'') in the Attic-Ionic dialect of an Athenian mother.", "Tsakonian, a descendant of Doric Greek, is still spoken in some parts of the southern Argolid coast of the Peloponnese, in the modern prefecture of Arcadia.===Other cultural distinctions===Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, Doric colonies retained their characteristic Doric calendar that revolved round a cycle of festivals, the Hyacinthia and the Carneia being especially important.The Dorian mode in music also was attributed to Doric societies and was associated by classical writers with martial qualities.The Doric order of architecture in the tradition inherited by Vitruvius included the Doric column, noted for its simplicity and strength.The Dorians seem to have offered the central mainland cultus for Helios.", "The scattering of cults of the sun god in Sicyon, Argos, Ermioni, Epidaurus and Laconia, and his holy livestock flocks at Taenarum, seem to suggest that the deity was considerably important in Dorian religion, compared to other parts of ancient Greece.", "Additionally, it may have been the Dorians to import his worship to Rhodes." ], [ "Ancient traditions", "In Greek historiography, the Dorians are mentioned by many authors.", "The chief classical authors to relate their origins are Herodotus, Thucydides and Pausanias.", "The most copious authors, however, lived in Hellenistic and Roman times, long after the main events.", "This apparent paradox does not necessarily discredit the later writers, who were relying on earlier works that did not survive.", "The customs of the Spartan state and its illustrious individuals are detailed at great length in such authors as Plutarch and Diodorus Siculus.===Homer===The ''Odyssey'' has one reference to the Dorians:There is a land called Crete, in the midst of the wine-dark sea, a fair, rich land, begirt with water, and therein are many men, past counting, and ninety cities.", "They have not all the same speech, but their tongues are mixed.", "There dwell Achaeans, there great-hearted native Cretans, there Cydonians, and Dorians of waving plumes, and goodly Pelasgians.The reference is not compatible with a Dorian invasion that brought Dorians to Crete only after the fall of the Mycenaean states.", "In the ''Odyssey'', Odysseus and his relatives visit those states.", "Two solutions are possible, either the ''Odyssey'' is anachronistic or Dorians were on Crete in Mycenaean times.", "The uncertain nature of the Dorian invasion defers a definitive answer until more is known about it.", "Also, the Messenian town of Dorium is mentioned in the Catalogue of Ships.", "If its name comes from Dorians, it would imply there were settlements of the latter in Messenia during that time as well.===Tyrtaeus===Tyrtaeus, a Spartan poet, became advisor of the Lacedaemonians in their mid-7th-century war to suppress a rebellion of the Messenians.", "The latter were a remnant of the Achaeans conquered \"two generations before\", which suggests a rise to supremacy at the end of the Dark Age rather than during and after the fall of Mycenae.", "The Messenian population was reduced to serfdom.Only a few fragments of Tyrtaeus' five books of martial verse survive.", "His is the earliest mention of the three Dorian tribes: Pamphyli, Hylleis, Dymanes.", "He also says: Erineus was a village of Doris.", "He helped to establish the Spartan constitution, giving the kings and elders, among other powers, the power to dismiss the assembly.", "He established a rigorous military training program for the young including songs and poems he wrote himself, such as the \"Embateria or Songs of the Battle-Charge which are also called Enoplia or Songs-under-Arms\".", "These were chants used to establish the timing of standard drills under arms.", "He stressed patriotism:===Herodotus===Fifth century BC hoplite, or \"heavy-armed soldier\", possibly the Spartan king Leonidas, a Dorian, who died holding the pass at the Battle of Thermopylae.Herodotus was from Halicarnassus, a Dorian colony on the southwest coast of Asia Minor; following the literary tradition of the times he wrote in Ionic Greek, being one of the last authors to do so.", "He described the Persian Wars, giving a thumbnail account of the histories of the antagonists, Greeks and Persians.Peloponnesus.", "Sparta was in the valley of the lowermost bay.Herodotus gives a general account of the events termed \"the Dorian Invasion\", presenting them as transfers of population.", "Their original home was in Thessaly, central Greece.", "He goes on to expand in mythological terms, giving some of the geographic details of the myth:1.56.2-3 And inquiring he found that the Lacedemonians and the Athenians had the pre-eminence, the first of the Dorian and the others of the Ionian race.", "For these were the most eminent races in ancient time, the second being a Pelasgian and the first a Hellenic race: and the one never migrated from its place in any direction, while the other was very exceedingly given to wanderings; for in the reign of Deucalion this race dwelt in Pthiotis, and in the time of Doros the son of Hellen in the land lying below Ossa and Olympos, which is called Histiaiotis; and when it was driven from Histiaiotis by the sons of Cadmos, it dwelt in Pindos and was called Makednian; and thence it moved afterwards to Dryopis, and from Dryopis it came finally to Peloponnesus, and began to be called Dorian.1.57.1-3 What language however the Pelasgians used to speak I am not able with certainty to say.", "But if one must pronounce judging by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who dwelt in the city of Creston above the Tyrsenians, and who were once neighbours of the race now called Dorian, dwelling then in the land which is now called Thessaliotis, and also by those that remain of the Pelasgians who settled at Plakia and Skylake in the region of the Hellespont, who before that had been settlers with the Athenians, and of the natives of the various other towns which are really Pelasgian, though they have lost the name,—if one must pronounce judging by these, the Pelasgians used to speak a Barbarian language.", "If therefore all the Pelasgian race was such as these, then the Attic race, being Pelasgian, at the same time when it changed and became Hellenic, unlearnt also its language.", "For the people of Creston do not speak the same language with any of those who dwell about them, nor yet do the people of Phakia, but they speak the same language one as the other: and by this it is proved that they still keep unchanged the form of language which they brought with them when they migrated to these places.1.58 As for the Hellenic race, it has used ever the same language, as I clearly perceive, since it first took its rise; but since the time when it parted off feeble at first from the Pelasgian race, setting forth from a small beginning it has increased to that great number of races which we see, and chiefly because many Barbarian races have been added to it besides.", "Moreover it is true, as I think, of the Pelasgian race also, that so far as it remained Barbarian it never made any great increase.", "Thus, according to Herodotus, the Dorians did not name themselves after Dorus until they had reached Peloponnesus.", "Herodotus does not explain the contradictions of the myth; for example, how Doris, located outside the Peloponnesus, acquired its name.", "However, his goal, as he relates in the beginning of the first book, is only to report what he had heard from his sources without judgement.", "In the myth, the Achaeans displaced from the Peloponnesus gathered at Athens under a leader Ion and became identified as \"Ionians\".Herodotus' list of Dorian states is as follows.", "From northeastern Greece were Phthia, Histiaea and Macedon.", "In central Greece were Doris (the former Dryopia) and in the south Peloponnesus, specifically the states of Lacedaemon, Corinth, Sicyon, Epidaurus and Troezen.", "Hermione was not Dorian but had joined the Dorians.", "Overseas were the islands of Rhodes, Cos, Nisyrus and the Anatolian cities of Cnidus, Halicarnassus, Phaselis and Calydna.", "Dorians also colonised Crete including founding of such towns as Lato, Dreros and Olous.", "The Cynurians were originally Ionians but had become Dorian under the influence of their Argive masters.===Thucydides===Thucydides professes little of Greece before the Trojan War except to say that it was full of barbarians and that there was no distinction between barbarians and Greeks.", "The Hellenes came from Phthiotis.", "The whole country indulged in and suffered from piracy and was not settled.", "After the Trojan War, \"Hellas was still engaged in removing and settling.", "\"Some 60 years after the Trojan War the Boeotians were driven out of Arne by the Thessalians into Boeotia and 20 years later \"the Dorians and the Heraclids became masters of the Peloponnese.\"", "So the lines were drawn between the Dorians and the Aeolians (here Boeotians) with the Ionians (former Peloponnesians).Other than these few brief observations Thucydides names but few Dorians.", "He does make it clear that some Dorian states aligned or were forced to align with the Athenians while some Ionians went with the Lacedaemonians and that the motives for alignment were not always ethnic but were diverse.", "Among the Dorians was Lacedaemon, Corcyra, Corinth and Epidamnus, Leucadia, Ambracia, Potidaea, Rhodes, Cythera, Argos, Syracuse, Gela, Acragas (later Agrigentum), Acrae, Casmenae.He does explain with considerable dismay what happened to incite ethnic war after the unity between the Greek states during the Battle of Thermopylae.", "The Congress of Corinth, formed prior to it, \"split into two sections.\"", "Athens headed one and Lacedaemon the other:For a short time the league held together, till the Lacedaemonians and Athenians quarreled, and made war upon each other with their allies, a duel into which all the Hellenes sooner or later were drawn.He adds: \"the real cause I consider to be ... the growth of the power of Athens and the alarm which this inspired in Lacedaemon....\"===Plato===In the Platonic work ''Laws'' is mentioned that the Achaeans who fought in the Trojan War, on their return from Troy were driven out from their homes and cities by the young residents, so they migrated under a leader named Dorieus and hence they were renamed \"Dorians\".Now during this period of ten years, while the siege lasted, the affairs of each of the besiegers at home suffered much owing to the seditious conduct of the young men.", "For when the soldiers returned to their own cities and homes, these young people did not receive them fittingly and justly, but in such a way that there ensued a vast number of cases of death, slaughter, and exile.", "So they, being again driven out, migrated by sea; and because Dorieus was the man who then banded together the exiles, they got the new name of \"Dorians\", instead of \"Achaeans\".", "But as to all the events that follow this, you Lacedaemonians relate them all fully in your traditions.===Pausanias===The ''Description of Greece'' by Pausanias relates that the Achaeans were driven from their lands by Dorians coming from Oeta, a mountainous region bordering on Thessaly.", "They were led by Hyllus, a son of Heracles, but were defeated by the Achaeans.", "Under other leadership they managed to be victorious over the Achaeans and remain in the Peloponnesus, a mythic theme called \"the return of the Heracleidae.\"", "They had built ships at Naupactus in which to cross the Gulf of Corinth.", "This invasion is viewed by the tradition of Pausanias as a return of the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, apparently meaning a return of families ruling in Aetolia and northern Greece to a land in which they had once had a share.", "The return is described in detail: there were \"disturbances\" throughout the Peloponnesus except in Arcadia, and new Dorian settlers.", "Pausanias goes on to describe the conquest and resettlement of Laconia, Messenia, Argos and elsewhere, and the emigration from there to Crete and the coast of Asia Minor.===Diodorus Siculus===Diodorus is a rich source of traditional information concerning the mythology and history of the Dorians, especially the ''Library of History''.", "He does not make any such distinction but the fantastic nature of the earliest material marks it as mythical or legendary.", "The myths do attempt to justify some Dorian operations, suggesting that they were in part political.Diodorus quoting from an earlier historian Hecataeus of Abdera details that during the Exodus many Israelites went into the islands of Greece and other places.All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus.", "But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited.Heracles was a Perseid, a member of the ruling family of Greece.", "His mother Alcmene had both Perseids and Pelopids in her ancestry.", "A princess of the realm, she received Zeus thinking he was Amphitryon.", "Zeus intended his son to rule Greece but according to the rules of succession Eurystheus, born slightly earlier, preempted the right.", "Attempts to kill Heracles as a child failed.", "On adulthood he was forced into the service of Eurystheus, who commanded him to perform 12 labors.Heracles became a warrior without a home, wandering from place to place assisting the local rulers with various problems.", "He took a retinue of Arcadians with him acquiring also over time a family of grown sons, the Heraclidae.", "He continued this mode of life even after completing the 12 labors.", "The legend has it that he became involved with Achaean Sparta when the family of king Tyndareus was unseated and driven into exile by Hippocoön and his family, who in the process happened to kill the son of a friend of Heracles.", "The latter and his retinue assaulted Sparta, taking it back from Hippocoön.", "He recalled Tyndareus, set him up as a guardian regent, and instructed him to turn the kingdom over to any descendants of his that should claim it.", "Heracles went on with the way of life to which he had become accustomed, which was by today's standards that of a mercenary, as he was being paid for his assistance.", "Subsequently, he founded a colony in Aetolia, then in Trachis.After displacing the Dryopes, he went to the assistance of the Dorians, who lived in a land called Hestiaeotis under king Aegimius and were campaigning against the numerically superior Lapithae.", "The Dorians promised him of Doris (which they did not yet possess).", "He asked Aegimius to keep his share of the land \"in trust\" until it should be claimed by a descendant.", "He went on to further adventures but was poisoned by his jealous wife, Deianeira.", "He immolated himself in full armor dressed for combat and \"passed from among men into the company of the gods.", "\"===Strabo===Strabo, who depends on the books available to him, goes on to elaborate:Beside this sole reference to Dorians in Crete, the mention of the ''Iliad'' of the Heraclid Tlepolemus, a warrior on the side of Achaeans and colonist of three important Dorian cities in Rhodes has been also regarded as a later interpolation." ], [ "See also", "'''Language'''Ancient Greek dialectsDoric Greek'''Mythology'''Dorus, the eponymous founderDymasHeracleidae'''History'''Dorian invasionGreek Dark AgesSea Peoples'''List of Dorian states'''AcragasAmbraciaArgosCalydnaCameirosCnidusCorinthCorcyraCrete various citiesCosCytheraDoris (Asia Minor)Doris (Greece)EpidaurusGelaHalicarnassusHistiaeaIalyssosLeucadiaLindosMacedonMegaraNisyrosPhaselisPhthiaPotidaeaRhodesSpartaSicyonSyracuseTroezen" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " Five editions between 1993 and 1995.", "* * * Müller, Karl Otfried, ''Die Dorier'' (1824) was translated by Henry Tufnel and Sir George Cornewall Lewis and published as ''The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race'', (London: John Murray), 1830, in two vols.", "" ], [ "External links", "* .", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" ], [ "Introduction", "''Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen'', painted by Jean-Jacques-François Le BarbierThe '''Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen''' (), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human civil rights document from the French Revolution.", "Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a significant impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide.The Declaration was initially drafted by Marquis de Lafayette, with assistance from Thomas Jefferson, but the majority of the final draft came from Abbé Sieyès.", "Influenced by the doctrine of natural right, human rights are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place.", "It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law.", "It is included at the beginning of the constitutions of both the Fourth French Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958), and is considered valid as constitutional law." ], [ "History", "The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment.Lafayette prepared the principal drafts in consultation with his close friend Thomas Jefferson.", "In August 1789, Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the final Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on the 26 of August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France.", "Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives based on a 24-article draft proposed by , led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé.", "The draft was later modified during the debates.", "A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted." ], [ "Background", "Print of the 17 articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 (Musée de la Révolution française)The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu.", "As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights, as was the U.S.", "Declaration of Independence, which preceded it (4 July 1776).These principles were shared widely throughout European society, rather than being confined to a small elite as in the past.", "This took different forms, such as 'English coffeehouse culture', and extended to areas colonised by Europeans, particularly British North America.", "Contacts between diverse groups in Edinburgh, Geneva, Boston, Amsterdam, Paris, London, or Vienna were much greater than often appreciated.Transnational elites who shared ideas and styles were not new; what changed was their extent and the numbers involved.", "Under Louis XIV, Versailles was the centre of French culture, fashion and political power.", "Improvements in education and literacy over the course of the 18th century meant larger audiences for newspapers and journals, with Masonic lodges, coffee houses and reading clubs providing areas where people could debate and discuss ideas.", "The emergence of this \"public sphere\" led to Paris replacing Versailles as the cultural and intellectual centre, leaving the Court isolated and less able to influence opinion.Assisted by Thomas Jefferson, then American ambassador to France, Lafayette prepared a draft which echoed some of the provisions of the US declaration.", "However, there was no consensus on the role of the Crown, and until this question was settled, it was impossible to create political institutions.", "When presented to the legislative committee on 11 July, it was rejected by pragmatists such as Jean Joseph Mounier, President of the Assembly, who feared creating expectations that could not be satisfied.Conservatives like Gérard de Lally-Tollendal wanted a bicameral system, with an upper house appointed by the king, who would have the right of veto.", "On 10 September, the majority led by Sieyès and Talleyrand rejected this in favour of a single assembly, while Louis XVI retained only a \"suspensive veto\"; this meant he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it.", "With these questions settled, a new committee was convened to agree on a constitution; the most controversial remaining issue was citizenship, itself linked to the debate on the balance between individual rights and obligations.", "Ultimately, the 1791 Constitution distinguished between 'active citizens' who held political rights, defined as French males over the age of 25, who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour, and 'passive citizens', who were restricted to 'civil rights'.", "As a result, it was never fully accepted by radicals in the Jacobin club.After editing by Mirabeau, it was published on 26 August as a statement of principle.", "The final draft contained provisions then considered radical in any European society, let alone France in 1789.French historian Georges Lefebvre argues that combined with the elimination of privilege and feudalism, it \"highlighted equality in a way the (American Declaration of Independence) did not\".", "More importantly, the two differed in intent; Jefferson saw the US Constitution and Bill of Rights as fixing the political system at a specific point in time, claiming they 'contained no original thought...but expressed the American mind' at that stage.", "The 1791 French Constitution was viewed as a starting point, the Declaration providing an aspirational vision, a key difference between the two Revolutions.", "Attached as a preamble to the French Constitution of 1791, and that of the 1870 to 1940 French Third Republic, it was incorporated into the current Constitution of France in 1958.==Summary of principles== The Declaration defined a single set of individual and collective rights for all men.", "Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places.", "For example, \"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.", "Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.\"", "They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life.", "According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights.", "Furthermore, the government should be carried on by elected representatives.When it was written, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men.", "Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality.", "The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time.", "The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution.", "It encountered opposition, as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion.", "This declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future." ], [ "Substance", "The Declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights, which are qualified as \"natural, unalienable and sacred\" and \"simple and incontestable principles\" on which citizens could base their demands.", "In the second article, \"the natural and imprescriptible rights of man\" are defined as \"liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression\".", "It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom, and equal rights for all \"Men\" and access to public office based on talent.", "The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens had the right to participate in the legislative process.", "Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, \"All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents,\" eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.===Articles==='''Article I''' – Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.", "Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.", "'''Article II''' – The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man.", "These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.", "'''Article III''' – The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation.", "No body, no individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation.", "'''Article IV''' – Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights.", "These borders can be determined only by the law.", "'''Article V''' – The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society.", "Anything which is not forbidden by the law cannot be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order.", "'''Article VI''' – The law is the expression of the general will.", "All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation.", "It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes.", "All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.", "'''Article VII''' – No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed.", "Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance.", "'''Article VIII''' – The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied.", "'''Article IX''' – Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law.", "'''Article X''' – No one may be disquieted for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law.", "'''Article XI''' – The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law.", "'''Article XII''' – The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted.", "'''Article XIII''' – For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay.", "'''Article XIV''' – Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration.", "'''Article XV''' – The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration.", "'''Article XVI''' – Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no Constitution.", "'''Article XVII''' – Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.===Active and passive citizenship===While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and those who did not.", "Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens.", "Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants.", "This meant that at the time of the Declaration, only male property owners held these rights.", "The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions.", "This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government.", "With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.", "Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million.", "These omitted groups included women, the poor, enslaved people, children, and foreigners.", "As the General Assembly voted upon these measures, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792–1804).", "This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III to eliminate the label of an active citizen.", "The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution.", "This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights or openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens.", "This cartoon demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences.", "In the cartoon, an active citizen is holding a spade and a passive citizen (on the right) says \"Take care that my patience does not escape me\".Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution.", "Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality.", "By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen.", "Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution.", "She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; \"inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events.\"", "By working with men, as opposed to working apart from men, she may have been able to further the fight for revolutionary women.", "As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political power.===Women's rights===The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male).", "This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights.", "In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women.", "Condorcet declared that \"he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own\".", "The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in September 1791.The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in the formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality.", "It states that:This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society.The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point.", "Camille Naish has described it as \"almost a parody... of the original document\".", "The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that \"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.", "Social distinctions may be based only on common utility.\"", "The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: \"Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights.", "Social distinctions may only be based on common utility\".De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law, women were fully punishable yet denied equal rights, declaring, \"Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker's rostrum\".===Slavery===The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques-Pierre Brissot's ''Les Amis des Noirs'' and against by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac, because they met at the Hôtel Massiac.", "Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint-Domingue in the Haitian Revolution were inspired by it, as discussed in C. L. R. James's history of the Haitian Revolution, ''The Black Jacobins''.", "In Louisiana, the organizers of the Pointe Coupée Slave Conspiracy of 1795 also drew information from the declaration.Deplorable conditions for the thousands of enslaved people in Saint-Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World.", "Free persons of color were part of the first wave of revolt, but later formerly enslaved people took control.", "In 1794, the Convention was dominated by the Jacobins and abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe.", "However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops.", "After suffering the losses of two-thirds of the men, many to yellow fever, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803.Napoleon gave up on North America and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States.", "In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic of the New World.", "Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815.Slavery in France was finally abolished in 1848.===Homosexuality===The vast amount of personal freedom given to citizens by the document created a situation where homosexuality was decriminalized by the French Penal Code of 1791, which covered felonies; the law simply failed to mention sodomy as a crime, and thus no one could be prosecuted for it.", "The 1791 Code of Municipal Police did provide misdemeanor penalties for \"gross public indecency,\" which the police could use to punish anyone having sex in public places or otherwise violating social norms.", "This approach to punishing homosexual conduct was reiterated in the French Penal Code of 1810." ], [ "See also", "* Bill of rights* Human rights in France* Natural person in French law* Rights of Man* Universality===Other early declarations of rights===* The decreta of León * Magna Carta * Kouroukan Fouga * Statute of Kalisz * Henrician Articles and ''Pacta conventa'' * Petition of Right * Bill of Rights * Claim of Right * Virginia Declaration of Rights * Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights * Bill of Rights * Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of Franchimont * \"Belgian\" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen * * \"Batavian\" Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* * * Jack Censer and Lynn Hunt, ''Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution'', University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.", "* Susan Dalton, \"Gender and the Shifting Ground of Revolutionary Politics: The Case of Madame Roland\", ''Canadian Journal of History'', 36, no.", "2 (2001): 259–283..", ".", "* William Doyle, ''The Oxford History of the French Revolution'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.", "* * * * * Darline Levy and Harriet Applewhite, ''A Political Revolution for Women?", "The Case of Paris'', in ''The French Revolution: Conflicting Interpretations''.", "5th ed.", "Malabar, Fla.: Krieger Pub.", "Co., 2002.317–346.", "* * Jeremy Popkin, ''A History of Modern France'', Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2006.", "* * \"Active Citizen/Passive Citizen\", Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution (accessed 30 October 2011).", "Project History." ], [ "Further reading", "* Gérard Conac, Marc Debene, Gérard Teboul, eds, ''La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789; histoire, analyse et commentaires'' , Economica, Paris, 1993, .", "* McLean, Iain.", "\"Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and the Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen\" in ''The Future of Liberal Democracy: Thomas Jefferson and the Contemporary World'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004)" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dennis Ritchie" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie''' (September 9, 1941 – October 12, 2011) was an American computer scientist.", "He is best known for creating the C programming language and, with long-time colleague Ken Thompson, the Unix operating system and B programming language.", "Ritchie and Thompson were awarded the Turing Award from the ACM in 1983, the Hamming Medal from the IEEE in 1990 and the National Medal of Technology from President Bill Clinton in 1999.Ritchie was the head of Lucent Technologies System Software Research Department when he retired in 2007.He was the \"R\" in K&R C, and commonly known by his username '''dmr'''." ], [ "Early life and education", "Dennis Ritchie was born in Bronxville, New York.", "His father was Alistair E. Ritchie, a longtime Bell Labs scientist and co-author of ''The Design of Switching Circuits'' on switching circuit theory.", "As a child, Dennis moved with his family to Summit, New Jersey, where he graduated from Summit High School.", "He graduated from Harvard University with degrees in physics and applied mathematics in 1963." ], [ "Career", "Ken Thompson (left) and Dennis Ritchie (right), in 1973Version 7 Unix for the PDP-11, including Dennis Ritchie's home directory: /usr/dmrIn 1967, Ritchie began working at the Bell Labs Computing Sciences Research Center.", "In 1968, he defended his PhD thesis on \"Computational Complexity and Program Structure\" at Harvard under the supervision of Patrick C. Fischer.", "However, Ritchie never officially received his PhD degree as he did not submit a bound copy of his dissertation to the Harvard library, a requirement for the degree.", "In 2020, the Computer History Museum worked with Ritchie's family and Fischer's family and found a copy of the lost dissertation.During the 1960s, Ritchie and Ken Thompson worked on the Multics operating system at Bell Labs.", "Thompson then found an old PDP-7 machine and developed his own application programs and operating system from scratch, aided by Ritchie and others.", "In 1970, Brian Kernighan suggested the name \"Unix\", a pun on the name \"Multics\".", "To supplement assembly language with a system-level programming language, Thompson created B.", "Later, B was replaced by C, created by Ritchie, who continued to contribute to the development of Unix and C for many years.During the 1970s, Ritchie collaborated with James Reeds and Robert Morris on a ciphertext-only attack on the M-209 US cipher machine that could solve messages of at least 2000–2500 letters.", "Ritchie relates that, after discussions with the National Security Agency, the authors decided not to publish it, as they were told that the principle applied to machines still in use by foreign governments.Ritchie was also involved with the development of the Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems, and the programming language Limbo.As part of an AT&T restructuring in the mid-1990s, Ritchie was transferred to Lucent Technologies, where he retired in 2007 as head of System Software Research Department." ], [ "C and Unix", "Ritchie is best known as the creator of the C programming language, one of the developers of the Unix operating system, and co-author of the book ''The C Programming Language''; he was the 'R' in ''K&R'' (a common reference to the book's authors Kernighan and Ritchie).", "Ritchie worked together with Ken Thompson, who is credited with writing the original version of Unix; one of Ritchie's most important contributions to Unix was its porting to different machines and platforms.", "They were so influential on Research Unix that Doug McIlroy later wrote, \"The names of Ritchie and Thompson may safely be assumed to be attached to almost everything not otherwise attributed.", "\"Ritchie liked to emphasize that he was just one member of a group.", "He suggested that many of the improvements he introduced \"looked like a good thing to do\" and that anyone else in the same place at the same time might have done the same thing.Nowadays, the C language is widely used in application, operating system, and embedded system development, and its influence is seen in most modern programming languages.", "C is a low-level language with constructs closely translating to the hardware's instruction set.", "However, it is not tied to any particular hardware—making it easy to write programs on any machine that supports C. Moreover, C is a high-level language with constructs mapping to the application's data structures.C influenced several other languages and derivatives, such as C++, Objective-C used by Apple, C# used by Microsoft, and Java extensively used in corporate environment and also by Android.", "Ritchie and Thompson used C to write UNIX.", "Unix has been influential in establishing computing concepts and principles that have been widely adopted.In an interview from 1999, Ritchie clarified that he saw Linux and BSD operating systems as a continuation of the basis of the Unix operating system, and as derivatives of Unix:In the same interview, he stated that he viewed Unix and Linux as \"the continuation of ideas that were started by Ken and me and many others, many years ago.\"" ], [ "Awards", "In 1983, Ritchie and Thompson received the Turing Award \"for their development of generic operating systems theory and specifically for the implementation of the UNIX operating system\".", "Ritchie's Turing Award lecture was titled \"Reflections on Software Research\".", "In 1990, both Ritchie and Thompson received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), \"for the origination of the UNIX operating system and the C programming language\".In 1997, both Ritchie and Thompson were made Fellows of the Computer History Museum, \"for co-creation of the UNIX operating system, and for development of the C programming language.", "\"On April 21, 1999, Thompson and Ritchie jointly received the National Medal of Technology of 1998 from President Bill Clinton for co-inventing the UNIX operating system and the C programming language which, according to the citation for the medal, \"led to enormous advances in computer hardware, software, and networking systems and stimulated growth of an entire industry, thereby enhancing American leadership in the Information Age\".In 2005, the Industrial Research Institute awarded Ritchie its Achievement Award in recognition of his contribution to science and technology, and to society generally, with his development of the Unix operating system.In 2011, Ritchie, along with Thompson, was awarded the Japan Prize for Information and Communications for his work in the development of the Unix operating system." ], [ "Death", "Dennis Ritchie (right) with Doug McIlroy (left) in May 2011Ritchie was found dead on October 12, 2011, at the age of 70 at his home in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey, where he lived alone.", "First news of his death came from his former colleague, Rob Pike.", "He had been in frail health for several years following treatment for prostate cancer and heart disease.", "News of Ritchie's death was largely overshadowed by the media coverage of the death of Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, which occurred the week before." ], [ "Legacy", "Following Ritchie's death, computer historian Paul E. Ceruzzi stated:In an interview shortly after Ritchie's death, long-time colleague Brian Kernighan said Ritchie never expected C to be so significant.Kernighan told ''The New York Times'' \"The tools that Dennis built—and their direct descendants—run pretty much everything today.\"", "Kernighan reminded readers of how important a role C and Unix had played in the development of later high-profile projects, such as the iPhone.", "Other testimonials to his influence followed.Reflecting upon his death, a commentator compared the relative importance of Steve Jobs and Ritchie, concluding that \"Ritchie's work played a key role in spawning the technological revolution of the last forty years—including technology on which Apple went on to build its fortune.\"", "Another commentator said, \"Ritchie, on the other hand, invented and co-invented two key software technologies which make up the DNA of effectively every single computer software product we use directly or even indirectly in the modern age.", "It sounds like a wild claim, but it really is true.\"", "Another said, \"many in computer science and related fields knew of Ritchie's importance to the growth and development of, well, everything to do with computing,...\"The Fedora 16 Linux distribution, which was released about a month after he died, was dedicated to his memory.", "FreeBSD 9.0, released January 12, 2012, was also dedicated in his memory.Asteroid 294727 Dennisritchie, discovered by astronomers Tom Glinos and David H. Levy in 2008, was named in his memory.", "The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 7 February 2012 ()." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Dennis Ritchie in a chalet in the mountains surrounding Salt Lake City, Utah--Summer 1984, Usenix conference.jpg\|Ritchie engaged in conversation in a chalet in the mountains surrounding Salt Lake City at the 1984 Usenix conference.File:Usenix84 1.jpg\|At the same Usenix 1984 conference, Dennis Ritchie is in the middle, wearing a striped sweater, behind Steven Bellovin wearing a baseball cap." ], [ "Notable works", "* B programming language* C programming language on which many currently used languages and technologies are based.", "* Unix, a multiuser operating system.", "Several workalikes (commonly referred to as Unix-like systems) have been developed based on Unix's design.", "Some follow POSIX standards, again based on Unix.", "* ''Unix Programmer's Manual'' (1971)* ''The C Programming Language'' (sometimes referred to as ''K&R''; 1978 with Brian Kernighan)" ], [ "Publications and academic papers", "Ritchie has been the author or contributor to about 50 academic papers, books and textbooks and which have had over 15,000 citations.Here are some of his most cited works:* The C programming language, BW Kernighan, DM Ritchie, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1978)* Programming languages, D Ritchie (1978) The UNIX time-sharing system, DM Ritchie, K Thompson, Classic operating systems, 195-220 (2001)Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment, WR Stevens, SA Rago, DM Ritchie, Addison-Wesley (1992, 2008)" ], [ "See also", "* List of pioneers in computer science" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dennis Ritchie's home page at Bell Labs* \"The C Family of Languages: Interview with Dennis Ritchie, Bjarne Stroustrup, and James Gosling\" – article in Java Report, 5(7), July 2000 and C++ Report, 12(7), July/August 2000* * Dennis Ritchie's video interview June 2011*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 16" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 714 – Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the Merovingian palace, dies at Jupille (modern Belgium).", "He is succeeded by his infant grandson Theudoald, while his widow Plectrude holds actual power in the Frankish Kingdom.", "* 755 – An Lushan revolts against Chancellor Yang Guozhong at Yanjing, initiating the An Lushan Rebellion during the Tang dynasty of China.", "1431 – Hundred Years' War: Henry VI of England is crowned King of France at Notre Dame in Paris.", "1497 – Vasco da Gama passes the Great Fish River at the southern tip of Africa, where Bartolomeu Dias had previously turned back to Portugal.", "1575 – An earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 strikes Valdivia, Chile.", "1598 – Seven-Year War: Battle of Noryang: The final battle of the Seven-Year War is fought between the China and the Korean allied forces and Japanese navies, resulting in a decisive allied forces victory.===1601–1900===1653 – English Interregnum: The Protectorate: Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.", "1689 – Convention Parliament: The ''Declaration of Right'' is embodied in the ''Bill of Rights''.", "1707 – Most Recent Eruption of Mount Fuji.", "1761 – Seven Years' War: After a four-month siege, the Russians under Pyotr Rumyantsev take the Prussian fortress of Kołobrzeg.", "1773 – American Revolution: Boston Tea Party: Members of the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk Indians dump hundreds of crates of tea into Boston harbor as a protest against the Tea Act.", "1777 – Virginia becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.", "1782 – British East India Company: Muharram Rebellion: Hada and Mada Miah lead the first anti-British uprising in the subcontinent against Robert Lindsay and his contingents in Sylhet Shahi Eidgah.", "1811 – The first two in a series of four severe earthquakes occur in the vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri.", "1826 – Benjamin W. Edwards rides into Mexican-controlled Nacogdoches, Texas, and declares himself ruler of the Republic of Fredonia.", "1838 – Great Trek: Battle of Blood River: ''Voortrekkers'' led by Andries Pretorius and Sarel Cilliers defeat Zulu ''impis'', led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and Ndlela kaSompisi in what is today KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.", "1850 – The ''Charlotte Jane'' and the ''Randolph'' bring the first of the Canterbury Pilgrims to Lyttelton, New Zealand.", "1863 – American Civil War: Joseph E. Johnston replaces Braxton Bragg as commander of the Confederate Army of Tennessee.", "1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Nashville: The Union's Army of the Cumberland routs and destroys the Confederacy's Army of Tennessee, ending its effectiveness as a combat unit.", "1880 – Outbreak of the First Boer War between the Boer South African Republic and the British Empire.", "1882 – Wales and England contest the first Home Nations (now Six Nations) rugby union match.", "1883 – Tonkin Campaign: French forces capture the Sơn Tây citadel.===1901–present===1905 – In Rugby Union, The \"''Match of the Century''\" is played between Wales and New Zealand at Cardiff Arms Park.", "1912 – First Balkan War: The Royal Hellenic Navy defeats the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Elli.", "1914 – World War I: Admiral Franz von Hipper commands a raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby.", "1920 – The Haiyuan earthquake of 8.5, rocks the Gansu province in China, killing an estimated 200,000.", "1942 – The Holocaust: Schutzstaffel chief Heinrich Himmler orders that Roma candidates for extermination be deported to Auschwitz.", "1944 – World War II: The Battle of the Bulge begins with the surprise offensive of three German armies through the Ardennes forest.", "1951 – A Miami Airlines Curtiss C-46 Commando crashes in Elizabeth, New Jersey, killing all 58 aboard including dancer Doris Ruby.", "1960 – A United Airlines Douglas DC-8 and a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation collide over Staten Island, New York and crash, killing all 128 people aboard both aircraft and six more on the ground.", "1968 – Second Vatican Council: Official revocation of the Edict of Expulsion of Jews from Spain.", "1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: The Surrender of the Pakistan Army brings an end to both conflicts.", "This is commemorated annually as Victory Day in Bangladesh and India respectively.", "* 1971 – The United Kingdom recognizes Bahrain's independence, which is commemorated annually as Bahrain's National Day.", "* 1973 – Aeroflot Flight 2022 crashes in the Soviet Union's (now Russia) Volokolamsky District, killing all 51 aboard, including 4 Lithuanian doctors.", "* 1986 – Jeltoqsan: Riots erupt in Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR, in response to Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's dismissal of ethnic Kazakh Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, and his replacement with Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian from the Russian SFSR.", "1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests break out in Timișoara, Romania, in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident Hungarian pastor László Tőkés.", "2011 – Zhanaozen massacre: Violent protests by oil workers take place in Zhanaozen, Kazakhstan, leading to 16 people dead and 100 injured by the security forces.", "2013 – A bus falls from an elevated highway in the Philippines capital Manila killing at least 18 people with 20 injured.", "2014 – Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan militants attack an Army Public School in Peshawar, Pakistan, killing 150 people, 132 of them schoolchildren.", "2022 – A landslide occurs at a camp at an organic farm near the town of Batang Kali in Selangor, Malaysia, trapping 92 people and killing 31." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1364 – Emperor Manuel III of Trebizond (d. 1417)1485 – Catherine of Aragon, Spanish princess, later queen consort of England (d. 1536)1534 – Hans Bol, Flemish artist (d. 1593)1582 – Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey (d. 1642)1584 – John Selden, English jurist and scholar (d. 1654)1585 – Livia della Rovere, Italian noble (d. 1641)===1601–1900===1605 – Jerome Weston, 2nd Earl of Portland, English diplomat (d. 1663)1614 – Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1674)1630 – Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort, British botanist (d. 1715)1714 – George Whitefield, English Anglican priest (d. 1770)1716 – Louis Jules Mancini Mazarini, French poet and diplomat (d. 1798)1717 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet and scholar (d. 1806)1730 – Diego Silang, Filipino revolutionary leader (d. 1763)1742 – Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, German field marshal (d. 1819)1770 – Ludwig van Beethoven, composer (d. 1827)1775 – Jane Austen, English novelist (d. 1817) 1775 – François-Adrien Boieldieu, French pianist and composer (d. 1834)1776 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter, German chemist, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1810)1778 – John Ordronaux, French-American soldier (d. 1841)1787 – Mary Russell Mitford, English author and playwright (d. 1855)1790 – Leopold I of Belgium (d. 1865)1804 – Viktor Bunyakovsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1889)1812 – Stuart Donaldson, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1867)1834 – Léon Walras, French-Swiss economist and theorist (d. 1910)1836 – Ernst von Bergmann, Latvian-German surgeon and academic (d. 1907)1849 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (d. 1902)1861 – Antonio de La Gándara, French painter and illustrator (d. 1917)1863 – George Santayana, Spanish philosopher, novelist, and poet (d. 1952)1865 – Olavo Bilac, Brazilian journalist and poet (d. 1918)1866 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (d. 1944)1867 – Amy Carmichael, Irish missionary and humanitarian (d. 1951)1869 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian physician and activist, co-founded the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (d. 1952) 1869 – Bertha Lamme Feicht, American electrical engineer (d. 1943)1872 – Anton Denikin, Russian general (d. 1947)1882 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (d. 1963)* 1882 – Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer, conductor, and musicologist (d. 1967)* 1882 – Walther Meissner, German physicist and engineer (d. 1974)1883 – Károly Kós, Hungarian-Romanian architect, ethnologist, and politician (d. 1977) 1883 – Max Linder, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1925)1884 – John Gunn, Australian politician, 29th Premier of South Australia (d. 1959) 1884 – Seibo Kitamura, Japanese sculptor (d. 1987)1888 – Alexander I of Yugoslavia (d. 1934) 1888 – Alphonse Juin, Algerian-French general (d. 1967)1889 – Kim Chwa-chin, South Korean guerrilla leader (d. 1930)1895 – Marie Hall Ets, American author and illustrator (d. 1984)1896 – Anna Anderson, an imposter who claimed to be Grand Duchess Anastasia of Russia (d. 1984)1899 – Noël Coward, English actor, playwright, and composer (d. 1973)1900 – Lucille Lortel, American actress and producer (d. 1999) 1900 – V. S. Pritchett, British writer and literary critic (d. 1997)===1901–present===1901 – Margaret Mead, American anthropologist and author (d. 1978)1902 – Rafael Alberti, Spanish poet and playwright (d. 1999)1903 – Hardie Albright, American actor (d. 1975) 1903 – Harold Whitlock, English race walker and coach (d. 1985)1905 – Piet Hein, Danish mathematician, author, and poet (d. 1996) 1905 – Ruben Nirvi, Finnish linguist and professor (d. 1986)1907 – Barbara Kent, Canadian-born American film actress (d. 2011)1908 – Remedios Varo, Spanish-Mexican surrealist painter & anarchist (d. 1963)1910 – Freddie Brown, Peruvian-English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1991)1913 – George Ignatieff, Russian-Canadian scholar and diplomat, 8th Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1989)1914 – O. Winston Link, American photographer (d. 2001)1916 – Ruth Johnson Colvin, American author and educator, founded ProLiteracy Worldwide1917 – Nabi Bux Khan Baloch, Pakistani author and scholar (d. 2011) 1917 – Pete T. Cenarrusa, American soldier, pilot, and politician, Secretary of State of Idaho (d. 2013)* 1917 – Arthur C. Clarke, English science fiction writer (d. 2008)1920 – Frederick Rotimi Williams, Nigerian lawyer and politician (d. 2005)1921 – Eulalio González, Mexican singer-songwriter, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2003)1922 – Cy Leslie, American record producer, founded Pickwick Records (d. 2008)1923 – Menahem Pressler, German-American pianist (d. 2023)* 1923 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (d. 2014)1924 – Nicolas Sidjakov, Latvian-American illustrator (d. 1993)1926 – James McCracken, American tenor and actor (d. 1988)* 1926 – A. N. R. Robinson, Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2014)* 1926 – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2012)1927 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (d. 2015) 1927 – Randall Garrett, American author and poet (d. 1987)1928 – Terry Carter, American actor, director, and producer 1928 – Philip K. Dick, American philosopher and author (d. 1982)1929 – Nicholas Courtney, Egyptian-English actor (d. 2011)1930 – Bill Brittain, American author (d. 2011)* 1930 – Sam Most, American flute player and saxophonist (d. 2013)* 1930 – Bill Young, American sergeant and politician (d. 2013)1932 – Grace Alele-Williams, Nigerian mathematician and academic (d. 2022) 1932 – Quentin Blake, English author and illustrator* 1932 – Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident and Christian executed during the Cultural Revolution (d. 1968)1936 – Morris Dees, American lawyer and activist, co-founded the Southern Poverty Law Center1937 – Joyce Bulifant, American actress * 1937 – Edward Ruscha, American painter and photographer1938 – Frank Deford, American journalist and author (d. 2017) 1938 – Liv Ullmann, Norwegian actress, director, and screenwriter1939 – Philip Langridge, English tenor (d. 2010) 1939 – Gordon Miller, English high jumper1941 – Lesley Stahl, American journalist and actress 1941 – Roger Neil Wheeler, English general1942 – Donald Carcieri, American educator and politician, 73rd Governor of Rhode Island1943 – Steven Bochco, American television writer and producer (d. 2018)* 1943 – Patti Deutsch, American actress and comedian (d. 2017)1944 – Jeff Kanew, American director and screenwriter 1944 – Don Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2014)1945 – Tony Hicks, English singer and guitarist 1946 – Benny Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer* 1946 – Charles Dennis, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter * 1946 – Trevor Pinnock, English harpsichord player and conductor* 1946 – Tom Stern, American cinematographer1947 – Ben Cross, English actor (d. 2020) 1947 – Vincent Matthews, American sprinter* 1947 – Martyn Poliakoff, English chemist and academic* 1947 – Trevor Żahra, Maltese novelist, poet and illustrator1949 – Billy Gibbons, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1949 – Heather Hallett, English lawyer and judge1950 – Claudia Cohen, American journalist (d. 2007) 1950 – Roy Schuiten, Dutch cyclist and manager (d. 2006)1951 – Aykut Barka, Turkish scientist (d. 2002) 1951 – Sally Emerson, English author and poet* 1951 – Mike Flanagan, American baseball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2011)* 1951 – Robben Ford, American guitarist and songwriter * 1951 – Mark Heard, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1992)1952 – Joel Garner, Barbadian cricketer and manager 1952 – Francesco Graziani, Italian footballer and manager1953 – Rebecca Forstadt, American voice actress and screenwriter1955 – Xander Berkeley, American actor and producer* 1955 – Carol Browner, American lawyer and environmentalist, 8th Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency* 1955 – Prince Lorenz of Belgium, Archduke of Austria-Este* 1955 – Chiharu Matsuyama, Japanese singer-songwriter1956 – Lizzy Mercier Descloux, French musician, singer-songwriter, composer, actress, writer and painter (d. 2004)1957 – Antonio Vega, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009)1958 – Bart Oates, American football player and lawyer 1958 – Jeff Ruland, American basketball player1959 – H. D. Kumaraswamy, Indian social worker and politician, 18th Chief Minister of Karnataka 1959 – Alison La Placa, American actress* 1959 – Alexander Lebedev, Russian businessman and politician* 1959 – Steve Mattsson, American author and illustrator1960 – Pat Van Den Hauwe, Belgian footballer and manager1961 – André Andersen, Russian-Danish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer * 1961 – Shane Black, American actor, director, and screenwriter* 1961 – Bill Hicks, American comedian and musician (d. 1994)* 1961 – LaChanze, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1961 – Sam Robards, American actor* 1961 – Jon Tenney, American actor and director1962 – Maruschka Detmers, Dutch-French actress 1962 – William Perry, American football player and wrestler1963 – Benjamin Bratt, American actor and producer 1963 – Cathy Johnston-Forbes, American golfer* 1963 – James Mangold, American director, producer, and screenwriter1964 – Heike Drechsler, German sprinter and long jumper 1964 – Todd Glass, American comedian* 1964 – John Kirwan, New Zealand rugby player and coach* 1964 – Georgie Parker, Australian actress* 1964 – Billy Ripken, American baseball player and sportscaster1965 – Melanie Sloan, American lawyer and activist 1965 – J.", "B. Smoove, American comedian, writer, and actor1966 – Paul McGinley, Irish golfer 1966 – Clifford Robinson, American basketball player (d. 2020)* 1966 – Dennis Wise, English footballer and manager1967 – Donovan Bailey, Canadian sprinter and sportscaster 1967 – Indrek Kaseorg, Estonian decathlete* 1967 – Miranda Otto, Australian actress 1968 – Wendy Doolan, Australian golfer 1968 – Lalah Hathaway, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer* 1968 – Greg Kovacs, Canadian bodybuilder (d. 2013)1969 – Simon Grayson, English footballer and manager 1969 – Kent Hehr, Canadian politician* 1969 – Adam Riess, American astrophysicist, astronomer, and academic Nobel Prize laureate* 1969 – Michelle Smith, Irish swimmer* 1969 – Dmitri Tymoczko, American composer and theorist* 1969 – Craig White, English cricketer and coach1970 – Valerie Chow, Canadian-Hong Kong actress and publicist 1970 – Daniel Cosgrove, American actor1971 – Seyhan Kurt, French-Turkish poet and sociologist 1971 – Paul van Dyk, German musician, producer and DJ* 1971 – Michael McCary, American R&B singer1972 – Charles Gipson, American baseball player 1972 – Paul Leyden, Australian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1972 – Travis Morrison, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Themba Mnguni, South African footballer 1973 – Scott Storch, American songwriter and producer, founded Storch Music Company1975 – Valentin Bădoi, Romanian footballer and manager 1975 – Kaba Diawara, French-Guinean footballer* 1975 – Benjamin Kowalewicz, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1975 – Paul Maynard, English politician1976 – Jen Golbeck, American computer scientist and academic1977 – Éric Bélanger, Canadian ice hockey player* 1977 – Sylvain Distin, French footballer1978 – John Morris, Canadian curler and firefighter 1978 – Gunter Van Handenhoven, Belgian footballer and manager1979 – Trevor Immelman, South African golfer 1979 – Brodie Lee, American wrestler (d. 2020)* 1979 – Daniel Narcisse, French handball player* 1979 – Mihai Trăistariu, Romanian singer-songwriter* 1979 – Jessie Ward, American wrestler and producer1980 – Danish Kaneria, Pakistani cricketer1981 – Krysten Ritter, American actress, musician, and model* 1981 – Reanna Solomon, Nauruan weightlifter (d. 2022)* 1981 – Gareth Williams, Scottish footballer1982 – Antrel Rolle, American football player 1982 – Anna Sedokova, Ukrainian singer, actress and television presenter* 1982 – Stanislav Šesták, Slovak footballer1983 – Kelenna Azubuike, Nigerian-American basketball player 1983 – Frankie Ballard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1983 – Joey Dorsey, American basketball player1984 – Theo James, English actor 1985 – Stanislav Manolev, Bulgarian footballer* 1985 – James Nash, English race car driver* 1985 – Amanda Setton, American actress1986 – Alcides Escobar, Venezuelan baseball player 1986 – Zoltán Kovács, Hungarian footballer (d. 2013)* 1986 – Pärt Uusberg, Estonian actor, composer, and conductor.", "1987 – Mame Biram Diouf, Senegalese footballer 1987 – Beau Dowler, Australian footballer* 1987 – Hallee Hirsh, American actress1988 – Mats Hummels, German footballer 1988 – Anna Popplewell, English actress* 1988 – Alexey Shved, Russian basketball player1989 – Mikkel Bødker, Danish ice hockey player1990 – Rebecca Marino, Canadian tennis player1991 – Craig Goodwin, Australian footballer 1991 – David Johnson, American football player1992 – Ulrikke Eikeri, Norwegian tennis player 1992 – Anamul Haque, Bangladeshi cricketer* 1992 – Pietro Perdichizzi, Belgian footballer* 1992 – Tom Rogic, Australian footballer1993 – Jyoti Amge, Indian actress 1993 – Stephan James, Canadian actor1994 – Nigel Hayes, American basketball player 1994 – Elliot Lee, English footballer* 1994 – Nicola Murru, Italian footballer* 1994 – José Rodríguez, Spanish footballer1998 – Mira Antonitsch, Austrian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 604 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (b.", "553)* 705 – Wu Zetian, Empress of the Zhou dynasty (b.", "624)* 714 – Pepin of Herstal, Frankish statesman (b.", "635)* 867 – Eberhard of Friuli, Frankish duke (b.", "815)* 874 – Ado, archbishop of Vienne * 882 – John VIII, pope of the Catholic Church* 902 – Wei Yifan, chancellor of the Tang dynasty999 – Adelaide of Italy, Holy Roman Empress (b.", "931)1153 – Ranulf de Gernon, 4th Earl of Chester, Norman nobleman1263 – Haakon IV, king of Norway (b.", "1204)1316 – Öljaitü, Mongolian ruler (b.", "1280)1325 – Charles, French nobleman (b.", "1270)1378 – Secondotto, marquess of Montferrat (b.", "1360)1379 – John FitzAlan, 1st Baron Arundel, English general and politician, Lord Marshall of England (b.", "1348)1470 – John II, duke of Lorraine (b.", "1424)1474 – Ali Qushji, Uzbek astronomer, mathematician, and physicist (b.", "1403)1515 – Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese admiral and politician, 3rd Viceroy of Portuguese India (b.", "1453)1558 – Thomas Cheney, English diplomat and Lord Warden of the ''Cinque Ports''1583 – Ivan Fyodorov, Russian printer1594 – Allison Balfour, Scottish witch 1598 – Yi Sun-sin, Korean general (b.", "1545)===1601–1900===1669 – Nathaniel Fiennes, English soldier and politician (b.", "1608)1687 – William Petty, English economist and philosopher (b.", "1623)1751 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (b.", "1700)1774 – François Quesnay, French economist, physician, and philosopher (b.", "1694)1783 – Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer and educator (b.", "1699) 1783 – Sir William James, 1st Baronet, Welsh-English commander and politician (b.", "1720)1805 – Saverio Cassar, Gozitan priest and rebel leader (b.", "1746)1809 – Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist and entomologist (b.", "1755)1859 – Wilhelm Grimm, German anthropologist and author (b.", "1786)1892 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (b.", "1810)1897 – Alphonse Daudet, French author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1840)1898 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and art collector (b.", "1832)===1901–present===1908 – American Horse, American tribal leader and educator (b.", "1840)1917 – Frank Gotch, American wrestler (b.", "1878)1921 – Camille Saint-Saëns, French pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1835)1922 – Gabriel Narutowicz, Lithuanian–Polish engineer and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Poland (b.", "1865)1928 – Elinor Wylie, American poet and author (b.", "1885)1935 – Thelma Todd, American actress and comedian (b.", "1905)1936 – Frank Eugene, American-German photographer and educator (b.", "1865)1940 – Eugène Dubois, Dutch paleoanthropologist (b.", "1858)* 1940 – Billy Hamilton, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1866)1943 – George Bambridge, English diplomat (b.", "1892)1944 – Betsie ten Boom, Dutch Holocaust victim (b.", "1885)1945 – Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat (b.", "1866) 1945 – Fumimaro Konoe, Japanese lawyer and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1891)1949 – Sidney Olcott, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1873)1952 – Robert Henry Best, American journalist (b.", "1896)1956 – Nina Hamnett, Welsh painter and author (b.", "1890)1961 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Minister of Foreign Affairs (b.", "1882)1965 – W. Somerset Maugham, British playwright, novelist, and short story writer (b.", "1874)1968 – Futabayama Sadaji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 35th Yokozuna (b.", "1912)* 1968 – Muhammad Suheimat, Jordanian general and politician (b.", "1916)1969 – Alphonse Castex, French rugby union player (b.", "1899) 1969 – Soe Hok Gie, Indonesian activist and academic (b.", "1942)1970 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (b.", "1914)1974 – Kostas Varnalis, Greek poet and playwright (b.", "1884)1976 – Réal Caouette, Canadian journalist and politician (b.", "1917)1977 – Risto Jarva, Finnish director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1934)1980 – Colonel Sanders, American businessman, founded KFC (b.", "1890) 1980 – Hellmuth Walter, German-American engineer (b.", "1900)1982 – Colin Chapman, English engineer and businessman, founded Lotus Cars (b.", "1928)1983 – Debs Garms, American baseball player (b.", "1907)1984 – Karl Deichgräber, German philologist and academic (b.", "1903)1985 – Thomas Bilotti, American mobster (b.", "1940)* 1985 – Paul Castellano, American mobster (b.", "1915)1989 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (b.", "1913) 1989 – Silvana Mangano, Italian actress (b.", "1930)* 1989 – Aileen Pringle, American actress (b.", "1895)* 1989 – Lee Van Cleef, American actor (b.", "1925)1991 – Eszter Tamási, Hungarian actress and journalist (b.", "1938)1993 – Moses Gunn, American actor (b.", "1929)* 1993 – Kakuei Tanaka, Japanese soldier and politician, 64th Prime Minister of Japan (b.", "1918)1996 – Quentin Bell, English historian and author (b.", "1910)1997 – Lillian Disney, American illustrator and philanthropist (b.", "1899)1998 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (b.", "1922)2001 – Stuart Adamson, English-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1958)* 2001 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (b.", "1913)2003 – Robert Stanfield, Canadian economist, lawyer, and politician, 17th Premier of Nova Scotia (b.", "1914) 2003 – Gary Stewart, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1945)2004 – Ted Abernathy, American baseball player (b.", "1933) 2004 – Deyda Hydara, Gambian journalist, co-founded ''The Point'' (b.", "1946)* 2004 – Agnes Martin, American painter and educator (b.", "1912)2005 – Kenneth Bulmer, English author (b.", "1921) 2005 – Ed Hansen, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1937)* 2005 – John Spencer, American actor (b.", "1946)2006 – Don Jardine, Canadian wrestler and trainer (b.", "1940) 2006 – Taliep Petersen, South African singer-songwriter and director (b.", "1950)* 2006 – Pnina Salzman, Israeli pianist and educator (b.", "1922)* 2006 – Stanford J. Shaw, American historian and academic (b.", "1930)2007 – Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1951)2009 – Roy E. Disney, American businessman (b.", "1930)* 2009 – Yegor Gaidar, Russian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Russia (b.", "1956)* 2009 – Manto Tshabalala-Msimang, South African physician and politician, 22nd South African Minister of Health (b.", "1940)2010 – Melvin E. Biddle, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1923) 2010 – Ayinde Barrister, Nigerian fuji musician (b.", "1948)2011 – Robert Easton, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1930) 2011 – Nicol Williamson, Scottish actor (b.", "1938)2012 – Elwood V. Jensen, American biologist and academic (b.", "1920) 2012 – Jake Adam York, American poet and academic (b.", "1972)2013 – James Flint, English commander (b.", "1913) 2013 – Ray Price, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Marta Russell, American journalist, author, and activist (b.", "1951)2014 – Martin Brasier, English paleontologist, biologist, and academic (b.", "1947) 2014 – Tim Cochran, American mathematician and academic (b.", "1955)2015 – Peter Dickinson, Rhodesian-English author and poet (b.", "1927) 2015 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (b.", "1950)* 2015 – George Earl Ortman, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1926)2017 – Keely Smith, American singer and actress (b.", "1928)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:Adelaide of ItalyHaggaiRalph Adams Cram, Richard Upjohn and John La Farge (Episcopal Church (USA))December 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Day of Reconciliation, formerly celebrated as Day of the Vow by the Afrikaners (South Africa)Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Kazakhstan from the Soviet Union in 1991.", "National Day, celebrates the withdrawal of United Kingdom from Bahrain, making Bahrain an independent emirate in 1971.", "National Sports Day (Thailand)The beginning of the nine-day celebration beginning December 16 and ending December 24, celebrating the trials which Mary and Joseph endured before finding a place to stay where Jesus could be born (Hispanidad):The first day of ''Las Posadas'' (Mexico, Latin America)The first day of the ''Simbang Gabi'' novena of masses (Philippines)Victory Day observances, celebration of the Indo-Bangla allied victory over Pakistan armed forces and the Liberation of Bangladesh.", "(Bangladesh and India)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 16" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doctrine and Covenants" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Doctrine and Covenants''' (sometimes abbreviated and cited as '''D&C''' or '''D.", "and C.''') is a part of the open scriptural canon of several denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement.", "Originally published in 1835 as '''Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God''', editions of the book continue to be printed mainly by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints RLDS Church).The book originally contained two parts: a sequence of lectures setting forth basic church doctrine, followed by a compilation of revelations, or \"covenants\" of the church: thus the name \"Doctrine and Covenants\".", "The \"doctrine\" portion of the book, however, has been removed by both the LDS Church and Community of Christ.", "The remaining portion of the book contains revelations on numerous topics, most of which were dictated by the movement's founder Joseph Smith, supplemented by materials periodically added by each denomination.Controversy has existed between the two largest denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement over some sections added to the 1876 LDS edition, attributed to founder Smith.", "Whereas the LDS Church believes these sections to have been revelations to Smith, the RLDS Church traditionally disputed their authenticity." ], [ "History", "The Doctrine and Covenants was first published in 1835 as a later version of the Book of Commandments, which had been partially printed in 1833.This earlier book contained 65 early revelations to church leaders, notably Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery.", "Before many copies of the book could be printed, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in Missouri.On September 24, 1834, a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant revelations.", "This committee of Presiding Elders, consisting of Smith, Cowdery, Sidney Rigdon, and Frederick G. Williams, began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work.", "The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a \"Doctrine\" part and a \"Covenants\" part.The \"Doctrine\" part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the \"Lectures on Faith\".", "The lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the School of the Prophets which had recently been completed in Kirtland, Ohio.", "According to the committee, these lectures were included in the compilation \"in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation.", "\"The \"Covenants\" part of the book, labeled \"Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints\", contained a total of 103 revelations.", "These 103 revelations were said to \"contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones.\"", "Each of the 103 revelations was assigned a \"section number\"; however, section 66 was mistakenly used twice.", "Thus, the sections of the original work were numbered only to 102.On February 17, 1835, after the committee had selected the book's contents, the committee wrote that the resulting work represents \"our belief, and when we say this, humbly trust, the faith and principles of this society as a body.", "\"The book was first introduced to the church body in a general conference on August 17, 1835.Smith and Williams, two of the Presiding Elders on the committee, were absent, but Cowdery and Rigdon were present.", "The church membership at the time had not yet seen the Doctrine and Covenants manuscript as it had been compiled and revised solely by the committee; however, various church members who were familiar with the work \"bore record\" of the book's truth.", "At the end of the conference, the church \"by a unanimous vote\" agreed to accept the compilation as \"the doctrine and covenants of their faith\" and to make arrangements for its printing.In 1835, the book was printed and published under the title ''Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God''.A copy of the Doctrine and Covenants from NASA photographer M. Edward Thomas traveled to the moon and back in 1972 with astronaut John Young aboard Apollo 16." ], [ "LDS Church editions", "In the LDS Church, '''The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''' stands alongside the Bible, the Book of Mormon, and the Pearl of Great Price as scripture.", "Together the LDS Church's scriptures are referred to as the \"standard works\".", "The LDS Church's version of the Doctrine and Covenants is described by the church as \"containing revelations given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with some additions by his successors in the Presidency of the Church.", "\"===Sections Included in LDS edition===The 138 sections and two official declarations in LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows:Sections 1–134, 137: From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44)Sections 135–136: During the administration of the Quorum of the Twelve (1844–47)Official Declaration 1: From the presidency of Wilford Woodruff (1889–98)Section 138: From the presidency of Joseph F. Smith (1901–18)Official Declaration 2: From the presidency of Spencer W. Kimball (1973–85)The following sections consist of letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 102, 123, 127–131, 134, 135, and Official Declarations 1 and 2.===1844 Edition===In 1844, the church added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition.", "In the current edition, these added sections are numbered 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135.===1876 Edition===In 1876, a new LDS Church edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included 26 sections not included in previous editions, now numbered as sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108–111, 113–118, 120–123, 125, 126, 129–132, and 136.Previous editions had been divided into verses with the early versifications generally following the paragraph structure of the original text.", "It was with the 1876 edition that the currently used versification was first employed.In 1876, section 101 from the 1835 edition (and subsequent printings) was removed.", "Section 101 was a \"Statement on Marriage\" as adopted by an 1835 conference of the church, and contained the following text: This section was removed because it had been superseded by section 132 of the modern LDS edition, recorded in 1843, which contains a revelation received by Joseph Smith on eternal marriage and plural marriage, the origin of the principles of which the LDS Church traces to as early as 1831.During the 1880s, five foreign editions contained two revelations to John Taylor that were received in 1882 and 1883; these revelations \"set in order\" the priesthood, gave more clarification about the roles of priesthood offices—especially the seventy—and required \"men who ... preside over my priesthood\" to live plural marriage in order to qualify to hold their church positions.", "Due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to polygamy in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions of the Doctrine and Covenants.===1921 Edition===In 1921, the LDS Church removed the \"Lectures on Faith\" portion of the book, with an explanation that the lectures \"were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons\".", "The lectures contain theology concerning the Godhead and emphasize the importance of faith and works.===Latter-day Revelation===In 1930, a small volume edited by apostle James E. Talmage titled ''Latter-day Revelation: Selections from the Book of Doctrine and Covenants'' was published, which was a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants printed in paragraph format rather than verses.", "Talmage wrote that the book's purpose was \"to make the strictly doctrinal parts of the Doctrine and Covenants of easy access and reduce its bulk\" by including only \"the sections comprising scriptures of general and enduring value\".", "Ninety-five of the sections of the Doctrine and Covenants were completely omitted—most notably section 132 on plural and celestial marriage—along with parts of 21 others.", "Twenty complete sections were retained along with parts of 21 others.", "Fundamentalist Mormons were offended, particularly at the exclusion of section 132, and accused the church of \"changing the scriptures.\"", "As a result, church president Heber J.", "Grant ordered the withdrawal of the book from sale with the remaining copies shredded in order to \"avoid further conflict with the fundamentalists\".+ Sections included in Latter-day Revelation Section Complete or Omissions?", "Description Section 1 Complete The Voice of the Lord to all People Section 2 Complete Predicted Advent of Elijah the Prophet Section 4 Complete Qualifications for the Ministry Section 7 Complete Desire of John the Apostle Granted Section 13 Complete Restoration of the Aaronic Priesthood Section 18 Omissions Calling of the Twelve Directed Section 19 Omissions Christ Victorious and Omnipotent Section 20 Omissions Fundamental Principles and Ordinances Section 22 Complete A New and Everlasting Covenant Section 27 Complete Sacramental Emblems and the Future Communion Section 29 Complete Tribulation and Judgment Section 38 Complete Diligence Enjoined Section 42 Omissions Law and Order in the Church Section 43 Omissions In Preparation for the Lord's Coming Section 45 Omissions As the Lord Spake So He Speaks Section 46 Complete Gifts of the Spirit Section 50 Omissions Discernment of Spirits Section 56 Omissions Woes and Blessings Section 58 Omissions Commandment and Obedience Section 59 Complete Commendation and Further Promise Section 63 Omissions Calamities to Befall the Wicked Section 64 Omissions Forgiveness and Sacrifice Required Section 65 Complete Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven Section 68 Omissions To Elders and Parents Especially Section 76 Complete Perdition and Graded Kingdoms of Glory Section 84 Omissions On Priesthood Section 87 Complete Prophecy on War Section 88 Omissions The Olive Leaf Section 89 Complete The Word of Wisdom Section 98 Omissions Divine and Secular Law Section 101 Omissions Encouragement and Assurance Section 107 Complete Orders and Offices of the Priesthood Section 110 Complete A Glorious Theophany Followed By Visitations of Ancient Prophets Section 119 Complete The Law of the Tithe Section 121 Omissions Many Called but Few Chosen Section 124 Omissions Commandment to Build a House of the Lord Section 130 Omissions An Irrevocable Law.", "The Holy Trinity Section 131 Omissions Matter and Spirit Section 133 Complete Imminence of the Lord's Coming Section 134 Complete Church and State===1981 Edition===Sections 137 and 138 were added to the LDS Church's 1981 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, which is the edition currently in use by the church.", "These were accounts of two visions, one from Joseph Smith in 1837 and the other from his nephew, Joseph F. Smith, in 1918.The revelations were earlier accepted as scripture when added to the Pearl of Great Price in April 1976.No new revelatory sections have been added since 1981.The LDS Church's 1981 edition contains two \"Official Declarations\" at the book's conclusion.", "The 1890 Official Declaration 1 ended the church-authorized practice of plural marriage, and the 1978 Official Declaration 2 announces the opening of priesthood ordination to all worthy male members without regard to race or color.", "The two Official Declarations are not revelations, but they serve as the formal announcements that a revelation was received.", "In neither case is the revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants.", "The text of Official Declaration 1 has been included in every LDS Church printing of the Doctrine and Covenants since 1908.Until 1981, editions of the book used code names for certain people and places in those sections that dealt with the United Order.", "The 1981 LDS edition replaced these with the real names, relegating the code names to footnotes.", "The Community of Christ edition still uses the code names." ], [ "Community of Christ editions", "Officials of the Community of Christ (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints RLDS Church) first published an edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition.", "A general conference of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President Joseph Smith III had equal standing to those previously included in the work.", "Since that time, the church has continued to add sections to its edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents.", "The most recent addition was formally authorized on April 14, 2010, after being presented to the church for informal consideration on January 17, 2010.The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by the LDS Church and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration.===Sections added to the Community of Christ edition===The 167 sections of the Community of Christ's Doctrine and Covenants break down as follows:Sections 1–113 (includes 108A): From the presidency of Joseph Smith (1828–44)Sections 114–131: From the presidency of Joseph Smith III (1860–1914)Sections 132–138: From the presidency of Frederick M. Smith (1914–46)Sections 139–144: From the presidency of Israel A. Smith (1946–58)Sections 145–152 (includes 149A): From the presidency of W. Wallace Smith (1958–78)Sections 153–160: From the presidency of Wallace B. Smith (1978–96)Sections 161–162: From the presidency of W. Grant McMurray (1996–2004)Sections 163–165: From the presidency of Stephen M. Veazey (2005–)The following sections are not revelations, but letters, reports, statements, and other similar documents: 99, 108A, 109–113, and 123.Based on the above, the number of revelations (accounting for sections that are not revelations) presented by each Community of Christ president, are as follows:Joseph Smith: 107Joseph Smith III: 17Frederick M. Smith: 7Israel A. Smith: 6W. Wallace Smith: 9Wallace B. Smith: 8W. Grant McMurray: 2Stephen M. Veazey: 3===Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition===The Community of Christ removed the \"Lectures on Faith\" in 1897.The 1970 World Conference concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions—mainly dealing with the subjects of temple worship and baptism for the dead—had been published without proper approval of a church conference.", "As a result, the World Conference removed sections 107, 109, 110, 113, and 123 to a historical appendix, which also includes documents that were never published as sections.", "Of these, only section 107 was a revelation.", "The World Conference of 1990 subsequently removed the entire appendix from the Doctrine and Covenants.", "Section 108A contained the minutes of a business meeting, which, because of its historical nature, was moved to the Introduction in the 1970s.", "After 1990, the Introduction was updated, and what was section 108A was removed entirely.===Doctrinal developments in the Community of Christ edition===The ongoing additions to the Community of Christ edition provide a record of the leadership changes and doctrinal developments within the denomination.", "When W. Grant McMurray became Prophet-President, he declared that instruction specific to leadership changes would no longer be included, so that the focus of the work could be more doctrinal in nature, and less administrative.", "The record of these leadership changes are still maintained in the form of published \"letters of counsel.\"", "Prophet-President Stephen M. Veazey has conformed to this pattern.", "Although these letters are not formally published in the Doctrine and Covenants, they are still deemed to be inspired, and are dealt with in the same manner that revelations are (that is, they must be deliberated and approved by the voting members of a World Conference).A modern revelation that resulted in some \"disaffection\" and \"led to intense conflict in scattered areas of the RLDS Church\" is contained in the Community of Christ version's section 156, presented by Prophet–President Wallace B. Smith and added in 1984, which called for the ordination of women to the priesthood and set out the primary purpose of temples to be \"the pursuit of peace\".", "A resulting schism over the legitimacy of these change led to the formation of the Restoration Branches movement, the Restoration Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and the Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.While some of the prose in the new revelations seems designed to guide the denomination on matters of church governance and doctrine, others are seen as inspirational.", "One such example can be cited from section 161, presented as counsel to the church by W. Grant McMurray in 1996: \"Become a people of the Temple—those who see violence but proclaim peace, who feel conflict yet extend the hand of reconciliation, who encounter broken spirits and find pathways for healing.\"" ], [ "Editions used by other denominations", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) uses the 1846 edition that was published in Nauvoo, Illinois; this version is virtually identical to the 1844 edition.", "Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at Voree, Wisconsin by Richard Drew in 1993.The Church of Christ (Temple Lot) contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in the Book of Commandments (including the change of the church's name) are not doctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling.", "As a result, the Church of Christ (Temple Lot) prefers to use reprints of the Book of Commandments text.The Church of Jesus Christ (Cutlerite) accepts the 1844 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants, including the Lectures on Faith, which it insists are as much inspired as the revelations themselves.The Restoration Branches generally use the older RLDS Church Doctrine and Covenants, typically sections 1–144.The Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints uses the older RLDS Church version of the Doctrine and Covenants up to section 144, and also 19 new revelations from their previous president, Frederick Niels Larsen.", "\"Remnant\" movement, a spiritual movement in schism with the LDS Church, published an online \"Restoration\" edition of the Doctrine and Covenants in 2017.It includes any sections authored by Joseph Smith.", "It also: includes a new version of D&C 54, as revised by Denver Snuffer; excludes the Kirtland Temple visitation by Elijah and other angelic beings in D&C 110; excludes portions based on fragmentary teachings by Smith in D&C 129; includes Smith's Lectures on Faith; and includes a new appendix titled, \"A Prophet’s Prerogative,\" by Jeff Savage." ], [ "Chart comparison of editions", "The following chart compares the current editions of the Doctrine and Covenants used by the LDS Church ('''LDS ed.''')", "and Community of Christ ('''CofC ed.''')", "with the 1833 Book of Commandments ('''BofC'''), the 1835 edition published in '''Kirtland''', and the 1844 edition published in '''Nauvoo'''.", "Unless otherwise specified, the document is styled a \"revelation\" of the person delivering it.", "LDS ed.", "CofC ed.", "BofC(1833) Kirtland ed.", "(1835) Nauvoo ed.", "(1844) Date Delivered by Description 1 Joseph Smith Lord's \"Preface\" 2–––– Joseph Smith (angelic visitation) Moroni's visit to Joseph Smith 3 Joseph Smith lost 116 pages 4 Joseph Smith To Joseph Smith, Sr. 5 Joseph Smith To Martin Harris; golden plates 6 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery To Oliver Cowdery 7 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery To Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery; the Account of John 8 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation 9 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Book of Mormon translation 10 Joseph Smith lost 116 pages 11 Joseph Smith To Hyrum Smith 12 Joseph Smith To Joseph Knight, Sr. 13–––– Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (angelic visitation) Conferral of Aaronic priesthood by John the Baptist 14 Joseph Smith To David Whitmer 15 Joseph Smith To John Whitmer 16 Joseph Smith To Peter Whitmer, Jr. 17 – Joseph Smith To Three Witnesses 18 Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer selection of Twelve Apostles 19 Joseph Smith To Martin Harris 20 Joseph Smith Church organization and government 21 Joseph Smith Joseph Smith's calling 22 Joseph Smith baptism 23 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery, Hyrum Smith, Samuel H. Smith, Joseph Smith, Sr., Joseph Knight, Sr. 24 Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery Callings of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery 25 Joseph Smith To Emma Smith; compilation of a church hymnal 26 Joseph Smith, Oliver Cowdery, and John Whitmer Common consent 27 Joseph Smith Sacrament and priesthood ordinations 28 Joseph Smith To Oliver Cowdery; Joseph Smith to receive revelations until another appointed 29 Joseph Smith To six elders; Second Coming; origin of Satan; redemption of children 30 Joseph Smith To David Whitmer, Peter Whitmer, Jr., John Whitmer 31 Joseph Smith To Thomas B. Marsh 32 – Joseph Smith To Parley P. Pratt and Ziba Peterson 33 Joseph Smith To Ezra Thayre and Northrop Sweet 34 Joseph Smith To Orson Pratt 35 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Callings Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon; signs and miracles; the elect 36 Joseph Smith To Edward Partridge 37 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Saints to gather in Ohio 38 Joseph Smith equality; wars 39 Joseph Smith To James Covel 40 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Concerning James Covel 41 Joseph Smith To the church; Edward Partridge called as bishop 42 Joseph Smith \"The Laws of the Church of Christ\"; explanation of the United Order 43 Joseph Smith Role of President of the Church; missionary work; forces of nature 44 Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Church conference called 45 Joseph Smith Matthew chapter 24 explained; missionary work; Christ as advocate 46 Joseph Smith Sacrament meeting, gifts of the Spirit 47 Joseph Smith John Whitmer to keep history of church 48 Joseph Smith Purchase of lands 49 Joseph Smith To Joseph Smith, Sidney Rigdon, Parley P. Pratt, and Leman Copley; Shaker beliefs 50 Joseph Smith Recognizing the Spirit 51 – Joseph Smith Property division 52 Joseph Smith Sending elders to Missouri 53 Joseph Smith To Algernon Sidney Gilbert 54 Joseph Smith To Newel Knight 55 Joseph Smith To W. W. Phelps 56 Joseph Smith The rebellious; the rich and the poor 57 – Joseph Smith Location of Zion at Jackson County, Missouri 58 Joseph Smith Tribulations; gather to Zion 59 Joseph Smith The sabbath; reward for the righteous 60 Joseph Smith Elders to travel to Cincinnati, Ohio; missionary work 61 Joseph Smith \"Destruction upon the waters\" 62 Joseph Smith Missionary work 63 Joseph Smith Signs; mysteries; impending war and woe; gather to Zion; authority to use Lord's name 64 Joseph Smith Forgiveness; financial debt; tithing; Zion to flourish 65 – Joseph Smith (prayer) Prayer of Joseph Smith; keys of the kingdom 66 – Joseph Smith To William E. McLellin 67 – Joseph Smith Testimony of the Book of Commandments 68 – Joseph Smith To Orson Hyde, Luke S. Johnson, Lyman E. Johnson, and William E. McLellin; bishops; parents 69 – Joseph Smith Assignments for John Whitmer 70 – Joseph Smith Stewardship; equality 71 – Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon called to preach 72 – Joseph Smith Bishops 73 – Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible 74 – Joseph Smith Explanation of 1 Corinthians 7:14; salvation of children 75 – Joseph Smith Missionary work; families of missionaries 76 – Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon (vision) Jesus Christ; resurrection; degrees of glory; origin of Satan; called \"The Vision\" 77–––– Joseph Smith Explanation of certain verses in Revelation 78 – Joseph Smith United Order; equality 79 – Joseph Smith To Jared Carter 80 – Joseph Smith To Stephen Burnett and Eden Smith 81 – Joseph Smith To Jesse Gause; on 18 Mar 1833 its application was transferred to Frederick G. Williams 82 – Joseph Smith Obedience; United Order; equality 83 – Joseph Smith Husbands and fathers; widows and orphans 84 – Joseph Smith Priesthood 85–––– Joseph Smith (letter) Letter from Joseph Smith to W. W. Phelps; United Order; One Mighty and Strong; equality 86 – Joseph Smith Parable of the Tares explained 87–––– Joseph Smith Prophecy of war and calamity 88 – Joseph Smith The \"olive leaf\"; \"Lord's message of peace\" 89 – Joseph Smith A \"Word of Wisdom\" 90 – Joseph Smith Keys of the kingdom; First Presidency 91 – Joseph Smith The Apocrypha 92 – Joseph Smith To Frederick G. Williams 93 – Joseph Smith John's record of Christ; intelligence; innocence of children 94 – Joseph Smith To Hyrum Smith, Reynolds Cahoon, and Jared Carter; construction of various buildings commanded 95 – Joseph Smith Kirtland Temple to be built; purpose of temples 96 – Joseph Smith Division of property 97 – Joseph Smith Saints in Jackson County, Missouri; temple to be built in Jackson County 98 – Joseph Smith Promises and warnings; martyrs; when war is justified; forgiving enemies 99 – Joseph Smith To John Murdock 100 – Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon Joseph Smith and Sidney Rigdon to preach gospel; Rigdon to be Smith's spokesman; welfare of Orson Hyde and John Gould 101 – Joseph Smith Redemption of Zion; parables; United States and the U.S. Constitution; Saints to seek redress 102 – Oliver Cowdery and Orson Hyde (minutes of meeting) Minutes for first high council meeting 103 100–– 101 Joseph Smith Redemption of Zion; organization of Zion's Camp 104 101– Joseph Smith United Order 105 102–– 102 Joseph Smith Redemption of Zion; purpose of Kirtland Temple; peace 106 103– 100 Joseph Smith To Warren A. Cowdery; Second Coming 107 104– (completed); some portions received 11 Nov 1831 Joseph Smith Priesthood; quorums 108–––– Joseph Smith To Lyman Sherman 109–––– Joseph Smith (prayer) Dedicatory prayer for Kirtland Temple 110–––– Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery (vision and angelic visitations) Visitation of Jesus Christ to accept Kirtland Temple; conferral of priesthood keys; coming of Moses, Elias, and Elijah 111–––– Joseph Smith temporal needs of the church 112 105–– 104 Joseph Smith To Thomas B. Marsh; Quorum of the Twelve Apostles; First Presidency 113–––– Joseph Smith (answers to questions) Answers to questions on the Book of Isaiah 114–––– Joseph Smith Concerning David W. Patten 115–––– Joseph Smith Name of the church; stakes; temple to be built at Far West, Missouri 116–––– Joseph Smith Adam-ondi-Ahman 117–––– Joseph Smith Concerning William Marks, Newel K. Whitney, and Oliver Granger; property; sacrifice 118–––– Joseph Smith Vacancies in the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles filled 119 106–– 107 Joseph Smith Tithing 120–––– Joseph Smith Council on the Disposition of the Tithes 121–––– Joseph Smith (prayer and prophecies) Prayer and prophecies of Joseph Smith; why many are called but few chosen 122–––– Joseph Smith Destiny of Joseph Smith 123–––– Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; duty in relation to their persecutors 124 107–– 103 Joseph Smith Nauvoo Temple and Nauvoo House to be built; baptism for the dead 125–––– Joseph Smith Saints in Iowa 126–––– Joseph Smith To Brigham Young 127 109–– 105 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; baptism for the dead 128 110–– 106 Joseph Smith (letter) Letter to church; baptism for the dead 129–––– Joseph Smith (instructions) Distinguishing the nature of angels and disembodied spirits 130–––– Joseph Smith (instruction) Various items of instruction; corporeal nature of God and Jesus Christ; intelligence; seer stones 131–––– Joseph Smith (instruction) Various items of instruction; celestial marriage; eternal life 132–––– Joseph Smith Plural marriage; celestial marriage; sealing power; exaltation 133 108– 100 108 Joseph Smith Original \"Appendix\"; Second Coming; missionary work 134 112– 102 110 Church (declaration) secular governments and laws in general 135 113–– 111 John Taylor (eulogy) Martyrdom of Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith 136–––– Brigham Young Organization of Mormon pioneer westward journey 137–––– Joseph Smith (vision) Salvation for the dead; salvation of little children 138–––– Joseph F. Smith (vision) Jesus Christ preached to spirits in prison; salvation for the dead OD 1–––– Wilford Woodruff (declaration) Cessation of plural marriage OD 2–––– Spencer W. Kimball, N. Eldon Tanner, Marion G. Romney (declaration) 1978 Revelation on Priesthood: cessation of priesthood restrictions based on race– ––– Joseph Smith God's words to Moses (article)– ––– Joseph Smith Prophecy of Enoch (article)– 108A –103– Thomas Burdick, Warren Parrish, and Sylvester Smith (minutes of meeting)General meeting of the quorums of the church to consider the labors of the committee charged with organizing publication of the revelations into a book– 111 – 101 109 Church (declaration) Declaration on marriage; one spouse only– 114 ––– Joseph Smith III (letter) Tithing– 115 ––– Joseph Smith III Calling of William Marks– 116 ––– Joseph Smith III Priesthood ordination of other races– 117 ––– Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions– 118 ––– Joseph Smith III Foreign missions– 119 ––– Joseph Smith III Instructions to the elders– 120 ––– Joseph Smith III Branch and district presidents– 121 ––– Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions– 122 ––– Joseph Smith III Duties of quorums– 123 ––– Joint council of the First Presidency, Council of Twelve Apostles, and Presiding Bishopric (report) Lamoni College; church publications; relations with the LDS Church; doctrinal tracts; interpretation of various scriptures; gospel boat; branch in Detroit– 124 ––– Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions– 125 ––– Joseph Smith III Patriarchs; foreign missions– 126 ––– Joseph Smith III (vision) Quorums– 127 ––– Joseph Smith III Sanitarium– 128 ––– Joseph Smith III Organization and colonization– 129 ––– Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions– 130 ––– Joseph Smith III Changes in leadership positions– 131 ––– Joseph Smith III Presiding Bishopric– 132 ––– Frederick M. Smith Presiding Bishop– 133 ––– Frederick M. Smith Missionary work– 134 ––– Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions– 135 ––– Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions– 136 ––– Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity– 137 ––– Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions– 138 ––– Frederick M. Smith Changes in leadership positions; work toward Zion– 139 ––– Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions– 140 ––– Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; Zion– 141 ––– Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel– 142 ––– Israel A. Smith Commendation; urge to work– 143 ––– Israel A. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel– 144 ––– Israel A. Smith (letter) New President of the Church named– 145––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions– 146––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity commended– 147––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; stewardship– 148––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel– 149––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; relationship between ministerial programs; prepare to build temple at Independence– 149A––– W. Wallace Smith Clarification of 149– 150––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on culture; Independence Temple preparation; ecology– 151––– W. Wallace Smith Changes in leadership positions; reconciliation– 152––– W. Wallace Smith New precedent on presidential succession; presidential successor named; changes in leadership positions; reconciliation– 153––– Wallace B. Smith New President of the Church; changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach– 154––– Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on outreach– 155––– Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; counsel on witness– 156––– Wallace B. Smith Purpose of Independence Temple; priesthood opened to women; changes in leadership positions– 157––– Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; unity; humility– 158––– Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; the spiritual life– 159––– Wallace B. Smith Changes in leadership positions; trusting the Spirit; Independence Temple accepted– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-160 160––– Wallace B. Smith New President of the Church named– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-161 161––– W. Grant McMurray Proclaim peace; reach out; patience; embrace differences; respect tradition– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-162 162––– W. Grant McMurray Be a prophetic people; diversity; tithing– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-163 163––– Stephen M. Veazey Strive for peace; missionary work; use and misuse of scripture; equality; generosity– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-164 164––– Stephen M. Veazey Effects of baptism, confirmation, and sacrament of the Lord's Supper; cultural awareness and sensitivity; flexibility in number of quorums of seventy; accelerate evangelism– //www.cofchrist.org/doctrine-and-covenants-section-165 165––– Stephen M. Veazey Expand community, promote peace, and end poverty; tithing; unity in diversity; act in accordance to beliefs" ], [ "See also", "List of non-canonical revelations in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day SaintsProclamations of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve ApostlesUrim and Thummim (Latter Day Saints)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "''The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with Some Additions by his Successors in the Presidency of the Church'', Intellectual Reserve: Salt Lake City, UT, 1981.", "''Book of Doctrine and Covenants: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God and Given in the Order of their Dates'', Herald Publishing House: Independence, MO, 2000.", "Joseph Smith, ''The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God'', photo enlarged and reprinted from the 1846 Nauvoo edition by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin, 1993, for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).", "Peter Judd, ''Journey in Trust: A Study Resource for D&C 161'', Herald House, 2004.", "''Book of Commandments: Herald Heritage Reprint'', Herald House, 1833 (reprint).", "F. Henry Edwards, ''The Edwards Commentary on the Doctrine & Covenants'', Herald House, 1986.", "" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", " at Wikisource (LDS Church version).", "* Doctrine and Covenants – Complete official 2013 LDS Church edition* Doctrine and Covenants Official LDS Church edition (pdf)* RLDS Sections 1–144 – unofficial HTML version produced for the Restoration Branches* RLDS Sections 145–159 – unofficial HTML version produced for the Restoration Branches* Community of Christ Edition (Section 160; official HTML version)* Community of Christ Edition (Section 161; official HTML version)* Community of Christ Edition (Section 162; official HTML version)* Community of Christ Edition (Section 163; official HTML version)* Community of Christ Edition (Section 164; official HTML version)* Community of Christ Edition (Section 165; official HTML version)Scanned images of the complete 1833 Book of Commandments, 1835 Doctrine and Covenants (with Lectures on Faith), and 1844 Doctrine and Covenants SaintsWithoutHalos.org: Doctrine and Covenants – Mormon historical revisionist site with thoroughly annotated ''D&C'' showing changes from various editions." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Death" ], [ "Introduction", "The human skull is used universally as a symbol of death.", "'''Death''' is the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain an organism.", "For organisms with a brain, death can also be defined as the irreversible cessation of functioning of the whole brain, including the brainstem.", "Brain death is sometimes used as a legal definition of death.", "The remains of a former organism normally begins to decompose shortly after death.", "Death is an inevitable process that eventually occurs in all organisms.", "Some organisms, such as ''Turritopsis dohrnii'', are biologically immortal.", "However, they can still die from means other than aging.Determining when someone has definitively died has proven difficult.", "Initially, death was defined as occurring when breathing and the heartbeat ceased, a status still known as clinical death.", "However, the development of CPR meant it was no longer strictly irreversible.", "Brain death was the next option, but several definitions exist for this.", "Some people believe that all brain functions must cease.", "Some believe that even if the brainstem is still alive, the personality and identity are irretrievably lost, so therefore, the person should be entirely dead.Death is generally applied to whole organisms; the similar process seen in individual components of an organism, such as cells or tissues, is necrosis.", "Something that is not considered an organism, such as a virus, can be physically destroyed but is not said to die, as a virus is not considered alive in the first place.", "As of the early 21st century, 56 million people die per year.", "The most common reason is cardiovascular disease, which is a disease that affects the heart.Many cultures and religions have a concept of an afterlife that may hold the idea of judgment of good and bad deeds in one's life.", "There are also different customs for honoring the body, such as a funeral, cremation, or sky burial.A study known as biogerontology seeks to eliminate death by natural aging in humans, often through the application of natural processes found in certain organisms.", "However, as humans do not have the means to apply this to themselves, they have to use other ways to reach the maximum lifespan for a human, such as calorie reduction, dieting, and exercise.As of 2022, an estimated total of 109 billion humans have died, or roughly 93.8% of all humans to ever live." ], [ "Diagnosis", "World Health Organization estimated number of deaths per million persons in 2012===Problems of definition===The concept of death is the key to human understanding of the phenomenon.", "There are many scientific approaches and various interpretations of the concept.", "Additionally, the advent of life-sustaining therapy and the numerous criteria for defining death from both a medical and legal standpoint have made it difficult to create a single unifying definition.==== Defining life to define death ====One of the challenges in defining death is in distinguishing it from life.", "As a point in time, death seems to refer to the moment when life ends.", "Determining when death has occurred is difficult, as cessation of life functions is often not simultaneous across organ systems.", "Such determination, therefore, requires drawing precise conceptual boundaries between life and death.", "This is difficult due to there being little consensus on how to define life.A flower, a skull, and an hourglass stand for life, death, and time in this 17th-century painting by Philippe de Champaigne.It is possible to define life in terms of consciousness.", "When consciousness ceases, an organism can be said to have died.", "One of the flaws in this approach is that there are many organisms that are alive but probably not conscious.", "Another problem is in defining consciousness, which has many different definitions given by modern scientists, psychologists and philosophers.", "Additionally, many religious traditions, including Abrahamic and Dharmic traditions, hold that death does not (or may not) entail the end of consciousness.", "In certain cultures, death is more of a process than a single event.", "It implies a slow shift from one spiritual state to another.Other definitions for death focus on the character of cessation of organismic functioning and human death, which refers to irreversible loss of personhood.", "More specifically, death occurs when a living entity experiences irreversible cessation of all functioning.", "As it pertains to human life, death is an irreversible process where someone loses their existence as a person.==== Definition of death by heartbeat and breath ====Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of a human's death have been subjective or imprecise.", "Death was defined as the cessation of heartbeat (cardiac arrest) and breathing, but the development of CPR and prompt defibrillation have rendered that definition inadequate because breathing and heartbeat can sometimes be restarted.", "This type of death where circulatory and respiratory arrest happens is known as the circulatory definition of death (CDD).", "Proponents of the CDD believe this definition is reasonable because a person with permanent loss of circulatory and respiratory function should be considered dead.", "Critics of this definition state that while cessation of these functions may be permanent, it does not mean the situation is irreversible because if CPR is applied fast enough, the person could be revived.", "Thus, the arguments for and against the CDD boil down to defining the actual words \"permanent\" and \"irreversible,\" which further complicates the challenge of defining death.", "Furthermore, events causally linked to death in the past no longer kill in all circumstances; without a functioning heart or lungs, life can sometimes be sustained with a combination of life support devices, organ transplants, and artificial pacemakers.==== Brain death ====Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to \"brain death\" or \"biological death\" to define a person as being dead; people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases.", "It is presumed that an end of electrical activity indicates the end of consciousness.", "Suspension of consciousness must be permanent and not transient, as occurs during certain sleep stages, and especially a coma.", "In the case of sleep, Electroencephalogram (EEGs) are used to tell the difference.The category of \"brain death\" is seen as problematic by some scholars.", "For instance, Dr. Franklin Miller, a senior faculty member at the Department of Bioethics, National Institutes of Health, notes: \"By the late 1990s... the equation of brain death with death of the human being was increasingly challenged by scholars, based on evidence regarding the array of biological functioning displayed by patients correctly diagnosed as having this condition who were maintained on mechanical ventilation for substantial periods of time.", "These patients maintained the ability to sustain circulation and respiration, control temperature, excrete wastes, heal wounds, fight infections and, most dramatically, to gestate fetuses (in the case of pregnant \"brain-dead\" women).", "\"French – 16th-/17th-century ivory pendant, Monk and Death, recalling mortality and the certainty of death (Walters Art Museum)While \"brain death\" is viewed as problematic by some scholars, there are proponents of it that believe this definition of death is the most reasonable for distinguishing life from death.", "The reasoning behind the support for this definition is that brain death has a set of criteria that is reliable and reproducible.", "Also, the brain is crucial in determining our identity or who we are as human beings.", "The distinction should be made that \"brain death\" cannot be equated with one in a vegetative state or coma, in that the former situation describes a state that is beyond recovery.EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses, while certain drugs, hypoglycemia, hypoxia, or hypothermia can suppress or even stop brain activity temporarily; because of this, hospitals have protocols for determining brain death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals under defined conditions.==== Neocortical brain death ====People maintaining that only the neo-cortex of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity should be considered when defining death.", "Eventually, the criterion for death may be the permanent and irreversible loss of cognitive function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex.", "All hope of recovering human thought and personality is then gone, given current and foreseeable medical technology.", "Even by whole-brain criteria, the determination of brain death can be complicated.==== Total brain death ====At present, in most places, the more conservative definition of death (– irreversible cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex – )has been adopted.", "One example is the Uniform Determination Of Death Act in the United States.", "In the past, the adoption of this whole-brain definition was a conclusion of the President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1980.They concluded that this approach to defining death sufficed in reaching a uniform definition nationwide.", "A multitude of reasons was presented to support this definition, including uniformity of standards in law for establishing death, consumption of a family's fiscal resources for artificial life support, and legal establishment for equating brain death with death to proceed with organ donation.==== Problems in medical practice ====Aside from the issue of support of or dispute against brain death, there is another inherent problem in this categorical definition: the variability of its application in medical practice.", "In 1995, the American Academy of Neurology (AAN) established the criteria that became the medical standard for diagnosing neurologic death.", "At that time, three clinical features had to be satisfied to determine \"irreversible cessation\" of the total brain, including coma with clear etiology, cessation of breathing, and lack of brainstem reflexes.", "These criteria were updated again, most recently in 2010, but substantial discrepancies remain across hospitals and medical specialties.==== Donations ====The problem of defining death is especially imperative as it pertains to the dead donor rule, which could be understood as one of the following interpretations of the rule: there must be an official declaration of death in a person before starting organ procurement, or that organ procurement cannot result in the death of the donor.", "A great deal of controversy has surrounded the definition of death and the dead donor rule.", "Advocates of the rule believe that the rule is legitimate in protecting organ donors while also countering any moral or legal objection to organ procurement.", "Critics, on the other hand, believe that the rule does not uphold the best interests of the donors and that the rule does not effectively promote organ donation.===Signs===Signs of death or strong indications that a warm-blooded animal is no longer alive are:* Respiratory arrest (no breathing)* Cardiac arrest (no pulse)* Brain death (no neuronal activity)The stages that follow after death are:* , paleness which happens in 15–120 minutes after death* , the reduction in body temperature following death.", "This is generally a steady decline until matching ambient temperature* , the limbs of the corpse become stiff (Latin ''rigor'') and difficult to move or manipulate* , a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body* Putrefaction, the beginning signs of decomposition* Decomposition, the reduction into simpler forms of matter, accompanied by a strong, unpleasant odor.", "* Skeletonization, the end of decomposition, where all soft tissues have decomposed, leaving only the skeleton.", "* Fossilization, the natural preservation of the skeletal remains formed over a very long periodTimeline of postmortem changes (stages of death)===Legal===The death of a person has legal consequences that may vary between jurisdictions.", "Most countries follow the whole-brain death criteria, where all functions of the brain must have completely ceased.", "However, in other jurisdictions, some follow the brainstem version of brain death.", "Afterward, a death certificate is issued in most jurisdictions, either by a doctor or by an administrative office, upon presentation of a doctor's declaration of death.===Misdiagnosis===''The Premature Burial'', Antoine Wiertz's painting of a man buried alive, 1854There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then \"coming back to life,\" sometimes days later in their coffin or when embalming procedures are about to begin.", "From the mid-18th century onwards, there was an upsurge in the public's fear of being mistakenly buried alive and much debate about the uncertainty of the signs of death.", "Various suggestions were made to test for signs of life before burial, ranging from pouring vinegar and pepper into the corpse's mouth to applying red hot pokers to the feet or into the rectum.", "Writing in 1895, the physician J.C. Ouseley claimed that as many as 2,700 people were buried prematurely each year in England and Wales, although some estimates peg the figure to be closer to 800.In cases of electric shock, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for an hour or longer can allow stunned nerves to recover, allowing an apparently dead person to survive.", "People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their faces are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room.", "This \"diving response,\" in which metabolic activity and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something humans share with cetaceans called the mammalian diving reflex.As medical technologies advance, ideas about when death occurs may have to be reevaluated in light of the ability to restore a person to vitality after longer periods of apparent death (as happened when CPR and defibrillation showed that cessation of heartbeat is inadequate as a decisive indicator of death).", "The lack of electrical brain activity may not be enough to consider someone scientifically dead.", "Therefore, the concept of information-theoretic death has been suggested as a better means of defining when true death occurs, though the concept has few practical applications outside the field of cryonics." ], [ "Causes", "The leading cause of human death in developing countries is infectious disease.", "The leading causes in developed countries are atherosclerosis (heart disease and stroke), cancer, and other diseases related to obesity and aging.", "By an extremely wide margin, the largest unifying cause of death in the developed world is biological aging, leading to various complications known as aging-associated diseases.", "These conditions cause loss of homeostasis, leading to cardiac arrest, causing loss of oxygen and nutrient supply, causing irreversible deterioration of the brain and other tissues.", "Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds die of age-related causes.", "In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, approaching 90%.", "With improved medical capability, dying has become a condition to be managed.In developing nations, inferior sanitary conditions and lack of access to modern medical technology make death from infectious diseases more common than in developed countries.", "One such disease is tuberculosis, a bacterial disease that killed 1.8 million people in 2015.Malaria causes about 400–900 million cases of fever and 1–3M deaths annually.", "The AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90–100 million by 2025.According to Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Reporter on the Right to Food, 2000 – Mar 2008, mortality due to malnutrition accounted for 58% of the total mortality rate in 2006.Ziegler says worldwide, approximately 62 million people died from all causes and of those deaths, more than 36 million died of hunger or diseases due to deficiencies in micronutrients.American children smoking in 1910.Tobacco smoking caused an estimated 100 million deaths in the 20th century.Tobacco smoking killed 100 million people worldwide in the 20th century and could kill 1 billion people worldwide in the 21st century, a World Health Organization report warned.Many leading developed world causes of death can be postponed by diet and physical activity, but the accelerating incidence of disease with age still imposes limits on human longevity.", "The evolutionary cause of aging is, at best, only beginning to be understood.", "It has been suggested that direct intervention in the aging process may now be the most effective intervention against major causes of death.Selye proposed a unified non-specific approach to many causes of death.", "He demonstrated that stress decreases the adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe adaptability as a special resource, ''adaptation energy''.", "The animal dies when this resource is exhausted.", "Selye assumed that adaptability is a finite supply presented at birth.", "Later, Goldstone proposed the concept of production or income of adaptation energy which may be stored (up to a limit) as a capital reserve of adaptation.", "In recent works, adaptation energy is considered an internal coordinate on the \"dominant path\" in the model of adaptation.", "It is demonstrated that oscillations of well-being appear when the reserve of adaptability is almost exhausted.", "''Le Suicidé'' by Édouard Manet depicts a man who has recently committed suicide via a firearm.In 2012, suicide overtook car crashes as the leading cause of human injury deaths in the U.S., followed by poisoning, falls, and murder.Accidents and disasters, from nuclear disasters to structural collapses, also claim lives.", "One of the deadliest incidents of all time is the Failure of the 1975 Banqiao Dam Failure, with varying estimates, up to 240,000 dead.", "Other incidents with high death tolls are; the Wanggongchang explosion when a gunpowder factory ended up with 20,000 deaths, a collapse of a wall of Circus Maximus killing 13,000 people, and the Chernobyl disaster killing between 95 and 4,000 people.Natural disasters kill around 45,000 people annually, although this number can vary to millions to thousands on a per decade basis.", "Some of the deadliest natural disasters are the 1931 China Floods, which killed and estimated 4 million people, although, estimates widely vary, the 1887 Yellow River Flood, which killed an estimated 2 million people in China, and the 1970 Bhola Cyclone, killing 500,000 people in Pakistan.In animals, predation can be a common cause of death.", "Livestock have a 6% death rate from predation.", "However, younger animals are more susceptible to predation.", "For example, 50% of young foxes die to birds, bobcats, coyotes, and other foxes as well.", "Young bear cubs in the Yellowstone National Park only have a 40% chance to survive to adulthood from other bears and predators.=== Autopsy ===An autopsy is portrayed in ''The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp'', by Rembrandt.An autopsy, also known as a ''postmortem examination'' or an ''obduction'', is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a human corpse to determine the cause and manner of a person's death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present.", "It is usually performed by a specialized medical doctor called a pathologist.Autopsies are either performed for legal or medical purposes.", "A forensic autopsy is carried out when the cause of death may be a criminal matter, while a clinical or academic autopsy is performed to find the medical cause of death and is used in cases of unknown or uncertain death, or for research purposes.", "Autopsies can be further classified into cases where external examination suffices, and those where the body is dissected and an internal examination is conducted.", "Permission from next of kin may be required for internal autopsy in some cases.", "Once an internal autopsy is complete the body is generally reconstituted by sewing it back together.A necropsy, which is not always a medical procedure, was a term previously used to describe an unregulated postmortem examination.", "In modern times, this term is more commonly associated with the corpses of animals." ], [ "Death before birth", "Death before birth can happen in several ways: stillbirth, when the fetus dies before or during the delivery process; miscarriage, when the embryo dies before independent survival; and abortion, the artificial termination of the pregnancy.", "Stillbirth and miscarriage can happen for various reasons, while abortion is carried out purposely.=== Stillbirth ===Stillbirth can happen right before or after the delivery of a fetus.", "It can result from defects of the fetus or risk factors present in the mother.", "Reductions of these factors, caesarean sections when risks are present, and early detection of birth defects have lowered the rate of stillbirth.", "However, 1% of births in the United States end in a stillbirth.=== Miscarriage ===A miscarriage is defined by the World Health Organization as, \"The expulsion or extraction from its mother of an embryo or fetus weighing 500g or less.\"", "Miscarriage is one of the most frequent problems in pregnancy, and is reported in around 12–15% of all clinical pregnancies; however, by including pregnancy losses during menstruation, it could be up to 17–22% of all pregnancies.", "There are many risk-factors involved in miscarriage; consumption of caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, drugs, having a previous miscarriage, and the use of abortion can increase the chances of having a miscarriage.=== Abortion ===An abortion may be performed for many reasons, such as pregnancy from rape, financial constraints of having a child, teenage pregnancy, and the lack of support from a significant other.", "There are two forms of abortion: a medical abortion and an in-clinic abortion or sometimes referred to as a surgical abortion.", "A medical abortion involves taking a pill that will terminate the pregnancy no more than 11 weeks past the last period, and an in-clinic abortion involves a medical procedure using suction to empty the uterus; this is possible after 12 weeks, but it may be more difficult to find an operating doctor who will go through with the procedure." ], [ "Senescence", "camel thorn tree within SossusvleiSenescence refers to a scenario when a living being can survive all calamities but eventually dies due to causes relating to old age.", "Conversely, premature death can refer to a death that occurs before old age arrives, for example, human death before a person reaches the age of 75.Animal and plant cells normally reproduce and function during the whole period of natural existence, but the aging process derives from the deterioration of cellular activity and the ruination of regular functioning.", "The aptitude of cells for gradual deterioration and mortality means that cells are naturally sentenced to stable and long-term loss of living capacities, even despite continuing metabolic reactions and viability.", "In the United Kingdom, for example, nine out of ten of all the deaths that occur daily relates to senescence, while around the world, it accounts for two-thirds of 150,000 deaths that take place daily.Almost all animals who survive external hazards to their biological functioning eventually die from biological aging, known in life sciences as \"senescence.\"", "Some organisms experience negligible senescence, even exhibiting biological immortality.", "These include the jellyfish ''Turritopsis dohrnii'', the hydra, and the planarian.", "Unnatural causes of death include suicide and predation.", "Of all causes, roughly 150,000 people die around the world each day.", "Of these, two-thirds die directly or indirectly due to senescence, but in industrialized countries – such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany – the rate approaches 90% (i.e., nearly nine out of ten of all deaths are related to senescence).Physiological death is now seen as a process, more than an event: conditions once considered indicative of death are now reversible.", "Where in the process, a dividing line is drawn between life and death depends on factors beyond the presence or absence of vital signs.", "In general, clinical death is neither necessary nor sufficient for a determination of legal death.", "A patient with working heart and lungs determined to be brain dead can be pronounced legally dead without clinical death occurring." ], [ "Life extension", "Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing or reversing aging processes through anti-aging measures.", "Aging is the most common cause of death worldwide.", "Aging is seen as inevitable, so according to Aubrey de Grey little is spent on research into anti-aging therapies, a phenomenon known as pro-aging trance.The average lifespan is determined by vulnerability to accidents and age or lifestyle-related afflictions such as cancer or cardiovascular disease.", "Extension of lifespan can be achieved by good diet, exercise, and avoidance of hazards such as smoking.", "Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes.", "A recognized method of extending maximum lifespan is calorie restriction.", "Theoretically, the extension of the maximum lifespan can be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.A United States poll found religious and irreligious people, as well as men and women and people of different economic classes, have similar rates of support for life extension, while Africans and Hispanics have higher rates of support than white people.", "38% said they would desire to have their aging process cured.Researchers of life extension can be known as \"biomedical gerontologists.\"", "They try to understand aging, and develop treatments to reverse aging processes, or at least slow them for the improvement of health and maintenance of youthfulness.", "Those who use life extension findings and apply them to themselves are called \"life extensionists\" or \"longevists.\"", "The primary life extension strategy currently is to apply anti-aging methods to attempt to live long enough to benefit from a cure for aging.=== Cryonics ===Technicians prepare a body for cryopreservation in 1985.Cryonics (from Greek κρύος 'kryos-' meaning 'icy cold') is the low-temperature preservation of animals, including humans, who cannot be sustained by contemporary medicine, with the hope that healing and resuscitation may be possible in the future.Cryopreservation of people and other large animals, is not reversible with current technology.", "The stated rationale for cryonics is that people who are considered dead by current legal or medical definitions, may not necessarily be dead according to the more stringent 'information-theoretic' definition of death.Some scientific literature is claimed to support the feasibility of cryonics.", "Medical science and cryobiologists generally regard cryonics with skepticism." ], [ "Location", "Kyösti Kallio (middle), the fourth President of the Republic of Finland, had a fatal heart attack a few seconds after this photograph was taken by Hugo Sundström on December 19, 1940, at Helsinki railway station in Helsinki, Finland.Around 1930, most people in Western countries died in their own homes, surrounded by family, and comforted by clergy, neighbors, and doctors making house calls.", "By the mid-20th century, half of all Americans died in a hospital.", "By the start of the 21st century, only about 20 to 25% of people in developed countries died outside of a medical institution.", "The shift from dying at home towards dying in a professional medical environment has been termed the \"Invisible Death.\"", "This shift occurred gradually over the years until most deaths now occur outside the home." ], [ "Psychology", "Death studies is a field within psychology.", "To varying degrees people inherently fear death, both the process and the eventuality; it is hard wired and part of the 'survival instinct' of all animals.", "Discussing, thinking about, or planning for their deaths causes them discomfort.", "This fear may cause them to put off financial planning, preparing a will and testament, or requesting help from a hospice organization.Mortality salience is the awareness that death is inevitable.", "However, self-esteem and culture are ways to reduce the anxiety this effect can cause.", "The awareness of someone's own death can cause a deepened bond in their in-group as a defense mechanism.", "This can also cause the person to become very judging.", "In a study, two groups were formed; one group was asked to reflect upon their mortality, the other was not, afterwards, the groups were told to set a bond for a prostitute.", "The group that did not reflect on death had an average of $50, the group who was reminded about their death had an average of $455.Different people have different responses to the idea of their deaths.", "Philosopher Galen Strawson writes that the death that many people wish for is an instant, painless, unexperienced annihilation.", "In this unlikely scenario, the person dies without realizing it and without being able to fear it.", "One moment the person is walking, eating, or sleeping, and the next moment, the person is dead.", "Strawson reasons that this type of death would not take anything away from the person, as he believes a person cannot have a legitimate claim to ownership in the future." ], [ "Society and culture", "The regent duke Charles (later king Charles IX of Sweden) insulting the corpse of Klaus Fleming.", "Albert Edelfelt, 1878Dead bodies can be mummified either naturally, as this one from Guanajuato, or by intention, as those in ancient Egypt.In society, the nature of death and humanity's awareness of its mortality has, for millennia, been a concern of the world's religious traditions and philosophical inquiry.", "Including belief in resurrection or an afterlife (associated with Abrahamic religions), reincarnation or rebirth (associated with Dharmic religions), or that consciousness permanently ceases to exist, known as eternal oblivion (associated with Secular humanism).Commemoration ceremonies after death may include various mourning, funeral practices, and ceremonies of honoring the deceased.", "The physical remains of a person, commonly known as a ''corpse'' or ''body'', are usually interred whole or cremated, though among the world's cultures, there are a variety of other methods of mortuary disposal.", "In the English language, blessings directed towards a dead person include ''rest in peace'' (originally the Latin, ''requiescat in pace'') or its initialism RIP.Death is the center of many traditions and organizations; customs relating to death are a feature of every culture around the world.", "Much of this revolves around the care of the dead, as well as the afterlife and the disposal of bodies upon the onset of death.", "The disposal of human corpses does, in general, begin with the last offices before significant time has passed, and ritualistic ceremonies often occur, most commonly interment or cremation.", "This is not a unified practice; in Tibet, for instance, the body is given a sky burial and left on a mountain top.", "Proper preparation for death and techniques and ceremonies for producing the ability to transfer one's spiritual attainments into another body (reincarnation) are subjects of detailed study in Tibet.", "Mummification or embalming is also prevalent in some cultures to retard the rate of decay.Some parts of death in culture are legally based, having laws for when death occurs, such as the receiving of a death certificate, the settlement of the deceased estate, and the issues of inheritance and, in some countries, inheritance taxation.Capital punishment is also a culturally divisive aspect of death.", "In most jurisdictions where capital punishment is carried out today, the death penalty is reserved for premeditated murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice.", "In some countries, sexual crimes, such as adultery and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes, such as apostasy, the formal renunciation of one's religion.", "In many retentionist countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense.", "In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are also punished by the death penalty.", "In militaries around the world, courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offenses such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny.Death in warfare and suicide attack also have cultural links, and the ideas of ''dulce et decorum est pro patria mori,'' which translates to \"It is sweet and proper to die for one's country,\" mutiny punishable by death, such as in the United States, grieving relatives of dead soldiers and death notification are embedded in many cultures.", "Recently in the western world, with the increase in terrorism following the September 11 attacks, but also further back in time with suicide bombings, kamikaze missions in World War II, and suicide missions in a host of other conflicts in history, death for a cause by way of suicide attack, and martyrdom have had significant cultural impacts.Suicide, in general, and particularly euthanasia, are also points of cultural debate.", "Both acts are understood very differently in different cultures.", "In Japan, for example, ending a life with honor by seppuku was considered a desirable death, whereas according to traditional Christian and Islamic cultures, suicide is viewed as a sin.Santa Muerte, the personification of death in Mexican traditionDeath is personified in many cultures, with such symbolic representations as the Grim Reaper, Azrael, the Hindu god Yama, and Father Time.", "In the west, the Grim Reaper, or figures similar to it, is the most popular depiction of death in western cultures.In Brazil, death is counted officially when it is registered by existing family members at a cartório, a government-authorized registry.", "Before being able to file for an official death, the deceased must have been registered for an official birth at the cartório.", "Though a Public Registry Law guarantees all Brazilian citizens the right to register deaths, regardless of their financial means of their family members (often children), the Brazilian government has not taken away the burden, the hidden costs, and fees of filing for a death.", "For many impoverished families, the indirect costs and burden of filing for a death lead to a more appealing, unofficial, local, and cultural burial, which, in turn, raises the debate about inaccurate mortality rates.Talking about death and witnessing it is a difficult issue in most cultures.", "Western societies may like to treat the dead with the utmost material respect, with an official embalmer and associated rites.", "Eastern societies (like India) may be more open to accepting it as a ''fait accompli'', with a funeral procession of the dead body ending in an open-air burning-to-ashes.=== Origins of death ===The origin of death is a theme or myth of how death came to be.", "It is present in nearly all cultures across the world, as death is a universal happening.", "This makes it an origin myth, a myth that describes how a feature of the natural or social world appeared.", "There can be some similarities between myths and cultures.", "In North American mythology, the theme of a man who wants to be immortal and a man who wants to die can be seen across many Indigenous people.", "In Christianity, death is the result of the fall of man after eating the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil.", "In Greek mythology, the opening of Pandora's box releases death upon the world." ], [ "Consciousness", "Much interest and debate surround the question of what happens to one's consciousness as one's body dies.", "The belief in the permanent loss of consciousness after death is often called ''eternal oblivion''.", "The belief that the stream of consciousness is preserved after physical death is described by the term ''afterlife''.", "Neither is likely to be confirmed without the ponderer having to die.Near-death experiences are the closest thing people have to an afterlife that we know.", "Some people who have had near-death experiences (NDEs) report that they have seen the afterlife while they were dead.", "Seeing a being of light and talking with it, life flashing before the eyes, and the confirmation of cultural beliefs of the afterlife are all themes that happen during the moments they are dead." ], [ "In biology", "Earthworms are soil-dwelling detritivores.After death, the remains of a former organism become part of the biogeochemical cycle, during which animals may be consumed by a predator or a scavenger.", "Organic material may then be further decomposed by detritivores, organisms that recycle detritus, returning it to the environment for reuse in the food chain, where these chemicals may eventually end up being consumed and assimilated into the cells of an organism.", "Examples of detritivores include earthworms, woodlice, and millipedes.Microorganisms also play a vital role, raising the temperature of the decomposing matter as they break it down into yet simpler molecules.", "Not all materials need to be fully decomposed.", "Coal, a fossil fuel formed over vast tracts of time in swamp ecosystems, is one example.=== Natural selection ===The contemporary evolutionary theory sees death as an important part of the process of natural selection.", "It is considered that organisms less adapted to their environment are more likely to die, having produced fewer offspring, thereby reducing their contribution to the gene pool.", "Their genes are thus eventually bred out of a population, leading at worst to extinction and, more positively, making the process possible, referred to as speciation.", "Frequency of reproduction plays an equally important role in determining species survival: an organism that dies young but leaves numerous offspring displays, according to Darwinian criteria, much greater fitness than a long-lived organism leaving only one.Death also has a role in competition, where if a species out-competes another, there is a risk of death for the population, especially in the case where they are directly fighting over resources.=== Extinction ===A dodo, the bird that became a byword in the English language for the extinction of a speciesDeath plays a role in extinction, the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa, reducing biodiversity, due to extinction being generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point).", "Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively.=== Evolution of aging and mortality ===Inquiry into the evolution of aging aims to explain why so many living things and the vast majority of animals weaken and die with age.", "However, there are exceptions, such as ''Hydra'' and the jellyfish ''Turritopsis dohrnii'', which research shows to be biologically immortal.Organisms showing only asexual reproduction, such as bacteria, some protists, like the euglenoids and many amoebozoans, and unicellular organisms with sexual reproduction, colonial or not, like the volvocine algae ''Pandorina'' and ''Chlamydomonas,'' are \"immortal\" at some extent, dying only due to external hazards, like being eaten or meeting with a fatal accident.", "In multicellular organisms and also in multinucleate ciliates with a Weismannist development, that is, with a division of labor between mortal somatic (body) cells and \"immortal\" germ (reproductive) cells, death becomes an essential part of life, at least for the somatic line.The ''Volvox'' algae are among the simplest organisms to exhibit that division of labor between two completely different cell types, and as a consequence, include the death of somatic line as a regular, genetically regulated part of its life history.=== Grief in animals ===Animals have sometimes shown grief for their partners or \"friends.\"", "When two chimpanzees form a bond together, sexual or not, and one of them dies, the surviving chimpanzee will show signs of grief, ripping out their hair in anger and starting to cry; if the body is removed, they will resist, they will eventually go quiet when the body is gone, but upon seeing the body again, the chimp will return to a violent state.=== Death of abiotic factors ===Some non-living things can be considered dead.", "For example, a volcano, batteries, electrical components, and stars are all nonliving things that can \"die,\" whether from destruction or cessation of function.A volcano, a break in the earth's crust that allows lava, ash, and gases to escape, has three states that it may be in, active, dormant, and extinct.", "An active volcano has recently or is currently erupting; in a dormant volcano, it has not erupted for a significant amount of time, but it may erupt again; in an extinct volcano, it may be cut off from the supply of its lava and will never expected to erupt again, so the volcano can be considered to be dead.A battery can be considered dead after the charge is fully used up.", "Electrical components are similar in this fashion, in the case that it may not be able to be used again, such as after a spill of water on the components, the component can be considered dead.Kepler's Supernova, after the death of what could have been a white dwarfStars also have a life-span and, therefore, can die.", "After it starts to run out of fuel, it starts to expand, this can be analogous to the star aging.", "After it exhausts all fuel, it may explode in a supernova, collapse into a black hole, or turn into a neutron star." ], [ "Religious views", "=== Buddhism ===In Buddhist doctrine and practice, death plays an important role.", "Awareness of death motivated Prince Siddhartha to strive to find the \"deathless\" and finally attain enlightenment.", "In Buddhist doctrine, death functions as a reminder of the value of having been born as a human being.", "Being reborn as a human being is considered the only state in which one can attain enlightenment.", "Therefore, death helps remind oneself that one should not take life for granted.", "The belief in rebirth among Buddhists does not necessarily remove death anxiety since all existence in the cycle of rebirth is considered filled with suffering, and being reborn many times does not necessarily mean that one progresses.Death is part of several key Buddhist tenets, such as the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.=== Christianity ===Paradiso, Dante is with Beatrice, staring at the highest heavens.While there are different sects of Christianity with different branches of belief, the overarching ideology on death grows from the knowledge of the afterlife.", "After death, the individual will undergo a separation from mortality to immortality; their soul leaves the body entering a realm of spirits.", "Following this separation of body and spirit (death), resurrection will occur.", "Representing the same transformation Jesus Christ embodied after his body was placed in the tomb for three days, each person's body will be resurrected, reuniting the spirit and body in a perfect form.", "This process allows the individual's soul to withstand death and transform into life after death.===Hinduism===Illustration depicting Hindu beliefs about reincarnationIn Hindu texts, death is described as the individual eternal spiritual ''jiva-atma'' (soul or conscious self) exiting the current temporary material body.", "The soul exits this body when the body can no longer sustain the conscious self (life), which may be due to mental or physical reasons or, more accurately, the inability to act on one's ''kama'' (material desires).", "During conception, the soul enters a compatible new body based on the remaining merits and demerits of one's ''karma'' (good/bad material activities based on ''dharma'') and the state of one's mind (impressions or last thoughts) at the time of death.Usually, the process of reincarnation makes one forget all memories of one's previous life.", "Because nothing really dies and the temporary material body is always changing, both in this life and the next, death means forgetfulness of one's previous experiences.===Islam===The Islamic view is that death is the separation of the soul from the body as well as the beginning of the afterlife.", "The afterlife, or ''akhirah,'' is one of the six main beliefs in Islam.", "Rather than seeing death as the end of life, Muslims consider death as a continuation of life in another form.", "In Islam, life on earth right now is a short, temporary life and a testing period for every soul.", "True life begins with the Day of Judgement when all people will be divided into two groups.", "The righteous believers will be welcomed to ''janna'' (heaven), and the disbelievers and evildoers will be punished in ''jahannam'' (hellfire).Muslims believe death to be wholly natural and predetermined by God.", "Only God knows the exact time of a person's death.", "The Quran emphasizes that death is inevitable, no matter how much people try to escape death, it will reach everyone.", "(Q50:16) Life on earth is the one and only chance for people to prepare themselves for the life to come and choose to either believe or not believe in God, and death is the end of that learning opportunity.=== Judaism ===There are a variety of beliefs about the afterlife within Judaism, but none of them contradict the preference for life over death.", "This is partially because death puts a cessation to the possibility of fulfilling any commandments." ], [ "Language", "The word \"death\" comes from Old English ''dēaþ'', which in turn comes from Proto-Germanic ''dauþuz'' (reconstructed by etymological analysis).", "This comes from the Proto-Indo-European stem ''dheu-'' meaning the \"process, act, condition of dying.", "\"The concept and symptoms of death, and varying degrees of delicacy used in discussion in public forums, have generated numerous scientific, legal, and socially acceptable terms or euphemisms.", "When a person has died, it is also said they have \"passed away\", \"passed on\", \"expired\", or \"gone\", among other socially accepted, religiously specific, slang, and irreverent terms.As a formal reference to a dead person, it has become common practice to use the participle form of \"decease\", as in \"the deceased\"; another noun form is \"decedent\".Bereft of life, the dead person is a \"corpse\", \"cadaver\", \"body\", \"set of remains\" or, when all flesh is gone, a \"skeleton\".", "The terms \"carrion\" and \"carcass\" are also used, usually for dead non-human animals.", "The ashes left after a cremation are lately called \"cremains\"." ], [ "See also", "* Deathbed* Death drive* Death row* Death trajectory* Dying declaration* End-of-life care* Eschatology* Faked death* Karōshi* Last rites* List of expressions related to death* Spiritual death* Survivalism (life after death)* Taboo on the dead* Thanatology" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * \"Death\" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* * * \"Death\" (video; 10:18) by Timothy Ferris, producer of the Voyager Golden Record for NASA.", "2021* A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms, in relation to evolution.", "* How the medical profession categorized causes of death.", "* Interviews with people dying in hospices, and portraits of them before and shortly after, death." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deseret alphabet" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Deseret alphabet''' (; Deseret: or ) is a phonemic English-language spelling reform developed between 1847 and 1854 by the board of regents of the University of Deseret under the leadership of Brigham Young, the second president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).", "George D. Watt is reported to have been the most actively involved in the development of the script's novel characters, which were used to replace those of Isaac Pitman's English phonotypic alphabet.", "He was also the \"New Alphabet's\" first serious user.The Deseret alphabet was an outgrowth of the idealism and utopianism of Young and the early LDS Church.", "Young and the Mormon pioneers believed \"all aspects of life\" were in need of reform for the imminent millennium, and the Deseret alphabet was just one of many ways in which they sought to bring about a complete \"transformation in society,\" in anticipation of the Second Coming of Jesus.", "Young wrote of the reform that \"it would represent every sound used in the construction of any known language; and, in fact, a step and partial return to a pure language which has been promised unto us in the latter days,\" which meant the pure Adamic language spoken before the Tower of Babel.In public statements, Young claimed the alphabet would replace the traditional Latin alphabet with an alternative, more phonetically accurate alphabet for the English language.", "This would offer immigrants an opportunity to learn to read and write English, the orthography of which, he said, is often less phonetically consistent than those of many other languages.", "Young also proposed teaching the alphabet in the school system, stating \"It will be the means of introducing uniformity in our orthography, and the years that are now required to learn to read and spell can be devoted to other studies.", "\"Between 1854 and 1869, the alphabet was used in scriptural newspaper passages, selected church records, a few diaries, and some correspondence.", "Occasional street signs and posters used the new letters.", "In 1860 a $5 gold coin was embossed 𐐐𐐬𐑊𐐨𐑌𐐮𐑅 𐐻𐐭 𐑄 𐐢𐐫𐑉𐐼 (Holiness to the Lord).", "In 1868-9, after much difficulty creating suitable fonts, four books were printed: two school primers, the full Book of Mormon, and a first portion of it, intended as a third school reader.Despite repeated and costly promotion by the early LDS Church, the alphabet never enjoyed widespread use, and it has been regarded by historians as a failure.", "However, in recent years, aided by digital typography, the Deseret alphabet has been revived as a cultural heirloom.Similar neographies have been attempted, the most well-known of which for English is the Shavian alphabet." ], [ "History", "=== Creation (1847–1854) ===The Deseret alphabet was a project of the Mormon pioneers, a group of early followers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) who, motivated by revelations of a unique premillennial eschatology, had set about building a unique theocracy in the Utah desert, which was then still part of Mexico, after the death of the church's founder, the prophet Joseph Smith.", "They were to build a \"city of Zion\" where converts would gather in preparation for the Second Coming of Christ.", "As part of that Gathering, in 1848, Church leaders urged converts in Europe to \"emigrate as speedily as possible\" to the Great Basin.", "There, in the \"Kingdom of God,\" under fused theo-democratic leadership, they would be safe from the fall of the apostate world of so-called \"Babylon.\"", "March 6, 1849, Church authorities organized the \"free and independent government\" called the State of Deseret, while retaining the Council of Fifty.", "In that historical context, which has been called \"The Forgotten Kingdom,\" there was a “compete identity of religious and temporal purpose throughout the history of the Alphabet.\"", "This theo-linguistic fusion has been noted by multiple historians.", "The \"New Alphabet\" was intended to correct \"the corruptions and perversions of language which was originally pure,\" and to meet the urgent need for a language to \"answer the demands of a constant intercommunication between several thousand languages.\"", "One \"fitted to meet the great emergency of the great gathering and great work of teaching the law of the Lord to all people.\"", "This reformation of English orthography was a first step to the ultimate restoration of Adamic language for use in the anticipated millennial dispensation of the fulness of times.", "The Deseret Typographical Association called the alphabet \"a forerunner in that series of developments which shall prepare mankind for the reception of pure language.\"", "Brigham Young, Church President and Prophet, the \"driving force\" for the reform, looked forward to the time \"when a man is full of light of eternity,\" and stated, \"I shall yet see the time that I can converse with this people without opening my mouth.", "\"The Deseret alphabet was developed primarily by a committee made up of the board of regents of the University of Deseret, members of which included LDS Church leaders Brigham Young, Parley P. Pratt, Heber C. Kimball, and several of the other Apostles.", "According to Brigham Young University professor Richard G. Moore, most scholars believe that George D. Watt's contribution to the actual form the alphabet took, its unique glyphs, was the greatest; he furthermore \"planted the idea of spelling reform in Brigham Young's mind\" through a phonography class he gave after the death of Joseph Smith which Young attended.", "William W. Phelps helped \"work out the letters\" along with Pratt.", "The Deseret alphabet was based on Isaac Pitman's ''English Phonotypic Alphabet'', and in fact, Pitman's alphabet was nearly chosen by the Board of Regents as their preferred spelling reform.", "Before they decided on the Deseret alphabet, the attention of the board of regents was mostly focused on Pitman style alphabets, and in April 1847 Brigham Young nearly purchased of lead type to print books using Pitman's orthography.", "The University of Deseret was incorporated on 28 February 1850; less than three weeks later, on 20 March, the new board of regents began to discuss spelling reform.On 29 November 1853, the committee was ready to approve a slightly modified version of the Pitman orthography, when Apostle Willard Richards, Second Counselor to Young, who had been deathly ill and missed the debate before the vote, saw the proposed alphabet, which spelled the word \"phonetic\" as \"fɷnetic\".", "Richards was quick to condemn it, saying to the committee: \"We want a new kind of alphabet...those characters...seem like putting new wine into old bottles...I am inclined to think...we shall...throw away all characters that bear much resemblance to the English characters, and introduce an alphabet that is original...an alphabet entirely different from any alphabet in use.", "\"These words persuaded Brigham Young and the rest of the committee, and Watt then endeavored to create an original alphabet.", "Less than two months later, on 19 January 1854, the board of regents finally approved the first 38-letter Deseret alphabet.", "One legacy of Pitman's orthography survived, though: the idea that one letter should equal one sound.=== Use by the Mormon pioneers (1854–1869) ===Upon the alphabet's acceptance, its first user was its principal architect, George D. Watt, who began writing the meeting minutes of the early Bishops in a cursive form of it in 1854.Almost immediately after its publication, church members began experimenting with it, and by 1855 travel writers Jules Remy and Julius Brenchley published a chart of the new alphabet which differed heavily from the 1854 version.", "Some early Mormons, such as Thales Hastings Haskell, began writing their personal journals in the new alphabet.", "Remy further reported that during his time in Salt Lake City, he saw signs on the street and above shops using the new alphabet.After its approval by the board of regents, Brigham Young testified before the Utah territorial legislature that the new alphabet should \"be thoroughly and extensively taught in all the schools.\"", "Some teaching in Utah schools did take place: John B. Milner taught the alphabet in Provo, Lehi, American Fork, and Pleasant Grove, while evening classes were taught in Salt Lake City and Farmington.After several months' practice writing with the new alphabet, Watt wrote to Brigham Young that he was unhappy with it, and proposed a complete overhaul, which was never followed up on.Word of the new alphabet soon spread outside Utah, and most press reports in non-Mormon papers were critical.", "Other writers, however, acquainted with other phonotypic and stenographic alphabets, ranged from neutral descriptions of the new alphabet to praise.Until this point, all the printed material (mostly just charts of the alphabet and its standard orthography equivalents) had been produced with large wooden type, which was not suitable for printing at small sizes.", "Because the alphabet was wholly unique, no font existed, so in 1857 the board of regents appointed Erastus Snow to procure metal type from St. Louis-based font foundry Ladew & Peer.", "However, in May 1857 the Utah War began, and Snow left St. Louis to support the Mormon pioneers.", "During the war, Ladew & Peer kept working on the type, and the punches and matrices were delivered in the winter of 1858.The first use of the new type was to make a business card for George A. Smith, an early Mormon historian.The Sermon on the Mount as it appears in the 16 February 1859 edition of the ''Deseret News''.In 1859, with the new type in hand, the ''Deseret News'' began printing with it.", "It would print one piece per issue in the new alphabet, usually a quotation from ''The Book of Mormon'' or the New Testament.", "However, this only lasted for one year, after which the practice stopped; it would start again in May 1864 and stop permanently at the end of that year.Benn Pitman, the brother of Isaac Pitman, was also interested in spelling reform, and by 1864 had published his own orthography, which the board of regents considered adopting.", "However, they ultimately decided not to and used the opportunity to re-affirm their commitment to the Deseret alphabet.Brigham Young blamed the failure of this first attempt at reform on the ugliness of the type developed by Ladew & Peer, and so he commissioned Russell's American Steam Printing House, a New York City based font foundry, to design more pleasing type.", "The result was the Bodoni-esque font (below) that was used to print all of the books in this period.", "In an 1868 article, the ''Deseret News'' wrote that \"the characters, to a person unaccustomed to them, may look strange, but to the eye to which they are familiar they are beautiful.", "\"At least four books were published in the new alphabet, all transcribed by Orson Pratt and all using the Russell's House font: ''The First Deseret Alphabet Reader'' (1868), ''The Second Deseret Alphabet Reader'' (1868), ''The Book of Mormon'' (1869), and a ''Book of Mormon'' excerpt called ''First Nephi–Omni'' (1869).Considerable non-printed material in the Deseret alphabet was made, including a replica headstone in Cedar City, Utah, some coinage, letters, diaries, and meeting minutes.", "One of the more curious items found in the Deseret alphabet is an English-Hopi dictionary prepared by two Mormon missionaries.", "The handwritten document sat in the LDS Church Archives, largely ignored until 2014 when writing system researcher and computer scientist Kenneth R. Beesley re-discovered it and transcribed it into standard written English.=== Decline (1869–1877) ===Despite years of heavy promotion, the Deseret alphabet was never widely adopted.", "This reluctance was partly due to prohibitive costs; the project had already cost the early church $20,000, with $6,000 going to Pratt as remuneration for his transcription effort and most of the rest going to cutting metal type featuring the new alphabet and printing costs.", "In 1859, Orson Pratt estimated that the cost of supplying all Utah Territory schoolchildren with suitable textbooks would be over $5,000,000.campaign ticket for the People's Party of Utah.", "The Deseret type is recycled to make a border.", "The \"words\" in the border are gibberish.According to Beesley, many have written that interest in the Deseret alphabet died with Brigham Young.", "This, however, is not true; the alphabet was already regarded as a failure during Young's time.", "Only 500 copies of the full ''Book of Mormon'' translated into the Deseret alphabet sold for $2 each, and even Young realized that the venture was too expensive and even the most devout Mormons could not be convinced to purchase and study the Deseret edition books over the books in the traditional orthography.", "In the winter of 1870, just one year after their publication, advertisements for the Deseret alphabet books were quietly removed from the ''Deseret News''.Contemporary writers noted that thousands of copies of the 15¢ and 20¢ Deseret primers went unsold, and historian Roby Wentz speculated that the LDS Church at that time had a \"cache\" of the primers in mint condition, which it was slowly selling off; according to him, one such primer sold for $250 in 1978.The Mormons had planned to use the profits from sale of the earlier books to fund printing of more books, and in anticipation Orson Pratt had already transcribed the complete Bible, ''Doctrine and Covenants'', and John Jaques's ''Catechism for Children''.", "Pratt had also prepared an apparent sequel to the primers, the ''Deseret Phonetic Speller''.", "After the sales failure, however, none of these books were ever published and were thought lost until being rediscovered in a storage area of the LDS Church Archives in Salt Lake City in May 1967.Ralph Vigoda, a reporter for ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'', has speculated that the completion of the Transcontinental railroad may have contributed to the alphabet's downfall: non-Mormons, not loyal to Brigham Young, became a large part of the city, and without the religious motivation it would be difficult indeed to get them to learn a new alphabet.", "In a retrospective piece, historian A. J. Simmonds claims that the new railroad doomed the alphabet.", "According to him, easy access to \"the whole literature of the English speaking world\" rendered the alphabet useless.In July 1877, Young tried one more time at a spelling reform, ordering lead type designed for the orthography of Benn Pitman (Isaac's brother) with the intention of printing an edition of the ''Book of Mormon'' and ''Doctrine and Covenants'' using it.", "Most of the type had arrived by August, but with Young's death, the translation was never undertaken and the type never used.", "Young's death thus marked the end of the Mormon experimentation with English spelling reforms.=== Rediscovery in the computer era ===Three questions (\"Where is my room?", "\", \"Where is the beach?\"", "and \"Where is the bar?\")", "in a Deseret digital computer typefaceModern digital typography has reduced the costs of typesetting substantially, especially for small print runs.", "Freely licensed Deseret alphabet fonts can be used at no additional cost.Film director Trent Harris used the Deseret alphabet in his 1994 satire of Mormon theology, ''Plan 10 from Outer Space'', where it features as an alien language used on a mysterious \"Plaque of Kolob\".During the 1996 Utah Centennial celebration, an activity book for children was distributed, within which one of the activities was for a child to write their own name in the alphabet.", "The book says that a child who does this will be \"the first kid in 100 years to write their name in the Deseret alphabet!", "\"Also in 1996, ''Buffalo River Press'' published a reprint of the ''Deseret First Book'', of which only 10,000 were originally printed.", "The entire ''Book of Mormon'' in the Deseret alphabet has been likewise reprinted, as only 500 copies from the original print run exist, and they can sell on eBay for ≈$7,500 (as of 2004).", "In 1997, John Jenkins uploaded a free three part PDF of the so-called \"triple combination\", that is, a combined ''Book of Mormon'', ''Doctrine and Covenants'' and ''Pearl of Great Price''.John Jenkins has gone on to publish many classic pieces of English literature in the Deseret alphabet, such as ''Alice in Wonderland,'' ''Pride and Prejudice'', and ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.", "''Owing to the character set's inclusion in Unicode, most of the original books and many of the original manuscripts have been transcribed into plain text, and, when this is not possible due to discrepancies between the Unicode reference glyphs and the documents, LaTeX.==== Fonts ====The phrase \"𐐆𐑌𐑁𐐲𐑉𐑋𐐩𐑇𐐲𐑌 𐐶𐐪𐑌𐐻𐑅 𐐻𐐭 𐐺 𐑁𐑉𐐨\" (Information wants to be free) in five Deseret fonts.", "From top, Noto Sans Deseret, QueenBee Star, TuBeeRound, Times Bee and Analecta.", "The first digital font for the Deseret alphabet, called \"Deseret\", was designed by Greg Kearney as part of work he was doing for the LDS Church History Department in 1991; the font was used in an exhibit that year.", "In August 1995, a cleaned up, digitized version of the font in use in the ''Deseret Second Book'' was created by Salt Lake City graphic designer Edward Bateman, who made the font in Fontographer while working on ''Plan 10 from Outer Space''.Kenneth R. Beesley created a Metafont (and thus, LaTeX-compatible) font called in 2002.All computers running Microsoft's Windows 7 operating system or newer can display the entire Deseret alphabet Unicode range as the glyphs are included in the Segoe UI Symbol font.Besides maintaining a Deseret input method for Windows, Joshua Erickson, a UCLA alumnus, also maintains a large collection of freeware Unicode fonts for the alphabet, which he collectively terms the \"Bee Fonts.", "\"There also exist free software fonts for the Deseret alphabet.", "Google, through its Noto Sans project, the aim of which is \"to support all languages with a harmonious look and feel\", has also released a Deseret font under the name \"Noto Sans Deseret\".", "George Douros maintains a public domain font called \"Analecta\" as part of his Unicode Fonts for Ancient Scripts project, which supports the Coptic, Gothic, and Deseret scripts.", "Deseret glyphs are also available in the popular pan-Unicode fonts Code2001 and Everson Mono (as of version 5.1.5)." ], [ "Alphabet", "Although the Deseret alphabet has letter case, usually the only difference between the minuscule and majuscule forms is that the majuscule forms are larger.", "Glyph Name Glyph Name Glyph Name Glyph Name 𐐀 𐐨 25px25px Long I 𐐁 𐐩 25px25px Long E 𐐂 𐐪 25px25px Long A 𐐃 𐐫 25px25px Long Ah 𐐄 𐐬 25px25px Long O 𐐅 𐐭 25px25px Long Oo 𐐆 𐐮 25px25px Short I 𐐇 𐐯 25px25px Short E 𐐈 𐐰 25px25px Short A 𐐉 𐐱 25px25px Short Ah 𐐊 𐐲 25px25px Short O 𐐋 𐐳 25px25px Short Oo 𐐌 𐐴 25px25px Ay 𐐍 𐐵 25px25px Ow 𐐎 𐐶 25px25px Wu 𐐏 𐐷 25px25px Yee 𐐐 𐐸 25px25px H 𐐑 𐐹 25px25px Pee 𐐒 𐐺 25px25px Bee 𐐓 𐐻 25px25px Tee 𐐔 𐐼 25px25px Dee 𐐕 𐐽 25px25px Chee 𐐖 𐐾 25px25px Jee 𐐗 𐐿 25px25px Kay 𐐘 𐑀 25px25px Gay 𐐙 𐑁 25px25px Ef 𐐚 𐑂 25px25px Vee 𐐛 𐑃 25px25px Eth 𐐜 𐑄 25px25px Thee 𐐝 𐑅 25px25px Es 𐐞 𐑆 25px25px Zee 𐐟 𐑇 25px25px Esh 𐐠 𐑈 25px25px Zhee 𐐡 𐑉 25px25px Er 𐐢 𐑊 25px25px El 𐐣 𐑋 25px25px Em 𐐤 𐑌 25px25px En 𐐥 𐑍 25px25px Eng 𐐦 𐑎 25px25px Oi* 𐐧 𐑏 25px25px Ew* Not part of original alphabet; see § Versions belowA degree of free spelling is allowed to accommodate dialectal differences in English.", "For example, in the Deseret edition of ''The Book of Mormon'', the word \"wherefore\" is written as 𐐸𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 (), which means that the translator of the book did not exhibit the wine–whine merger.", "Those who do exhibit the merger might instead prefer the spelling 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐬𐑉 to match the pronunciation (), or, depending on dialect, perhaps 𐐶𐐯𐑉𐑁𐐫𐑉 ().The alphabet was designed to be able to write all of the vowels used in the dialect spoken in 19th century Utah.", "The vowel inventory has also been attributed to the fact that, unlike other American pioneers, the Mormon pioneers were from New England as opposed to the American South.", "As such, many of the vowels in the Deseret alphabet have since merged in the modern era: they are no longer distinguished in some dialects of English, particularly dialects of US English, though are still present in others, such as many varieties of British English.Speakers who exhibit the father–bother merger no longer distinguish (𐐪) and (𐐱), and so both \"father\" and \"bother\" would be written with 𐐪: as 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 as opposed to 𐑁𐐪𐑄𐐲𐑉 and 𐐺𐐱𐑄𐐲𐑉.", "For those with the cot–caught merger, (𐐫) and (𐐱) are no longer distinguished: both \"cot\" and \"caught\" are thus written by them as 𐐿𐐱𐐻 () in the case of North American English, and as 𐐿𐐫𐐻 () in the case of Scottish English.", "For those exhibiting both mergers, both would be written 𐐿𐐪𐐻 ().=== Versions ===There have been several published versions of the alphabet.", "Most versions (including the versions used in ''The Deseret First Book'', ''The Deseret Second Book'', ''The Deseret News'' and ''The Book of Mormon'') had only 38 letters, but some versions contained two ligatures, 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi).", "In place of 𐐮𐐭 or 𐐷𐐭, 𐑏 was to be used; in place of 𐐱𐐮, 𐑎.In the 23 February 1859 edition of the ''Deseret News'', the editors announced their approval of the two new letters and eventual intention to use them in the newsletter.", "However, due to the hot metal typesetting technology in use at the time, casting the new letters for use would have been a considerable expense, so it was never realized.=== Representation of ===The Deseret alphabet does not have a distinct symbol for the mid central vowel (, \"schwa\").", "The lack of a schwa has been cited as the biggest \"phonological flaw\" in the alphabet.Shelton using his schwa to handwrite the word \"broken\" (𐐺𐑉𐐬𐐿ı𐑌) ().", "The standard way to render this word is 𐐺𐑉𐐬𐐿𐑌 ().Because of the lack of a schwa, the author must write the sound that would be used if the word was stressed.", "For example, the word ''enough'' is commonly pronounced , but when it is stressed (as in a declaration of irritation) it is pronounced .", "The Deseret spelling of the word, 𐐨𐑌𐐲𐑁, reflects that stressed pronunciation.", "If does not have an inherent stressed value in a word, as is often the case before , then it is written as 𐐲.Marion J. Shelton, an early Mormon missionary, proposed the addition of a new glyph to represent the schwa, a simple vertical line of the same height as other Deseret characters with a similar appearance to the Turkish dotless i (ı).", "The addition of this glyph did not catch on among his contemporaries, however, and no document outside of ones penned by Shelton makes use of it.", "Shelton used the new glyph in an 1860 letter to Brigham Young reporting on a recently completed mission to the Paiute people.=== Syllabic values ===Each letter in the Deseret alphabet has a name, and when a letter is written on its own it has the value of that name.", "This allows some short words to be written with a single letter, and is called a letter's \"syllabic value\".", "The most common word in English, ''the'', is written simply 𐑄, as the letter's name is and that is the stressed pronunciation of the word.", "The consonants with syllabic values are 𐐶 (woo), 𐐷 (yee), 𐐸 (ha), 𐐹 (pee), 𐐺 (be/bee), 𐐻 (tee/tea), 𐐽 (qi), 𐐾 (gee), 𐑀 (gay), and 𐑄 (the/thee).Syllabic values do not apply within words, although this was formerly the case.", "In early documents, Watt writes \"people\" as 𐐹𐐹𐑊 with the expectation that readers will interpret the first 𐐹 as , but the second 𐐹 as .", "This contextual value switching was soon done away with, so in later documents, while \"bee\" is written 𐐺, \"bees\" is written 𐐺𐐨𐑆.In 40-letter versions of the alphabet which include the letter 𐐧 (ew) which represents , the letter 𐐧 when standing alone can be used to represent the word \"you\"." ], [ "Examples", " Hymn from the ''Deseret Second Book'', printed in 1868.The first line of the hymn reads \"I'll serve the Lord while I am young\" (𐐌'𐑊 𐑅𐐲𐑉𐑂 𐑄 𐐢𐐫𐑉𐐼 𐐸𐐶𐐴𐑊 𐐌 𐐰𐑋 𐐷𐐲𐑍), and is pronounced as .– Hello, how are you?", "– I'm doing great, thanks!", "– It was nice seeing you, but I've got to run!", "Take care!", "** – 𐐐𐐯𐑊𐐬, 𐐸𐐵 𐐪𐑉 𐑏?", "– 𐐌'𐑋 𐐼𐐭𐐮𐑍 𐑀𐑉𐐩𐐻, 𐑃𐐰𐑍𐐿𐑅!", "– 𐐆𐐻 𐐶𐐲𐑆 𐑌𐐴𐑅 𐑅𐐨𐐨𐑍 𐑏, 𐐺𐐲𐐻 𐐌'𐑂 𐑀𐐪𐐻 𐐻𐐭 𐑉𐐲𐑌!", "𐐓𐐩𐐿 𐐿𐐩𐑉!", "* Oil floats on water, but mercury sinks below both.", "This is due to their relative densities.", "** 𐐦𐑊 𐑁𐑊𐐬𐐻𐑅 𐐪𐑌 𐐶𐐫𐐻𐐲𐑉, 𐐺𐐲𐐻 𐑋𐐲𐑉𐐿𐐷𐐲𐑉𐐨 𐑅𐐮𐑍𐐿𐑅 𐐺𐐮𐑊𐐬 𐐺𐐬𐑃.", "𐐜𐐮𐑅 𐐮𐑆 𐐼𐐭 𐐻𐐭 𐑄𐐯𐑉 𐑉𐐯𐑊𐐲𐐻𐐮𐑂 𐐼𐐯𐑌𐑅𐐮𐐻𐐨𐑆.The first lesson in the ''Deseret First Book'' reads simply:In the ''Deseret Second Book'', there is a version of ''Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star'' on page 19:" ], [ "Handwriting", "There were two main handwritten forms of the Deseret alphabet: a cursive version and a printed version.", "Over the lifetime of the alphabet, the cursive form fell out of favor among most users of the alphabet and by 1856 no more cursive documents exist.", "Its impact on the glyphs can however still be plainly seen in the loops of certain characters such as 𐑅, 𐑀 and 𐐼.", "The earliest surviving versions of the Deseret alphabet, from 1853 (one year before its January 1854 approval), have printed and cursive forms side-by-side, suggesting that a cursive form was part of the plan from the very beginning.=== Cursive ===Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia that anyone can edit𐐎𐐮𐐿𐐨𐐹𐐨𐐼𐐨𐐲, 𐑄 𐑁𐑉𐐨 𐐯𐑌𐑅𐐴𐐿𐑊𐐬𐐹𐐨𐐼𐐨𐐲 𐑄𐐰𐐻 𐐯𐑌𐐨𐐶𐐲𐑌 𐐿𐐰𐑌 𐐯𐐼𐐮𐐻The cursive form of the Deseret alphabet was mainly used by two people: George D. Watt, and James Henry Martineau.", "Watt, a stenographer, recorded several bishops meetings and wrote other personal documents in this cursive style.", "A chart of the cursive form appears below.", "The blue glyphs represent how to write each character, while the top row of printed glyphs shows the corresponding Unicode reference glyph.600x600pxThe cursive style has many unorthodox characteristics uncommon to alphabetic writing systems.", "Vowels can be dropped if the writer is in a hurry and feels the word is obvious as in an abjad, letters can be written above or below the base line depending on what precedes them, and 𐐮 is placed on letters after they are already written as in an abugida.", "Furthermore, unlike the typeset alphabet, the cursive alphabet has no letter case.", "These characteristics could have arisen because Watt was a local expert in Pitman shorthand, which is written in a similar way.The table below shows some examples of how the cursive form is written.", "Dropped vowels are marked in parentheses.539x539px=== Block letters ===George D. Watt found his own alphabet cumbersome to write and abandoned it.", "As he wrote to Brigham Young on 21 August 1854:His new alphabet closely resembled an 1853 publication of Isaac Pitman, containing only 33 letters.", "However, at this point, Young was still enamored with the original Deseret alphabet, and so he rejected the proposal and Watt continued to publicly promote the alphabet as part of his job despite his reservations.A fragment of Marion Shelton's Hopi dictionary, the source of his handwriting.", "This section shows translations into the Hopi language (Orayvi dialect) for words that start with the English phoneme .After 1855, no more cursive documents appear, and all surviving journals are written in block letters.", "Marion J. Shelton, an early Mormon missionary who wrote a dictionary of the Hopi language in the alphabet, was a \"typical\" 40-letter Deseret writer, and his style of writing is shown below.600x600px" ], [ "Design criticism", "The Deseret alphabet was purposely designed so as to not have ascenders and descenders.", "This was envisioned as a practical benefit for the alphabet in an era of metal type: after many uses, the edges of type sorts become dull, and narrow ascenders and descenders are most prone to this effect.While well intentioned, this lack has been described as a \"catastrophic\" mistake that makes type look \"monotonous\" and makes all words look alike.", "Some have drawn comparisons between the alphabet and the Old Turkic script, saying that writing in the new alphabet could be mistaken from afar as a Turkish tax list.The Mormon pioneers were apparently aware of the problems caused by its monotony:Other criticism of the design was harsher still.", "In an 18 December 1857 editorial in the ''Boston Globe'', the alphabet was described as being \"so arranged and named as to cause the greatest possible annoyance to outsiders\" and the design of the letters as \"incomprehensible as ... the hieroglyphics of the ...", "Egyptians.\"", "On 4 March 1872, ''The New York Times'' called the alphabet \"rude, awkward and cumbersome.", "\"Some modern computer fonts and printed books have attempted to correct this perceived fault: in the books in John Jenkins' ''Deseret Alphabet Classics'' series, the font used adds a descender to 𐑉 and 𐐻 and an ascender to 𐐼 and 𐑇 among other tweaks." ], [ "Other motives", "Officially, the Deseret alphabet was created to simplify the spelling of English words for the benefit of children and English as a second language learners.", "Some of the alphabet's contemporaries, however, posited an alternative motivation for its development: increasing the isolation of the early Mormons.=== To keep outsiders from reading Mormon secrets (largely dismissed) ===The charge that the Deseret alphabet's main purpose was to keep outsiders (\"gentiles\" in LDS terminology) in the dark was brought almost immediately, as evidenced by the following 1858 ''Lyttelton Times'' reprint of an unnamed \"New York newspaper\":Having obtained a copy of the ''Deseret News'' in 1859, the ''Richmond Dispatch'' disparaged it on April 25, writing \"The ''Deseret News'' is filled with a lot of hieroglyphs.", "It seems to be an alphabet which the Mormons alone are to be taught.", "\"Modern historians, however, doubt the veracity of this theory.", "For one thing, notes Kenneth R. Beesley, the ''Deseret News'' and every book published in the alphabet prominently features the key to the alphabet, and anyone without a key could have gotten a copy of ''A Journey to Great-Salt-Lake City'', or traveled to Salt Lake City themselves and bought one.", "Contemporary scholars Richard F. Burton and Jules Remy also dismissed the secrecy argument, in 1860 and 1855 respectively.=== To keep Mormons from reading outside literature ===With the impending completion of the Transcontinental Railroad, the Mormon pioneers would have easy, cheap access to publications from the east, including yellowbacks, penny dreadfuls, pulp magazines, and other often scandalous or dirty publications that were rising to prominence in the 19th century.", "Indeed, in an article about the benefits of the alphabet, the ''Deseret News'' proudly wrote:In another article, the ''Deseret News'' cited an example of the kind of literature Mormons would benefit from not being able to read: ''The Police Gazette''.", "Historians A. J. Simmonds and Roby Wentz contend that while this may have been a tertiary goal of the alphabet, a sort of \"happy accident\", the main purpose of it was simple orthographic reform.", "Simmonds notes that the teaching of English to foreigners was not a mere hypothetical to mask isolationist tendencies: 35% of the Utah Territory's population at the time was Scandinavian, with German, Italian and Welsh speaking people also making up a considerable percentage of inhabitants; therefore, communication between the recently baptized and the community was a real problem." ], [ "Encodings", "Between 1855 and 1859, the way most people wrote the glyphs 𐑏 and 𐑎 changed, causing encoding problems when attempting to transcribe documents using the latter glyphs with Unicode.The Deseret alphabet (U+10400–U+1044F) was added to the Unicode Standard in March 2001 with the release of version 3.1, after a request by John H. Jenkins of Apple, making it one of the first scripts to be added outside of the Basic Multilingual Plane.", "The letters 𐐧 (ew) and 𐐦 (oi) were added to the Unicode Standard in April 2003 with the release of version 4.0.According to Kenneth R. Beesley, who submitted the proposal to expand the encoding, \"Unicode fonts based on the current heterogeneous collection of glyphs will be useless for any practical typesetting of 40-letter Deseret Alphabet documents.\"", "This is because the Unicode Consortium chose to use glyphs from 1855 as the reference glyphs, while by 1859 those glyphs were already outmoded and replaced with newer glyphs.", "Beesley thus recommends using LaTeX along with his Metafont font to typeset Deseret text, but fonts which use the alternate glyphs for the two codepoints in question would also work for transcription of 40-letter Deseret texts written during and after 1859.On 25 February 2016, the Library of Congress approved an ALA-LC romanization for the Deseret alphabet.", "The table can be used to display approximations of titles in non-Latin scripts using the Latin alphabet for use in library catalogs that do not support non-Latin alphabets." ], [ "See also", "* International Phonetic Alphabet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bigler, David.", "1998.", "''Forgotten kingdom: the Mormon theocracy in the American West, 1847–1896''.", "Spokane: Arthur Clark* Ivins, Stanley S. 1947.The Deseret Alphabet.", "''Utah Humanities Review'' 1:223-39.", "* Lynott, Patricia A.", "1999.", "\"Communicating Insularity: The Deseret Alphabet of Nineteenth-Century Mormon Education.\"", "''American Educational History Journal'' 26 (1):20–26.", "* McMurrin, Sterling M. 2000.The Theological Foundations of the Mormon Religion, Signature Books, Salt Lake City, 978-1-56085-135-6* Thompson, Roger.", "1982.Language planning in frontier America: The case of the Deseret Alphabet.", "''Language Problems and Language Planning'' 6:45–62.", "* Wintersteen, Larry Ray.", "1970.", "''A History of the Deseret Alphabet'' .", "MA thesis, Brigham Young University.", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* The Mormon Alphabet Experiment \| \"From the Stacks\" at New-York Historical Society* M. Scott Reynolds' Deseret alphabet portal* Joshua Erickson's Deseret alphabet pages* The Deseret Alphabet at Omniglot* Deseret Alphabet Translator—.", "Converts standard orthography to Deseret alphabet and vice versa* Deseret to IPA converter—Converts Deseret input to the International Phonetic Alphabet" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Danish" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Danish''' may refer to:* Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark" ], [ "People", "* A Danish person, also called a \"Dane\", can be a national or citizen of Denmark (see Demographics of Denmark)* Culture of Denmark* Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish ancestral or ethnic identity* A member of the Danes, a Germanic tribe* Danish (name), a male given name and surname" ], [ "Language", "* Danish language, a North Germanic language used mostly in Denmark and Northern Germany* Danish tongue or Old Norse, the parent language of all North Germanic languages" ], [ "Food", "* Danish cuisine* Danish pastry, often simply called a \"Danish\"" ], [ "See also", "* Dane (disambiguation)* * Gdańsk* List of Danes* Languages of Denmark" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Danish language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Danish''' (, ; , ) is a North Germanic language spoken by about six million people, principally in and around Denmark.", "Communities of Danish speakers are also found in Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the northern German region of Southern Schleswig, where it has minority language status.", "Minor Danish-speaking communities are also found in Norway, Sweden, the United States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina.Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, the common language of the Germanic peoples who lived in Scandinavia during the Viking Era.", "Danish, together with Swedish, derives from the ''East Norse'' dialect group, while the Middle Norwegian language (before the influence of Danish) and Norwegian Bokmål are classified as ''West Norse'' along with Faroese and Icelandic.", "A more recent classification based on mutual intelligibility separates modern spoken Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish as \"mainland (or ''continental'') Scandinavian\", while Icelandic and Faroese are classified as \"insular Scandinavian\".", "Although the written languages are compatible, spoken Danish is distinctly different from Norwegian and Swedish and thus the degree of mutual intelligibility with either is variable between regions and speakers.Until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Southern Jutland and Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions.", "With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of the printing press, a standard language was developed which was based on the educated dialect of Copenhagen and Malmö.", "It spread through use in the education system and administration, though German and Latin continued to be the most important written languages well into the 17th century.", "Following the loss of territory to Germany and Sweden, a nationalist movement adopted the language as a token of Danish identity, and the language experienced a strong surge in use and popularity, with major works of literature produced in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though regional variants of the standard language exist.", "The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative.Danish has a very large vowel inventory consisting of 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon , a kind of laryngeal phonation type.", "Due to the many pronunciation differences that set Danish apart from its neighboring languages, particularly the vowels, difficult prosody and \"weakly\" pronounced consonants, it is sometimes considered to be a \"difficult language to learn, acquire and understand\", and some evidence shows that children are slower to acquire the phonological distinctions of Danish compared to other languages.", "The grammar is moderately inflective with strong (irregular) and weak (regular) conjugations and inflections.", "Nouns, adjectives, and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender.", "Like English, Danish only has remnants of a former case system, particularly in the pronouns.", "Unlike English, it has lost all person marking on verbs.", "Its word order is V2, with the finite verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence." ], [ "Classification", "Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch.", "Other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages.", "Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language; Danish and Swedish are also classified as East Scandinavian or East Nordic languages.Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where no sharp dividing lines are seen between the different vernacular languages.Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, and has been influenced by English since the turn of the 20th century.Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas: Jutlandic (West Danish), Insular Danish (including the standard variety), and East Danish (including Bornholmian and Scanian).", "Under the view that Scandinavian is a dialect continuum, East Danish can be considered intermediary between Danish and Swedish, while Scanian can be considered a Swedified East Danish dialect, and Bornholmian is its closest relative.=== Vocabulary ===Danish label reading \"military police\", on a police vehicleApproximately 2,000 uncompounded Danish words are derived from Old Norse and ultimately from Proto Indo-European.", "Of these 2,000, 1,200 are nouns, 500 are verbs and 180 are adjectives.", "Danish has also absorbed many loanwords, most of which were borrowed from Low German of the Late Middle Ages.", "Out of the 500 most frequently used Danish words, 100 are loans from Middle Low German; this is because Low German was the second official language of Denmark–Norway.", "In the 17th and 18th centuries, standard German and French superseded Low German influence, and in the 20th century, English became the main supplier of loanwords, especially after World War II.", "Although many old Nordic words remain, some were replaced with borrowed synonyms, for example (to eat) was mostly supplanted by the Low German .", "As well as loanwords, new words can be freely formed by compounding existing words.", "In standard texts of contemporary Danish, Middle Low German loans account for about 16–17% of the vocabulary, Graeco-Latin loans 4–8%, French 2–4% and English about 1%.Danish and English are both Germanic languages.", "Danish is a North Germanic language descended from Old Norse, and English is a West Germanic language descended from Old English.", "Old Norse exerted a strong influence on Old English in the early medieval period.", "The shared Germanic heritage of Danish and English is demonstrated with many common words that are very similar in the two languages.", "For example, when written, commonly used Danish verbs, nouns, and prepositions such as , , , , , , , and are easily recognizable to English speakers.", "Similarly, some other words are almost identical to their Scots equivalents, e.g., (Scots ''kirk'', i.e., 'church') or (Scots ''bairn'', i.e.", "'child').", "In addition, the word , meaning \"village\" or \"town\", occurs in many English place-names, such as ''Whitby'' and ''Selby'', as remnants of the Viking occupation.", "During the latter period, English adopted \"are\", the third person plural form of the verb \"to be\", as well as the personal pronouns \"they\", \"them\" and \"their\" from contemporary Old Norse.=== Mutual intelligibility ===Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish.", "A proficient speaker of any of the three languages can often understand the others fairly well, though studies have shown that the mutual intelligibility is asymmetric: Norwegian speakers generally understand both Danish and Swedish far better than Swedes or Danes understand each other.", "Concomitantly, Swedes and Danes understand Norwegian better than they understand each other's languages.", "Norwegian occupies the middle position in terms of intelligibility because of its shared border with Sweden, resulting in a similarity in pronunciation, combined with the long tradition of having Danish as a written language, which has led to similarities in vocabulary.", "Among younger Danes, Copenhageners are worse at understanding Swedish than Danes from the provinces.", "In general, younger Danes are not as good at understanding the neighboring languages as the young in Norway and Sweden." ], [ "History", "The Danish philologist Johannes Brøndum-Nielsen divided the history of Danish into a period from 800 AD to 1525 to be \"Old Danish\", which he subdivided into \"Runic Danish\" (800–1100), Early Middle Danish (1100–1350) and Late Middle Danish (1350–1525).=== Runic Danish ===By the eighth century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had undergone some changes and evolved into Old Norse.This language was generally called the \"Danish tongue\" (), or \"Norse language\" ().", "Norse was written in the runic alphabet, first with the elder futhark and from the 9th century with the younger futhark.From the seventh century, the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, resulting in the appearance of two dialect areas, Old West Norse (Norway and Iceland) and Old East Norse (Denmark and Sweden).", "Most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway.", "A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the diphthong ''æi'' (Old West Norse ''ei'') to the monophthong ''e'', as in to .", "This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read and the later .", "Also, a change of ''au'' as in into ''ø'' as in occurred.", "This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from into .", "Moreover, the (Old West Norse ) diphthong changed into , as well, as in the Old Norse word for \"island\".", "This monophthongization started in Jutland and spread eastward, having spread throughout Denmark and most of Sweden by 1100.Through Danish conquest, Old East Norse was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England.", "Many words derived from Norse, such as \"gate\" () for street, still survive in Yorkshire, the East Midlands and East Anglia, and parts of eastern England colonized by Danish Vikings.", "The city of York was once the Viking settlement of Jorvik.", "Several other English words derive from Old East Norse, for example \"knife\" (), \"husband\" (), and \"egg\" ().", "The suffix \"-by\" for 'town' is common in place names in Yorkshire and the east Midlands, for example Selby, Whitby, Derby, and Grimsby.", "The word \"dale\" meaning valley is common in Yorkshire and Derbyshire placenames.=== Old and Middle dialects ===In the medieval period, Danish emerged as a separate language from Swedish.", "The main written language was Latin, and the few Danish-language texts preserved from this period are written in the Latin alphabet, although the runic alphabet seems to have lingered in popular usage in some areas.", "The main text types written in this period are laws, which were formulated in the vernacular language to be accessible also to those who were not Latinate.", "The Jutlandic Law and Scanian Law were written in vernacular Danish in the early 13th century.", "Beginning in 1350, Danish began to be used as a language of administration, and new types of literature began to be written in the language, such as royal letters and testaments.", "The orthography in this period was not standardized nor was the spoken language, and the regional laws demonstrate the dialectal differences between the regions in which they were written.Throughout this period, Danish was in contact with Low German, and many Low German loan words were introduced in this period.", "With the Protestant Reformation in 1536, Danish also became the language of religion, which sparked a new interest in using Danish as a literary language.", "Also in this period, Danish began to take on the linguistic traits that differentiate it from Swedish and Norwegian, such as the , the voicing of many stop consonants, and the weakening of many final vowels to /e/.The first printed book in Danish dates from 1495, the (''Rhyming Chronicle''), a history book told in rhymed verses.", "The first complete translation of the Bible in Danish, the Bible of Christian II translated by Christiern Pedersen, was published in 1550.Pedersen's orthographic choices set the ''de facto'' standard for subsequent writing in Danish.", "From around 1500, several printing presses were in operation in Denmark publishing in Danish and other languages.", "In the period after 1550, presses in Copenhagen dominated the publication of material in the Danish language.=== Early Modern ===Following the first Bible translation, the development of Danish as a written language, as a language of religion, administration, and public discourse accelerated.", "In the second half of the 17th century, grammarians elaborated grammars of Danish, first among them Rasmus Bartholin's 1657 Latin grammar ; then Laurids Olufsen Kock's 1660 grammar of the Zealand dialect ; and in 1685 the first Danish grammar written in Danish, (\"The Art of the Danish Language\") by Peder Syv.", "Major authors from this period are Thomas Kingo, poet and psalmist, and Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, whose novel (''Remembered Woes'') is considered a literary masterpiece by scholars.", "Orthography was still not standardized and the principles for doing so were vigorously discussed among Danish philologists.", "The grammar of Jens Pedersen Høysgaard was the first to give a detailed analysis of Danish phonology and prosody, including a description of the .", "In this period, scholars were also discussing whether it was best to \"write as one speaks\" or to \"speak as one writes\", including whether archaic grammatical forms that had fallen out of use in the vernacular, such as the plural form of verbs, should be conserved in writing (i.e.", "\"he is\" vs. \"they are\").The East Danish provinces were lost to Sweden after the Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645) after which they were gradually Swedified; just as Norway was politically severed from Denmark, beginning also a gradual end of Danish influence on Norwegian (influence through the shared written standard language remained).", "With the introduction of absolutism in 1660, the Danish state was further integrated, and the language of the Danish chancellery, a Zealandic variety with German and French influence, became the ''de facto'' official standard language, especially in writing—this was the original so-called (\"Danish of the Realm\").", "Also, beginning in the mid-18th century, the , the uvular R sound (), began spreading through Denmark, likely through influence from Parisian French and German.", "It affected all of the areas where Danish had been influential, including all of Denmark, Southern Sweden, and coastal southern Norway.In the 18th century, Danish philology was advanced by Rasmus Rask, who pioneered the disciplines of comparative and historical linguistics, and wrote the first English-language grammar of Danish.", "Literary Danish continued to develop with the works of Ludvig Holberg, whose plays and historical and scientific works laid the foundation for the Danish literary canon.", "With the Danish colonization of Greenland by Hans Egede, Danish became the administrative and religious language there, while Iceland and the Faroe Islands had the status of Danish colonies with Danish as an official language until the mid-20th century.=== Standardized national language ===Following the loss of Schleswig to Germany, a sharp influx of German speakers moved into the area, eventually outnumbering the Danish speakers.", "The political loss of territory sparked a period of intense nationalism in Denmark, coinciding with the so-called \"Golden Age\" of Danish culture.", "Authors such as N.F.S.", "Grundtvig emphasized the role of language in creating national belonging.", "Some of the most cherished Danish-language authors of this period are existential philosopher Søren Kierkegaard and prolific fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen.", "The influence of popular literary role models, together with increased requirements of education did much to strengthen the Danish language, and also started a period of homogenization, whereby the Copenhagen standard language gradually displaced the regional vernacular languages.", "Throughout the 19th century, Danes emigrated, establishing small expatriate communities in the Americas, particularly in the United States, Canada, and Argentina, where memory and some use of Danish remains today.Language shift in the 19th century in southern SchleswigAfter the Schleswig referendum in 1920, a number of Danes remained as a minority within German territories.After the occupation of Denmark by Germany in World War II, the 1948 orthography reform dropped the German-influenced rule of capitalizing nouns, and introduced the letter .", "Three 20th-century Danish authors have become Nobel Prize laureates in Literature: Karl Gjellerup and Henrik Pontoppidan (joint recipients in 1917) and Johannes V. Jensen (awarded 1944).With the exclusive use of , the High Copenhagen Standard, in national broadcasting, the traditional dialects came under increased pressure.", "In the 20th century, they have all but disappeared, and the standard language has extended throughout the country.", "Minor regional pronunciation variation of the standard language, sometimes called (\"regional languages\") remain, and are in some cases vital.", "Today, the major varieties of Standard Danish are High Copenhagen Standard, associated with elderly, well to-do, and well educated people of the capital, and low Copenhagen speech traditionally associated with the working class, but today adopted as the prestige variety of the younger generations.", "Also, in the 21st century, the influence of immigration has had linguistic consequences, such as the emergence of a so-called multiethnolect in the urban areas, an immigrant Danish variety (also known as ), combining elements of different immigrant languages such as Arabic, Turkish, and Kurdish, as well as English and Danish." ], [ "Geographic distribution and status", "=== Danish Realm ===Within the Danish Realm, Danish is the national language of Denmark and one of two official languages of the Faroe Islands (alongside Faroese).", "There is a Faroese variant of Danish known as Gøtudanskt.", "Until 2009, Danish was also one of two official languages of Greenland (alongside Greenlandic).", "Danish now acts as a ''lingua franca'' in Greenland, with a large percentage of native Greenlanders able to speak Danish as a second language (it was introduced into the education system as a compulsory language in 1928).", "About 10% of the population speaks Danish as their first language, due to immigration.Iceland was a territory ruled by Denmark–Norway, one of whose official languages was Danish.", "Though Danish ceased to be an official language in Iceland in 1944, it is still widely used and is a mandatory subject in school, taught as a second foreign language after English.No law stipulates an official language for Denmark, making Danish the ''de facto'' official language only.", "The Code of Civil Procedure does, however, lay down Danish as the language of the courts.", "Since 1997, public authorities have been obliged to follow the official spelling system laid out in the Orthography Law.", "In the 21st century, discussions have been held with a view to create a law that would make Danish the official language of Denmark.===Surrounding countries===''Learn Danish'' banner in Flensburg, Germany, where it is an officially recognized regional languageIn addition, a noticeable community of Danish speakers is in Southern Schleswig, the portion of Germany bordering Denmark, and a variant of Standard Danish, Southern Schleswig Danish, is spoken in the area.", "Since 2015, Schleswig-Holstein has officially recognized Danish as a regional language, just as German is north of the border.", "Furthermore, Danish is one of the official languages of the European Union and one of the working languages of the Nordic Council.", "Under the Nordic Language Convention, Danish-speaking citizens of the Nordic countries have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable for any interpretation or translation costs.The more widespread of the two varieties of written Norwegian, , is very close to Danish, because standard Danish was used as the ''de facto'' administrative language until 1814 and one of the official languages of Denmark–Norway.", "is based on Danish, unlike the other variety of Norwegian, , which is based on the Norwegian dialects, with Old Norwegian as an important reference point.", "Also North Frisian and Gutnish (Gutamål) were influenced by Danish.", "===Other locations===There are also Danish emigrant communities in other places of the world who still use the language in some form.", "In the Americas, Danish-speaking communities can be found in the US, Canada, Argentina and Brazil." ], [ "Dialects", "Map of Danish dialectsA map showing the distribution of stød in Danish dialects: Dialects in the pink areas have , as in standard Danish, while those in the green ones have tones, as in Swedish and Norwegian.", "Dialects in the blue areas have (like Icelandic, German, and English) neither nor tones.The distribution of one, two, and three grammatical genders in Danish dialects.", "In Zealand, the transition from three to two genders has happened fairly recently.", "West of the red line, the definite article goes before the word as in English or German; east of the line it takes the form of a suffix.Standard Danish () is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital, Copenhagen.", "Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm.", "More than 25% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area of the capital, and most government agencies, institutions, and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, which has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm.Danish dialects can be divided into the traditional dialects, which differ from modern Standard Danish in both phonology and grammar, and the Danish accents or regional languages, which are local varieties of the Standard language distinguished mostly by pronunciation and local vocabulary colored by traditional dialects.", "Traditional dialects are now mostly extinct in Denmark, with only the oldest generations still speaking them.Danish traditional dialects are divided into three main dialect areas:* Insular Danish (), including dialects of the Danish islands of Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster, and Møn* Jutlandic (), further divided in North, East, West, and South Jutlandic* East Danish (), including dialects of Bornholm (), Scania, Halland and Blekinge Jutlandic is further divided into Southern Jutlandic and Northern Jutlandic, with Northern Jutlandic subdivided into North Jutlandic and West Jutlandic.", "Insular Danish is divided into Zealand, Funen, Møn, and Lolland-Falster dialect areas―each with addition internal variation.", "Bornholmian is the only Eastern Danish dialect spoken in Denmark.", "Since the Swedish conquest of the Eastern Danish provinces Skåne, Halland and Blekinge in 1645/1658, the Eastern Danish dialects there have come under heavy Swedish influence.", "Many residents now speak regional variants of Standard Swedish.", "However, many researchers still consider the dialects in Scania, Halland () and Blekinge () as part of the East Danish dialect group.", "The Swedish National Encyclopedia from 1995 classifies Scanian as ''an Eastern Danish dialect with South Swedish elements''.Traditional dialects differ in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary from standard Danish.", "Phonologically, one of the most diagnostic differences is the presence or absence of .", "Four main regional variants for the realization of stød are known: In Southeastern Jutlandic, Southernmost Funen, Southern Langeland, and Ærø, no is used, but instead a pitch accent (like in Norwegian, Swedish and Gutnish).", "South of a line (, 'the stød border') going through central South Jutland, crossing Southern Funen and central Langeland and north of Lolland-Falster, Møn, Southern Zealand and Bornholm neither nor pitch accent exists.", "Most of Jutland and on Zealand use , and in Zealandic traditional dialects and regional language, occurs more often than in the standard language.", "In Zealand, the line divides Southern Zealand (without ), an area which used to be directly under the Crown, from the rest of the Island that used to be the property of various noble estates.Grammatically, a dialectally significant feature is the number of grammatical genders.", "Standard Danish has two genders and the definite form of nouns is formed by the use of suffixes, while Western Jutlandic has only one gender and the definite form of nouns uses an article before the noun itself, in the same fashion as West Germanic languages.", "The Bornholmian dialect has maintained to this day many archaic features, such as a distinction between three grammatical genders.", "Insular Danish traditional dialects also conserved three grammatical genders.", "By 1900, Zealand insular dialects had been reduced to two genders under influence from the standard language, but other Insular varieties, such as Funen dialect had not.", "Besides using three genders, the old Insular or Funen dialect, could also use personal pronouns (like he and she) in certain cases, particularly referring to animals.", "A classic example in traditional Funen dialect is the sentence: \"Katti, han får unger\", literally ''The cat, he is having kittens'', because cat is a masculine noun, thus is referred to as (he), even if it is a female cat." ], [ "Phonology", "Spoken Standard Danish of a male born 1978 in Esbjerg.The sound system of Danish is unusual, particularly in its large vowel inventory and in the unusual prosody.", "In informal or rapid speech, the language is prone to considerable reduction of unstressed syllables, creating many vowel-less syllables with syllabic consonants, as well as reduction of final consonants.", "Furthermore, the language's prosody does not include many clues about the sentence structure, unlike many other languages, making it relatively more difficult to perceive the different sounds of the speech flow.", "These factors taken together make Danish pronunciation difficult to master for learners, and Danish children are indicated to take slightly longer in learning to segment speech in early childhood.=== Vowels ===Although somewhat depending on analysis, most modern variants of Danish distinguish 12 long vowels, 13 short vowels, and two central vowels, and , which only occur in unstressed syllables.", "This gives a total of 27 different vowel phonemes – a very large number among the world's languages.", "At least 19 different diphthongs also occur, all with a short first vowel and the second segment being either , , or .", "The table below shows the approximate distribution of the vowels as given by in Modern Standard Danish, with the symbols used in IPA/Danish.", "Questions of analysis may give a slightly different inventory, for example based on whether r-colored vowels are considered distinct phonemes.", "gives 25 \"full vowels\", not counting the two unstressed \"schwa\" vowels.+ Vowel phonemes Front Central Back Close Close-mid Open-mid Open === Consonants ===The consonant inventory is comparatively simple.", "distinguishes 17 non-syllabic consonant phonemes in Danish.", "Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular/Pharyngeal Glottal Nasal Stop Fricative Approximant Many of these phonemes have quite different allophones in onset and coda where intervocalic consonants followed by a full vowel are treated as in onset, otherwise as in coda.", "Phonetically there is no voicing distinction among the stops, rather the distinction is one of aspiration.", "are aspirated in onset realized as , but not in coda.", "The pronunciation of ''t'', , is in between a simple aspirated and a fully affricated (as has happened in German with the second High German consonant shift from ''t'' to ''z'').", "There is dialectal variation, and some Jutlandic dialects may be less affricated than other varieties, with Northern and Western Jutlandic traditional dialects having an almost unaspirated ''dry t''.", "is pronounced as a in syllable coda, so e.g.", "() is pronounced .", "often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as approximants.", "Danish differs from the English sound that is conventionally transcribed with the same IPA symbol, in that it is not a dental fricative but an alveolar approximant which is frequently heard as by second language learners.The sound is found for example in the word /sjovˀ/ \"fun\" pronounced and \"marijuana\" pronounced .", "Some analyses have posited it as a phoneme, but since it occurs only after or and does not occur after these phonemes, it can be analyzed as an allophone of , which is devoiced after voiceless alveolar frication.", "This makes it unnecessary to postulate a -phoneme in Danish.", "Jutlandic dialects often lack the sound and pronounce the ''sj'' cluster as or .In onset is realized as a uvular-pharyngeal approximant, , but in coda it is either realized as a non-syllabic low central vowel, or simply coalesces with the preceding vowel.", "The phenomenon is comparable to the ''r'' in German or in non-rhotic pronunciations of English.", "The Danish realization of as guttural – the so-called ''skarre-r'' – distinguishes the language from those varieties of Norwegian and Swedish that use trilled .", "Only very few, middle-aged or elderly, speakers of Jutlandic retain a frontal which is then usually realised as a flapped or approximant .=== Prosody ===A pitch trace of the sentence 'Handball playing is very demanding'.Danish is characterized by a prosodic feature called (lit.", "\"thrust\").", "This is a form of laryngealization or creaky voice.", "Some sources have described it as a glottal stop, but this is a very infrequent realization, and today phoneticians consider it a phonation type or a prosodic phenomenon.", "The occurrence is also dependent on stress, and some varieties also realize it primarily as a tone.", "The has phonemic status, since it serves as the sole distinguishing feature of words with different meanings in minimal pairs such as (\"peasants\") with , versus (\"beans\") without .", "The distribution of in the vocabulary is related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian pitch accents found in most dialects of Norwegian and Swedish.Stress is phonemic and distinguishes words such as \"cheapest\" and \"car driver\".Intonation reflects the stress group, sentence type and prosodic phrase.", "In Copenhagen Standard Danish, the pitch pattern reaches its lowest peak within the stress group on the stressed syllable followed by its highest peak on the following unstressed syllable, after which it declines gradually until the next stress group.In interaction, pitch can mark e.g.", "the end of a story and turn-taking." ], [ "Grammar", "Similarly to the case of English, modern Danish grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection, a fairly fixed SVO word order and a complex syntax.", "Some traits typical of Germanic languages persist in Danish, such as the distinction between irregularly inflected strong stems inflected through ablaut or umlaut (i.e.", "changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs (\"takes/took\") and (\"foot/feet\")) and weak stems inflected through affixation (such as \"love/loved\", \"car/cars\").", "Vestiges of the Germanic case and gender system are found in the pronoun system.", "Typical for an Indo-European language, Danish follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment.", "Danish distinguishes at least seven major word classes: verbs, nouns, numerals, adjectives, adverbs, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and onomatopoeia.=== Nouns ===Nouns are inflected for number (singular vs. plural) and definiteness, and are classified into two grammatical genders.", "Only pronouns inflect for case, and the previous genitive case has become an enclitic.", "A distinctive feature of the Nordic languages, including Danish, is that the definite articles, which also mark noun gender, have developed into suffixes.", "Typical of Germanic languages plurals are either irregular or \"strong\" stems inflected through umlaut (i.e.", "changing the vowel of the stem) (e.g.", "\"foot/feet\", \"man/men\") or \"weak\" stems inflected through affixation (e.g.", "\"ship/ships\", \"woman/women\").==== Gender ====Standard Danish has two nominal genders: ''common'' and ''neuter''; the common gender arose as the historical feminine and masculine genders conflated into a single category.", "Some traditional dialects retain a three-way gender distinction, between masculine, feminine and neuter, and some dialects of Jutland have a masculine/feminine contrast.", "While the majority of Danish nouns (ca.", "75%) have the ''common'' gender, and ''neuter'' is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized.", "The gender of a noun determines the form of adjectives that modify it, and the form of the definite suffixes.", "==== Definiteness ====+ Danish regular plural patterns Class 1Class 2 Class 3 Sg.", "Pl.", "Pl.", "definite.", "Sg.", "Pl.", "Pl.", "definite.", "Sg.", "Pl.", "Pl.", "definite.monthmonthsthe monthsday days\"the days\" yearyears the yearscarcarsthe carsdogdogsthe dogsfishfish (pl.", ")the fishesDefiniteness is marked by two mutually exclusive articles: either a postposed enclitic or a preposed article which is the obligatory way to mark definiteness when nouns are modified by an adjective.", "Neuter nouns take the clitic , and common gender nouns take .", "Indefinite nouns take the articles (common gender) or (neuter).", "Hence, the common gender noun \"a man\" (indefinite) has the definite form \"the man\", whereas the neuter noun \"a house\" (indefinite) has the definite form, \"the house\" (definite) .", "Indefinite:''Jeg så '''et''' hus'': \"I saw a house\"Definite with enclitic article:''Jeg så hus'''et''''': \"I saw the house\"Definite with preposed demonstrative article:''Jeg så '''det''' store hus'': \"I saw the big house\"The plural definite ending is (e.g.", "\"boys > \"the boys\" and \"girls\" > \"the girls\"), and nouns ending in lose the last before adding the -ne suffix (e.g.", "\"Danes\" > \"the Danes\").", "When the noun is modified by an adjective, the definiteness is marked by the definite article (common) or (neuter) and the definite/plural form of the adjective: \"the big man\", \"the big house\".==== Number ====+ Danish irregular plurals Sg.", "Pl.", "Pl.", "definitemanmenthe mencowcowsthe cowseye eyes the eyesaccount accounts the accountsThere are three different types of regular plurals: Class 1 forms the plural with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), Class 2 with the suffix (indefinite) and (definite), and Class 3 takes no suffix for the plural indefinite form and for the plural definite.Most irregular nouns have an ablaut plural (i.e.", "with a change in the stem vowel), or combine ablaut stem-change with the suffix, and some have unique plural forms.", "Unique forms may be inherited (e.g.", "the plural of \"eye\", which is the old dual form ), or for loan words they may be borrowed from the donor language (e.g.", "the word \"account\" which is borrowed from Italian and uses the Italian masculine plural form \"accounts\").==== Possession ====Possessive phrases are formed with the enclitic -''s'', for example \"my father's house\" where the noun carries the possessive enclitic.", "This is however not an example of genitive case marking, because in the case of longer noun phrases the -s attaches to the last word in the phrase, which need not be the head-noun or even a noun at all.", "For example, the phrases \"the king of Denmark's candy factory\", where the factory is owned by the king of Denmark, or \"that is the daughter of the girl that Uffe lives with\", where the enclitic attaches to a stranded preposition.==== Nominal compounds ====Like all Germanic languages, Danish forms compound nouns.", "These are represented in Danish orthography as one word, as in , \"the female national handball team\".", "In some cases, nouns are joined with ''s'' as a linking element, originally possessive in function, like (from , \"country\", and , \"man\", meaning \"compatriot\"), but (from same roots, meaning \"farmer\").", "Some words are joined with the linking element instead, like (from and , meaning \"guest book\").", "There are also irregular linking elements.=== Pronouns ===+ Danish personal pronouns Person Nominative case Oblique case Possessive case/adjective 1st sg.", "I me my, mine 2nd sg.", "You you your(s) 3rd sg.", "he/she/it him/her/it his/her(s)/its 1st pl.", "we us our(s) 2nd pl.", "you (pl.)", "you (pl.)", "your(s) (pl.)", "3rd pl.", "they them their(s)3rd refl.N/A him/her/itself, themself/selves his/her(s)/its (own)As does English, the Danish pronominal system retains a distinction between nominative and oblique case.", "The nominative form of pronouns is used when pronouns occur as grammatical subject of a sentence (and only when non-coordinated and without a following modifier), and oblique forms are used for all non-subject functions including direct and indirect object, predicative, comparative and other types of constructions.", "The third person singular pronouns also distinguish between animate masculine ( \"he\"), animate feminine ( \"she\") forms, as well as inanimate neuter ( \"it\") and inanimate common gender ( \"it\").", ": \"I sleep\": \"you sleep\": \"I kiss you\": \"you kiss me\"Possessive pronouns have independent and adjectival uses, but the same form.", "The form is used both adjectivally preceding a possessed noun ( \"it is my horse\"), and independently in place of the possessed noun ( \"it is mine\").", "In the third person singular, is used when the possessor is also the subject of the sentence, whereas (\"his\"), (her) and \"its\" is used when the possessor is different from the grammatical subject.", "''Han tog '''sin''' hat'': He took his (own) hat* ''Han tog '''hans''' hat'': He took his hat (someone else's hat)=== Verbs ===+ Danish verbal forms infinitive Present Pastto beis/are/amwas/wereto seeseessawto knowknowsknewto remember remembers rememberedto forget forgets forgotDanish verbs are morphologically simple, marking very few grammatical categories.", "They do not mark person or number of subject, although the marking of plural subjects was still used in writing as late as the 19th century.", "Verbs have a past, non-past and infinitive form, past and present participle forms, and a passive, and an imperative.==== Tense, aspect, mood, and voice ====Verbs can be divided into two main classes, the strong/irregular verbs and the regular/weak verbs.", "The regular verbs are also divided into two classes, those that take the past suffix and those that take the suffix .The infinitive always ends in a vowel, usually -e (pronounced ), infinitive forms are preceded by the article (pronounced ) in some syntactic functions.", "The non-past or present tense takes the suffix , except for a few strong verbs that have irregular non-past forms.", "The past form does not necessarily mark past tense, but also counterfactuality or conditionality, and the non-past has many uses besides present tense time reference.The present participle ends in (e.g.", "\"running\"), and the past participle ends in (e.g.", "\"run\"), (e.g.", "købt \"bought\").", "The Perfect is constructed with (\"to have\") and participial forms, like in English.", "But some transitive verbs form the perfect using (\"to be\") instead, and some may use both with a difference in meaning.", "* .", ": ''She has walked''.", "''The plane has flown''* .", ": ''She has left''.", "''The plane has taken off''* .", ": ''She had walked''.", "''The plane had flown''* .", ": ''She had left''.", "''The plane had taken off''The passive form takes the suffix -s: (\"the newspaper is read every day\").", "Another passive construction uses the auxiliary verb \"to become\": .The imperative form is the infinitive without the final schwa-vowel, with potentially being applied depending on syllable structure.", ":: \"run!", "\"=== Numerals ===Certain numerals are formed on the basis of a vigesimal system with various rules.", "In the word forms of numbers above 20, the units are stated before the tens, so 21 is rendered , literally \"one and twenty\".The numeral means (literally \"half second\", implying \"one plus half of the second one\").", "The numerals (), () and () are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system described below.", "Similarly, the temporal designation ()'' halv tre'', literally \"half three (o'clock)\", is half past two.One peculiar feature of the Danish language is that the numerals 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 are (as are the French numerals from 80 through 99) based on a vigesimal system, meaning that the score (20) is used as a base unit in counting.", "(short for , \"three times twenty\") means 60, while 50 is (short for , \"half third times twenty\", implying two score plus half of the third score).", "The ending meaning \"times twenty\" is no longer included in cardinal numbers, but may still be used in ordinal numbers.", "Thus, in modern Danish fifty-two is usually rendered as from the now obsolete , whereas 52nd is either or .", "Twenty is (derived from Old Danish , a haplology of , meaning 'two tens'), while thirty is (Old Danish , \"three tens\"), and forty is (Old Danish , \"four tens\", still used today as the archaism ).", "Thus, the suffix should be understood as a plural of (10), though to modern Danes means 20, making it hard to explain why is 40 (four tens) and not 80 (four twenties).", "Cardinal numeral Danish Literal translation Ordinal numeral Danish Literal translation 1 / one 1st first 12 twelve 12th twelfth 23 three and twenty 23rd three and 20th 34 four and thirty 34th four and 30th 45 five and forty (four tens) 45th five and four tens-th 56 six and two score plus half of the third (score) 56th six and two score plus half of the third score-th 67 seven and three (score) 67th seven and three score-th 78 eight and three score plus half of the fourth (score) 78th eight and three score plus half of the fourth score-th 89 nine and four (score) 89th nine and four score-th 90 four score plus half of the fifth (score) 90th four score plus half of the fifth score-thFor large numbers (one billion or larger), Danish uses the long scale, so that the short-scale billion (1,000,000,000) is called , and the short-scale trillion (1,000,000,000,000) is .=== Syntax ===Danish basic constituent order in simple sentences with both a subject and an object is Subject–Verb–Object.", "However, Danish is also a V2 language, which means that the verb must always be the second constituent of the sentence.", "Following the Danish grammarian Paul Diderichsen Danish grammar tends to be analyzed as consisting of slots or fields, and in which certain types of sentence material can be moved to the pre-verbal (or ''foundation'') field to achieve different pragmatic effects.", "Usually the sentence material occupying the preverbal slot has to be pragmatically marked, usually either new information or topics.", "There is no rule that subjects must occur in the preverbal slot, but since subject and topic often coincide, they often do.", "Therefore, whenever any sentence material that is not the subject occurs in the preverbal position the subject is demoted to postverbal position and the sentence order becomes VSO.", ": \"Peter saw Jytte\"but: \"Yesterday, Peter saw Jytte\"When there is no pragmatically marked constituents in the sentence to take the preverbal slot (for example when all the information is new), the slot has to take a dummy subject \"der\".", ": there came a girl in through the door, \"A girl came in the door\"==== Main clauses ==== describes the basic order of sentence constituents in main clauses as comprising the following 8 positions:AndhimhadPernotgivena thoughtfor years01234567 \"And him Per hadn't given a thought in years\"Position 0 is not part of the sentence and can only contain sentential connectors (such as conjunctions or interjections).", "Position 1 can contain any sentence constituent.", "Position 2 can only contain the finite verb.", "Position 3 is the subject position, unless the subject is fronted to occur in position 1.Position 4 can only contain light adverbs and the negation.", "Position 5 is for non-finite verbs, such as auxiliaries.", "Position 6 is the position of direct and indirect objects, and position 7 is for heavy adverbial constituents.Questions with wh-words are formed differently from yes/no questions.", "In wh-questions the question word occupies the preverbal field, regardless of whether its grammatical role is subject or object or adverbial.", "In yes/no questions the preverbal field is empty, so that the sentence begins with the verb.Wh-question:: whom saw she, \"whom did she see?", "\": saw she him?, \"did she see him?", "\"==== Subordinate clauses ====In subordinate clauses, the word order differs from that of main clauses.", "In the subordinate clause structure the verb is preceded by the subject and any light adverbial material (e.g.", "negation).", "Complement clauses begin with the particle in the \"connector field\".", "''Han sagde, '''at han ikke ville gå''''': he said that he not would go, \"He said that he did not want to go\"Relative clauses are marked by the relative pronouns or which occupy the preverbal slot:''Jeg kender en mand, '''som''' bor i Helsingør: \"I know a man who lives in Elsinore\"== Writing system and alphabet ==Danish keyboard with keys for Æ, Ø, and ÅThe oldest preserved examples of written Danish (from the Iron and Viking Ages) are in the Runic alphabet.", "The introduction of Christianity also brought the Latin script to Denmark.", "And at the end of the High Middle Ages, Runes had more or less been replaced by Latin letters.Danish orthography is conservative, using most of the conventions established in the 16th century.", "The spoken language however has changed a lot since then, creating a gap between the spoken and written languages.", "Since 1955, Dansk Sprognævn has been the official language council in Denmark.The modern Danish alphabet is similar to the English one, with three additional letters: , , and , which come at the end of the alphabet, in that order.", "The letters , , , and are only used in loan words.", "A spelling reform in 1948 introduced the letter , already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the digraph .", "The old usage continues to occur in some personal and geographical names; for example, the name of the city of is spelled with following a decision by the City Council in the 1970s and decided to go back to in 2011.When representing the same sound , is treated like in alphabetical sorting, though it appears to be two letters.", "When the letters are not available due to technical limitations, they are often replaced by (for ), or (for ), and (for ), respectively.The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as the past tense (would), (could) and (should), to their current forms of , and (making them identical to the infinitives in writing, as they are in speech).", "Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs slightly, particularly with the phonetic spelling of loanwords; for example the spelling of and in Danish remains identical to other languages, whereas in Norwegian, they are transliterated as and ." ], [ "Research", "Danish is a well-studied language, and multiple universities in Denmark have departments devoted to Danish or linguistics with active research projects on the language, such as the Linguistic Circle of Copenhagen, and there are many dictionaries and technological resources on the language.", "The language council Dansk Sprognævn also publishes research on the language both nationally and internationally.", "There are also research centers focusing specifically on the dialects: The Peter Skautrup center at Aarhus University describes the dialects and varieties of the Jutlandic peninsula and is working on a dictionary of Jutlandic, while the Center for Dialect Research at University of Copenhagen works on the Insular Danish varieties.", "The Puzzle of Danish - a research project at Aarhus University, funded by the Danish Research Council - investigates whether the challenging sound structure of Danish has an impact on how native speakers process and produce Danish language.", "Their findings suggest that native speakers of Danish tend to use contextual cues to process Danish sounds and sentences, more than native speakers of other comparable languages, and that they produce more lexically, syntactically, and semantically redundant language in conversation.Multiple corpora of Danish language data are available.", "The Danish Gigaword project provides a curated corpus of a billion words.", "is a corpus of written texts in Danish.", "There are also a number of conversations available in , the Danish part of TalkBank.Academic descriptions of the language are published both in Danish and English.", "The most complete grammar is the (Grammar of the Danish Language) by Erik Hansen & Lars Heltoft, and it is written in Danish and contains over 1800 pages.", "Multiple phonologies have been written, most importantly by Basbøll and Grønnum, based on work that used to take place at the former Institute of Phonetics at the University of Copenhagen." ], [ "Example text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Danish::Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''" ], [ "See also", "Realm languages:* Faroese* GreenlandicNordic languages:* Icelandic* Norwegian* Swedish" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "**************************************************" ], [ "External links", " \"Sproget.dk\" (a website where you can find guidance, information and answers to questions about the Danish language and language matters in Denmark (in Danish))* \"Samtalegrammatik.dk\" (parts of a grammar of spoken Danish)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decade (Neil Young album)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Decade''''' is a compilation album by Canadian–American musician Neil Young, originally released in 1977 as a triple album and later issued on two compact discs.", "It contains 35 of Young's songs recorded between 1966 and 1976, among them five tracks that had been unreleased up to that point.", "It peaked at No.", "43 on the ''Billboard'' Top Pop Albums chart, and was certified platinum by the RIAA in 1986." ], [ "History", "Compiled by Young himself, with his hand-written liner notes about each track, ''Decade'' represents almost every album from his career and various affiliations through 1977 with the exception of ''4 Way Street'' and ''Time Fades Away''.", "Of the previously unreleased songs, \"Down to the Wire\" features the New Orleans pianist Dr. John with Buffalo Springfield on an item from their shelved ''Stampede'' album; \"Love Is a Rose\" was a minor hit for Linda Ronstadt in 1975; \"Winterlong\" received a cover by Pixies on the Neil Young tribute album from 1989, ''The Bridge''; and \"Campaigner\" is a Young song critical of Richard Nixon.", "The track \"Long May You Run\" is a different mix to that found on the album of the same name, featuring the harmonies of the full Crosby Stills & Nash before David Crosby and Graham Nash left the recording sessions.For many years, ''Decade'' was the only Neil Young compilation album available.", "A 1993 compilation called ''Lucky Thirteen'' was released, but it only covered Young's 1982–1988 output.", "It was not until 2004 that Reprise Records released a single-disc retrospective of his best-known tracks, titled ''Greatest Hits''.", "Throughout the 1980s and '90s, Young promised fans a follow-up to the original ''Decade'' collection, provisionally titled ''Decade II''; eventually, this idea was scrapped in favor of a much more comprehensive anthology to be titled ''Archives'', spanning his entire career and ranging in size from a box set to an entire series of audio and/or video releases.", "The first release of archival material since ''Decade'' and ''Lucky Thirteen'' would appear in 2006, ''Live at the Fillmore East'', a recording from a 1970 concert featuring Crazy Horse with Danny Whitten.", "Several other archival live releases followed, and in 2009 the first of several planned multi-disc box sets, ''The Archives Vol.", "1 1963–1972'', was issued.", "In April 2017 ''Decade'' was reissued on vinyl as a limited-edition Record Store Day release, with remastered vinyl and CD editions planned for general release in June 2017." ], [ "Alternate early version", "Initially, ''Decade'' was to be released in 1976, but was pulled at the last minute by Young.", "It was shelved until the following year, where it appeared with two songs removed from the original track list (a live version of \"Don't Cry No Tears\" recorded in Japan in 1976, and a live version of \"Pushed It Over the End\" recorded in 1974).", "Also removed were the following comments on those two songs and ''Time Fades Away'', from Young's handwritten liner notes:" ], [ "Reception", "The album has been lauded in many quarters as one of the best examples of a career retrospective for a rock artist, and as a template for the box set collections that would follow in the 1980s and beyond.", "However, in the original article on Young from the first edition of the ''Rolling Stone Illustrated History of Rock and Roll'' and a subsequent article in the ''1983 Rolling Stone Record Guide'', critic Dave Marsh used this album to accuse Young of deliberately manufacturing a self-mythology, arguing that while his highlights could be seen to place him on a level with other artists from his generation like Bob Dylan or The Beatles, the particulars of his catalogue did not bear this out.", "The magazine has since excised the article from subsequent editions of the ''Illustrated History'' book." ], [ "Track listing", "All songs written by Neil Young.===Side one===#\"Down to the Wire\" – 2:25#Previously unreleased (1967); performed with Buffalo Springfield members Stephen Stills and Richie Furay along with Dr. John; planned for inclusion on the unreleased album ''Stampede''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – vocal; Mac Rebennack – piano; Bobby West – bass; Jesse Hill – drums, timpani''#* ''Recorded at Gold Star Studios & Columbia Recording Studio, Hollywood, 3/28/1967, 3/30-4/18/1967.", "''#\"Burned\" – 2:14#Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album ''Buffalo Springfield'' (1966)# ''Neil Young – guitar, piano, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums''#* ''Recorded at Gold Star Recording Studios, Hollywood, 8/15/1966.''#\"Mr.", "Soul\" – 2:41#Performed by Buffalo Springfield; recorded live in the studio in New York City, with guitar overdubs added subsequently; appears on the album ''Buffalo Springfield Again'' (1967)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – drums''#* ''Recorded at Atlantic Studios, New York City, 1/9/1967.", "''#\"Broken Arrow\" – 6:13#Performed by Buffalo Springfield; appears on the album ''Buffalo Springfield Again''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Richie Furay – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar; Chris Sarns – guitar; Don Randi – piano, organ; Bruce Palmer – bass; Dewey Martin – Drums, vocal; Also – strings.", "Jazz theme: Don Randi – piano; Jim Horn – clarinet; Hal Blaine – drums; Also – bass''#* ''Recorded at Columbia Recording Studio & Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/25/1967, 9/5-18/1967.", "''#\"Expecting to Fly\" – 3:44#Appears on the album ''Buffalo Springfield Again'' but no band member other than Neil Young appears on the track.# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Don Randi – piano, harpsichord; Russ Titelman – guitar; Carol Kaye – bass; Jim Gordon – drums; Choir – Merry Clayton, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, Gracia Nitzsche; Also – English horn, vibes, timpani, strings''#* ''Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 5/6/1967.", "''#\"Sugar Mountain\" – 5:43#Released as the B-side to \"The Loner\", February 21, 1969# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal''#* ''Recorded live in concert at the Canterbury House, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 11/10/1968.", "''===Side two===#\"I Am a Child\" – 2:17#Appears on the Buffalo Springfield album ''Last Time Around'' (1968) but features no members of the band other than Neil Young and drummer Dewey Martin# ''Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Gary Marker – bass; Dewey Martin – drums''#* ''Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 2/5/1968.", "''#\"The Loner\" – 3:50#Appears on the album ''Neil Young'' (1968)# ''Neil Young – guitar, pipe organ, vocal; Jim Messina – bass; George Grantham – drums; Also – strings and celli''#* ''Recorded at TTG Recording Studios, Los Angeles, 9/28/1968.", "''#\"The Old Laughing Lady\" – 5:59/5:35*#Appears on the album ''Neil Young'' (** – Edited version on 1988 CD reissue)#* ''Neil Young – vocal; Ry Cooder – guitar; Jack Nitzsche – electric piano; Carol Kaye – bass; Earl Palmer – drums; Choir: Merry Clatyon, Brenda Holloway, Patrice Holloway, Gloria Jones, Sherlie Matthews, and Gracia Nitzsche; Also – trumpet, trombone, tenor sax, French horn, clarinet, strings and timpani''#* ''Recorded at Sunwest Recording Studios, Hollywood, 10/17/1968.", "''#\"Cinnamon Girl\" – 2:59#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album ''Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere'' (1969)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 3/20/1969.", "''#\"Down by the River\" – 9:16/9:00*#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album ''Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere''#* ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/17/1969.", "''===Side three===#\"Cowgirl in the Sand\" – 10:01#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album ''Everybody Knows This Is Nowhere''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Wally Heider Recording Studios, Hollywood, 1/18/1969.", "''#\"I Believe in You\" – 3:27#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album ''After the Gold Rush'' (1970)# ''Neil Young – guitar, piano, vibes, vocal; Danny Whitten – guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Sunset Sound, Hollywood, 8/5/1969.", "''#\"After the Gold Rush\" – 3:45#Appears on the album ''After the Gold Rush''# ''Neil Young – piano, vocal; Bill Peterson – flugelhorn''#* ''Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/12/1970.", "''#\"Southern Man\" – 5:31#Appears on the album ''After the Gold Rush''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal; Danny Whitten – vocal''#* ''Recorded at Home Studio, Topanga, CA, 3/19/1970.", "''#\"Helpless\" – 3:34#Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; appears on the album ''Déjà Vu'' (1970)# ''Neil Young – acoustic guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – lead guitar, piano, vocal; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – guitar, vocal; Greg Reeves – bass; Dallas Taylor – drums''#* ''Recorded at Wally Heider Studios, San Francisco, 11/7/1969.", "''===Side four===#\"Ohio\" – 2:56#Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; released as a non-album single in June, 1970 and later appeared on ''So Far'', 1974# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; David Crosby – guitar, vocal; Graham Nash – vocal; Calvin \"Fuzzy\" Samuels – bass; Johnny Barbata – drums''#* ''Recorded at The Record Plant, Hollywood, 5/21/1970.", "''#\"Soldier\" – 2:28#Edited version originally from the album ''Journey Through the Past'' (1972)# ''Neil Young – piano, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Sawdust Burner, Kings Mountain, CA, 11/15/1971.", "''#\"Old Man\" – 3:21#Appears on the album ''Harvest'' (1972)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; James McMahon – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – banjo, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/6/1971.", "''#\"A Man Needs a Maid\" – 3:58#Appears on the album ''Harvest''# ''Neil Young – piano, vocal; with the London Symphony Orchestra''#* ''Recorded at Barking Town Hall, London, 3/1/1971.", "''#\"Harvest\" – 3:08#Appears on the album ''Harvest'' # ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; John Harris – piano; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums''#* ''Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 4/4/1971.", "''#\"Heart of Gold\" – 3:06#Appears on the album ''Harvest''# ''Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Teddy Irwin – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Kenny Buttrey – drums; Linda Ronstadt – vocal; James Taylor – vocal''#* ''Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 2/8/1971.", "''#\"Star of Bethlehem\" – 2:46#Appears on the album ''American Stars 'n Bars'' (1977); originally recorded in November 1974# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums; Emmylou Harris – vocal''#* ''Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974.", "''===Side five===#\"The Needle and the Damage Done\" – 2:02#Appears on the album ''Harvest''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal''#* ''Recorded live in concert at the Royce Hall, University of California, Westwood, Los Angeles, 1/30/1971.", "''#\"Tonight's the Night\" (Part 1) – 4:41#Appears on the album ''Tonight's the Night'' (1975); originally recorded in 1973# ''Neil Young – piano, vocal; Nils Lofgren – guitar; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973.", "''#\"Tired Eyes\" – 4:33#Appears on the album ''Tonight's the Night''# ''Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Nils Lofgren – piano, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at S.I.R., Hollywood, 8/26/1973.", "''#\"Walk On\" – 2:40#Appears on the album ''On the Beach'' (1974)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – slide guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/30/1973.", "''#\"For the Turnstiles\" – 3:01#Appears on the album ''On the Beach''# ''Neil Young – banjo guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – dobro, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 12/14/1973.", "''#\"Winterlong\" – 3:05#Previously unreleased; appeared on certain acetate pressings of ''Tonight's the Night''# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar, vocal; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/28/1973.", "''#\"Deep Forbidden Lake\" – 3:39#Previously unreleased# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Ben Keith – pedal steel guitar; Tim Drummond – bass; Karl T. Himmel – drums''#* ''Recorded at Quadrafonic Sound Studios, Nashville, 12/13/1974.", "''===Side six===#\"Like a Hurricane\" – 8:16#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; previously unreleased; different lead vocal dub from version on ''American Stars 'n Bars'' (Regular version on 1988 reissue CD)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank \"Poncho\" Sampedro – Stringman, vocals; Billy Talbot – bass; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, 11/29/1975.", "''#\"Love Is a Rose\" – 2:16#Previously unreleased; later released on ''Homegrown'' (2020) # ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal, harmonica; Tim Drummond – bass''#* ''Recorded at Studio, Broken Arrow Ranch, Woodside, CA, 6/16/1974.", "''#\"Cortez the Killer\" – 7:29#Performed by Neil Young & Crazy Horse; appears on the album ''Zuma'' (1975)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal; Frank \"Poncho\" Sampedro – guitar; Billy Talbot – bass, vocal; Ralph Molina – drums, vocal''#* ''Recorded at House, Point Dume, CA, 5/22/1975.", "''#\"Campaigner\" – 3:30 / 4:19 US LP test pressings and first LP pressings in Germany included an unedited 4:19 version with an extra verse#Previously unreleased; unedited version later released on ''Hitchhiker'' (2017)# ''Neil Young – guitar, vocal''#* ''Recorded at Indigo Ranch Recording Studio, Malibu, 8/11/1976.", "''#\"Long May You Run\" – 3:48#Performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; previously unreleased; original mix (without Crosby and Nash's vocals) appears on the Stills-Young Band album ''Long May You Run'' (1976)# ''Neil Young – guitar, harmonica, vocal; Stephen Stills – guitar, vocal; Joe Lala – percussion, vocal; Joe Vitale – drums, vocal; George \"Chocolate\" Perry – bass, vocal; Jerry Aiello – organ; David Crosby – vocal; Graham Nash – vocal''#* ''Recorded at Criteria Studios, Miami, 2/5/1976.''" ], [ "Personnel", "Elliot Mazer – ProducerDavid Briggs – Producer*Neil Young – Guitar, harmonica, piano, vibes, vocals" ], [ "Charts", "+Chart performance for ''Decade''Chart (1977)PeakpositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)21US ''Billboard Top LPs & Tape''43UK Album Charts46Canadian ''RPM'' 100 Albums47Norwegian VG-lista Albums28New Zealand Album Charts34US ''Cash Box'' Top 100 Albums46US ''Record World'' Album Chart71" ], [ "Certifications" ], [ "Notes" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demeter" ], [ "Introduction", "In ancient Greek religion and mythology, '''Demeter''' (; Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over crops, grains, food, and the fertility of the earth.", "Although she is mostly known as a grain goddess, she also appeared as a goddess of health, birth, and marriage, and had connections to the Underworld.", "She is also called '''Deo''' ( ''Dēṓ'').", "In Greek tradition, Demeter is the second child of the Titans Rhea and Cronus, and sister to Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.", "Like her other siblings but Zeus, she was swallowed by her father as an infant and rescued by Zeus.Through her brother Zeus, she became the mother of Persephone, a fertility goddess.", "One of the most notable Homeric Hymns, the ''Homeric Hymn to Demeter'', tells the story of Persephone's abduction by Hades and Demeter's search for her.", "When Hades, the King of the Underworld, wished to make Persephone his wife, he abducted her from a field while she was picking flowers, with Zeus' leave.", "Demeter searched everywhere to find her missing daughter to no avail until she was informed that Hades had taken her to the Underworld.", "In response, Demeter neglected her duties as goddess of agriculture, plunging the earth into a deadly famine where nothing would grow, causing mortals to die.", "Zeus ordered Hades to return Persephone to her mother to avert the disaster.", "However, because Persephone had eaten food from the Underworld, she could not stay with Demeter forever but had to divide the year between her mother and her husband, explaining the seasonal cycle, as Demeter does not let plants grow while Persephone is gone.Her cult titles include Sito (), \"she of the Grain\", as the giver of food or grain, and Thesmophoros (, ''thesmos'': divine order, unwritten law; , ''phoros'': bringer, bearer), \"giver of customs\" or \"legislator\", in association with the secret female-only festival called the Thesmophoria.", "Though Demeter is often described simply as the goddess of the harvest, she presided also over the sacred law, and the cycle of life and death.", "She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, a religious tradition that predated the Olympian pantheon and which may have its roots in the Mycenaean period –1200 BC.Demeter was often considered to be the same figure as the Anatolian goddess Cybele, and she was identified with the Roman goddess Ceres." ], [ "Etymology", "Demeter may appear in Linear A as ''da-ma-te'' on three documents (AR Zf 1 and 2, and KY Za 2), all three dedicated to religious situations and all three bearing just the name (''i-da-ma-te'' on AR Zf 1 and 2).", "It is unlikely that Demeter appears as ''da-ma-te'' in a Linear B (Mycenean Greek) inscription (PY En 609); the word , ''da-ma-te'', probably refers to \"households\".", "On the other hand, , ''si-to-po-ti-ni-ja'', \"Potnia of the Grain\", is regarded as referring to her Bronze Age predecessor or to one of her epithets.Demeter's character as mother-goddess is identified in the second element of her name ''meter'' () derived from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) ''méh₂tēr'' (mother).", "In antiquity, different explanations were already proffered for the first element of her name.", "It is possible that ''Da'' (), a word which corresponds to ''Gē'' () in Attic, is the Doric form of ''De'' (), \"earth\", the old name of the chthonic earth-goddess, and that Demeter is \"Mother-Earth\".", "Liddell & Scott find this \"improbable\" and Beekes writes, \"there is no indication that ''da'' means \"earth\", although it has also been assumed in the name of Poseidon found in the Linear B inscription ''E-ne-si-da-o-ne'', \"earth-shaker\".", "John Chadwick also argues that the ''dā'' element in the name of Demeter is not so simply equated with \"earth\".M.", "L. West has proposed that the word Demeter, initially ''Damater'', could be a borrowing from an Illyrian deity attested in the Messapic goddess ''Damatura'', with a form ''dā-'' (\"earth\", from PIE ''dʰǵʰ(e)m-'') attached to -''matura'' (\"mother\"), akin to the Illyrian god Dei-paturos (''dei-'', \"sky\", attached to -''paturos,'' \"father\").", "The Lesbian form ''Dō-'' may simply reflect a different colloquial pronunciation of the non-Greek name.Another theory suggests that the element ''De''- might be connected with ''Deo'', an epithet of Demeter and it could derive from the Cretan word ''dea'' (), Ionic ''zeia'' ()—variously identified with emmer, spelt, rye, or other grains by modern scholars—so that she is the mother and the giver of food generally.", "This view is shared by British scholar Jane Ellen Harrison, who suggests that Démeter's name means ''Grain-Mother'', instead of ''Earth-Mother''.", "R. S. P. Beekes rejects a Greek interpretation, but not necessarily an Indo-European one.Wanax (''wa-na-ka'') was her male companion (Greek: Πάρεδρος, ''Paredros'') in Mycenaean cult.", "The Arcadian cult links her to the god Poseidon, who probably substituted the male companion of the Great Goddess; Demeter may therefore be related to a Minoan Great Goddess (Cybele).An alternative Proto-Indo-European etymology comes through Potnia and Despoina, where ''Des-'' represents a derivative of PIE ''dem'' (house, dome), and Demeter is \"mother of the house\" (from PIE ''dems-méh₂tēr'')." ], [ "Iconography", "Didrachme from Paros island, struck at the Cyclades.Demeter was frequently associated with images of the harvest, including flowers, fruit, and grain.", "She was also sometimes pictured with her daughter Persephone.", "However, Demeter is not generally portrayed with any of her consorts; the exception is Iasion, the youth of Crete who lay with her in a thrice-ploughed field and was killed afterward by a jealous Zeus with a thunderbolt.Demeter is assigned the zodiac constellation Virgo, the Virgin, by Marcus Manilius in his 1st-century Roman work Astronomicon.", "In art, the constellation Virgo holds Spica, a sheaf of wheat in her hand and sits beside constellation Leo the Lion.In Arcadia, she was known as \"Black Demeter\".", "She was said to have taken the form of a mare to escape the pursuit of her younger brother, Poseidon, and having been raped by him despite her disguise, she dressed all in black and retreated into a cave to mourn and to purify herself.", "She was consequently depicted with the head of a horse in this region.A sculpture of the Black Demeter was made by Onatas." ], [ "Description", "In the earliest conceptions of Demeter she is the goddess of grain and threshing, however her functions were extended beyond the fields and she was often identified with the earth goddess (Gaia).", "Some of the epithets of Gaia and Demeter are similar showing the identity of their nature.", "In most of her myths and cults, Demeter is the \"Grain-Mother\" or the \"Earth-Mother\".", "In the older chthonic cults the earth goddess was related to the Underworld and in the secret rites (mysteries) Demeter and Persephone share the double function of death and fertility.", "Demeter is the giver of the secret rites and the giver of the laws of cereal agriculture.", "She was occasionally identified with the ''Great Mother'' Rhea-Cybele who was worshipped in Crete and Asia Minor with the music of cymbals and violent rites.", "It seems that poppies were connected with the cult of the Great Mother.=== As an agricultural goddess===Demeter, enthroned and extending her hand in a benediction toward the kneeling Metaneira, who offers the triune wheat ()In epic poetry and Hesiod's ''Theogony'', Demeter is the Grain-Mother, the goddess of cereals who provides grain for bread and blesses its harvesters.", "In Homer's ''Iliad'', the blond Demeter with the help of the wind separates the grain from the chaff.", "Homer mentions the Thalysia a Greek harvest-festival of first fruits in honour of Demeter .", "In Hesiod, prayers to Zeus-Chthonios (chthonic Zeus) and Demeter help the crops grow full and strong.", "This was her main function at Eleusis, and she became panhellenic.", "In Cyprus, \"grain-harvesting\" was ''damatrizein''.", "Demeter was the ''zeidoros arοura'', the Homeric \"Mother Earth arοura\" who gave the gift of cereals (''zeai'' or ''deai'').Most of the epithets of Demeter describe her as a goddess of grain.", "Her name ''Deo'' in literature probably relates her with ''deai'' a Cretan word for cereals.", "In Attica she was called Haloas (of the threshing floor) according to the earliest conception of Demeter as the Corn-Mother.", "She was sometimes called '' Chloe'' (ripe-grain or fresh-green) and sometimes ''Ioulo'' (ioulos : grain sheaf).", "''Chloe'' was the goddess of young corn and young vegetation and \"Iouloi\" were harvest songs in honour of the goddess.", "The reapers called Demeter ''Amallophoros'' (bringer of sheaves) and ''Amaia'' (reaper).", "The goddess was the giver of abundance of food and she was known as ''Sito'' (of the grain) and ''Himalis'' (of abundance ).", "The bread from the first harvest-fruits was called ''thalysian bread'' (Thalysia) in honour of Demeter.", "The sacrificial cakes burned on the altar were called \"ompniai\" and in Attica the goddess was known as ''Ompnia'' (related to corns).", "These cakes were oferred to all gods.Eleusinian trio: Persephone, Triptolemus and Demeter (Roman copy dating to the Early Imperial period and hosted by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, of the Great Eleusinian Relief in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens, marble bas-relief from Eleusis, 440–430 BC.", ")In some fests big loafs (''artoi'') were oferred to the goddess and in Boeotia she was known as ''Megalartos'' (of the big loaf) and ''Megalomazos'' (of the big mass, or big porridge).", "Her function was extended to vegetation generally and to all fruits and she had the epithets ''eukarpos'' (of good crop),''karpophoros'' (bringer of fruits), ''malophoros'' (apple bearer) and sometimes ''Oria'' (all the fruits of the season).", "These epithets show an identity in nature with the earth goddess.The central theme in the Eleusinian Mysteries was the reunion of Persephone with her mother, Demeter when new crops were reunited with the old seed, a form of eternity.According to the Athenian rhetorician Isocrates, Demeter's greatest gifts to humankind were agriculture which gave to men a civilized way of life, and the Mysteries which give the initiate higher hopes in this life and the afterlife.These two gifts were intimately connected in Demeter's myths and mystery cults.", "Demeter is the giver of mystic rites and the giver of the civilized way of life (teaching the laws of agriculture).", "Her epithet ''Eleusinia'' relates her with the Eleusinian mysteries, however at Sparta ''Eleusinia'' had an early use, and it was probably a name rather than an epithet.", "Demeter ''Thesmophoros'' (law-giving) is closely associated to the laws of cereal agriculture.", "The festival Thesmophoria was celebrated throughout Greece and was connected to a form of agrarian magic.", "Near Pheneus in Arcadia she was known as Demeter-''Thesmia'' (lawfull), and she received rites according to the local version.Demeter's emblem is the poppy, a bright red flower that grows among the barley.===As an earth and underworld goddess===Pelike.", "Plouton with a cornucopia and Demeter with a sceptre and plough.", "By the Orestes Painter.", "440-430 BC.National Archaeological Museum, AthensIn addition to her role as an agricultural goddess, Demeter was often worshipped more generally as a goddess of the earth, from which crops spring up.", "Her individuality was rooted to the less developed personality of Gaia (earth).", "In Arcadia Demeter- ''Melaina'' (the black Demeter) was represented as snake-haired with a horse's head holding a dove and dolphin, perhaps to symbolize her power over the Underworld, the air, and the water.", "The cult of Demeter in the region was related to Despoina, a very old chthonic divinity.", "Demeter shares the double function of death and fertility with her daughter Persephone.", "Demeter and Persephone were called ''Despoinai'' (the mistresses) and ''Demeters''.", "This duality was also used in the classical period (''Thesmophoroi'', ''Double named goddesses'') and particularly in an oath: \"By the two goddesses\".In the cult of Phlya she was worshipped as ''Anesidora'' who sends up gifts from the Underworld.In Sparta, she was known as Demeter-''Chthonia'' (chthonic Demeter).", "After each death the mourning should end with a sacrifice to the goddess.", "Pausanias believes that her cult was introduced from Hermione, where Demeter was associated with Hades.", "In a local legend a hollow in the earth was the entrance to the underworld, by which the souls could pass easily.", "In Elis she was called Demeter-''Chamyne'' (goddess of the ground), in an old chthonic cult associated with the descent to Hades.", "At Levadia the goddess was known as Demeter-''Europa'' and she was associated with Trophonius, an old divinity of the underworld.", "The oracle of Trophonius was famous in the antiquity.Pindar uses the rare epithet ''Chalkokrotos'' (bronze sounding).", "Brazen musical instruments were used in the mysteries of Demeter and the Great-Mother Rhea-Cybele was also worshipped with the music of cymbals.Attic white calyx crater 440-430 BC.", "Two female figures, probably Demeter and Persephone.", "Archaeological Museum of Agrigento.In central Greece Demeter was known as Amphictyonis (of the dwellers-round), in a cult of the goddess at Anthele near Thermopylae (hot gates).", "She was the patron goddess of an ancient Amphictyony.", "Thermopylae is the place of hot springs considered to be entrances to Hades, since Demeter was a chthonic goddess in the older local cults.The Athenians called the dead \"Demetrioi\", and this may reflect a link between Demeter and the ancient cult of the dead, linked to the agrarian belief that a new life would sprout from the dead body, as a new plant arises from buried seed.", "This was most likely a belief shared by initiates in Demeter's mysteries, as interpreted by Pindar: \"Blessed is he who has seen before he goes under the earth; for he knows the end of life and knows also its divine beginning.", "\"In Arcadia Demeter had the epithets ''Erinys'' (fury) and ''Melaina'' (black) which are associated with the myth of Demeter's rape by Poseidon.", "The epithets stress the darker side of her character and her relation to the dark underworld, in an old chthonic cult associated with wooden structures (xoana).", "Erinys had a similar function with the avenging Dike (Justice).", "In the mysteries of Pheneus the goddess was known as ''Cidaria''.", "Her priest would put on the mask of Demeter, which was kept secret.", "The cult may have been connected with both the Underworld and a form of agrarian magic.===As a poppy goddess===Drawing of a gold ring found at Mycenae showing a seated goddess bearing three poppy seedcasesTheocritus described one of Demeter's earlier roles as that of a goddess of poppies:Karl Kerényi asserted that poppies were connected with a Cretan cult which was eventually carried to the Eleusinian Mysteries in Classical Greece.", "In a clay statuette from Gazi, the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem.", "According to Kerényi, \"It seems probable that the Great Mother Goddess who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to Eleusis and it is almost certain that in the Cretan cult sphere opium was prepared from poppies.\"" ], [ "Worship", "Terracotta Demeter figurine, Sanctuary of the Underworld Divinities, Akragas, 550–500 BC===In Crete===In an older tradition in Crete the vegetation cult was related with the deity of the cave.", "During the Bronze Age, a goddess of nature dominated both in Minoan and Mycenean cults.", "In the Linear B inscriptions ''po-ti-ni-ja'' (potnia) refers to the goddess of nature who was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic apects.", "Some scholars believe that she was the universal mother goddess.", "A Linear B inscription at Knossos mentions the potnia of the labyrinth '' da-pu-ri-to-jo po-ti-ni-ja''.", "Poseidon was often given the title ''wa-na-ka'' (''wanax'') in Linear B inscriptions in his role as King of the Underworld, and his title '' E-ne-si-da-o-ne'' indicates his chthonic nature.", "He was the male companion (paredros) of the goddess in the Minoan and propably Mycenean cult.", "In the cave of Amnisos, ''Enesidaon'' is associated with the cult of Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth, who was involved with the annual birth of the divine child.", "Elements of this early form of worship survived in the Eleusinian cult, where the following words were uttered: \"the mighty Potnia had born a strong son.", "\"===On the Greek mainland===Demeter of Knidos, Hellenistic marble sculpture, around 350 BCTablets from Pylos of BC record sacrificial goods destined for \"the Two Queens and Poseidon\" (\"to the Two Queens and the King\":''wa-na-ssoi'', ''wa-na-ka-te'').", "The \"Two Queens\" may be related to Demeter and Persephone or their precursors, goddesses who were no longer associated with Poseidon in later periods.", "In Pylos ''potnia'' (mistress) is the major goddess of the city and \"wanax \" in the tablets has a similar nature with her male consort in the Minoan cult.", "Potnia retained some chthonic cults, and in popular religion these were related to the goddess Demeter.", "In Greek religion ''potniai''(mistresses) appear in plural (like the Erinyes) and are closely related to the Eleusinian Demeter.Major cults to Demeter are known at Eleusis in Attica, Hermion (in Crete), Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thoricus, Dion (in Macedonia) Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna, and Samothrace.Probably the earliest Amphictyony centred on the cult of Demeter at Anthele (Ἀνθήλη), lay on the coast of Malis south of Thessaly, near Thermopylae.Mysian Demeter had a seven-day festival at Pellené in Arcadia.", "The geographer Pausanias passed the shrine to Mysian Demeter on the road from Mycenae to Argos and reports that according to Argive tradition, the shrine was founded by an Argive named Mysius who venerated Demeter.Azes coin in India, with Demeter and Hermes, 1st century BC====\"Saint Demetra\"====Statue of Saint Demetra, Fitzwilliam MuseumEven after Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica and banned paganism throughout the Roman Empire, people throughout Greece continued to pray to Demeter as \"Saint Demetra\", patron saint of agriculture.", "Around 1765–1766, the antiquary Richard Chandler, alongside the architect Nicholas Revett and the painter William Pars, visited Eleusis and mentioned a statue of a caryatid as well as the folklore that surrounded it, they stated that it was considered sacred by the locals because it protected their crops.", "They called the statue \"Saint Demetra\", a saint whose story had many similarities to the myth of Demeter and Persephone, except that her daughter had been abducted by the Turks and not by Hades.", "The locals covered the statue with flowers to ensure the fertility of their fields.", "This tradition continued until the 19th century, when the statue was forcibly removed by Edward Daniel Clarke who presented it to the University of Cambridge.===Festivals===Demeter's two major festivals were sacred mysteries.", "Her Thesmophoria festival (11–13 October) was women-only.", "Her Eleusinian mysteries were open to initiates of any gender or social class.", "At the heart of both festivals were myths concerning Demeter as the mother and Persephone as her daughter.===Conflation with other goddesses===In the Roman period, Demeter became conflated with the Roman agricultural goddess Ceres through interpretatio romana.", "The worship of Demeter has formally merged with that of Ceres around 205 BC, along with the ''ritus graecia cereris'', a Greek-inspired form of cult, as part of Rome's general religious recruitment of deities as allies against Carthage, towards the end of the Second Punic War.", "The cult originated in southern Italy (part of Magna Graecia) and was probably based on the Thesmophoria, a mystery cult dedicated to Demeter and Persephone as \"Mother and Maiden\".", "It arrived along with its Greek priestesses, who were granted Roman citizenship so that they could pray to the gods \"with a foreign and external knowledge, but with a domestic and civil intention\".", "The new cult was installed in the already ancient Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera, Rome's Aventine patrons of the plebs; from the end of the 3rd century BC, Demeter's temple at Enna, in Sicily, was acknowledged as Ceres' oldest, most authoritative cult centre, and Libera was recognized as Proserpina, Roman equivalent to Persephone.", "Their joint cult recalls Demeter's search for Persephone after the latter's abduction into the Underworld by Hades.", "At the Aventine, the new cult took its place alongside the old.", "It did not refer to Liber, whose open and gender-mixed cult played a central role in plebeian culture as a patron and protector of plebeian rights, freedoms and values.", "The exclusively female initiates and priestesses of the new \"greek style\" mysteries of Ceres and Proserpina were expected to uphold Rome's traditional, patrician-dominated social hierarchy and traditional morality.", "Unmarried girls should emulate the chastity of Proserpina, the maiden; married women should seek to emulate Ceres, the devoted and fruitful mother.", "Their rites were intended to secure a good harvest and increase the fertility of those who partook in the mysteries.Beginning in the 5th century BCE in Asia Minor, Demeter was also considered equivalent to the Phrygian goddess Cybele.", "Demeter's festival of Thesmophoria was popular throughout Asia Minor, and the myth of Persephone and Adonis in many ways mirrors the myth of Cybele and Attis.Some late antique sources syncretized several \"great goddess\" figures into a single deity.", "For example, the Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, identified Ceres (Demeter) with Isis, having her declare:I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses.", "My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name.", "The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; ... the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; ... and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis.", ":--Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny.", "''The Golden Ass''" ], [ "Mythology", "===Lineage, consorts, and offspring===Triptolemus, Demeter and Persephone by the Triptolemos-painter, c. 470 BC, Louvre Alongside the rest of her siblings, with the exception of her youngest brother Zeus, she was swallowed as a newborn by her father due to his fear of being overthrown by one of his children; she was later freed when Zeus made Cronus disgorge all of his children by giving him a special potion.Demeter is notable as the mother of Persephone, described by both Hesiod and in the ''Homeric Hymn to Demeter'' as the result of a union with her younger brother Zeus.", "An alternate recounting of the matter appears in a fragment of the lost Orphic theogony, which preserves part of a myth in which Zeus mates with his mother, Rhea, in the form of a snake, explaining the origin of the symbol on Hermes' staff.", "Their daughter is said to be Persephone, whom Zeus, in turn, mates with to conceive Dionysus.", "According to the Orphic fragments, \"After becoming the mother of Zeus, she who was formerly Rhea became Demeter.", "\"Before her abduction by Hades, Persephone was known as Kore (\"maiden\"), and there is some evidence that the figures of Persephone, Queen of the Underworld and Kore, daughter of Demeter, were initially considered separate goddesses.", "However, they must have become conflated by the time of Hesiod in the 7th century BC.", "Demeter and Persephone were often worshipped together and were often referred to by joint cultic titles.", "In their cult at Eleusis, they were referred to simply as \"the goddesses\", usually distinguished as \"the older\" and \"the younger\"; in Rhodes and Sparta, they were worshipped as \"the Demeters\"; in the Thesmophoria, they were known as \"the thesmophoroi\" (\"the legislators\").", "In Arcadia they were known as \"the Great Goddesses\" and \"the mistresses\".", "In Mycenaean Pylos, Demeter and Persephone were probably called the \"queens\" (wa-na-ssoi).Pompeiian relief of Demeter in her aspects of mother goddess and goddess of agricultureBoth Homer and Hesiod, writing c. 700 BC, described Demeter making love with the agricultural hero Iasion in a ploughed field during the marriage of Cadmus and Harmonia.", "According to Hesiod, this union resulted in the birth of Plutus.", "According to Diodorus Siculus, in his ''Bibliotheca historica'' written in the 1st century BC, Demeter and Zeus were also the parents of Dionysus.", "Diodorus described the myth of Dionysus' double birth (once from the earth, i.e.", "Demeter, when the plant sprouts) and once from the vine (when the fruit sprouts from the plant).", "Diodorus also related a version of the myth of Dionysus' destruction by the Titans (\"sons of Gaia\"), who boiled him, and how Demeter gathered up his remains so that he could be born a third time (Diod.", "iii.62).", "Diodorus states that Dionysus' birth from Zeus and his older sister Demeter was somewhat of a minority belief, possibly via conflation of Demeter with her daughter, as most sources state that the parents of Dionysus were Zeus and Persephone, and later Zeus and Semele.Dionysus (Bacchus) and Demeter (Ceres), antique fresco in Stabiae, 1st centuryHesiod's ''Theogony'' (c. 700 BC) describes Demeter as the second daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and the sister of Hestia, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus.In Arcadia, a major Arcadian deity known as Despoina (\"Mistress\") was said to be the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon.", "According to Pausanias, a Thelpusian tradition said that during Demeter's search for Persephone, Poseidon pursued her.", "Demeter turned into a horse to avoid her younger brother's advances.", "However, he turned into a stallion and mated with the goddess, resulting in the birth of the horse god Arion and a daughter \"whose name they are not wont to divulge to the uninitiated\".", "Elsewhere, he says that the Phigalians assert that the offspring of Poseidon and Demeter was not a horse, but Despoina, \"as the Arcadians call her\".In Orphic literature, Demeter seems to be the mother of the witchcraft goddess Hecate.The goddess took Mecon, a young Athenian, as a lover; he was at some point transformed into a poppy flower.+Offspring and their fathersOffspringFatherPersephone, Dionysus (minority belief)ZeusArion, DespoinaPoseidonCorybas,'''' Plutus, PhilomelusIasionEubuleus, ChrysothemisCarmanorAcheronHeliosHecate===Abduction of Persephone===Persephone-Kore at Selinunte, Sicily, 6th century BC.Demeter's daughter Persephone was abducted to the Underworld by Hades, who received permission from her father Zeus to take her as his bride.", "Demeter searched for her ceaselessly for nine days, preoccupied with her grief.", "Hecate then approached her and said that while she had not seen what happened to Persephone, she heard her screams.", "Together the two goddesses went to Helios, the sun god, who witnessed everything that happened on earth thanks to his lofty position.", "Helios then revealed to Demeter that Hades had snatched a screaming Persephone to make her his wife with the permission of Zeus, the girl's father.", "Demeter then filled with anger.", "The seasons halted; living things ceased their growth and began to die.", "Faced with the extinction of all life on earth, Zeus sent his messenger Hermes to the Underworld to bring Persephone back.", "Hades agreed to release her if she had eaten nothing while in his realm, but Persephone had eaten a small number of pomegranate seeds.", "This bound her to Hades and the Underworld for certain months of every year, most likely the dry Mediterranean summer, when plant life is threatened by drought, despite the popular belief that it is autumn or winter.", "There are several variations on the basic myth; the earliest account, the ''Homeric Hymn to Demeter'', relates that Persephone is secretly slipped a pomegranate seed by Hades and in Ovid's version, Persephone willingly and secretly eats the pomegranate seeds, thinking to deceive Hades, but is discovered and made to stay.", "Contrary to popular perception, Persephone's time in the Underworld does not correspond with the unfruitful seasons of the ancient Greek calendar, nor her return to the upper world with springtime.", "Demeter's descent to retrieve Persephone from the Underworld is connected to the Eleusinian Mysteries.", "''Demeter rejoiced, for her daughter was by her side''.The myth of the capture of Persephone seems to be pre-Greek.", "In the Greek version, Ploutos (πλούτος, wealth) represents the wealth of the corn that was stored in underground silos or ceramic jars (''pithoi'').", "Similar subterranean ''pithoi'' were used in ancient times for funerary practices.", "At the beginning of the autumn, when the corn of the old crop is laid on the fields, she ascends and is reunited with her mother, Demeter, for at this time, the old crop and the new meet each other.Greek terracotta figurine of Baubo, of the face-in-torso typeIn the Orphic tradition, while she was searching for her daughter, a mortal woman named Baubo received Demeter as her guest and offered her a meal and wine.", "Demeter declined them both because she mourned the loss of Persephone.", "Baubo then, thinking she had displeased the goddess, lifted her skirt and showed her genitalia to the goddess, simultaneously revealing Iacchus, Demeter's son.", "Demeter was most pleased with the sight and delighted she accepted the food and wine.", "This tale survives in the account of Clement of Alexandria, a Christian who tried to discredit pagan practices and mythology.", "However, several Baubo figurines (figurines of women revealing their vulvas) have been discovered, supporting the story.===Demeter at Eleusis===Demeter in mourning, marble relief from Knossos, Archaeological Museum of Heraklion.Demeter's search for her daughter Persephone took her to the palace of Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica.", "She assumed the form of an old woman and asked him for shelter.", "He took her in, to nurse Demophon and Triptolemus, his sons by Metanira.", "To reward his kindness, she planned to make Demophon immortal; she secretly anointed the boy with ambrosia and laid him in the hearth's flames to gradually burn away his mortal self.", "But Metanira walked in, saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright.", "Demeter abandoned the attempt.", "Instead, she taught Triptolemus the secrets of agriculture, and he, in turn, taught them to any who wished to learn them.", "Thus, humanity learned how to plant, grow and harvest grain.", "The myth has several versions; some are linked to figures such as Eleusis, Rarus and Trochilus.", "The Demophon element may be based on an earlier folk tale.===Demeter and Iasion===Homer's ''Odyssey'' (c. late 8th century BC) contains perhaps the earliest direct references to the myth of Demeter and her consort Iasion, a Samothracian hero whose name may refer to bindweed, a small white flower that frequently grows in wheat fields.", "In the ''Odyssey'', Calypso describes how Demeter, \"without disguise\", made love to Iasion.", "\"So it was when Demeter of the braided tresses followed her heart and lay in love with Iasion in the triple-furrowed field; Zeus was aware of it soon enough and hurled the bright thunderbolt and killed him.\"", "However, Ovid states that Iasion lived up to old age as the husband of Demeter.", "In ancient Greek culture, part of the opening of each agricultural year involved the cutting of three furrows in the field to ensure its fertility.Hesiod expanded on the basics of this myth.", "According to him, the liaison between Demeter and Iasion took place at the wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia in Crete.", "Demeter, in this version, had lured Iasion away from the other revellers.", "Hesiod says that Demeter subsequently gave birth to Plutus.===Demeter and Poseidon===Roman copy of 4th century BC Greek bust (National Roman Museum)In Arcadia, located in what is now southern Greece, the major goddess Despoina was considered the daughter of Demeter and Poseidon Hippios (\"''Horse-Poseidon''\").", "In the associated myths, Poseidon represents the river spirit of the Underworld, and he appears as a horse, as often happens in northern European folklore.", "The myth describes how he pursued his older sister, Demeter, who hid from him among the horses of the king Onkios, but even in the form of a mare, she could not conceal her divinity.", "Poseidon caught and raped his older sister in the form of a stallion.", "Demeter was furious at Poseidon's assault; in this furious form, she became known as ''Demeter Erinys''.", "Her anger at Poseidon drove her to dress all in black and retreat into a cave to purify herself, an act which was the cause of a universal famine.", "Demeter's absence caused the death of crops, livestock, and eventually of the people who depended on them (later Arcadian tradition held that it was ''both'' her rage at Poseidon and her loss of her daughter caused the famine, merging the two myths).", "Demeter washed away her anger in the River Ladon, becoming ''Demeter Lousia'', the \"bathed Demeter\".", "\"In her alliance with Poseidon,\" Kerényi noted, \"she was Earth, who bears plants and beasts, and could therefore assume the shape of an ear of grain or a mare.\"", "Moreover, she bore a daughter Despoina (: the \"Mistress\"), whose name should not be uttered outside the Arcadian Mysteries, and a horse named Arion, with a black mane and tail.At Phigaleia, a ''xoanon'' (wood-carved statue) of Demeter was erected in a cave which, tradition held, was the cave into which Black Demeter retreated.", "The statue depicted a Medusa-like figure with a horse's head and snake-like hair, holding a dove and a dolphin, which probably represented her power over air and water:===Demeter and Erysichthon===''Demeter orders Famine to strike Erysichthon'', Elisha Whittelsey CollectionAnother myth involving Demeter's rage resulting in famine is that of Erysichthon, king of Thessaly.", "The myth tells of Erysichthon ordering all of the trees in one of Demeter's sacred groves to be cut down, as he wanted to build an extension of his palace and hold feasts there.", "One tree, a huge oak, was covered with votive wreaths, symbols of the prayers Demeter had granted, so Erysichthon's men refused to cut it down.", "The king used an axe to cut it down, killing a dryad nymph in the process.", "The nymph's dying words were a curse on Erysichthon.", "Demeter punished the king by calling upon Limos, the spirit of unrelenting and insatiable hunger, to enter his stomach.", "The more the king ate, the hungrier he became.", "Erysichthon sold all his possessions to buy food but was still hungry.", "Finally, he sold his daughter, Mestra, into slavery.", "Mestra was freed from slavery by her former lover, Poseidon, who gave her the gift of shape-shifting into any creature to escape her bonds.", "Erysichthon used her shape-shifting ability to sell her numerous times to make more money to feed himself, but no amount of food was enough.", "Eventually, Erysichthon ate himself.In a variation, Erysichthon tore down a temple of Demeter, wishing to build a roof for his house; she punished him the same way, and near the end of his life, she sent a snake to plague him.", "Afterwards, Demeter put him among the stars (the constellation Ophiuchus), as she did the snake, to continue to inflict its punishment on Erysichthon.In the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the battle of the gods against the Giants (Gigantomachy), survive remains of what seems to have been Demeter fighting a Giant labelled \"Erysichthon.\"", "Demeter is also depicted fighting against the Giants next to Hermes in the Suessula Gigantomachy vase, now housed in the Louvre Museum.", "Usually, ancient depictions of the Gigantomachy tend to exclude Demeter due to her non-martial nature.===Wrath myths===Demeter in an ancient Greek fresco from Panticapaeum, 1st century Crimea.While travelling far and wide looking for her daughter, Demeter arrived exhausted in Attica.", "A woman named Misme took her in and offered her a cup of water with pennyroyal and barley groats, for it was a hot day.", "Demeter, in her thirst, swallowed the drink clumsily.", "Witnessing that, Misme's son Ascalabus laughed, mocked her, and asked her if she would like a deep jar of that drink.", "Demeter then poured her drink over him and turned him into a gecko, hated by both men and gods.", "It was said that Demeter showed her favour to those who killed geckos.Before Hades abducted her daughter, he had kept the nymph Minthe as his mistress.", "But after he married Persephone, he set Minthe aside.", "Minthe would often brag about being lovelier than Persephone and say Hades would soon come back to her and kick Persephone out of his halls.", "Demeter, hearing that, grew angry and trampled Minthe; from the earth then sprang a lovely-smelling herb named after the nymph.", "In other versions, Persephone herself is the one who kills and turns Minthe into a plant for sleeping with Hades.In an Argive myth, when Demeter arrived in Argolis, a man named Colontas refused to receive her in his house, whereas his daughter Chthonia disapproved of his actions.", "Colontas was punished by being burnt along with his house, while Demeter took Chthonia to Hermione, where she built a sanctuary for the goddess.Demeter pinned Ascalaphus under a rock for reporting, as sole witness, to Hades that Persephone had consumed some pomegranate seeds.", "Later, after Heracles rolled the stone off Ascalaphus, Demeter turned him into a short-eared owl instead.Demeter also turned the Sirens into half-bird monsters for not helping her daughter Persephone when she was abducted by Hades.Once, the Colchian princess Medea ended a famine that plagued Corinth by making sacrifices to Demeter and the nymphs.===Favour myths===Roman imperial period, 2nd century CEDemeter gave Triptolemus her serpent-drawn chariot and seed and bade him scatter it across the earth (teach humankind the knowledge of agriculture).", "Triptolemus rode through Europe and Asia until he came to the land of Lyncus, a Scythian king.", "Lyncus pretended to offer what's accustomed of hospitality to him, but once Triptolemus fell asleep, he attacked him with a dagger, wanting to take credit for his work.", "Demeter then saved Triptolemus by turning Lyncus into a lynx and ordered Triptolemus to return home airborne.", "Hyginus records a very similar myth, in which Demeter saves Triptolemus from an evil king named Carnabon who additionally seized Triptolemus' chariot and killed one of the dragons, so he might not escape; Demeter restored the chariot to Triptolemus, substituted the dead dragon with another one, and punished Carnabon by putting him among the stars holding a dragon as if to kill it.During her wanderings, Demeter came upon the town of Pheneus; to the Pheneates that received her warmly and offered her shelter, she gave all sorts of pulse, except for beans, deeming it impure.", "Two of the Pheneates, Trisaules and Damithales, had a temple of Demeter built for her.", "Demeter also gifted a fig tree to Phytalus, an Eleusinian man, for welcoming her in his home.Academy of Athens, Greece.In the tale of Eros and Psyche, Demeter, along with her sister Hera, visited Aphrodite, raging with fury about the girl who had married her son.", "Aphrodite asks the two to search for her; the two try to talk sense into her, arguing that her son is not a little boy, although he might appear as one, and there's no harm in him falling in love with Psyche.", "Aphrodite took offence at their words.", "Sometime later, Psyche in her wanderings came across an abandoned shrine of Demeter, and sorted out the neglected sickles and harvest implements she found there.", "As she was doing so, Demeter appeared to her and called from afar; she warned the girl of Aphrodite's great wrath and her plan to take revenge on her.", "Then Psyche begged the goddess to help her, but Demeter answered that she could not interfere and incur Aphrodite's anger at her, and for that reason, Psyche had to leave the shrine or else be kept as a captive of hers.When her son Philomelus invented the plough and used it to cultivate the fields, Demeter was so impressed by his good work that she immortalized him in the sky by turning him into a constellation, the Boötes.Hierax, a man of justice and distinction, set up sanctuaries for Demeter and received plenteous harvests from her in return.", "When the tribe neglected Poseidon favour of Demeter, the sea god destroyed all of her crops, so Hierax sent them instead his own food and was transformed into a hawk by Poseidon.Besides giving gifts to those who were welcoming to her, Demeter was also a goddess who nursed the young; all of Plemaeus's children born by his first wife died in a cradle; Demeter took pity on him and reared herself his son Orthopolis.", "Plemaeus built a temple to her to thank her.", "Demeter also raised Trophonius, the prophetic son of either Apollo or Erginus.===Other accounts===Demeter seems to have accompanied Dionysus when he descended into the Underworld to retrieve his mother Semele in order to visit her now married daughter, and perhaps lead her back to the land of the living for the remainder of the year.", "In many vases from Athens Dionysus is seen in the company of mother and daughter.Once Tantalus, a son of Zeus, invited the gods over for dinner.", "Tantalus, wanting to test them, cut his son Pelops, cooked him and offered him as a meal to them.", "They all saw through Tantalus' crime except Demeter, who ate Pelops' shoulder before the gods brought him back to life." ], [ "Genealogy" ], [ "See also", "* Family tree of the Greek gods* 1 Ceres, the first asteroid and dwarf planet discovered, named after Demeter's Roman equivalent and called Demeter in Greek* 1108 Demeter, a main belt asteroid 26 km in diameter, which was discovered in 1929 by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth at Heidelberg.", "* Greek mythology in popular culture* Isis and Osiris* Law of Demeter, a software design guideline named in honour of Demeter.", "* Demophon of Eleusis" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "Antoninus Liberalis, ''The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis'' translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992).", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Apuleius, ''The golden ass, or, Metamorphoses.''", "E. 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Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''Fabulae'', in ''The Myths of Hyginus'', edited and translated by Mary A.", "Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960.Online version at ToposText.", "Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''Astronomica from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "Kerényi, Karl (1951), ''The Gods of the Greeks'', Thames and Hudson, London, 1951.", "Kerényi, Karl (1967), ''Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter'', Princeton University Press, 1991..Kerényi, Karl (1976), ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life'', Princeton University Press, 1996..Kern, Otto.", "''Orphicorum Fragmenta'', Berlin, 1922.Internet Archive.", "Lycophron, ''Alexandra'' in ''Callimachus and Lycophron with an English translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English translation by G. R. Mair'', London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921.Internet Archive.", "McKay, Kenneth John, ''Erysichthon'', Brill Archive, 1962.", "Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, ''Classical Mythology'', Eighth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2007..Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', 1940.Sacred-texts.com Nilsson Martin P. ''Die Geschichte der Griechieschen Religion '' Vol I, C.H Beck's Verlag Munchen, 1967Ovid.", "''Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1-8''.", "Translated by Frank Justus Miller.", "Revised by G. P. Goold.", "Loeb Classical Library No.", "42.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916.. Online version at Harvard University Press.", "''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', second edition, Hammond, N.G.L.", "and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992..Pausanias, ''Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.''", "Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", " Robertson N.D, ''New light in Demeters mysteries.", "The festival Petrosia'' in GRBS37 (1996) p. 319-379Smith, William, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873) Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Stalmith A.B, ''The name of Demeter Thesmophoros'' in GRBS48 (2008) p. 115-131Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970).", ".", "West, M. L. (1983), ''The Orphic Poems'', Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983..West, M. L. (2007), ''Indo-European Poetry and Myth'', OUP Oxford, 2007.. Google Books.", "* " ], [ "External links", " Hymn to Demeter, Ancient Greek and English text, Interlinear Translation edited & adapted from the 1914 prose translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, with Greek-English glossary, notes and illustrations.", "* Foley P. Helene, ''The Homeric hymn to Demeter: translation, commentary, and interpretive essays'', Princeton Univers.", "Press, 1994.with Ancient Greek text and English translation.", "* Text of Homeric Hymn to Demeter* Online book of Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion''* \"The Political Cosmology of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter\"* \"The Sophian Prayer to Demeter\"* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Demeter)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Death metal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Death metal''' is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music.", "It typically employs heavily distorted and low-tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking; deep growling vocals; aggressive, powerful drumming, featuring double kick and blast beat techniques; minor keys or atonality; abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes; and chromatic chord progressions.", "The lyrical themes of death metal may include slasher film-style violence, political conflict, religion, nature, philosophy, true crime and science fiction.Building from the musical structure of thrash metal and early black metal, death metal emerged during the mid-1980s.", "Bands such as Venom, Celtic Frost, Slayer, and Kreator were important influences on the genre's creation.", "Possessed, Death, Necrophagia, Obituary, Autopsy, and Morbid Angel are often considered pioneers of the genre.", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, death metal gained more media attention as a popular genre.", "Niche record labels like Combat, Earache, and Roadrunner began to sign death metal bands at a rapid rate.Since then, death metal has diversified, spawning several subgenres.", "Melodic death metal combines death metal elements with those of the new wave of British heavy metal.", "Technical death metal is a complex style, with uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms, and unusual harmonies and melodies.", "Death-doom combines the deep growled vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal with the slow tempos and melancholic atmosphere of doom metal.", "Deathgrind, goregrind, and pornogrind mix the complexity of death metal with the intensity, speed, and brevity of grindcore.", "Deathcore combines death metal with metalcore traits.", "Death 'n' roll combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted, detuned guitar riffs with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal." ], [ "History", "===Emergence and early history===English extreme metal band Venom, from Newcastle, crystallized the elements of what later became known as thrash metal, death metal and black metal, with their first two albums ''Welcome to Hell'' and ''Black Metal'', released in late 1981 and 1982, respectively.", "Their dark, blistering sound, harsh vocals, and macabre, proudly Satanic imagery proved a major inspiration for extreme metal bands.", "Another highly influential band, Slayer, formed in 1981.Although the band was a thrash metal act, Slayer's music was more violent than their thrash contemporaries Metallica, Megadeth, and Anthrax.", "Their breakneck speed and instrumental prowess combined with lyrics about death, violence, war, and Satanism won Slayer a cult following.", "According to Mike McPadden, ''Hell Awaits'', Slayer's second album, \"largely invented much of the sound and fury that would evolve into death metal.\"", "According to AllMusic, their third album ''Reign in Blood'' inspired the entire death metal genre.", "It had a big impact on genre leaders such as Death, Obituary, and Morbid Angel.Jeff Becerra of PossessedPossessed, a band that formed in the San Francisco Bay Area during 1983, is described by AllMusic as \"connecting the dots\" between thrash metal and death metal with their 1985 debut album, ''Seven Churches''.", "While attributed as having a Slayer influence, current and former members of the band had actually cited Venom and Motörhead, as well as early work by Exodus, as the main influences on their sound.", "Although the group had released only two studio albums and an EP in their formative years, they have been described by music journalists and musicians as either being \"monumental\" in developing the death metal style, or as being the first death metal band.", "Earache Records noted that \"the likes of Trey Azagthoth and Morbid Angel based what they were doing in their formative years on the Possessed blueprint laid down on the legendary ''Seven Churches'' recording.", "Possessed arguably did more to further the cause of 'Death Metal' than any of the early acts on the scene back in the mid-late 80's.", "\"Chuck Schuldiner (1967–2001) of Death, during a 1992 tour in Scotland in support of the album ''Human''.During the same period as the dawn of Possessed, a second influential metal band was formed in Orlando, Florida.", "Originally called Mantas, Death was formed in 1983 by Chuck Schuldiner, Kam Lee, and Rick Rozz.", "Inspired by the Brandon, Florida act Nasty Savage, they took the sound of Nasty Savage and deepened it.", "In 1984, they released their first demo entitled ''Death by Metal'', followed by several more.", "The tapes circulated through the tape trader world, quickly establishing the band's name.", "With Death guitarist Schuldiner adopting vocal duties, the band made a major impact in the emerging Florida death metal scene.", "The fast minor-key riffs and solos were complemented with fast drumming, creating a style that would catch on in tape trading circles.", "Schuldiner has been credited by AllMusic's Eduardo Rivadavia for being widely recognized as the \"Father of Death Metal\".", "Death's 1987 debut release, ''Scream Bloody Gore'', has been described by About.com's Chad Bowar as being the \"evolution from thrash metal to death metal\", and \"the first true death metal record\" by the ''San Francisco Chronicle''.", "In an Interview Jeff Becerra talked about the discussions of being the creator of the genre, saying that Schuldiner cited Possessed as a massive influence, and Death were even called \"Possessed clones\" early on.", "Along with Possessed and Death, other pioneers of death metal in the United States include Macabre, Master, Massacre, Immolation, Cannibal Corpse, Obituary, and Post Mortem.===Growing popularity===By 1989, many bands had been signed by eager record labels wanting to cash in on the subgenre, including Florida's Obituary, Morbid Angel and Deicide.", "This collective of death metal bands hailing from Florida are often labeled as \"Florida death metal\".", "Morbid Angel pushed the genre's limits both musically and lyrically, with the release of their debut album ''Altars of Madness'' in 1989.The album \"redefined what it meant to be heavy while influencing an upcoming class of brutal death metal.", "\"Death metal spread to Sweden in the late 1980s, flourishing with pioneers such as Carnage, God Macabre, Entombed, Dismember, Grave and Unleashed.", "In the early 1990s, the rise of melodic death metal was recognized, with Swedish bands such as Dark Tranquillity, At the Gates, and In Flames.Following the original death metal innovators, new subgenres began by the end of the decade.", "British band Napalm Death became increasingly associated with death metal, in particular, on their 1990 album ''Harmony Corruption''.", "This album displays aggressive and fairly technical guitar riffing, complex rhythmics, a sophisticated growling vocal delivery by Mark \"Barney\" Greenway, and socially aware lyrical subjects merging death metal with the grindcore subgenre.", "Other bands contributing significantly to this early movement include Britain's Bolt Thrower and Carcass and New York's Suffocation.To close the circle, Death released their fourth album ''Human'' in 1991.Death's founder Schuldiner helped push the boundaries of uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, mixing technical and intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos.Earache Records, Relativity Records and Roadrunner Records became the genre's most important labels, with Earache releasing albums by Carcass, Napalm Death, Morbid Angel, and Entombed, and Roadrunner releasing albums by Obituary, and Pestilence.", "Although these labels had not been death metal labels, they initially became the genre's flagship labels at the beginning of the 1990s.", "In addition to these, other labels formed as well, such as Nuclear Blast, Century Media, and Peaceville.", "Many of these labels would go on to achieve successes in other genres of metal throughout the 1990s.In September 1990, Death's manager Eric Greif held one of the first North American death metal festivals, ''Day of Death'', in Milwaukee suburb Waukesha, Wisconsin, and featured 26 bands including Autopsy, Broken Hope, Hellwitch, Obliveon, Revenant, Viogression, Immolation, Atheist, and Cynic.Death metal band Jungle Rot===Later history===Death metal's popularity achieved its initial peak during 1992–1993, with some bands such as Morbid Angel and Cannibal Corpse enjoying mild commercial success.", "However, the genre as a whole never broke into the mainstream.", "The genre's mounting popularity may have been partly responsible for a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes.", "Fenriz of Darkthrone has noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were \"fed up with the whole death metal scene\" at the time.", "Death metal diversified in the 1990s, spawning a rich variety of subgenres that still have a large \"underground\" following at the present." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Instrumentation===Death metal drummer Steve AsheimThe setup most frequently used within the death metal genre is two guitarists, a bass player, a vocalist, and a drummer often using \"hyper double-bass blast beats\".", "Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to occasionally incorporate other instruments such as electronic keyboards.", "The genre is often identified by fast, heavily distorted and low tuned guitars, played with techniques such as palm muting and tremolo picking.", "The percussion is usually aggressive and powerful.Death metal is known for its abrupt tempo, key, and time signature changes.", "It may include chromatic chord progressions and a varied song structure.", "In some circumstances, the style will incorporate melodic riffs and harmonies for effect.", "This incorporation of melody and harmonious playing was even further used in the creation of melodic death metal.", "These compositions tend to emphasize an ongoing development of themes and motifs.===Vocals and lyrics===Death metal band Cannibal Corpse performing in 2009.Death metal vocals are referred to as death growls; which are coarse roars/snarls.", "Death growling is mistakenly thought to be a form of screaming using the lowest vocal register known as vocal fry, however vocal fry is actually a form of overtone screaming, and while growling can be performed this way by experienced vocalists who use the fry screaming technique, \"true\" death growling is in fact created by an altogether different technique.", "The three major methods of harsh vocalization used in the genre are often mistaken for each other, encompassing vocal fry screaming, false chord screaming, and \"true\" death growls.", "Growling is sometimes also referred to as Cookie Monster vocals, tongue-in-cheek, due to the vocal similarity to the voice of the popular ''Sesame Street'' character of the same name.", "Although often criticized, death growls serve the aesthetic purpose of matching death metal's aggressive lyrical content.", "High-pitched screaming is occasionally utilized in death metal, being heard in songs by Death, Aborted, Exhumed, Dying Fetus, Cannibal Corpse, and Deicide.Six Feet UnderThe lyrical themes of death metal may invoke slasher film-stylised violence, but may also extend to topics like religion (sometimes including Satanism), occultism, Lovecraftian horror, nature, mysticism, mythology, theology, philosophy, science fiction, and politics.", "Although violence may be explored in various other genres as well, death metal may elaborate on the details of extreme acts, including blood and gore, psychopathy, delirium, mutilation, mutation, dissection, exorcism, torture, rape, cannibalism, and necrophilia.", "Sociologist Keith Kahn-Harris commented this apparent glamorisation of violence may be attributed to a \"fascination\" with the human body that all people share to some degree, a fascination that mixes desire and disgust.", "Heavy metal author Gavin Baddeley also stated there does seem to be a connection between \"how acquainted one is with their own mortality\" and \"how much they crave images of death and violence\" via the media.", "Additionally, contributing artists to the genre often defend death metal as little more than an extreme form of art and entertainment, similar to horror films in the motion picture industry.", "This explanation has brought such musicians under fire from activists internationally, who claim that this is often lost on a large number of adolescents, who are left with the glamorisation of such violence without social context or awareness of why such imagery is stimulating.According to Alex Webster, bassist of Cannibal Corpse, \"The gory lyrics are probably not, as much as people say, what's keeping us from being mainstream.", "Like, 'death metal would never go into the mainstream because the lyrics are too gory?'", "I think it's really the music, because violent entertainment is totally mainstream.\"" ], [ "Etymology", "The most popular theory of the subgenre's christening is Possessed's 1984 demo, ''Death Metal''; the song from the eponymous demo would also be featured on the band's 1985 debut album, ''Seven Churches''.", "Possessed vocalist/bassist Jeff Becerra said he coined the term in early 1983 for a high school English class assignment.", "Another possible origin was a magazine called ''Death Metal'', started by Thomas Fischer and Martin Ain of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost.", "The name was later given to the 1984 compilation ''Death Metal'' released by Noise Records.", "The term might also have originated from other recordings, such as the demo released by Death in 1984, called ''Death by Metal''." ], [ "Subgenres and fusion genres", "Cited examples are not necessarily exclusive to one particular style.", "Many bands can easily be placed in two or more of the following categories, and a band's specific categorization is often a source of contention due to personal opinion and interpretation.===Blackened death-doom===Blackened death-doom is a microgenre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal.", "Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Faustcoven, The Ruins of Beverast, Bölzer, Necros Christos, Harvest Gulgaltha, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn.===Blackened death metal===Blackened death metal band Goatwhore.Blackened death metal is commonly death metal that incorporates musical, lyrical or ideological elements of black metal, such as an increased use of tremolo picking, anti-Christian or Satanic lyrical themes and chord progressions similar to those used in black metal.", "Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal.", "Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre.", "Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum.====Melodic black-death====Melodic black-death (also known as blackened melodic death metal or melodic blackened death metal) is a genre of extreme metal that describes the style created when melodic death metal bands began being inspired by black metal and European romanticism.", "However, unlike most other black metal, this take on the genre would incorporate an increased sense of melody and narrative.", "Some bands who have played this style include Dissection, Sacramentum, Naglfar, God Dethroned, Dawn, Unanimated, Thulcandra, Skeletonwitch and Cardinal Sin.====War metal====War metal (also known as war black metal or bestial black metal) is an aggressive, cacophonous and chaotic subgenre of blackened death metal, described by ''Rock Hard'' journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann as \"rabid\" and \"hammering\".", "Important influences include first wave black metal band Sodom, first wave black metal/death metal band Possessed as well as old grindcore, black and death metal bands like Repulsion, Autopsy, Sarcófago and the first two Sepultura releases.", "War metal bands include Blasphemy, Archgoat, Impiety, In Battle, Beherit, Crimson Thorn, Bestial Warlust, and Zyklon-B.===Brutal death metal=== Brutal death metal is a subgenre of death metal that privileges heaviness, speed, and complex rhythms over other aspects, such as melody and timbres.", "Brutal death metal bands employ high-speed, palm-muted power chording and single-note riffage.", "Notable bands include Cannibal Corpse, Dying Fetus, Suffocation, Cryptopsy, and Skinless.===Death-doom===My Dying Bride at Frozen Rock Fest.", "2007.Death-doom is a style that combines the slow tempos and pessimistic atmosphere of doom metal with the deep growling vocals and double-kick drumming of death metal.", "Influenced mostly by the early work of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost, the style emerged during the late 1980s and gained a certain amount of popularity during the 1990s.", "Death-doom was also pioneered by bands such as Winter, Disembowelment, Paradise Lost, Autopsy, Anathema, and My Dying Bride.====Funeral doom====Funeral doom is a genre that crosses death-doom with funeral dirge music.", "It is played at a very slow tempo, and places an emphasis on evoking a sense of emptiness and despair.", "Typically, electric guitars are heavily distorted and dark ambient aspects such as keyboards or synthesizers are often used to create a dreamlike atmosphere.", "Vocals consist of mournful chants or growls and are often in the background.", "Funeral doom was pioneered by Mournful Congregation (Australia), Esoteric (United Kingdom), Evoken (United States), Funeral (Norway), Thergothon (Finland), and Skepticism (Finland).===Death 'n' roll===Death 'n' roll is a style that combines death metal's growled vocals and highly distorted detuned guitar riffs along with elements of 1970s hard rock and heavy metal.", "Notable examples include Entombed, Gorefest, and Six Feet Under.===Deathcore===With the rise in popularity of metalcore, some of its traits have been combined with death metal.", "Bands such as Suicide Silence, Carnifex and Salt the Wound combine death metal with a variance of metalcore elements.", "Characteristics of death metal, such as fast drumming (including blast beats), down-tuned guitars, tremolo picking, growled vocals, and high-pitched shrieks are combined with the breakdowns of metalcore.", "''Decibel'' magazine stated that \"one of Suffocation's trademarks, breakdowns, has spawned an entire metal subgenre: deathcore.", "\"===Deathgrind, goregrind and pornogrind===Aborted are \"key contributors to the death-grind genres,\" according to AllMusic.Goregrind, deathgrind and pornogrind are styles that mix grindcore with death metal, with goregrind focused on themes like gore and forensic pathology, and pornogrind dealing with sexual and pornographic themes.", "Some notable examples of these genres are Brujeria, Cattle Decapitation, Cephalic Carnage, Pig Destroyer, Circle of Dead Children, Rotten Sound, Gut, and Cock and Ball Torture.===Deathrash===Deathrash, also known as death-thrash, is a shorthand term to describe bands who play a fusion of death metal and thrash metal.", "The genre gained notoriety in Bali, Indonesia, where it attracted criticism of being related to the accelerated tourism development on the island and the superseding of its local culture, particularly by Jakartan one.", "Notable bands include Grave, Mortification, The Crown, Incapacity, Darkane, Deathchain, and Sepultura.===Industrial death metal===Industrial death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of industrial music.", "Some notable bands include Fear Factory, Anaal Nathrakh, Autokrator, and Meathook Seed.===Melodic death metal===Melodic death metal band At the Gates performing in 2008.Swedish death metal could be considered the forerunner of \"melodic death metal.\"", "Melodic death metal sometimes referred to as \"melodeath\", is heavy metal mixed with some death metal elements and is heavily influenced by the new wave of British heavy metal.", "Unlike most other death metal, melodeath usually features screams instead of growls, slower tempos, much more melody and even clean vocals are heard at rare times.", "Carcass is sometimes credited with releasing the first melodic death metal album with 1993's ''Heartwork'', although Swedish bands In Flames, Dark Tranquillity, and At the Gates are usually mentioned as the main pioneers of the genre and of the Gothenburg metal sound.===Old school death metal===Old school death metal is a style of death metal characterized by its slower and simpler song structures, less focused on the technical aspects of its composition and employing less usage of blast beats.", "It gained notoriety in the late 1990s, with bands like Repugnant, Thanatos, Necrophagia, Abscess, Bloodbath and Mortem.===Slam death metal===Slam death metal is a microgenre that evolved from the 1990s New York death metal scene, incorporating elements of hardcore punk.", "In contrast to other death metal styles, it is not generally focused on guitar solos and blast beats; instead, it employs mid-tempo rhythms, breakdowns, and palm-muted riffing, as well as hip hop-inspired vocal and drum beat rhythms.", "The breakdown riff of Suffocation's \"Liege of Inveracity\" has been credited by Rolling Stone as the first slam riff in death metal.", "The first wave of bands in the genre were New York bands like Internal Bleeding and Pyrexia, with notable subsequent acts including Devourment and Cephalotripsy.===Symphonic death metal===Symphonic death metal is a genre of death metal that adds elements of classical music.", "Bands described as symphonic death metal include Fleshgod Apocalypse, Septicflesh, Necronomicon, and Children of Bodom.", "Haggard's 2000 album, ''Awaking the Centuries'', has been described as death metal-styled symphonic metal.===Technical death metal=== Nile performing in 2010.Technical death metal (also known as tech-death, progressive death metal, or prog-death) is a subgenre of death metal that employs dynamic song structures, uncommon time signatures, atypical rhythms and unusual harmonies and melodies.", "Bands described as technical death metal or progressive death metal usually fuse common death metal aesthetics with elements of progressive rock, jazz or classical music.", "While the term technical death metal is sometimes used to describe bands that focus on speed and extremity as well as complexity, the line between progressive and technical death metal is thin.", "''Tech death'' and ''prog death'', for short, are terms commonly applied to such bands as Nile, Edge of Sanity, and Opeth.", "Necrophagist and Spawn of Possession are known for a classical music-influenced death metal style.", "Death metal pioneers Death also refined their style in a more progressive direction in their final years.", "Some albums for this subgenre are ''Hallucinations'' (1990) by the German band Atrocity and Death's ''Human'' (1991).", "This style has significantly influenced many bands, creating a stream that in Europe was carried out at first by bands such as Gory Blister and Electrocution.", "The Polish band Decapitated gained recognition as one of Europe's primary modern technical death metal acts." ], [ "See also", "List of death metal bands" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Don Quixote" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''' is a Spanish epic novel by Miguel de Cervantes.", "It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615.Considered a founding work of Western literature, it is often labelled as the first modern novel and one of the greatest works ever written.", "''Don Quixote'' is also one of the most-translated books in the world and one of the best-selling novels of all time.", "The plot revolves around the adventures of a member of the lowest nobility, a hidalgo from La Mancha named Alonso Quijano, who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his mind and decides to become a knight-errant () to revive chivalry and serve his nation, under the name .", "He recruits as his squire a simple farm labourer, Sancho Panza, who brings a unique, earthy wit to Don Quixote's lofty rhetoric.", "In the first part of the book, Don Quixote does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story meant for the annals of all time.", "However, as Salvador de Madariaga pointed out in his ''Guía del lector del Quijote'' (1972 1926), referring to \"the Sanchification of Don Quixote and the Quixotization of Sancho\", as \"Sancho's spirit ascends from reality to illusion, Don Quixote's declines from illusion to reality\".The book had a major influence on the literary community, as evidenced by direct references in Alexandre Dumas' ''The Three Musketeers'' (1844), and Edmond Rostand's ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (1897) as well as the word ''quixotic''.", "Mark Twain referred to the book as having \"swept the world's admiration for the mediaeval chivalry-silliness out of existence\"." ], [ "Summary", "For Cervantes and the readers of his day, ''Don Quixote'' was a one-volume book published in 1605, divided internally into four parts, not the first part of a two-part set.", "The mention in the 1605 book of further adventures yet to be told was totally conventional, did not indicate any authorial plans for a continuation, and was not taken seriously by the book's first readers.===Part 1===Don Quixote goes mad from his reading of books of chivalry.", "Engraving by Gustave Doré.====The first sally====Cervantes, in a metafictional narrative, writes that the first few chapters were taken from \"the archives of La Mancha\", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish historian Cide Hamete Benengeli.Alonso Quixano is a hidalgo nearing 50 years of age who lives in an unspecified region of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper.", "While he lives a frugal life, as an avid reader of chivalric romances, he is full of fantasies about chivalry.", "Eventually, he goes mad and decides to become a knight errant.", "To that end, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself \"Don Quixote\", names his old workhorse \"Rocinante\", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo (a slaughterhouse worker with a famed hand for salting pork) his lady love, renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso.As he travels in search of adventure, he arrives at an inn that he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets there \"ladies\", and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight.", "The innkeeper agrees.", "Quixote starts the night holding vigil at the inn's horse trough, which Quixote imagines to be a chapel.", "He then becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules.", "In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way.Quixote encounters a servant named Andres who is tied to a tree and who is being beaten by his master over disputed wages.", "Quixote orders the master to stop beating Andres and untie him and makes the master swear to treat Andres fairly.", "However, the beating is resumed, and redoubled, as soon as Quixote leaves.Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo.", "He challenges them to agree that Dulcinea del Toboso is the most beautiful woman in the world.", "One of them demands to see her picture so that he can decide for himself.", "Enraged, Quixote charges at them but his horse stumbles, causing him to fall.", "One of the traders beats up Quixote, who is left at the side of the road until a neighboring peasant brings him back home.While Quixote lies unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books.", "They seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Quixote that it was done by a wizard.====The second sally====Illustration by Gustave Doré depicting the famous windmill sceneDon Quixote asks his neighbour, the poor farm labourer Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship.", "Sancho agrees and they sneak away at dawn.", "Their adventures together begin with Quixote's attack on some windmills which he believes to be ferocious giants.", "They next encounter two Benedictine friars and, nearby, an unrelated lady in a carriage.", "Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who are holding the lady captive, knocks one of them from his horse, and is challenged by an armed Basque travelling with the company.", "The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and commanding those travelling with her to \"surrender\" to Quixote.After a friendly encounter with some goatherds and a less friendly one with some Yanguesan porters driving Galician ponies, Quixote and Sancho return to the \"castle\" (inn), where a mix-up involving a servant girl's romantic rendezvous with another guest results in a brawl.", "Quixote explains to Sancho that the castle is enchanted.", "They decide to leave, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying.", "Sancho ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed in the air by several mischievous guests at the inn before he manages to follow.After further adventures involving a dead body, a legendary helmet (in Quixote's mind), and a group of galley slaves, they wander into the Sierra Morena.", "There they encounter the dejected and mostly mad Cardenio, who relates his story.", "Quixote decides to imitate Cardenio and live like a hermit.", "He sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village.", "They make a plan to trick Quixote into coming home, recruiting Dorotea, a woman they discover in the forest, to pose as the Princess Micomicona, a damsel in distress.The plan works and Quixote and the group return to the inn, though Quixote is now convinced, thanks to a lie told by Sancho when asked about the letter, that Dulcinea wants to see him.", "At the inn, several other plots intersect and are resolved.", "Meanwhile, a sleepwalking Quixote does battle with some wineskins which he takes to be the giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom.", "An officer of the Santa Hermandad arrives with a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves, but the priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity.", "The officer agrees and Quixote is locked in a cage which he is made to think is an enchantment.", "He has a learned conversation with a Toledo canon he encounters by chance on the road, in which the canon expresses his scorn for untruthful chivalric books, but Don Quixote defends them.", "The group stops to eat and lets Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, before he is finally brought home.The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures.===Part 2===''Don Quixote de la Mancha and Sancho Panza'', 1863, by Gustave DoréAlthough the two parts are now published as a single work, ''Don Quixote, Part Two'' was a sequel published ten years after the original novel.", "In an early example of metafiction, Part Two assumes that several of its characters have read the first part of the novel and are thus familiar with the history and peculiarities of the two protagonists.", "====The third sally====Don Quixote and Sancho are on their way to El Toboso to meet Dulcinea, with Sancho aware that his story about Dulcinea was a complete fabrication.", "They reach the city at daybreak and decide to enter at nightfall.", "However, a bad omen frightens Quixote into retreat and they quickly leave.", "Sancho is instead sent out alone by Quixote to meet Dulcinea and act as a go-between.", "Sancho's luck brings three peasant girls along the road and he quickly tells Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting and as beautiful as ever.", "Since Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho goes on to pretend that an enchantment of some sort is at work.A duke and duchess encounter the duo.", "These nobles have read Part One of the story and are themselves very fond of books of chivalry.", "They decide to play along for their own amusement, beginning a string of imagined adventures and practical jokes.", "As part of one prank, Quixote and Sancho are led to believe that the only way to release Dulcinea from her spell is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes.", "Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master.", "Under the duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets his promised governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler before all ends in humiliation.", "Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity.Quixote battles the Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Quixote's hometown who had earlier posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona.", "Defeated, Quixote submits to prearranged chivalric terms: the vanquished must obey the will of the conqueror.", "He is ordered to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for a period of one year, by which time his friends and relatives hope he will be cured.On the way back home, Quixote and Sancho \"resolve\" the disenchantment of Dulcinea.", "Upon returning to his village, Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home.", "Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully become Alonso Quixano once more.", "Sancho tries to restore his faith and his interest in Dulcinea, but Quixano only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for the harm he has caused.", "He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry.After Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious.===Other stories===''Don Quixote, Part One'' contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of the picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels.", "The longest and best known of these is \"El Curioso Impertinente\" (''The Ill-Advised Curiosity''), found in Part One, Book Four.", "This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells of a Florentine nobleman, Anselmo, who becomes obsessed with testing his wife's fidelity and talks his close friend Lothario into attempting to seduce her, with disastrous results for all.In ''Part Two'', the author acknowledges the criticism of his digressions in ''Part One'' and promises to concentrate the narrative on the central characters (although at one point he laments that his narrative muse has been constrained in this manner).", "Nevertheless, \"Part Two\" contains several back narratives related by peripheral characters.Several abridged editions have been published which delete some or all of the extra tales in order to concentrate on the central narrative.====''The Ill-Advised Curiosity'' summary====alt=A man raises a hand to stop a woman with a long dagger.The story within a story relates that, for no particular reason, Anselmo decides to test the fidelity of his wife, Camilla, and asks his friend, Lothario, to seduce her.", "Thinking that to be madness, Lothario reluctantly agrees, and soon reports to Anselmo that Camilla is a faithful wife.", "Anselmo learns that Lothario has lied and attempted no seduction.", "He makes Lothario promise to try in earnest and leaves town to make this easier.", "Lothario tries and Camilla writes letters to her husband telling him of the attempts by Lothario and asking him to return.", "Anselmo makes no reply and does not return.", "Lothario then falls in love with Camilla, who eventually reciprocates; an affair between them ensues, but is not disclosed to Anselmo, and their affair continues after Anselmo returns.One day, Lothario sees a man leaving Camilla's house and jealously presumes she has taken another lover.", "He tells Anselmo that, at last, he has been successful and arranges a time and place for Anselmo to see the seduction.", "Before this rendezvous, however, Lothario learns that the man was the lover of Camilla's maid.", "He and Camilla then contrive to deceive Anselmo further: When Anselmo watches them, she refuses Lothario, protests her love for her husband, and stabs herself lightly in the breast.", "Anselmo is reassured of her fidelity.", "The affair restarts with Anselmo none the wiser.Later, the maid's lover is discovered by Anselmo.", "Fearing that Anselmo will kill her, the maid says she will tell Anselmo a secret the next day.", "Anselmo tells Camilla that this is to happen, and Camilla expects that her affair is to be revealed.", "Lothario and Camilla flee that night.", "The maid flees the next day.", "Anselmo searches for them in vain before learning from a stranger of his wife's affair.", "He starts to write the story, but dies of grief before he can finish.", "Lothario is killed in battle soon afterward and Camilla dies of grief." ], [ "Style and interpretations", "===Use of language===The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness.", "Character-naming in ''Don Quixote'' makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names ''Rocinante'' (a reversal) and ''Dulcinea'' (an allusion to illusion), and the word itself, possibly a pun on (jaw) but certainly (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump.As a military term, the word ''quijote'' refers to ''cuisses'', part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs.", "The Spanish suffix ''-ote'' denotes the augmentative—for example, ''grande'' means large, but ''grandote'' means extra large, with grotesque connotations.", "Following this example, ''Quixote'' would suggest 'The Great Quijano', an oxymoronic play on words that makes much sense in light of the character's delusions of grandeur.Cervantes wrote his work in Early Modern Spanish, heavily borrowing from Old Spanish, the medieval form of the language.", "The language of ''Don Quixote'', although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the ''Poema de mio Cid'', a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English.", "The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant.In ''Don Quixote'', there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish.", "The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times, when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old.", "This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated.", "(English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.", ")In Old Castilian, the letter ''x'' represented the sound written ''sh'' in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced .", "However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German ''ch''), and today the Spanish pronunciation of \"Quixote\" is .", "The original pronunciation is reflected in languages such as Asturian, Leonese, Galician, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, Turkish and French, where it is pronounced with a \"sh\" or \"ch\" sound; the French opera ''Don Quichotte'' is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation.Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of ''Quixote'' (''Quijote''), as , although the traditional English spelling-based pronunciation with the value of the letter x in modern English is still sometimes used, resulting in or .", "In Australian English, the preferred pronunciation amongst members of the educated classes was until well into the 1970s, as part of a tendency for the upper class to \"anglicise its borrowing ruthlessly\".", "The traditional English rendering is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form ''quixotic'', i.e., , defined by ''Merriam-Webster'' as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism.===Meaning===Harold Bloom says ''Don Quixote'' is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying.", "Bloom says that the novel has an endless range of meanings, but that a recurring theme is the human need to withstand suffering.Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time.", "Grossman has stated:The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations ... and how do I deal with that in my translation.", "I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it ... so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep ... As I grew older ... my skin grew thicker ... and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud.", "This is done ... as Cervantes did it ... by never letting the reader rest.", "You are never certain that you truly got it.", "Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise.===Themes===''Don Quixote'' by Honoré Daumier (1868)The novel's structure is episodic in form.", "The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as (Spanish) means \"quick with inventiveness\", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity.", "The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general.Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss.", "The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel.Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points.", "The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity and even nationalism.", "In exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped lead literary practice beyond the narrow convention of the chivalric romance.", "He spoofs the chivalric romance through a straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero.", "The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word ''quixotic'' was quickly adopted by many languages.", "Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante, are emblems of Western literary culture.", "The phrase \"tilting at windmills\" to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in the book.It stands in a unique position between medieval romance and the modern novel.", "The former consists of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character.", "The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters.", "In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment.", "By Part II, people know about him through \"having read his adventures\", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image.", "By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and is once more \"Alonso Quixano the Good\"." ], [ "Background", "===Sources===Sources for ''Don Quixote'' include the Castilian novel ''Amadis de Gaula'', which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century.", "Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is ''Tirant lo Blanch'', which the priest describes in Chapter VI of ''Quixote'' as \"the best book in the world.\"", "(However, the sense in which it was \"best\" is much debated among scholars.", "Since the 19th century, the passage has been called \"the most difficult passage of ''Don Quixote''\".", ")The scene of the book burning gives an excellent list of Cervantes's likes and dislikes about literature.Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem ''Orlando furioso''.", "In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino, an episode from Canto I of ''Orlando'', and itself a reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo's ''Orlando innamorato''.", "The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of ''Orlando'', regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife.Another important source appears to have been Apuleius's ''The Golden Ass'', one of the earliest known novels, a picaresque from late classical antiquity.", "The wineskins episode near the end of the interpolated tale \"The Curious Impertinent\" in chapter 35 of the first part of ''Don Quixote'' is a clear reference to Apuleius, and recent scholarship suggests that the moral philosophy and the basic trajectory of Apuleius's novel are fundamental to Cervantes' program.", "Similarly, many of both Sancho's adventures in Part II and proverbs throughout are taken from popular Spanish and Italian folklore.Cervantes' experiences as a galley slave in Algiers also influenced ''Quixote''.Medical theories may have also influenced Cervantes' literary process.", "Cervantes had familial ties to the distinguished medical community.", "His father, Rodrigo de Cervantes, and his great-grandfather, Juan Díaz de Torreblanca, were surgeons.", "Additionally, his sister, Andrea de Cervantes, was a nurse.", "He also befriended many individuals involved in the medical field, in that he knew medical author Francisco Díaz, an expert in urology, and royal doctor Antonio Ponce de Santa Cruz who served as a personal doctor to both Philip III and Philip IV of Spain.Apart from the personal relations Cervantes maintained within the medical field, Cervantes' personal life was defined by an interest in medicine.", "He frequently visited patients from the Hospital de Inocentes in Sevilla.", "Furthermore, Cervantes explored medicine in his personal library.", "His library contained more than 200 volumes and included books like ''Examen de Ingenios'', by Juan Huarte and ''Practica y teórica de cirugía'', by Dionisio Daza Chacón that defined medical literature and medical theories of his time.Researchers Isabel Sanchez Duque and Francisco Javier Escudero have found that Cervantes was a friend of the family Villaseñor, which was involved in a combat with Francisco de Acuña.", "Both sides combated disguised as medieval knights in the road from El Toboso to Miguel Esteban in 1581.They also found a person called Rodrigo Quijada, who bought the title of nobility of \"hidalgo\", and created diverse conflicts with the help of a squire.===Spurious ''Second Part'' by Avellaneda===Illustration to ''The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha'', Volume IIIt is not certain when Cervantes began writing ''Part Two'' of ''Don Quixote'', but he had probably not proceeded much further than Chapter LIX by late July 1614.In about September, however, a spurious Part Two, entitled ''Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha: by the Licenciado (doctorate) Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, of Tordesillas'', was published in Tarragona by an unidentified Aragonese who was an admirer of Lope de Vega, rival of Cervantes.", "It was translated into English by William Augustus Yardley, Esquire in two volumes in 1784.Some modern scholars suggest that Don Quixote's fictional encounter with Avellaneda's book in Chapter 59 of Part II should not be taken as the date that Cervantes encountered it, which may have been much earlier.Avellaneda's identity has been the subject of many theories, but there is no consensus as to who he was.", "In its prologue, the author gratuitously insulted Cervantes, who took offense and responded; the last half of Chapter LIX and most of the following chapters of Cervantes's ''Segunda Parte'' lend some insight into the effects upon him; Cervantes manages to work in some subtle digs at Avellaneda's own work, and in his preface to Part II, comes very near to criticizing Avellaneda directly.In his introduction to ''The Portable Cervantes'', Samuel Putnam, a noted translator of Cervantes' novel, calls Avellaneda's version \"one of the most disgraceful performances in history\".The second part of Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'', finished as a direct result of the Avellaneda book, has come to be regarded by some literary critics as superior to the first part, because of its greater depth of characterization, its discussions, mostly between Quixote and Sancho, on diverse subjects, and its philosophical insights.", "In Cervantes's ''Segunda Parte'', Don Quixote visits a printing-house in Barcelona and finds Avellaneda's ''Second Part'' being printed there, in an early example of metafiction.", "Don Quixote and Sancho Panza also meet one of the characters from Avellaneda's book, Don Alvaro Tarfe, and make him swear that the \"other\" Quixote and Sancho are impostors.===Setting=======Location====Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, at the in MadridCervantes' story takes place on the plains of La Mancha, specifically the ''comarca'' of Campo de Montiel.The location of the village to which Cervantes alludes in the opening sentence of ''Don Quixote'' has been the subject of debate since its publication over four centuries ago.", "Indeed, Cervantes deliberately omits the name of the village, giving an explanation in the final chapter:In 2004, a multidisciplinary team of academics from Complutense University, led by Francisco Parra Luna, Manuel Fernández Nieto, and Santiago Petschen Verdaguer, deduced that the village was that of Villanueva de los Infantes.", "Their findings were published in a paper titled \"'''El Quijote' como un sistema de distancias/tiempos: hacia la localización del lugar de la Mancha''\", which was later published as a book: ''El enigma resuelto del Quijote''.", "The result was replicated in two subsequent investigations: \"La determinación del lugar de la Mancha como problema estadístico\" and \"The Kinematics of the Quixote and the Identity of the 'Place in La Mancha'\".Translators of ''Don Quixote'', such as John Ormsby, have commented that the region of La Mancha is one of the most desertlike, unremarkable regions of Spain, the least romantic and fanciful place that one would imagine as the home of a courageous knight.On the other hand, as Borges points out:The story also takes place in El Toboso where Don Quixote goes to seek Dulcinea's blessings.==== Historical context ====''Don Quixote'' is said to reflect the Spanish society in which Cervantes lived and wrote.", "Spain's status as a world power was declining, and the Spanish national treasury was bankrupt due to expensive foreign wars.", "Spanish cultural dominance was also waning as the Protestant Reformation had put the Spanish Roman Catholic Church on the defensive, which had led to the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition.", "Meanwhile, the ''hidalgo'' class was losing relevance because of changes in Spanish society which made the high ideals of chivalry obsolete." ], [ "Legacy", "Peseta banknote from 1951Madrid street art near Plaza España involving Don Quixote===Influence on modern Spanish===''Don Quixote'' continues to be the origin of replication for authors.", "In 2002 the Norwegian Nobel Institute conducted a study among writers from 55 countries, the majority voted ''Don Quixote'' \"the greatest work of fiction ever written\".", "The opening sentence of the book created a classic Spanish cliché with the phrase (\"whose name I do not wish to recall\"): (\"In a village of La Mancha, whose name I do not wish to recall, there lived, not very long ago, one of those gentlemen with a lance in the lance-rack, an ancient shield, a skinny old horse, and a fast greyhound.", "\")===Influence on the English language===''Don Quixote'' alongside its many translations, has also provided a number of idioms and expressions to the English language.", "Examples with their own articles include the phrase \"the pot calling the kettle black\" and the adjective \"quixotic.", "\"==== Tilting at windmills ===='''Tilting at windmills''' is an English idiom that means \"attacking imaginary enemies\".", "The expression is derived from ''Don Quixote'', and the word \"tilt\" in this context refers to jousting.", "This phrase is sometimes also expressed as \"charging at windmills\" or \"fighting the windmills\".The phrase is sometimes used to describe either confrontations where adversaries are incorrectly perceived, or courses of action that are based on misinterpreted or misapplied heroic, romantic, or idealistic justifications.", "It may also connote an inopportune, unfounded, and vain effort against adversaries real or imagined." ], [ "Publication", "Illustration to ''Don Quixote de la Mancha'' by Miguel de Cervantes (the edition translated by Charles Jarvis)Don Quixote.", "Close-up of illustrationCollage of the engravings of ''The Adventures of Don Quixote'' by Gustave DoréIn July 1604, Cervantes sold the rights of ''El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha'' (known as ''Don Quixote, Part I'') to the publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles for an unknown sum.", "License to publish was granted in September, the printing was finished in December, and the book came out on 16 January 1605.J.", "Ormsby, \"About Cervantes and Don Quixote\" The novel was an immediate success.", "Most of the 400 copies of the first edition were sent to the New World, with the publisher hoping to get a better price in the Americas.", "Although most of them disappeared in a shipwreck near La Havana, approximately 70 copies reached Lima, from where they were sent to Cuzco, in the heart of the defunct Inca Empire.No sooner was it in the hands of the public than preparations were made to issue derivative (pirated) editions.", "In 1614 a fake second part was published by a mysterious author under the pen name Avellaneda.", "This author was never satisfactorily identified.", "This rushed Cervantes into writing and publishing a genuine second part in 1615, which was a year before his own death.", "''Don Quixote'' had been growing in favour, and its author's name was now known beyond the Pyrenees.", "By August 1605, there were two Madrid editions, two published in Lisbon, and one in Valencia.", "Publisher Francisco de Robles secured additional copyrights for Aragon and Portugal for a second edition.Sale of these publishing rights deprived Cervantes of further financial profit on ''Part One''.", "In 1607, an edition was printed in Brussels.", "Robles, the Madrid publisher, found it necessary to meet demand with a third edition, a seventh publication in all, in 1608.Popularity of the book in Italy was such that a Milan bookseller issued an Italian edition in 1610.Yet another Brussels edition was called for in 1611.Since then, numerous editions have been released and in total, the novel is believed to have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide.", "The work has been produced in numerous editions and languages, the Cervantes Collection, at the State Library of New South Wales includes over 1,100 editions.", "These were collected, by Ben Haneman, over a period of thirty years.In 1613, Cervantes published the ''Novelas ejemplares'', dedicated to the Maecenas of the day, the Conde de Lemos.", "Eight and a half years after ''Part One'' had appeared came the first hint of a forthcoming ''Segunda Parte'' (Part Two).", "\"You shall see shortly\", Cervantes says, \"the further exploits of Don Quixote and humours of Sancho Panza.\"", "''Don Quixote, Part Two'', published by the same press as its predecessor, appeared late in 1615, and quickly reprinted in Brussels and Valencia (1616) and Lisbon (1617).", "Parts One and Two were published as one edition in Barcelona in 1617.Historically, Cervantes' work has been said to have \"smiled Spain's chivalry away\", suggesting that Don Quixote as a chivalric satire contributed to the demise of Spanish Chivalry.===English editions in translation===''Don Quichote And Sancho Panza'' by Louis AnquetinThere are many translations of the book, and it has been adapted many times in shortened versions.", "Many derivative editions were also written at the time, as was the custom of envious or unscrupulous writers.", "Seven years after the ''Parte Primera'' appeared, ''Don Quixote'' had been translated into French, German, Italian, and English, with the first French translation of 'Part II' appearing in 1618, and the first English translation in 1620.One abridged adaptation, authored by Agustín Sánchez, runs slightly over 150 pages, cutting away about 750 pages.Thomas Shelton's English translation of the ''First Part'' appeared in 1612 while Cervantes was still alive, although there is no evidence that Shelton had met the author.", "Although Shelton's version is cherished by some, according to John Ormsby and Samuel Putnam, it was far from satisfactory as a carrying over of Cervantes' text.", "Shelton's translation of the novel's ''Second Part'' appeared in 1620.Near the end of the 17th century, John Phillips, a nephew of poet John Milton, published what Putnam considered the worst English translation.", "The translation, as literary critics claim, was not based on Cervantes' text but mostly on a French work by Filleau de Saint-Martin and on notes which Thomas Shelton had written.Around 1700, a version by Pierre Antoine Motteux appeared.", "Motteux's translation enjoyed lasting popularity; it was reprinted as the Modern Library Series edition of the novel until recent times.", "Nonetheless, future translators would find much to fault in Motteux's version: Samuel Putnam criticized \"the prevailing slapstick quality of this work, especially where Sancho Panza is involved, the obtrusion of the obscene where it is found in the original, and the slurring of difficulties through omissions or expanding upon the text\".", "John Ormsby considered Motteux's version \"worse than worthless\", and denounced its \"infusion of Cockney flippancy and facetiousness\" into the original.The proverb \"The proof of the pudding is in the eating\" is widely attributed to Cervantes.", "The Spanish word for pudding (), however, does not appear in the original text but premieres in the Motteux translation.", "In Smollett's translation of 1755 he notes that the original text reads literally \"you will see when the eggs are fried\", meaning \"time will tell\".A translation by Captain John Stevens, which revised Thomas Shelton's version, also appeared in 1700, but its publication was overshadowed by the simultaneous release of Motteux's translation.In 1742, the Charles Jervas translation appeared, posthumously.", "Through a printer's error, it came to be known, and is still known, as \"the Jarvis translation\".", "It was the most scholarly and accurate English translation of the novel up to that time, but future translator John Ormsby points out in his own introduction to the novel that the Jarvis translation has been criticized as being too stiff.", "Nevertheless, it became the most frequently reprinted translation of the novel until about 1885.Another 18th-century translation into English was that of Tobias Smollett, himself a novelist, first published in 1755.Like the Jarvis translation, it continues to be reprinted today.A translation by Alexander James Duffield appeared in 1881 and another by Henry Edward Watts in 1888.Most modern translators take as their model the 1885 translation by John Ormsby.An expurgated children's version, under the title ''The Story of Don Quixote'', was published in 1922 (available on Project Gutenberg).", "It leaves out the risqué sections as well as chapters that young readers might consider dull, and embellishes a great deal on Cervantes' original text.", "The title page actually gives credit to the two editors as if they were the authors, and omits any mention of Cervantes.The most widely read English-language translations of the mid-20th century are by Samuel Putnam (1949), J. M. Cohen (1950; Penguin Classics), and Walter Starkie (1957).", "The last English translation of the novel in the 20th century was by Burton Raffel, published in 1996.The 21st century has already seen five new translations of the novel into English.", "The first is by John D. Rutherford and the second by Edith Grossman.", "Reviewing the novel in ''The New York Times'', Carlos Fuentes called Grossman's translation a \"major literary achievement\" and another called it the \"most transparent and least impeded among more than a dozen English translations going back to the 17th century.", "\"In 2005, the year of the novel's 400th anniversary, Tom Lathrop published a new English translation of the novel, based on a lifetime of specialized study of the novel and its history.", "The fourth translation of the 21st century was released in 2006 by former university librarian James H. Montgomery, 26 years after he had begun it, in an attempt to \"recreate the sense of the original as closely as possible, though not at the expense of Cervantes' literary style.", "\"In 2011, another translation by Gerald J. Davis appeared.", "It is the latest and the fifth translation of the 21st century, though it is self published via Lulu.com." ], [ "List of English translations", " Thomas Shelton (1612 & 1620) Captain John Stevens (1700) (revision of Thomas Shelton) John Phillips (1687) – the nephew of John Milton Pierre Antoine Motteux (1700) John Ozell (1719) (revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux) George Kelly (1769) (considered as another revision of Pierre Antoine Motteux) Ned Ward (1700), ''(The) Life & Notable Adventures of Don Quixote merrily translated into Hudibrastic Verse'' Charles Jervas (1742) Tobias Smollett (1755) (revision of Charles Jervas) O. M. Brack Jr. (2003) (revision of the 1755 Tobias Smollett revision of Charles Jervas) E. C. Riley (2008) (revision of Charles Jervas) Charles Henry Wilmot (1774) Mary Smirke with engravings by Robert Smirke (1818) Alexander James Duffield (1881) John Ormsby (1885).", "The original version, available free on the Internet Archive, is to be preferred to the Wikisource and similar versions, which do not include Ormsby's careful notes and with his Introduction much abbreviated.", "Joseph Ramon Jones and Kenneth Douglas (1981) (revision of Ormsby).", "() - Norton Critical Edition Henry Edward Watts (1888) Robinson Smith (1910) Samuel Putnam (Modern Library, 1949) J. M. Cohen (Penguin, 1950) Walter Starkie (1964) Burton Raffel (Norton, 1996) Diana de Armas Wilson (2020) (revision of Burton Raffel) John Rutherford (Penguin, 2000) Edith Grossman (2003) Thomas Lathrop (2005, Second Edition: 2007) James H. Montgomery (2006) Gerald J. Davis (2011)Reviewing the English translations as a whole, Daniel Eisenberg stated that there is no one translation ideal for every purpose, but expressed a preference for those of Putnam and the revision of Ormsby's translation by Douglas and Jones.===English Translation of the Spurious Don Quixote===# Captain John Stevens (1705)# William Augustus Yardley (1784)" ], [ "See also", "* List of ''Don Quixote'' characters* List of works influenced by ''Don Quixote'' – including a gallery of paintings and illustrations* António José da Silva – writer of ''Vida do Grande Dom Quixote de la Mancha e do Gordo Sancho Pança'' (1733)* Coco – In the last chapter, the epitaph of Don Quijote identifies him as \"el coco\".", "* ''Man of La Mancha'', a musical play based on the life of Cervantes, author of ''Don Quixote''.", "* ''Monsignor Quixote'', a novel by Graham Greene* ''Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote'', a short story by Jorge Luis Borges===Authors and works mentioned in ''Don Quixote''===* Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda – author of a spurious sequel to ''Don Quixote'' which, in turn, is referenced in the actual sequel* ''Amadís de Gaula'' – one of the chivalric novels found in Don Quixote's library * ''Belianís'' – one of the chivalric novels found in the library of Don Quixote* ''Tirant lo Blanch'' – one of the chivalric novels mentioned by Don Quixote===General===* Great books* List of best-selling books* Lists of 100 best books" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bandera, Cesáreo (2011).", "''The Humble Story of Don Quixote: reflections on the birth of the modern novel''.", "Washington: The Catholic University of America Press.", "* Bloom, Harold (ed.)", "(2000).", "''Cervantes' Don Quixote (Modern Critical Interpretations)''.", "Chelsea House Publishers.", ".", "* D' Haen, Theo (ed.)", "(2009).", "''International Don Quixote''.", "Editions Rodopi B.V.", ".", "* Dobbs, Ronnie (ed.)", "(2015).", "''Don Quixote and the History of the Novel''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "* Duran, Manuel and Rogg, Fay R. (2006).", "''Fighting Windmills: Encounters with Don Quixote''.", "Yale University Press.", ".", "* González Echevarría, Roberto (ed.)", "(2005).", "''Cervantes' Don Quixote: A Casebook''.", "Oxford University Press US.", ".", "* Graf, Eric C. (2007).", "''Cervantes and Modernity: Four Essays on Don Quijote''.", "Bucknell University Press.", ".", "* Hoyle, Alan (2016).", "''\"Don Quixote of La Mancha\"(1605): Highlights and Lowlights''.", "Rocks Lane Editions.", "See* Hoyle, Alan (2023).", "''‘Don Quixote of La Mancha’ Part II (1615): Low Points and High Points.''", "Rocks Lane Editions.", ".", "* Johnson, Carroll B (ed.)", "(2006).", "''Don Quijote Across Four Centuries: 1605–2005''.", "Juan de la Cuesta Hispanic Monographs.", ".", "* Pérez, Rolando (2016).", "See on Academia.edu \"What is Don Quijote/Don Quixote And... And... And the Disjunctive Synthesis of Cervantes and Kathy Acker.\"", "''Cervantes ilimitado: cuatrocientos años del Quijote''.", "Ed.", "Nuria Morgado.", "ALDEEU.", "* Pérez, Rolando (2021).", "\"Cervantes's 'Republic': On Representation, Imitation, and Unreason\".", "''eHumanista'' 47.89–111." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Cervantine Collection of the Biblioteca de Catalunya* Miguel de Cervantes Collection has rare first volumes in multiple languages of ''Don Quixote''.", "From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dylan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dylan''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts and entertainment", "* Bob Dylan (born 1941), American singer and songwriter ''Dylan'' (1973 album), a 1973 album by Bob Dylan ''Dylan'' (2007 album), a 2007 compilation album by Bob Dylan* Dylan (musician), professional name of English singer-songwriter Natasha Woods* ''Dylan'' (play), a 1964 play by Sidney Michael about Dylan Thomas" ], [ "Technology and engineering", "* Dylan (programming language), a language with Lisp-like semantics and ALGOL-like syntax* Dylan, a RAID storage system by Quantel* Honda Dylan, a high-end 125cc Honda scooter in Vietnam" ], [ "Other uses", "* Dylan (name), a given name of Welsh origin and a family name (including a list of persons with the name)** Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), Welsh poet* Dylan ail Don, a sea-god in Welsh mythology" ], [ "See also", "* Dilan (disambiguation)* Dillon (disambiguation)* Dilyn, a dog* Dilyn (drug), an expectorant" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dada" ], [ "Introduction", "Grand opening of the first Dada exhibition: International Dada Fair, Berlin, 5 June 1920.The central figure hanging from the ceiling is an effigy of a German officer with a pig's head.", "From left to right: Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch (sitting), Otto Burchard, Johannes Baader, Wieland Herzfelde, Margarete Herzfelde, Dr. Oz (Otto Schmalhausen), George Grosz and John Heartfield.", "'''Dada''' () or '''Dadaism''' was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centres in Zürich, Switzerland, at the Cabaret Voltaire (in 1916), founded by Hugo Ball with his companion Emmy Hennings, and in Berlin in 1917.New York Dada began , and after 1920 Dada flourished in Paris.", "Dadaist activities lasted until the mid 1920s.Dada artists, group photograph, 1920, Paris.", "From left to right, Back row: Louis Aragon, Theodore Fraenkel, Paul Eluard, Clément Pansaers, Emmanuel Fay (cut off).Second row: Paul Dermée, Philippe Soupault, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes.Front row: Tristan Tzara (with monocle), Celine Arnauld, Francis Picabia, André Breton.Developed in reaction to World War I, the Dada movement consisted of artists who rejected the logic, reason, and aestheticism of modern capitalist society, instead expressing nonsense, irrationality, and anti-bourgeois protest in their works.", "The art of the movement began primarily as performance art, but eventually spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, and sculpture.", "Dadaist artists expressed their discontent toward violence, war, and nationalism and maintained political affinities with radical politics on the left-wing and far-left politics.Cover of the first edition of the publication ''Dada'', Tristan Tzara; Zürich, 1917There is no consensus on the origin of the movement's name; a common story is that the German artist Richard Huelsenbeck slid a paper knife (letter-opener) at random into a dictionary, where it landed on \"dada\", a colloquial French term for a hobby horse.", "Jean Arp wrote that Tristan Tzara invented the word at 6 p.m. on 6 February 1916, in the Café de la Terrasse in Zürich.", "Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness and absurdity that appealed to the group.", "Still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning (or no meaning at all) in any language, reflecting the movement's internationalism.Francis Picabia: left, ''Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait'', 1 July 1915; center, ''Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité'', 5 July 1915; right, ''J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas!", "De Zayas!", "Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin'', New York, 1915The roots of Dada lie in pre-war avant-garde.", "The term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works that challenge accepted definitions of art.", "Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movement's detachment from the constraints of reality and convention.", "The work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dada's rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning.", "Works such as ''Ubu Roi'' (1896) by Alfred Jarry and the ballet ''Parade'' (1916–17) by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works.", "The Dada movement's principles were first collected in Hugo Ball's Dada Manifesto in 1916.Ball is seen as the founder of the Dada movement.The Dadaist movement included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art/literary journals; passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media.", "Key figures in the movement included Jean Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Marcel Duchamp, Max Ernst, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, George Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, John Heartfield, Emmy Hennings, Hannah Höch, Richard Huelsenbeck, Francis Picabia, Man Ray, Hans Richter, Kurt Schwitters, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, Tristan Tzara, and Beatrice Wood, among others.", "The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, and groups including Surrealism, ''nouveau réalisme'', pop art and Fluxus." ], [ "Overview", "Francis Picabia, ''Dame!''", "Illustration for the cover of the periodical ''Dadaphone'', n. 7, Paris, March 1920Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America.", "The beginnings of Dada correspond with the outbreak of World War I.", "For many participants, the movement was a protest against the bourgeois nationalist and colonialist interests, which many Dadaists believed were the root cause of the war, and against the cultural and intellectual conformity—in art and more broadly in society—that corresponded to the war.Avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments.", "They had seen (or participated in) Cubist exhibitions held at Galeries Dalmau, Barcelona (1912), Galerie Der Sturm in Berlin (1912), the Armory Show in New York (1913), SVU Mánes in Prague (1914), several Jack of Diamonds exhibitions in Moscow and at Moderne Kunstkring, Amsterdam (between 1911 and 1915).", "Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists.", "Dada subsequently combined these approaches.Many Dadaists believed that the 'reason' and 'logic' of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war.", "They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos and irrationality.", "For example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest \"against this world of mutual destruction\".According to Hans Richter Dada was not art: it was \"anti-art\".", "Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for.", "Where art was concerned with traditional aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics.", "If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend.Additionally, Dada attempted to reflect onto human perception and the chaotic nature of society.", "Tristan Tzara proclaimed, \"Everything is Dada, too.", "Beware of Dada.", "Anti-dadaism is a disease: selfkleptomania, man's normal condition, is Dada.", "But the real Dadas are against Dada\".As Hugo Ball expressed it, \"For us, art is not an end in itself ... but it is an opportunity for the true perception and criticism of the times we live in.", "\"A reviewer from the ''American Art News'' stated at the time that \"Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man.\"", "Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a \"reaction to what many of these artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide\".Years later, Dada artists described the movement as \"a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the postwar economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path...", "It was a systematic work of destruction and demoralization...", "In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege.", "\"To quote Dona Budd's ''The Language of Art Knowledge'', Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War.", "This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich.", "Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition.", "The origin of the name Dada is unclear; some believe that it is a nonsensical word.", "Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara's and Marcel Janco's frequent use of the words \"da, da,\" meaning \"yes, yes\" in the Romanian language.", "Another theory says that the name \"Dada\" came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French–German dictionary happened to point to 'dada', a French word for 'hobbyhorse'.", "The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature, poetry, art manifestos, art theory, theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works.The creations of Duchamp, Picabia, Man Ray, and others between 1915 and 1917 eluded the term Dada at the time, and \"New York Dada\" came to be seen as a post facto invention of Duchamp.", "At the outset of the 1920s the term Dada flourished in Europe with the help of Duchamp and Picabia, who had both returned from New York.", "Notwithstanding, Dadaists such as Tzara and Richter claimed European precedence.", "Art historian David Hopkins notes:Ironically, though, Duchamp's late activities in New York, along with the machinations of Picabia, re-cast Dada's history.", "Dada's European chroniclers—primarily Richter, Tzara, and Huelsenbeck—would eventually become preoccupied with establishing the pre-eminence of Zürich and Berlin at the foundations of Dada, but it proved to be Duchamp who was most strategically brilliant in manipulating the genealogy of this avant-garde formation, deftly turning New York Dada from a late-comer into an originating force." ], [ "History", "Dada emerged from a period of artistic and literary movements like Futurism, Cubism and Expressionism; centered mainly in Italy, France and Germany respectively, in those years.", "However, unlike the earlier movements Dada was able to establish a broad base of support, giving rise to a movement that was international in scope.", "Its adherents were based in cities all over the world including New York, Zürich, Berlin, Paris and others.", "There were regional differences like an emphasis on literature in Zürich and political protest in Berlin.Prominent Dadaists published manifestos, but the movement was loosely organized and there was no central hierarchy.", "On 14 July 1916, Ball originated the seminal Dada Manifesto.", "Tzara wrote a second Dada manifesto, considered important Dada reading, which was published in 1918.Tzara's manifesto articulated the concept of \"Dadaist disgust\"—the contradiction implicit in avant-garde works between the criticism and affirmation of modernist reality.", "In the Dadaist perspective modern art and culture are considered a type of fetishization where the objects of consumption (including organized systems of thought like philosophy and morality) are chosen, much like a preference for cake or cherries, to fill a void.The shock and scandal the movement inflamed was deliberate; Dadaist magazines were banned and their exhibits closed.", "Some of the artists even faced imprisonment.", "These provocations were part of the entertainment but, over time, audiences' expectations eventually outpaced the movement's capacity to deliver.", "As the artists' well-known \"sarcastic laugh\" started to come from the audience, the provocations of Dadaists began to lose their impact.", "Dada was an active movement during years of political turmoil from 1916 when European countries were actively engaged in World War I, the conclusion of which, in 1918, set the stage for a new political order.===Zürich===Hannah Höch, ''Cut with the Kitchen Knife through the Last Epoch of Weimar Beer-Belly Culture in Germany'', 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm, Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu BerlinThere is some disagreement about where Dada originated.", "The movement is commonly accepted by most art historians and those who lived during this period to have identified with the Cabaret Voltaire (housed inside the ''Holländische Meierei'' bar in Zürich) co-founded by poet and cabaret singer Emmy Hennings and Hugo Ball.", "Some sources propose a Romanian origin, arguing that Dada was an offshoot of a vibrant artistic tradition that transposed to Switzerland when a group of Jewish modernist artists, including Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco, and Arthur Segal settled in Zürich.", "Before World War I, similar art had already existed in Bucharest and other Eastern European cities; it is likely that Dada's catalyst was the arrival in Zürich of artists like Tzara and Janco.The name ''Cabaret Voltaire'' was a reference to the French philosopher Voltaire, whose novel ''Candide'' mocked the religious and philosophical dogmas of the day.", "Opening night was attended by Ball, Tzara, Jean Arp, and Janco.", "These artists along with others like Sophie Taeuber, Richard Huelsenbeck and Hans Richter started putting on performances at the Cabaret Voltaire and using art to express their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it.", "Having left Germany and Romania during World War I, the artists arrived in politically neutral Switzerland.", "They used abstraction to fight against the social, political, and cultural ideas of that time.", "They used shock art, provocation, and \"vaudevilleian excess\" to subvert the conventions they believed had caused the Great War.", "The Dadaists believed those ideas to be a byproduct of bourgeois society that was so apathetic it would wage war against itself rather than challenge the ''status quo'':Ball said that Janco's mask and costume designs, inspired by Romanian folk art, made \"the horror of our time, the paralyzing background of events\" visible.", "According to Ball, performances were accompanied by a \"balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs\".", "Influenced by African music, arrhythmic drumming and jazz were common at Dada gatherings.After the cabaret closed down, Dada activities moved on to a new gallery, and Hugo Ball left for Bern.", "Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas.", "He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist.", "The Cabaret Voltaire re-opened, and is still in the same place at the Spiegelgasse 1 in the Niederdorf.Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review ''Dada'' beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris.Other artists, such as André Breton and Philippe Soupault, created \"literature groups to help extend the influence of Dada\".After the fighting of the First World War had ended in the armistice of November 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities.", "Others, such as the Swiss native Sophie Taeuber, would remain in Zürich into the 1920s.===Berlin===Cover of ''Anna Blume, Dichtungen'', 1919\"Berlin was a city of tightened stomachers, of mounting, thundering hunger, where hidden rage was transformed into a boundless money lust, and men's minds were concentrating more and more on questions of naked existence...", "Fear was in everybody's bones\" – Richard HülsenbeckRaoul Hausmann, who helped establish Dada in Berlin, published his manifesto ''Synthethic Cino of Painting'' in 1918 where he attacked Expressionism and the art critics who promoted it.", "Dada is envisioned in contrast to art forms, such as Expressionism, that appeal to viewers' emotional states: \"the exploitation of so-called echoes of the soul\".", "In Hausmann's conception of Dada, new techniques of creating art would open doors to explore new artistic impulses.", "Fragmented use of real world stimuli allowed an expression of reality that was radically different from other forms of art:The groups in Germany were not as strongly anti-art as other groups.", "Their activity and art were more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, satire, public demonstrations and overt political activities.", "The intensely political and war-torn environment of Berlin had a dramatic impact on the ideas of Berlin Dadaists.", "Conversely, New York's geographic distance from the war spawned its more theoretically-driven, less political nature.", "According to Hans Richter, a Dadaist who was in Berlin yet “aloof from active participation in Berlin Dada”, several distinguishing characteristics of the Dada movement there included: “its political element and its technical discoveries in painting and literature”; “inexhaustible energy”; “mental freedom which included the abolition of everything”; and “members intoxicated with their own power in a way that had no relation to the real world”, who would “turn their rebelliousness even against each other”.In February 1918, while the Great War was approaching its climax, Huelsenbeck gave his first Dada speech in Berlin, and he produced a Dada manifesto later in the year.", "Following the October Revolution in Russia, by then out of the war, Hannah Höch and George Grosz used Dada to express communist sympathies.", "Grosz, together with John Heartfield, Höch and Hausmann developed the technique of photomontage during this period.", "Johannes Baader, the uninhibited Oberdada, was the “crowbar” of the Berlin movement's direct action according to Hans Richter and is credited with creating the first giant collages, according to Raoul Hausmann.After the war, the artists published a series of short-lived political magazines and held the First International Dada Fair, 'the greatest project yet conceived by the Berlin Dadaists', in the summer of 1920.As well as work by the main members of Berlin Dada – Grosz, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Huelsenbeck and Heartfield – the exhibition also included the work of Otto Dix, Francis Picabia, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Rudolf Schlichter, Johannes Baargeld and others.", "In all, over 200 works were exhibited, surrounded by incendiary slogans, some of which also ended up written on the walls of the Nazi's ''Entartete Kunst'' exhibition in 1937.Despite high ticket prices, the exhibition lost money, with only one recorded sale.The Berlin group published periodicals such as ''Club Dada'', ''Der Dada'', ''Everyman His Own Football'', and ''Dada Almanach''.", "They also established a political party, the Central Council of Dada for the World Revolution.===Cologne===In Cologne, Ernst, Baargeld, and Arp launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments.", "Cologne's Early Spring Exhibition was set up in a pub, and required that participants walk past urinals while being read lewd poetry by a woman in a communion dress.", "The police closed the exhibition on grounds of obscenity, but it was re-opened when the charges were dropped.===New York===Rrose Sélavy, the alter ego of Dadaist Marcel DuchampMarcel Duchamp, ''Fountain,'' 1917; photograph by Alfred StieglitzLike Zürich, New York City was a refuge for writers and artists from the First World War.", "Soon after arriving from France in 1915, Marcel Duchamp and Francis Picabia met American artist Man Ray.", "By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States.", "American Beatrice Wood, who had been studying in France, soon joined them, along with Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven.", "Arthur Cravan, fleeing conscription in France, was also in New York for a time.", "Much of their activity centered in Alfred Stieglitz's gallery, 291, and the home of Walter and Louise Arensberg.The New Yorkers, though not particularly organized, called their activities ''Dada,'' but they did not issue manifestos.", "They issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as ''The Blind Man'', ''Rongwrong'', and ''New York Dada'' in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for ''museum'' art.", "New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada and was instead driven by a sense of irony and humor.", "In his book ''Adventures in the arts: informal chapters on painters, vaudeville and poets'' Marsden Hartley included an essay on \"The Importance of Being 'Dada'\".During this time Duchamp began exhibiting \"readymades\" (everyday objects found or purchased and declared art) such as a bottle rack, and was active in the Society of Independent Artists.", "In 1917 he submitted the now famous ''Fountain'', a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition but they rejected the piece.", "First an object of scorn within the arts community, the ''Fountain'' has since become almost canonized by some as one of the most recognizable modernist works of sculpture.", "Art world experts polled by the sponsors of the 2004 Turner Prize, Gordon's gin, voted it \"the most influential work of modern art\".", "As recent scholarship documents, the work is still controversial.", "Duchamp indicated in a 1917 letter to his sister that a female friend was centrally involved in the conception of this work: \"One of my female friends who had adopted the pseudonym Richard Mutt sent me a porcelain urinal as a sculpture.\"", "The piece is in line with the scatological aesthetics of Duchamp's neighbour, the Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven.", "In an attempt to \"pay homage to the spirit of Dada\" a performance artist named Pierre Pinoncelli made a crack in a replica of ''The Fountain'' with a hammer in January 2006; he also urinated on it in 1993.Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together during the Dadaist period.", "For seven years he also published the Dada periodical ''391'' in Barcelona, New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924.By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada had experienced its last major incarnation.===Paris===Man Ray, c. 1921–22, ''Rencontre dans la porte tournante'', published on the cover of ''Der Sturm'', Volume 13, Number 3, 5 March 1922Man Ray, c. 1921–22, ''Dessin'' (''Drawing''), published on page 43 of ''Der Sturm'', Volume 13, Number 3, 5 March 1922The French avant-garde kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from Tristan Tzara (whose pseudonym means \"sad in country,\" a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with Guillaume Apollinaire, André Breton, Max Jacob, Clément Pansaers, and other French writers, critics and artists.Paris had arguably been the classical music capital of the world since the advent of musical Impressionism in the late 19th century.", "One of its practitioners, Erik Satie, collaborated with Picasso and Cocteau in a mad, scandalous ballet called ''Parade''.", "First performed by the Ballets Russes in 1917, it succeeded in creating a scandal but in a different way than Stravinsky's ''Le Sacre du printemps'' had done almost five years earlier.", "This was a ballet that was clearly parodying itself, something traditional ballet patrons would obviously have serious issues with.Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there.", "Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of ''Dada'', ''Le Cannibale'', and ''Littérature'' featured Dada in several editions.", ")The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the ''Salon des Indépendants'' in 1921.Jean Crotti exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, ''Explicatif'' bearing the word ''Tabu''.", "In the same year Tzara staged his Dadaist play ''The Gas Heart'' to howls of derision from the audience.", "When it was re-staged in 1923 in a more professional production, the play provoked a theatre riot (initiated by André Breton) that heralded the split within the movement that was to produce Surrealism.", "Tzara's last attempt at a Dadaist drama was his \"ironic tragedy\" ''Handkerchief of Clouds'' in 1924.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands the Dada movement centered mainly around Theo van Doesburg, best known for establishing the ''De Stijl'' movement and magazine of the same name.", "Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in ''De Stijl'' such as Hugo Ball, Hans Arp and Kurt Schwitters.", "Van Doesburg and (a cordwainer and artist in Drachten) became friends of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called ''Dutch Dada campaign'' in 1923, where van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (entitled ''What is Dada?", "''), Schwitters read his poems, Vilmos Huszár demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Nelly van Doesburg (Theo's wife), played avant-garde compositions on piano.A Bonset sound-poem, \"Passing troop\", 1916Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in ''De Stijl'', although under a pseudonym, I.K.", "Bonset, which was only revealed after his death in 1931.", "'Together' with I.K.", "Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called ''Mécano'' (1922–23).", "Another Dutchman identified by K. Schippers in his study of the movement in the Netherlands was the Groningen typographer H. N. Werkman, who was in touch with van Doesburg and Schwitters while editing his own magazine, ''The Next Call'' (1923–6).", "Two more artists mentioned by Schippers were German-born and eventually settled in the Netherlands.", "These were Otto van Rees, who had taken part in the liminal exhibitions at the Café Voltaire in Zürich, and Paul Citroen.===Georgia===Though Dada itself was unknown in Georgia until at least 1920, from 1917 until 1921 a group of poets called themselves Le Degré 41\", or \"Le Degré Quarante et Un\" (English, \"The 41st Degree\") (referring both to the latitude of Tbilisi, Georgia and to the Celsius temperature of a high fever equal to 105.8 Fahrenheit) organized along Dadaist lines.", "The most important figure in this group was Iliazd (Ilia Zdanevich), whose radical typographical designs visually echo the publications of the Dadaists.", "After his flight to Paris in 1921, he collaborated with Dadaists on publications and events.", "For example, when Tristan Tzara was banned from holding seminars in Théâtre Michel in 1923, Iliazd booked the venue on his behalf for the performance, \"The Bearded Heart Soirée\", and designed the flyer.===Yugoslavia===In Yugoslavia, alongside the new art movement Zenitism, there was significant Dada activity between 1920 and 1922, run mainly by Dragan Aleksić and including work by Mihailo S. Petrov, Ljubomir Micić and Branko Ve Poljanski.", "Aleksić used the term \"Yougo-Dada\" and is known to have been in contact with Raoul Hausmann, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara.===Italy===The Dada movement in Italy, based in Mantua, was met with distaste and failed to make a significant impact in the world of art.", "It published a magazine for a short time and held an exhibition in Rome, featuring paintings, quotations from Tristan Tzara, and original epigrams such as \"True Dada is against Dada\".", "One member of this group was Julius Evola, who went on to become an eminent scholar of occultism, as well as a right-wing philosopher.===Japan===A prominent Dada group in Japan was Mavo, founded in July 1923 by Tomoyoshi Murayama, and Yanase Masamu later joined by Tatsuo Okada.", "Other prominent artists were Jun Tsuji, Eisuke Yoshiyuki, Shinkichi Takahashi and Katué Kitasono.Dada, an iconic character from the Ultra Series.", "His design draws inspiration from the art movement.In Tsuburaya Productions's ''Ultra Series'', an alien named Dada was inspired by the Dadaism movement, with said character first appearing in episode 28 of the 1966 tokusatsu series, ''Ultraman'', its design by character artist Toru Narita.", "Dada's design is primarily monochromatic, and features numerous sharp lines and alternating black and white stripes, in reference to the movement and, in particular, to chessboard and Go patterns.", "On May 19, 2016, in celebration to the 100 year anniversary of Dadaism in Tokyo, the Ultra Monster was invited to meet the Swiss Ambassador Urs Bucher.Butoh, the Japanese dance-form originating in 1959, can be considered to have direct connections to the spirit of the Dada movement, as Tatsumi Hijikata, one of Butoh's founders, \"was influenced early in his career by Dadaism\".===Russia===Dada in itself was relatively unknown in Russia, however, avant-garde art was widespread due to the Bolsheviks' revolutionary agenda.", "The , a literary group sharing Dadaist ideals achieved infamy after one of its members suggested that Vladimir Mayakovsky should go to the \"Pampushka\" (Pameatnik Pushkina – Pushkin monument) on the \"Tverbul\" (Tverskoy Boulevard) to clean the shoes of anyone who desired it, after Mayakovsky declared that he was going to cleanse Russian literature.", "For more information on Dadaism's influence upon Russian avant-garde art, see the book ''Russian Dada 1914–1924''." ], [ "Women of Dada", "Often overlooked when discussing the history and foundations of Dada, it is necessary to shed light on the female artists who created and inspired art and artists alike.", "These women were often times in platonic or romantic relationships with the male Dadaists mentioned above but are rarely written past the relative ties.", "However, each artist made vital contributions to the movement.", "Other notable mentions that do not include the artists below are: Suzanne Duchamp, Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, Emmy Hennings, Beatrice Wood, Clara Tice, and Ella Bergmann-Michel.===Hannah Höch===Hannah Höch of Berlin is considered to be the only female Dadaist in Berlin at the time of the movement.", "During this time, she was in a relationship with Raoul Hausmann who also was a Dada artist.", "She channeled the same anti-war and anti-government (Weimar Republic) in her works but brought out a feminist lens on the themes.", "With her works primarily of collage and photomontage, she often used precise placement or detailed titles to callout the misogynistic ways she and other women were treated.===Sophie Taeuber-Arp===Sophie Taeuber-Arp was a Swiss artist, teacher, and dancer who produced various types of fine art and handicraft pieces.", "While married to Dadaist Jean Arp, Taeuber-Arp was known in the Dada community for her performative dancing.", "As such, she worked with choreographer Rudolf von Laban and was written by Tristan Tarza for her dancing skills.===Mina Loy===London-born Mina Loy was known for being active in the literary sector of the New York Dada scene.", "She spent time writing poetry, creating Dada magazines, and acting and writing in plays.", "She contributed writing to Dada journal ''The Blind Man'' and Marchel Duchamp's ''Rongwrong''." ], [ "Poetry", "''Dadaglobe'' solicitation form letter signed by Francis Picabia, Tristan Tzara, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes, and Walter Serner, c. week of November 8, 1920.This example was sent from Paris to Alfred Vagts in Munich.Dadists used shock, nihilism, negativity, paradox, randomness, subconscious forces and antinomianism to subvert established traditions in the aftermath of the Great War.", "Tzara's 1920 manifesto proposed cutting words from a newspaper and randomly selecting fragments to write poetry, a process in which the synchronous universe itself becomes an active agent in creating the art.", "A poem written using this technique would be a \"fruit\" of the words that were clipped from the article.In literary arts Dadaists focused on poetry, particularly the so-called sound poetry invented by Hugo Ball.", "Dadaist poems attacked traditional conceptions of poetry, including structure, order, as well as the interplay of sound and the meaning of language.", "For Dadaists, the existing system by which information is articulated robs language of its dignity.", "The dismantling of language and poetic conventions are Dadaist attempts to restore language to its purest and most innocent form: \"With these sound poem, we wanted to dispense with a language which journalism had made desolate and impossible.", "\"Simultaneous poems (or ''poèmes simultanés'') were recited by a group of speakers who, collectively, produced a chaotic and confusing set of voices.", "These poems are considered manifestations of modernity including advertising, technology, and conflict.", "Unlike movements such as Expressionism, Dadaism did not take a negative view of modernity and the urban life.", "The chaotic urban and futuristic world is considered natural terrain that opens up new ideas for life and art." ], [ "Music", "Dada was not confined to the visual and literary arts; its influence reached into sound and music.", "These movements exerted a pervasive influence on 20th-century music, especially on mid-century avant-garde composers based in New York—among them Edgard Varèse, Stefan Wolpe, John Cage, and Morton Feldman.", "Kurt Schwitters developed what he called ''sound poems'', while Francis Picabia and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes composed Dada music performed at the Festival Dada in Paris on 26 May 1920.Other composers such as Erwin Schulhoff, Hans Heusser and Alberto Savinio all wrote ''Dada music'', while members of Les Six collaborated with members of the Dada movement and had their works performed at Dada gatherings.", "Erik Satie also dabbled with Dadaist ideas during his career." ], [ "Legacy", "The Janco Dada Museum, named after Marcel Janco, in Ein Hod, IsraelWhile broadly based, the movement was unstable.", "By 1924 in Paris, Dada was melding into Surrealism, and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including Surrealism, social realism and other forms of modernism.", "Some theorists argue that Dada was actually the beginning of postmodern art.By the dawn of the Second World War, many of the European Dadaists had emigrated to the United States.", "Some (Otto Freundlich, Walter Serner) died in death camps under Adolf Hitler, who actively persecuted the kind of \"degenerate art\" that he considered Dada to represent.", "The movement became less active as post-war optimism led to the development of new movements in art and literature.Dada is a named influence and reference of various anti-art and political and cultural movements, including the Situationist International and culture jamming groups like the Cacophony Society.", "Upon breaking up in July 2012, anarchist pop band Chumbawamba issued a statement which compared their own legacy with that of the Dada art movement.At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists were making noise and spectacle at the Cabaret Voltaire, Lenin was planning his revolutionary plans for Russia in a nearby apartment.", "Tom Stoppard used this coincidence as a premise for his play ''Travesties'' (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and James Joyce as characters.", "French writer Dominique Noguez imagined Lenin as a member of the Dada group in his tongue-in-cheek ''Lénine Dada'' (1989).The former building of the Cabaret Voltaire fell into disrepair until it was occupied from January to March 2002, by a group proclaiming themselves Neo-Dadaists, led by Mark Divo.", "The group included Jan Thieler, Ingo Giezendanner, Aiana Calugar, Lennie Lee, and Dan Jones.", "After their eviction, the space was turned into a museum dedicated to the history of Dada.", "The work of Lee and Jones remained on the walls of the new museum.Several notable retrospectives have examined the influence of Dada upon art and society.", "In 1967, a large Dada retrospective was held in Paris.", "In 2006, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a Dada exhibition in partnership with the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the Centre Pompidou in Paris.", "The LTM label has released a large number of Dada-related sound recordings, including interviews with artists such as Tzara, Picabia, Schwitters, Arp, and Huelsenbeck, and musical repertoire including Satie, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Picabia, and Nelly van Doesburg.Musician Frank Zappa was a self-proclaimed Dadaist after learning of the movement:In the early days, I didn't even know what to call the stuff my life was made of.", "You can imagine my delight when I discovered that someone in a distant land had the same idea—AND a nice, short name for it.David Bowie adapted William S. Burrough's cut-up technique for writing lyrics and Kurt Cobain also admittedly used this method for many of his Nirvana lyrics, including \"In Bloom\"." ], [ "Art techniques developed", "Dadaism also blurred the line between literary and visual arts:Dada is the groundwork to abstract art and sound poetry, a starting point for performance art, a prelude to postmodernism, an influence on pop art, a celebration of antiart to be later embraced for anarcho-political uses in the 1960s and the movement that laid the foundation for Surrealism.===Collage===The Dadaists imitated the techniques developed during the cubist movement through the pasting of cut pieces of paper items, but extended their art to encompass items such as transportation tickets, maps, plastic wrappers, etc.", "to portray aspects of life, rather than representing objects viewed as still life.", "They also invented the “chance collage\" technique, involving dropping torn scraps of paper onto a larger sheet and then pasting the pieces wherever they landed.===Cut-up technique===Cut-up technique is an extension of collage to words themselves, Tristan Tzara describes this in the Dada Manifesto:TO MAKE A DADAIST POEMTake a newspaper.Take some scissors.Choose from this paper an article of the length you want to make your poem.Cut out the article.Next carefully cut out each of the words that makes up this article and put them all in a bag.Shake gently.Next take out each cutting one after the other.Copy conscientiously in the order in which they left the bag.The poem will resemble you.And there you are – an infinitely original author of charming sensibility, even though unappreciated by the vulgar herd.===Photomontage===Raoul Hausmann, ''ABCD'' (self-portrait), a photomontage from 1923–24The Dadaists – the \"monteurs\" (mechanics) – used scissors and glue rather than paintbrushes and paints to express their views of modern life through images presented by the media.", "A variation on the collage technique, photomontage utilized actual or reproductions of real photographs printed in the press.", "In Cologne, Max Ernst used images from the First World War to illustrate messages of the destruction of war.", "Although the Berlin photomontages were assembled, like engines, the (non)relationships among the disparate elements were more rhetorical than real.===Assemblage===The assemblages were three-dimensional variations of the collage – the assembly of everyday objects to produce meaningful or meaningless (relative to the war) pieces of work including war objects and trash.", "Objects were nailed, screwed or fastened together in different fashions.", "Assemblages could be seen in the round or could be hung on a wall.===Readymades===Marcel Duchamp began to view the manufactured objects of his collection as objects of art, which he called \"readymades\".", "He would add signatures and titles to some, converting them into artwork that he called \"readymade aided\" or \"rectified readymades\".", "Duchamp wrote: \"One important characteristic was the short sentence which I occasionally inscribed on the 'readymade.'", "That sentence, instead of describing the object like a title, was meant to carry the mind of the spectator towards other regions more verbal.", "Sometimes I would add a graphic detail of presentation which in order to satisfy my craving for alliterations, would be called 'readymade aided.", "One such example of Duchamp's readymade works is the urinal that was turned onto its back, signed \"R. Mutt\", titled ''Fountain'', and submitted to the Society of Independent Artists exhibition that year, though it was not displayed.Many young artists in America embraced the theories and ideas espoused by Duchamp.", "Robert Rauschenberg in particular was very influenced by Dadaism and tended to use found objects in his collages as a means of dissolving the boundary between high and low culture." ], [ "Artists", "* Dragan Aleksić (1901–1958), Yugoslavia* Louis Aragon (1897–1982), France* Jean Arp (1886–1966), Germany, France* Sophie Taeuber-Arp (1889–1943) Switzerland, France* Johannes Baader (1875–1955) Germany* Hugo Ball (1886–1927), Germany, Switzerland* André Breton (1896–1966), France* John Covert (1882–1960), US* Jean Crotti (1878–1958), France* Otto Dix (1891–1969), Germany* Theo van Doesburg (1883–1931) Netherlands* Marcel Duchamp (1887–1968), France* Suzanne Duchamp (1889–1963), France* Paul Éluard (1895–1952), France* Max Ernst (1891–1976), Germany, US* Julius Evola (1898–1974), Italy* George Grosz (1893–1959), Germany, France, US* Raoul Hausmann (1886–1971), Germany* John Heartfield (1891–1968), Germany, USSR, Czechoslovakia, UK* Hannah Höch (1889–1978), Germany* Richard Huelsenbeck (1892–1974), Germany* Georges Hugnet (1906–1974), France* Marcel Janco (1895–1984), Romania, Israel* Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven (1874–1927), Germany, US* Clément Pansaers (1885–1922), Belgium* Francis Picabia (1879–1953), France* Man Ray (1890–1976), France, US* Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes (1884–1974), France* Hans Richter, Germany, Switzerland* Juliette Roche Gleizes (1884–1980), France* Kurt Schwitters (1887–1948), Germany* Walter Serner (1889–1942), Austria* Philippe Soupault (1897–1990), France* Tristan Tzara (1896–1963), Romania, France* Beatrice Wood (1893–1998), US" ], [ "See also", "Art intervention''Dadaglobe''List of DadaistsÉpater la bourgeoisieHappeningIncoherentsTransgressive art''Destruction Was My Beatrice'', history by Jed ResulaCorecore" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''**" ], [ "Further reading", "''The Dada Almanac'', ed.", "Richard Huelsenbeck 1920, re-edited and translated by Malcolm Green et al., Atlas Press, with texts by Hans Arp, Johannes Baader, Hugo Ball, Paul Citröen, Paul Dermée, Daimonides, Max Goth, John Heartfield, Raoul Hausmann, Richard Huelsenbeck, Vincente Huidobro, Mario D'Arezzo, Adon Lacroix, Walter Mehring, Francis Picabia, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes, Alexander Sesqui, Philippe Soupault, Tristan Tzara.", "''Blago Bung, Blago Bung'', Hugo Ball's Tenderenda, Richard Huelsenbeck's Fantastic Prayers, & Walter Serner's Last Loosening – three key texts of Zurich ur-Dada.", "Translated and introduced by Malcolm Green.", "Atlas Press, Ball, Hugo.", "''Flight Out Of Time'' (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1996)Bergius, Hanne ''Dada in Europa – Dokumente und Werke'' (co-ed.", "Eberhard Roters), in: ''Tendenzen der zwanziger Jahre''.", "15.Europäische Kunstausstellung, Catalogue, Vol.III, Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1977.", "Bergius, Hanne ''Das Lachen Dadas.", "Die Berliner Dadaisten und ihre Aktionen''.", "Gießen: Anabas-Verlag 1989.", "Bergius, Hanne ''Dada Triumphs!", "Dada Berlin, 1917–1923.Artistry of Polarities.", "Montages – Metamechanics – Manifestations''.", "Translated by Brigitte Pichon.", "Vol.", "V. of the ten editions of ''Crisis and the Arts: the History of Dada'', ed.", "by Stephen Foster, New Haven, Connecticut, Thomson/Gale 2003..Jones, Dafydd W. ''Dada 1916 In Theory: Practices of Critical Resistance'' (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2014).", "Biro, M. ''The Dada Cyborg: Visions of the New Human in Weimar Berlin''.", "Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.", "Dachy, Marc.", "Journal du mouvement Dada 1915–1923, Genève, Albert Skira, 1989 (Grand Prix du Livre d'Art, 1990)''Dada & les dadaïsmes'', Paris, Gallimard, Folio Essais, n° 257, 1994.", "''Dada : La révolte de l'art'', Paris, Gallimard / Centre Pompidou, collection \"Découvertes Gallimard\" (nº 476), 2005.", "''Archives Dada / Chronique'', Paris, Hazan, 2005.", "''Dada, catalogue d'exposition'', Centre Pompidou, 2005.", "Durozoi, Gérard.", "''Dada et les arts rebelles'', Paris, Hazan, Guide des Arts, 2005Hoffman, Irene.", "''Documents of Dada and Surrealism: Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection'' , Ryerson and Burnham Libraries, The Art Institute of Chicago.", "Hopkins, David, ''A Companion to Dada and Surrealism'', Volume 10 of Blackwell Companions to Art History, John Wiley & Sons, May 2, 2016, Huelsenbeck, Richard.", "''Memoirs of a Dada Drummer'', (University of California Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991)Jones, Dafydd.", "''Dada Culture'' (New York and Amsterdam: Rodopi Verlag, 2006)Lavin, Maud.", "''Cut With the Kitchen Knife: The Weimar Photomontages of Hannah Höch''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993.", "Lemoine, Serge.", "''Dada'', Paris, Hazan, coll.", "L'Essentiel.", "Lista, Giovanni.", "''Dada libertin & libertaire'', Paris, L'insolite, 2005.", "Melzer, Annabelle.", "1976.", "''Dada and Surrealist Performance''.", "PAJ Books ser.", "Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1994..Novero, Cecilia.", "\"Antidiets of the Avant-Garde: From Futurist Cooking to Eat Art\".", "(University of Minnesota Press, 2010)Richter, Hans.", "''Dada: Art and Anti-Art'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1965)Sanouillet, Michel.", "''Dada à Paris'', Paris, Jean-Jacques Pauvert, 1965, Flammarion, 1993, CNRS, 2005Sanouillet, Michel.", "''Dada in Paris'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2009Schneede, Uwe M. ''George Grosz, His life and work'' (New York: Universe Books, 1979)Verdier, Aurélie.", "''L'ABCdaire de Dada'', Paris, Flammarion, 2005." ], [ "Filmography", " 1968: , Documentary by Universal Education, Presented By Kartes Video Communications, 56 Minutes* 1971: , Une émission produite par Jean José Marchand, réalisée par Philippe Collin et Hubert Knapp, Ce documentaire a été diffusé pour la première fois sur la RTF le 28.03.1971, 267 min.", "* 2016: '' Das Prinzip Dada'', Documentary by , Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen (''''), 52 Minutes * 2016 , Bruno Art Group in collaboration with Cabaret Voltaire & Art Stage Singapore 2016, 27 minutes" ], [ "External links", "* Dada Companion, bibliographies, chronology, artists' profiles, places, techniques, reception*The International Dada Archive, University of Iowa, early Dada periodicals, online scans of publications Dadart, history, bibliography, documents, and news* Dada audio recordings at LTM* New York dada (magazine), Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray, April, 1921 , Bibliothèque Kandinsky, Centre Pompidou (access online)* Kunsthaus Zürich, one of the world's largest Dada collections* \"A Brief History of Dada\", ''Smithsonian Magazine''* Introduction to Dada, Khan Academy Art 1010* National Gallery of Art 2006 Dada Exhibition* Hathi Trust full-text Dadaism publications online* Collection: \"Dada and Neo-Dada\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art'''Manifestos'''Text of Hugo Ball's 1916 Dada Manifesto Text of Tristan Tzara's 1918 Dada Manifesto* Excerpts of Tristan Tzara's Dada Manifesto (1918) and Lecture on Dada (1922)* Seven Dada Manifestos by Tristan Tzara" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Debian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Debian''' (), also known as '''Debian GNU/Linux''', is a Linux distribution composed of free and open-source software and optionally non-free firmware or software developed by the community-supported Debian Project, which was established by Ian Murdock on August 16, 1993.The first version of Debian (0.01) was released on September 15, 1993, and its first stable version (1.1) was released on June 17, 1996.The Debian Stable branch is the most popular edition for personal computers and servers.Debian is also the basis for many other distributions that have different purposes, like Proxmox for servers, Ubuntu or Linux Mint for desktops, Kali for penetration testing, and Pardus and Astra for government use.Debian is one of the oldest operating systems based on the Linux kernel and, as of September 2023, the second oldest Linux distribution still in active development, only behind Slackware.", "The project is coordinated over the Internet by a team of volunteers guided by the Debian Project Leader and three foundational documents: the Debian Social Contract, the Debian Constitution, and the Debian Free Software Guidelines.", "New distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time-based freeze.In general, Debian has been developed openly and distributed freely according to some of the principles of the GNU Project and Free Software.", "Because of this, the Free Software Foundation sponsored the project from November 1994 to November 1995.However, it is no longer endorsed by GNU and the FSF due to the distribution's long-term practice of hosting non-free software repositories and, since 2022, its inclusion of non-free firmware in its installation media by default.", "On June 16, 1997, the Debian Project founded the nonprofit organization Software in the Public Interest to continue financially supporting development." ], [ "History", "=== Debian version history ===Debian distribution codenames are based on the names of characters from the ''Toy Story'' films.", "Debian's ''unstable'' trunk is named after Sid, a character who regularly destroyed his toys.=== Founding (1993–1998) ===First announced on August 16, 1993, Debian was founded by Ian Murdock, who initially called the system \"the Debian Linux Release\".", "The word \"Debian\" was formed as a portmanteau of the first name of his then-girlfriend (later ex-wife) Debra Lynn and his own first name.", "Before Debian's release, the Softlanding Linux System (SLS) had been a popular Linux distribution and the basis for Slackware.", "The perceived poor maintenance and prevalence of bugs in SLS motivated Murdock to launch a new distribution.Debian 0.01, released on September 15, 1993, was the first of several internal releases.", "Version 0.90 was the first public release, providing support through mailing lists hosted at Pixar.", "The release included the Debian Linux Manifesto, outlining Murdock's view for the new operating system.", "In it he called for the creation of a distribution to be maintained \"openly in the spirit of Linux and GNU.", "\"The Debian project released the 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995.During this time it was sponsored by the Free Software Foundation for one year.", "Ian Murdock delegated the base system, the core packages of Debian, to Bruce Perens and Murdock focused on the management of the growing project.", "The first ports to non-IA-32 architectures began in 1995, and Debian 1.1 was released in 1996.By that time and thanks to Ian Jackson, the dpkg package manager was already an essential part of Debian.In 1996, Bruce Perens assumed the project leadership.", "Perens was a controversial leader, regarded as authoritarian and strongly attached to Debian.", "He drafted a social contract and edited suggestions from a month-long discussion into the Debian Social Contract and the Debian Free Software Guidelines.", "After the FSF withdrew their sponsorship in the midst of the free software vs. open source debate, Perens initiated the creation of the legal umbrella organization Software in the Public Interest instead of seeking renewed involvement with the FSF.", "He led the conversion of the project from a.out to ELF.", "He created the BusyBox program to make it possible to run a Debian installer on a single floppy disk, and wrote a new installer.", "By the time Debian 1.2 was released, the project had grown to nearly two hundred volunteers.", "Perens left the project in 1998.Ian Jackson became the leader in 1998.Debian 2.0 introduced the second official port, m68k.", "During this time the first port to a non-Linux kernel, Debian GNU/Hurd, was started.", "On December 2, the first Debian Constitution was ratified.=== Leader election (1999–2005) ===From 1999, the project leader was elected yearly.", "The Advanced Packaging Tool was deployed with Debian 2.1.The number of applicants was overwhelming and the project established the new member process.", "The first Debian derivatives, namely Libranet, Corel Linux and Stormix's Storm Linux, were started in 1999.The 2.2 release in 2000 was dedicated to Joel Klecker, a developer who died of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.In late 2000, the project reorganized the archive with new package \"pools\" and created the ''Testing'' distribution, made up of packages considered stable, to reduce the freeze for the next release.", "In the same year, developers began holding an annual conference called DebConf with talks and workshops for developers and technical users.", "In May 2001, Hewlett-Packard announced plans to base its Linux development on Debian.In July 2002, the project released version 3.0, code-named Woody, the first release to include cryptographic software, a free licensed KDE and internationalization.", "During these last release cycles, the Debian project drew considerable criticism from the free software community because of the long time between stable releases.Some events disturbed the project while working on Sarge, as Debian servers were attacked by fire and hackers.", "One of the most memorable was the Vancouver prospectus.", "After a meeting held in Vancouver, release manager Steve Langasek announced a plan to reduce the number of supported ports to four in order to shorten future release cycles.", "There was a large reaction because the proposal looked more like a decision and because such a drop would damage Debian's aim to be \"the universal operating system\".The first version of the Debian-based Ubuntu, named \"4.10 Warty Warthog\", was released on October 20, 2004.Because it was distributed as a free download, it became one of the most popular and successful operating systems with more than \"40 million users\" according to Canonical Ltd.", "However, Murdock was critical of the differences between Ubuntu packages and Debian, stating that it leads to incompatibilities.===Sarge and later releases (2005–present)===Debian 4 (Etch), 2007The 3.1 Sarge release was made in June 2005.This release updated 73% of the software and included over 9,000 new packages.", "A new installer with a modular design, Debian-Installer, allowed installations with RAID, XFS and LVM support, improved hardware detection, made installations easier for novice users, and was translated into almost forty languages.", "An installation manual and release notes were in ten and fifteen languages respectively.", "The efforts of Skolelinux, Debian-Med and Debian-Accessibility raised the number of packages that were educational, had a medical affiliation, and ones made for people with disabilities.Iceweasel logoIn 2006, as a result of a much-publicized dispute, Mozilla software was rebranded in Debian, with Firefox forked as Iceweasel and Thunderbird as Icedove.", "The Mozilla Corporation stated that software with unapproved modifications could not be distributed under the Firefox trademark.", "Two reasons that Debian modified the Firefox software were to change non-free artwork and to provide security patches.", "In February 2016, it was announced that Mozilla and Debian had reached an agreement and Iceweasel would revert to the name Firefox; similar agreement was anticipated for Icedove/Thunderbird.A fund-raising experiment, Dunc-Tank, was created to solve the release cycle problem and release managers were paid to work full-time; in response, unpaid developers slowed down their work and the release was delayed.Debian 4.0 (Etch) was released in April 2007, featuring the x86-64 port and a graphical installer.Debian 5.0 (Lenny) was released in February 2009, supporting Marvell's Orion platform and netbooks such as the Asus Eee PC.", "The release was dedicated to Thiemo Seufer, a developer who died in a car crash.Debian 6 (Squeeze), 2011In July 2009, the policy of time-based development freezes on a two-year cycle was announced.", "Time-based freezes are intended to blend the predictability of time based releases with Debian's policy of feature based releases, and to reduce overall freeze time.", "The Squeeze cycle was going to be especially short; however, this initial schedule was abandoned.", "In September 2010, the backports service became official, providing more recent versions of some software for the stable release.Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) was released in February 2011, featuring Debian GNU/kFreeBSD as a technology preview, along with adding a dependency-based boot system, and moving problematic firmware to the non-free section.Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) was released in May 2013, featuring multiarch support.Debian 8.0 (Jessie) was released in April 2015, using systemd as the new init system.Debian 9.0 (Stretch) was released in June 2017, with nftables as a replacement for iptables, support for Flatpak apps, and MariaDB as the replacement for MySQL.Debian 10.0 (Buster) was released in July 2019, adding support for Secure Boot and enabling AppArmor by default.Debian 11.0 (Bullseye) was released in August 2021, enabling persistency in the system journal, adding support for driverless scanning, and containing kernel-level support for exFAT filesystems.Debian 12.0 (Bookworm) was released on June 10, 2023, including various improvements and features, increasing the supported Linux Kernel to version 6.1, and leveraging new \"Emerald\" artwork.Debian is still in development and new packages are uploaded to ''unstable'' every day.Debian used to be released as a very large set of CDs for each architecture, but with the release of Debian 9 (Stretch) in 2017, many of the images have been dropped from the archive but remain buildable via jigdo.Throughout Debian's lifetime, both the Debian distribution and its website have won various awards from different organizations, including ''Server Distribution of the Year'' 2011, ''The best Linux distro of 2011'', and a ''Best of the Net'' award for October 1998.On December 2, 2015, Microsoft announced that they would offer Debian GNU/Linux as an endorsed distribution on the Azure cloud platform.", "Microsoft has also added a user environment to their Windows 10 desktop operating system called Windows Subsystem for Linux that offers a Debian subset." ], [ "Features", "Debian 10 installation menu (BIOS Mode)Text version of the Debian Installer Graphical version of the Debian InstallerDebian 10 console login and welcome messageDebian has access to online repositories that contain over 51,000 packages.", "Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded and installed from the Debian repositories.", "Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer.", "Debian is a popular choice for servers, for example as the operating system component of a LAMP stack.=== Kernels ===Several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port.", "For example, the i386 port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs, and for x86-64 PCs.", "The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware lacking source code, although such firmware is available in non-free packages and alternative installation media.=== Desktop environments ===Xfce is default on CD images and non-Linux portsDebian offers CD and DVD images specifically built for Xfce, GNOME, KDE, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, and LXQt.", "MATE support was added in 2014, and Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie.", "Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker and others are available.The default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME 3 did not fit on the first CD of the set.", "The default for the version 8.0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, and back to GNOME in September 2014.=== Localization ===Several parts of Debian are translated into languages other than American English, including package descriptions, configuration messages, documentation and the website.", "The level of software localization depends on the language, ranging from the highly supported German and French to the barely translated Creek and Samoan.", "The Debian 10 installer is available in 76 languages.=== Multimedia support ===Multimedia support has been problematic in Debian regarding codecs threatened by possible patent infringements, lacking source code, or under too restrictive licenses.", "Even though packages with problems related to their distribution could go into the non-free area, software such as libdvdcss is not hosted at Debian .A notable third party repository exists, formerly named Debian-multimedia.org, providing software not present in Debian such as Windows codecs, libdvdcss and the Adobe Flash Player.", "Even though this repository is maintained by Christian Marillat, a Debian developer, it is not part of the project and is not hosted on a Debian server.", "The repository provides packages already included in Debian, interfering with the official maintenance.", "Eventually, project leader Stefano Zacchiroli asked Marillat to either settle an agreement about the packaging or to stop using the \"Debian\" name.", "Marillat chose the latter and renamed the repository to deb-multimedia.org.", "The repository was so popular that the switchover was announced by the official blog of the Debian project." ], [ "Distribution{{anchor\|Live_images}}", "Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo.", "Physical discs can also be bought from retailers.", "The full sets are made up of several discs (the amd64 port consists of 13 DVDs or 84 CDs), but only the first disc is required for installation, as the installer can retrieve software not contained in the first disc image from online repositories.Debian offers different network installation methods.", "A minimal install of Debian is available via the ''netinst'' CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base and later added software can be downloaded from the Internet.", "Another option is to boot the installer from the network.The default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy.", "This conflicts with distros (e.g., Fedora Linux), where grub version 2 is named grub2.The default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Plasma, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs.Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments.", "These ''Debian Live'' images allow users to boot from removable media and run Debian without affecting the contents of their computer.", "A full install of Debian to the computer's hard drive can be initiated from the live image environment.", "Personalized images can be built with the live-build tool for discs, USB drives and for network booting purposes.", "Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive (Live USB)." ], [ "Packages", "Package management operations can be performed with different tools available on Debian, from the lowest level command dpkg to graphical front-ends like Synaptic.", "The recommended standard for administering packages on a Debian system is the apt toolset.dpkg provides the low-level infrastructure for package management.", "The dpkg database contains the list of installed software on the current system.", "The dpkg command tool does not know about repositories.", "The command can work with local .deb package files, and information from the dpkg database.=== APT tools ===Aptitude to view Debian package details Package installed with AptitudeAn Advanced Packaging Tool (APT) allows administering an installed Debian system to retrieve and resolve package dependencies from repositories.", "APT tools share dependency information and cached packages.", "* The apt command itself is intended as an end user interface and enables some options better suited for interactive usage by default compared to more specialized APT like apt-get and apt-cache explained below.", "* apt-get and apt-cache are command tools of the standard apt package.", "apt-get installs and removes packages, and apt-cache is used for searching packages and displaying package information.", "* Aptitude is a command line tool that also offers a text-based user interface.", "The program comes with enhancements such as better search on package metadata.=== GDebi and other front-ends ===Screenshot of GDebi Package installerGDebi is an APT tool which can be used in command-line and on the GUI.", "GDebi can install a local .deb file via the command line like the dpkg command, but with access to repositories to resolve dependencies.", "Other graphical front-ends for APT include Software Center, Synaptic and Apper.GNOME Software is a graphical front-end for PackageKit, which itself can work on top of various software packaging systems.=== Repositories ===The Debian Free Software Guidelines (DFSG) define the distinctive meaning of the word \"free\" as in \"free and open-source software\".", "Packages that comply with these guidelines, usually under the GNU General Public License, Modified BSD License or Artistic License, are included inside the ''main'' area; otherwise, they are included inside the ''non-free'' and ''contrib'' areas.", "These last two areas are not distributed within the official installation media, but they can be adopted manually.Non-free includes packages that do not comply with the DFSG, such as documentation with invariant sections and proprietary software, and legally questionable packages.", "Contrib includes packages which do comply with the DFSG but fail other requirements.", "For example, they may depend on packages which are in non-free or requires such for building them.Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation have criticized the Debian project for hosting the non-free repository and because the contrib and non-free areas are easily accessible, an opinion echoed by some in Debian including the former project leader Wichert Akkerman.", "The internal dissent in the Debian project regarding the non-free section has persisted, but the last time it came to a vote in 2004, the majority decided to keep it.=== Cross-distribution package manager ===The most popular optional Linux cross-distribution package manager are graphical (front-ends) package managers.", "They are available within the official Debian Repository but are not installed by default.", "They are widely popular with both Debian users and Debian software developers who are interested in installing the most recent versions of application or using the cross-distribution package manager built-in sandbox environment.", "While at the same time remaining in control of the security.", "'''Four most popular cross-distribution package managers, sorted in alphabetical order:'''* AppImage Linux distribution-agnostic binary software deployment* Flatpak software code is owned and maintained by the not for profit Flatpak Team, with an open source LGPL-2.1-or-later license.", "* Homebrew software code is owned and maintained by its original author Max Howell, with an open source BSD 2-Clause License.", "* Snap software code is owned and maintained by the for profit Canonical Group Limited, with an open source GNU General Public License, version 3.0." ], [ "Branches", "A Debian 10.0 Buster box coverThree branches of Debian (also called ''releases'', ''distributions'' or ''suites'') are regularly maintained:* ''Stable'' is the current release and targets stable and well-tested software needs.", "''Stable'' is made by freezing ''Testing'' for a few months where bugs are fixed and packages with too many bugs are removed; then the resulting system is released as ''stable''.", "It is updated only if major security or usability fixes are incorporated.", "This branch has an optional backports service that provides more recent versions of some software.", "''Stable''s CDs and DVDs can be found in the Debian website.", "The current version of ''Stable'' is codenamed ''bookworm''.", "* ''Testing'' is the preview branch that will eventually become the next major release.", "The packages included in this branch have had some testing in ''unstable'' but they may not be fit for release yet.", "It contains newer packages than ''stable'' but older than ''unstable''.", "This branch is updated continually until it is frozen.", "''Testing''s CDs and DVDs can be found on the Debian website.", "The current version of ''Testing'' is codenamed ''trixie''.", "* ''Unstable'', always codenamed ''sid'', is the trunk.", "Packages are accepted without checking the distribution as a whole.", "This branch is usually run by software developers who participate in a project and need the latest libraries available, and by those who prefer bleeding-edge software.", "Debian does not provide full Sid installation discs, but rather a minimal ISO that can be used to install over a network connection.", "Additionally, this branch can be installed through a system upgrade from ''stable'' or ''testing''.Other branches in Debian:* ''Oldstable'' is the prior ''stable'' release.", "It is supported by the Debian Security Team until one year after a new ''stable'' is released, and since the release of Debian 6, for another 2 years through the Long Term Support project.", "Eventually, ''oldstable'' is moved to a repository for archived releases.", "Debian 11 is the current Oldstable release (since 2023-06-10).", "* ''Oldoldstable'' is the prior ''oldstable'' release.", "It is supported by the Long Term Support community.", "Eventually, ''oldoldstable'' is moved to a repository for archived releases.", "Debian 10 is the current Oldoldstable release (since 2023-06-10).", "* ''Experimental'' is a temporary staging area of highly experimental software that is likely to break the system.", "It is not a full distribution and missing dependencies are commonly found in ''unstable'', where new software without the damage chance is normally uploaded.The ''snapshot'' archive provides older versions of the branches.", "They may be used to install a specific older version of some software.=== Numbering scheme ===''Stable'' and ''oldstable'' get minor updates, called ''point releases''; , the ''stable'' release is version 11.7, released on , and the ''oldstable'' release is version 10.10.The numbering scheme for the point releases up to Debian 4.0 was to include the letter ''r'' (for ''revision'') after the main version number and then the number of the point release; for example, the latest point release of version 4.0 is 4.0r9.This scheme was chosen because a new dotted version would make the old one look obsolete and vendors would have trouble selling their CDs.From Debian 5.0, the numbering scheme of point releases was changed, conforming to the GNU version numbering standard; the first point release of Debian 5.0 was 5.0.1 instead of 5.0r1.The numbering scheme was once again changed for the first Debian 7 update, which was version 7.1.The ''r'' scheme is no longer in use, but point release announcements include a note about not throwing away old CDs." ], [ "Branding", "145x145pxDebian has two logos.", "The official logo (also known as o''pen use logo'') contains the well-known Debian ''swirl'' and best represents the visual identity of the Debian Project.", "A separate, restricted-use logo, also exists for use by the Debian Project and its members only.", "To refer to Debian, please prefer the open use logo.The Debian \"swirl\" logo was designed by Raul Silva in 1999 as part of a contest to replace the semi-official logo that had been used.", "The winner of the contest received an @Debian.org email address, and a set of Debian 2.1 install CDs for the architecture of their choice.", "Initially, the swirl was magic smoke arising from an also included bottle of an Arabian-style genie presented in black profile, but shortly after was reduced to the red smoke swirl for situations where space or multiple colours were not an option, and before long the bottle version effectively was superseded.", "There has been no official statement from the Debian project on the logo's meaning, but at the time of the logo's selection, it was suggested that the logo represented the magic smoke ( or the genie ) that made computers work.One theory about the origin of the Debian logo is that Buzz Lightyear, the chosen character for the first named Debian release, has a swirl in his chin.", "Stefano Zacchiroli also suggested that this swirl is the Debian one.", "Buzz Lightyear's swirl is a more likely candidate as the codenames for Debian are names of Toy Story characters.", "The former Debian project leader Bruce Perens used to work for Pixar and is credited as a studio tools engineer on ''Toy Story 2'' (1999)." ], [ "Hardware", "Hardware requirements are at least those of the kernel and the GNU toolsets.", "Debian's recommended system requirements depend on the level of installation, which corresponds to increased numbers of installed components: Type Minimum RAM size Recommended RAM size Minimum processor clock speed (IA-32) Hard-drive capacity Non-desktop 256 MB 512 MB 2 GB Desktop 1 GB 2 GB 1 GHz 10 GBThe real minimum memory requirements depend on the architecture and may be much less than the numbers listed in this table.", "It is possible to install Debian with 170 MB of RAM for x86-64; the installer will run in low memory mode and it is recommended to create a swap partition.", "The installer for z/Architecture requires about 20 MB of RAM, but relies on network hardware.", "Similarly, disk space requirements, which depend on the packages to be installed, can be reduced by manually selecting the packages needed.", ", no Pure Blend exists that would lower the hardware requirements easily.It is possible to run graphical user interfaces on older or low-end systems, but the installation of window managers instead of desktop environments is recommended, as desktop environments are more resource intensive.", "Requirements for individual software vary widely and must be considered, with those of the base operating environment.=== Architectures ===HP 9000 C110 PA-RISC workstation booting Debian Lenny, the official ports are:* amd64: x86-64 architecture with 64-bit userland and supporting 32-bit software* arm64: ARMv8-A architecture* armel: Little-endian ARM architecture (ARMv4T instruction set) on various embedded systems (embedded application binary interface (EABI)), although support has ended after Buster* armhf: ARM hard-float architecture (ARMv7 instruction set) requiring hardware with a floating-point unit* i386: IA-32 architecture with 32-bit userland, compatible with x86-64 machines* mips64el: Little-endian 64-bit MIPS* mipsel: Little-endian 32-bit MIPS* ppc64el: Little-endian PowerPC architecture supporting POWER7+ and POWER8 CPUs* riscv64: 64-bit RISC-V* s390x: z/Architecture with 64-bit userland, intended to replace s390Unofficial ports are available as part of the ''unstable'' distribution:* alpha: DEC Alpha architecture* hppa: HP PA-RISC architecture* hurd-i386: GNU Hurd kernel on IA-32 architecture* ia64: Intel Itanium* loong64: LoongArch* m68k: Motorola 68k architecture on Amiga, Atari, Macintosh and various embedded VME systems* powerpc: 32-bit PowerPC* ppc64: PowerPC64 architecture supporting 64-bit PowerPC CPUs with VMX* sh4: Hitachi SuperH architecture* sparc64: Sun SPARC architecture with 64-bit userland* x32: x32 ABI userland for x86-64Debian supports a variety of ARM-based NAS devices.", "The NSLU2 was supported by the installer in Debian 4.0 and 5.0, and Martin Michlmayr is providing installation tarballs since version 6.0.Other supported NAS devices are the Buffalo Kurobox Pro, GLAN Tank, Thecus N2100 and QNAP Turbo Stations.Devices based on the Kirkwood system on a chip (SoC) are supported too, such as the SheevaPlug plug computer and OpenRD products.", "There are efforts to run Debian on mobile devices, but this is not a project goal yet since the Debian Linux kernel maintainers would not apply the needed patches.", "Nevertheless, there are packages for resource-limited systems.There are efforts to support Debian on wireless access points.", "Debian is known to run on set-top boxes.", "Work is ongoing to support the AM335x processor, which is used in electronic point of service solutions.", "Debian may be customized to run on cash machines.BeagleBoard, a low-power open-source hardware single-board computer (made by Texas Instruments) has switched to Debian Linux preloaded on its Beaglebone Black board's flash.Roqos Core, manufactured by Roqos, is a x86-64 based IPS firewall router running Debian Linux." ], [ "Organization", "Debian's policies and team efforts focus on collaborative software development and testing processes.", "As a result, a new major release tends to occur every two years with revision releases that fix security issues and important problems.", "The Debian project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents:* The ''Debian Social Contract'' defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs.", "* The ''Debian Free Software Guidelines'' define the criteria for \"free software\" and thus what software is permissible in the distribution.", "These guidelines have been adopted as the basis of the Open Source Definition.", "Although this document can be considered separate, it formally is part of the Social Contract.", "* The ''Debian Constitution'' describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Project Leader, the Secretary and other roles.Debian developers are organized in a web of trust.", "There are about one thousand active Debian developers, but it is possible to contribute to the project without being an official developer.The project maintains official mailing lists and conferences for communication and coordination between developers.", "For issues with single packages and other tasks, a public bug tracking system is used by developers and end users.", "Internet Relay Chat is also used for communication among developers and to provide real time help.Debian is supported by donations made to organizations authorized by the leader.", "The largest supporter is Software in the Public Interest, the owner of the Debian trademark, manager of the monetary donations and umbrella organization for various other community free software projects.A Project Leader is elected once per year by the developers.", "The leader has special powers, but they are not absolute, and appoints delegates to perform specialized tasks.", "Delegates make decisions as they think is best, taking into account technical criteria and consensus.", "By way of a General Resolution, the developers may recall the leader, reverse a decision made by the leader or a delegate, amend foundational documents and make other binding decisions.", "The voting method is based on the Schulze method (Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping).Project leadership is distributed occasionally.", "Branden Robinson was helped by the Project Scud, a team of developers that assisted the leader, but there were concerns that such leadership would split Debian into two developer classes.", "Anthony Towns created a supplemental position, Second In Charge (2IC), that shared some powers of the leader.", "Steve McIntyre was 2IC and had a 2IC himself.One important role in Debian's leadership is that of a release manager.", "The release team sets goals for the next release, supervises the processes and decides when to release.", "The team is led by the next release managers and stable release managers.", "Release assistants were introduced in 2003.=== Developers ===The Debian Project has an influx of applicants wishing to become developers.", "These applicants must undergo a vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the project's principles, and technical competence.", "This process has become much harder throughout the years.Debian developers join the project for many reasons.", "Some that have been cited include:* Debian is their main operating system and they want to promote Debian* To improve the support for their favorite technology* They are involved with a Debian derivative* A desire to contribute back to the free-software community* To make their Debian maintenance work easierDebian developers may resign their positions at any time or, when deemed necessary, they can be expelled.", "Those who follow the retiring protocol are granted the \"emeritus\" status and they may regain their membership through a shortened new member process." ], [ "Development", " upstream ↓ packaging package ↓ upload incoming ↓ checks unstable ↓ migration testing ↓ freeze frozen ↓ release stableFlowchart of the life cycle of a Debian packageEach software package has a ''maintainer'' that may be either one person or a team of Debian developers and non-developer maintainers.", "The maintainer keeps track of upstream releases, and ensures that the package coheres with the rest of the distribution and meets the standards of quality of Debian.", "Packages may include modifications introduced by Debian to achieve compliance with Debian Policy, even to fix non-Debian specific bugs, although coordination with upstream developers is advised.The maintainer releases a new version by uploading the package to the \"incoming\" system, which verifies the integrity of the packages and their digital signatures.", "If the package is found to be valid, it is installed in the package archive into an area called the \"pool\" and distributed every day to hundreds of mirrors worldwide.", "The upload must be signed using OpenPGP-compatible software.", "All Debian developers have individual cryptographic key pairs.", "Developers are responsible for any package they upload even if the packaging was prepared by another contributor.Initially, an accepted package is only available in the ''unstable'' branch.", "For a package to become a candidate for the next release, it must migrate to the ''Testing'' branch by meeting the following:* It has been in ''unstable'' for a certain length of time that depends on the urgency of the changes.", "* It does not have \"release-critical\" bugs, except for the ones already present in ''Testing''.", "Release-critical bugs are those considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release.", "* There are no outdated versions in ''unstable'' for any release ports.", "* The migration does not break any packages in ''Testing''.", "* Its dependencies can be satisfied by packages already in ''Testing'' or by packages being migrated at the same time.", "* The migration is not blocked by a freeze.Thus, a release-critical bug in a new version of a shared library on which many packages depend may prevent those packages from entering ''Testing'', because the updated library must meet the requirements too.", "From the branch viewpoint, the migration process happens twice per day, rendering ''Testing'' in perpetual beta.Periodically, the release team publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release.", "A new release occurs after a freeze, when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the ''Testing'' branch and any other significant issues are solved.", "At that time, all packages in the ''testing'' branch become the new ''stable'' branch.", "Although freeze dates are time-based, release dates are not, which are announced by the release managers a couple of weeks beforehand.A version of a package can belong to more than one branch, usually ''testing'' and ''unstable''.", "It is possible for a package to keep the same version between stable releases and be part of ''oldstable'', ''stable'', ''testing'' and ''unstable'' at the same time.", "Each branch can be seen as a collection of pointers into the package \"pool\" mentioned above.One way to resolve the challenge of a release-critical bug in a new application version is the use of optional package managers.", "They allow software developers to use sandbox environments, while at the same time remaining in control of security.", "Another benefit of a cross-distribution package manager is that they allow application developers to directly provide updates to users without going through distributions, and without having to package and test the application separately for each distribution.=== Release cycle ===A new ''stable'' branch of Debian gets released approximately every 2 years.", "It will receive official support for about 3 years with update for major security or usability fixes.", "Point releases will be available every several months as determined by Stable Release Managers (SRM).Debian also launched its Long Term Support (LTS) project since Debian 6 (Debian Squeeze).", "For each Debian release, it will receive two years of extra security updates provided by LTS Team after its End Of Life (EOL).", "However, no point releases will be made.", "Now each Debian release can receive 5 years of security support in total.=== Security ===The Debian project handles security through public disclosure.", "Debian security advisories are compatible with the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures dictionary, are usually coordinated with other free software vendors and are published the same day a vulnerability is made public.", "There used to be a security audit project that focused on packages in the stable release looking for security bugs; Steve Kemp, who started the project, retired in 2011 but resumed his activities and applied to rejoin in 2014.The ''stable'' branch is supported by the Debian security team; ''oldstable'' is supported for one year.", "Although Squeeze is not officially supported, Debian is coordinating an effort to provide long-term support (LTS) until February 2016, five years after the initial release, but only for the IA-32 and x86-64 platforms.", "''Testing'' is supported by the ''testing'' security team, but does not receive updates in as timely a manner as ''stable''.", "''Unstable''s security is left for the package maintainers.The Debian project offers documentation and tools to harden a Debian installation both manually and automatically.", "AppArmor support is available and enabled by default since Buster.", "Debian provides an optional hardening wrapper, and does not harden all of its software by default using gcc features such as PIE and buffer overflow protection, unlike operating systems such as OpenBSD, but tries to build as many packages as possible with hardening flags.In May 2008, a Debian developer discovered that the OpenSSL package distributed with Debian and derivatives such as Ubuntu made a variety of security keys vulnerable to a random number generator attack, since only 32,767 different keys were generated.", "The security weakness was caused by changes made in 2006 by another Debian developer in response to memory debugger warnings.", "The complete resolution procedure was cumbersome because patching the security hole was not enough; it involved regenerating all affected keys and certificates.=== Value ===The cost of developing all of the packages included in Debian 5.0 Lenny (323 million lines of code) has been estimated to be about , using one method based on the COCOMO model.", ", Black Duck Open Hub estimates that the current codebase (74 million lines of code) would cost about to develop, using a different method based on the same model." ], [ "Forks and derivatives", "A large number of forks and derivatives have been built upon Debian over the years.", "Among the more notable are Ubuntu, developed by Canonical Ltd. and first released in 2004, which has surpassed Debian in popularity with desktop users; Knoppix, first released in the year 2000 and one of the first distributions optimized to boot from external storage; and Devuan, which gained attention in 2014 when it forked in disagreement over Debian's adoption of the systemd software suite, and has been mirroring Debian releases since 2017.The Linux Mint Debian Edition (''LMDE'') uses Debian Stable as the software source base since 2014.=== Derivatives and flavors ===Debian is one of the most popular Linux distributions, and many other distributions have been created from the Debian codebase.", ", DistroWatch lists 121 active Debian derivatives.", "The Debian project provides its derivatives with guidelines for best practices and encourages derivatives to merge their work back into Debian.Debian Pure Blends are subsets of a Debian release configured out-of-the-box for users with particular skills and interests.", "For example, Debian Jr. is made for children, while Debian Science is for researchers and scientists.", "The complete Debian distribution includes all available Debian Pure Blends.", "\"Debian Blend\" (without \"Pure\") is a term for a Debian-based distribution that strives to become part of mainstream Debian, and have its extra features included in future releases.====Debian GNU/Hurd====Logo of GNU HurdDebian GNU/Hurd running on XfceDebian GNU/Hurd is a flavor based on the Hurd operating system (which, in turn, runs on the GNU Mach microkernel), instead of Linux.", "Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development since 1998, and made a formal release in May 2013, with 78% of the software packaged for Debian GNU/Linux ported to the GNU Hurd.", "Hurd is not yet an official Debian release, and is maintained and developed as an unofficial port.", "Debian GNU/Hurd is distributed as an installer CD (running the official Debian installer) or ready-to-run virtual disk image (Live CD, Live USB).", "The CD uses the IA-32 architecture, making it compatible with IA-32 and x86-64 PCs.", "The current version of Debian GNU/Hurd is 2023, published in June 2023.====Debian GNU/kFreeBSD====Logo of Debian GNU/kFreeBSDDebian GNU/kFreeBSD is a discontinued Debian flavor.", "It used the FreeBSD kernel and GNU userland.", "The majority of software in Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was built from the same sources as Debian, with some kernel packages from FreeBSD.", "The ''k'' in ''kFreeBSD'' is an abbreviation for ''kernel'', which refers to the FreeBSD kernel.", "Before discontinuing the project, Debian maintained i386 and amd64 ports.", "The last version of Debian kFreeBSD was Debian 8 (Jessie) RC3.Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was created in 2002.It was included in Debian 6.0 (Squeeze) as a technology preview, and in Debian 7.0 (Wheezy) as an official port.", "Debian GNU/kFreeBSD was discontinued as an officially supported platform as of Debian 8.0.Debian developers cited OSS, pf, jails, NDIS, and ZFS as reasons for being interested in the FreeBSD kernel.", "It has not been updated since Debian 8.From July 2019, the operating system continues to be maintained unofficially.As of July 2023, the development of Debian GNU/kFreeBSD has officially terminated due to the lack of interest and developers." ], [ "See also", "* Armbian* CalyxOS* Comparison of Linux distributions* Comparison of mobile operating systems* Debian version history* List of Debian project leaders* List of open source mobile phones* Pop!_OS* PureOS* Ubuntu Touch* Mobian" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " * Debian vs Arch Linux at TechiWiki* * Fosdem 2022, 2 Years of Mobian Birth and growth of a mobile Linux distribution" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doonesbury" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Doonesbury''''' is a comic strip by American cartoonist Garry Trudeau that chronicles the adventures and lives of an array of characters of various ages, professions, and backgrounds, from the President of the United States to the title character, Michael Doonesbury, who has progressed from a college student to a youthful senior citizen over the decades.Created in \"the throes of '60s and '70s counterculture\", and frequently political in nature, ''Doonesbury'' features characters representing a range of affiliations, but the cartoon is noted for a liberal viewpoint.", "The name \"Doonesbury\" is a combination of the word ''doone'' (American prep school slang for someone who is clueless, inattentive, or careless) and the surname of Charles Pillsbury, Trudeau's roommate at Yale University.", "''Doonesbury'' is written and penciled by Garry Trudeau, then inked and lettered by an assistant, Don Carlton,then Todd Pound.", "Sunday strips are colored by George Corsillo.", "''Doonesbury'' was a daily strip through most of its existence, but since February 2014 it has run repeat strips Monday through Saturday, and new strips on Sunday." ], [ "History", "The first ''Doonesbury'' cartoon, from October 26, 1970''Doonesbury'' began as a continuation of ''Bull Tales'', which appeared in the Yale University student newspaper, the ''Yale Daily News'', from 1968 to 1970.It focused on local campus events at Yale.", "''Doonesbury'' proper debuted as a daily strip in twenty-eight newspapers on October 26, 1970 (it being the first strip from Universal Press Syndicate).", "A Sunday strip began on March 21, 1971.Many of the early strips were reprints of the ''Bull Tales'' cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots.", "B. D.'s helmet changed from having a \"Y\" (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College).", "Mike and B. D. started ''Doonesbury'' as roommates; they were not roommates in ''Bull Tales''.", "''Doonesbury'' became known for its social and political commentary.", "By the 2010s, it was syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide.In May 1975, ''Doonesbury'' became the first daily comic strip to win a Pulitzer Prize, taking the award for Editorial Cartooning.", "That year, U.S. President Gerald Ford told the Radio and Television Correspondents' Association at their annual dinner, \"There are only three major vehicles to keep us informed as to what is going on in Washington: the electronic media, the print media, and ''Doonesbury'', not necessarily in that order.", "\"A panel from the a ''Doonesbury'' \"Stonewall\" strip, referring to the Watergate scandal, from August 12, 1974; awarded the Pulitzer Prize===1983–1984 hiatus===Trudeau took a 22-month hiatus, from January 2, 1983, to September 30, 1984.Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near Walden College, which was modeled after Trudeau's alma mater, Yale.", "During the break, Trudeau helped create a Broadway musical of the strip, showing the graduation of the main characters.", "The Broadway adaptation opened at the Biltmore Theatre on November 21, 1983, and played 104 performances.", "Elizabeth Swados composed the music for Trudeau's book and lyrics.===After the hiatus===The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, with further changes having taken place after the end of the musical's plot.", "Mike, Mark, Zonker, B.D., and Boopsie were all now graduates; B.D.", "and Boopsie were living in Malibu, California, where B.D.", "was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles.", "Mark was living in Washington, D.C., working for National Public Radio.", "Michael and J.J. had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City.", "Zonker, still not ready for the \"real world\", was living with Mike and J.J. until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke's \"Baby Doc College\" in Haiti.Prior to the hiatus, the strip's characters had aged only slightly.", "But when Trudeau returned to ''Doonesbury'', the characters began to age in something close to real time, as in ''Gasoline Alley'' and ''For Better or for Worse'', Since then, the main characters' ages and career developments have tracked that of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the dot-com boom.", "Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the \"second generation\"), and occasional new characters.Garry Trudeau received the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their Reuben Award for 1995 for his work on the strip.=== ''Alpha House'' and hiatuses: 2013 ===''Doonesbury'' syndicate, Universal Uclick, announced on May 29, 2013, that the comic strip would go on hiatus from June 10 to Labor Day of that year while Garry Trudeau worked on his streaming video comedy ''Alpha House'', which was picked up by Amazon Studios.", "\"Doonesbury Flashbacks\" were offered during those weeks, but due to the unusually long hiatus, some newspapers opted to run different comic strips instead.", "Sunday strips returned as scheduled, but the daily strip's hiatus was extended until November 2013.After ''Alpha House'' was renewed for a second season in February 2014, Trudeau announced that he would now produce only Sunday strips for the foreseeable future.", "Since March 3, 2014, the strip has offered reruns starting from the very beginning of its history as opposed to the recent ones that re-run when Trudeau is on vacation.", "''Alpha House'' was cancelled in 2016, but Trudeau did not return to drawing Monday-to-Saturday strips, and continued his Sunday-only schedule.In a 2018 interview with ''Rolling Stone'', Trudeau said that while Donald Trump appears in only a limited number of strips, \"for the last two years, he's been subtext in almost all of them.", "\"=== TV special ===In 1977, Trudeau wrote a script for a 26-minute animated special, ''A Doonesbury Special'', which was produced and directed by Trudeau along with John Hubley (who died during the storyboarding stage) and Faith Hubley.", "The special was first broadcast by NBC on November 27, 1977.It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Oscar nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978.Voice actors for the special included Barbara Harris, William Sloane Coffin, Jr., Jack Gilford and Will Jordan.", "Also included were \"Stop in the Middle\" and \"I Do Believe\", two songs \"sung\" by the character Jimmy Thudpucker (actually actor/singer/songwriter/producer James Allen \"Jimmy\" Brewer), also part of the \"Special\".", "While the compositions and performances were credited to \"Jimmy Thudpucker\", they were in fact co-written and sung by Brewer, who also co-wrote and provided the vocals for \"Ginny's Song\", a 1976 single on the Warner Bros. label, and ''Jimmy Thudpucker's Greatest Hits'', an LP released by Windsong Records, John Denver's subsidiary of RCA Records." ], [ "Style", "With the exception of Walden College, Trudeau has frequently used real-life settings, based on real scenarios, but with fictional results.", "Because of lead times, real-world events have rendered some of Trudeau's comics unusable, such as a 1973 series featuring John Ehrlichman, a 1989 series set in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China, a 1993 series involving Zoë Baird, and a 2005 series involving Harriet Miers.", "Trudeau has also displayed fluency in various forms of jargon, including those of real estate agents, flight attendants, computer scientists, journalists, presidential aides, and soldiers in Iraq.===Walden College===The unnamed college attended by the main characters was later given the name \"Walden College\", revealed to be in Connecticut (the same state as Yale), and depicted as devolving into a third-rate institution under the weight of grade inflation, slipping academic standards, and the end of tenure, issues that Trudeau has consistently revisited since the original characters graduated.", "Some of the second generation of ''Doonesbury'' characters have attended Walden, a venue Trudeau uses to advance his concerns about academic standards in the United States.President King, the leader of Walden College, was originally intended as a parody of Kingman Brewster, President of Yale, but all that remains of that is a certain physical resemblance.===Use of real-life politicians as characters===Even though ''Doonesbury'' frequently features real-life U.S. politicians, they are rarely depicted with their real faces.", "Originally, strips featuring the President of the United States would show an external view of the White House, with dialogue emerging from inside.", "During the Gerald Ford administration, characters would be shown speaking to Ford at press conferences, and fictional dialogue supposedly spoken by Ford would be written as coming \"off-panel\".", "Similarly, while having several characters as students in a class taught by Henry Kissinger, the dialogue made up for Kissinger would also come from \"off-panel\" (although Kissinger had earlier appeared as a character with his face shown in a 1972 series of strips in which he met Mark Slackmeyer while the latter was on a trip to Washington).", "Sometimes hands, or in rare cases, the back of heads would also be seen.Later, personal symbols reflecting some aspect of their character came into use.", "These included:* Ronald Reagan as \"Ron Headrest,\" a computer-generated video character in imitation of Max Headroom* George H. W. Bush as a disembodied voice, indicating a lack of personality* Dan Quayle as a talking feather, both as a pun on his name and representing him as a political lightweight* Bill Clinton as a talking waffle in reference to his triangulation strategy* Newt Gingrich as a talking fragmentation bomb, referring to his reputation as a political bomb-thrower* White nationalist David Duke as a talking swastika* George W. Bush initially as a disembodied voice wearing a Stetson hat, since he had been Governor of Texas.", "After his controversial election the voice became an asterisk, and during the War on Terror the hat was replaced with a Roman military helmet that grew increasingly worn.", "* Arnold Schwarzenegger as a large hand due to accusations that he had groped womenThe long career of the series and continual use of real-life political figures, analysts note, have led to some uncanny cases of the cartoon foreshadowing a national shift in the politicians' political fortunes.", "Tina Gianoulis in ''St.", "James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture'' observes that \"In 1971, well before the conservative Reagan years, a forward-looking B.D.", "called Ronald Reagan his 'hero'.", "In 1984, almost ten years before Congressman Newt Gingrich became Speaker of the House, another character worried that he would 'wake up someday in a country run by Newt Gingrich.", "In its 2003 series \"John Kerry: A Candidate in the Making\" on the 2004 presidential race, ''The Boston Globe'' reprinted and discussed 1971 ''Doonesbury'' cartoons of the young Kerry's Vietnam War protest speeches." ], [ "Characters", "''Doonesbury'' has a large group of recurring characters, with 24 currently listed at the strip's website.", "There, it notes that \"readers new to ''Doonesbury'' sometimes experience a temporary bout of character shock\", as the sheer number of characters (and the historical connections among them) can be overwhelming.The main characters are a group who attended the fictional Walden College during the strip's first 12 years, and moved into a commune together in April 1972.Most of the other characters first appeared as family members, friends, or other acquaintances.", "The original Walden Commune residents were Mike Doonesbury, Zonker Harris, Mark Slackmeyer, Nichole, Bernie, and DiDi.", "In September 1972, Joanie Caucus joined the comic, meeting Mike and Mark in Colorado and eventually moving into the commune.", "They were later joined by B.D.", "and his girlfriend (later wife) Boopsie, upon B.D.", "'s return from Vietnam.", "Nichole, DiDi, and Bernie were mostly phased out in subsequent years, and Zonker's Uncle Duke was introduced as the most prominent character outside the Walden group, and the main link to many secondary characters.The Walden students graduated in 1983, after which the strip began to progress in something closer to real time.", "Their spouses and developing families became more important after this: Joanie's daughter J.J. Caucus married Mike and they had a daughter, Alex Doonesbury.", "They divorced, Mike married Kim Rosenthal, a Vietnamese refugee (who had appeared in the strip as a baby adopted by a Jewish family just after the fall of Saigon; see Operation Babylift), and J.J. married Zeke Brenner, her former boyfriend and Uncle Duke's former groundskeeper.", "Joanie married Rick Redfern, and they had a son, Jeff.", "Uncle Duke and Roland Hedley have also appeared often, frequently in more topical settings unconnected to the main characters.", "In more recent years the second generation has taken prominence as they have grown to college age: Jeff Redfern, Alex Doonesbury, Zonker's nephew Zipper Harris, and Uncle Duke's son Earl." ], [ "Controversial strips and groundbreaking moments", "''Doonesbury'' has covered numerous political and social issues, some of which were pioneering and others that drew criticism:===1970s===* A November 1972 Sunday strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the protagonist being awarded \"his weight in fine, uncut Turkish hashish\" raised an uproar.", "* During the Watergate scandal, a strip showed Mark on the radio with a \"Watergate profile\" of John Mitchell, declaring him \"Guilty!", "Guilty, guilty, guilty\" A number of newspapers removed the strip and one, ''The Washington Post'', ran an editorial criticizing the cartoon.", "Following Richard Nixon's death in 1994, the strip was rerun with all the instances of the word \"guilty\" crossed out and replaced with \"flawed\".", "* In June 1973, the military newspaper ''Stars and Stripes'' dropped ''Doonesbury'' for being too political.", "The strip was quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by military readers.", "* September 1973: ''The Lincoln Journal'' became the first newspaper to move ''Doonesbury'' to its editorial page.", "* In February 1976, a storyline included the character Andy Lippincott saying that he was gay.", "Dozens of papers opted not to publish the storyline, with ''Miami Herald'' editor Larry Jinks saying, \"We just decided we weren't ready for homosexuality in a comic strip.", "\"* In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed, marking the first time any nationally run comic strip portrayed premarital sex in this fashion.", "The strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers, although some newspapers opted to simply repeat the opening frame of that day's strip.", "* In June 1978, a strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean lobbyists, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office.===1980s===* In June 1985, a strip featuring Aniello Dellacroce and Frank Sinatra together, which referred to Dellacroce as an \"alleged human\" who has been charged with murder led to several papers dropping the strip and a statement from Sinatra.", "In December 1988, the ''Winston-Salem Journal'' dropped a Sunday strip featuring the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company (in which a prospective executive cannot deny the link between smoking and cancer without bursting out laughing) because \"it would be personally offensive to its employees.\"", "It was the first time the strip had been pulled in deference to a corporation.", " In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, because the humor of the strips was considered in bad taste in light of the violent crackdown on protesters in Tiananmen Square in Beijing.", "Trudeau himself asked for the recall, despite an interview published with Universal Press Syndicate Editorial Director Lee Salem in the May 28, 1989, ''San Jose Mercury News'', in which Salem stated his hopes the strips could still be used.===1990s===* In November 1991, a series of strips appeared to give credibility to a real-life prison inmate who falsely stated that former Vice President Dan Quayle had connections with drug dealers.", "The strip sequence was dropped by some two dozen newspapers, in part because the allegations had been investigated and dispelled previously.", "Six years later, the reporter who broke the Quayle story, some weeks after the ''Doonesbury'' cartoons, later published a book saying he no longer believed the story had been true.", "* In November 1993, a storyline dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers, including the ''Los Angeles Times'', ''The Orange County Register'', and ''The San Diego Union-Tribune''.", "* In June 1994, the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book ''Same-Sex Unions in Pre-Modern Europe'' by John Boswell.", "A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the Bloomington, Illinois, ''Pantagraph'' refused to run the entire series.", "* In March 1995, John McCain denounced Trudeau on the floor of the Senate: \"Suffice it to say that I hold Trudeau in utter contempt.\"", "This was in response to a strip about Bob Dole's strategy of exploiting his war record during his presidential campaign.", "The quotation was used on the cover of Trudeau's book ''Doonesbury Nation''.", "McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to ''The Long Road Home'', Trudeau's collection of comic strips dealing with character B.D.", "'s leg amputation during the second Iraq war.", "* In February 1998, a strip dealing with Bill Clinton's sex scandal was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases \"oral sex\" and \"semen-streaked dress\".===2000s===* In November 2000, a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke said of presidential candidate George W. Bush: \"He's got a history of alcohol abuse and cocaine.", "\"* In September 2001, a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed George W. Bush had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of Bill Clinton.", "When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized \"with a trademark barb – he said he deeply apologized for unsettling anyone who thought the president quite intelligent.", "\"* In 2003, a cartoon that publicized the recent medical research suggesting a connection between masturbation and a reduced risk of prostate cancer, with one character alluding to the practice as \"self-dating\", was not run in many papers; pre-publication sources indicated that as many as half of the 700 papers to which it was syndicated were planning not to run the strip.", "* In February 2004, Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of $10,000 (to the USO in the winner's name) for anyone who could personally confirm that George W. Bush was actually present during any part of his service in the National Guard.", "Reuters and CNN reported by the end of that week that despite 1,300 responses, no credible evidence had been offered.", "An FAQ posted on the ''Doonesbury'' site in September of that year noted that the submissions, while \"surreally entertaining\", had failed to provide a single definitive corroborator, adding that Trudeau had donated the $10,000 to the USO anyway.", "* April 2004: On April 21, after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.", "'s head without some sort of helmet.", "In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the Iraq War.", "Two days later, on April 23, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D.", "exclaims \"SON OF A '''BITCH'''\" The single strip was removed from many papers—including ''The Boston Globe''—although in others, such as ''Newsday'', the offending word was replaced by a line.", "''The Dallas Morning News'' ran the cartoon uncensored, with a footnote that the editor believed profanity was appropriate, given the subject matter.", "An image of B.D.", "with an amputated leg also appeared on the cover of ''Rolling Stone'' that summer (issue 954).", "* In June 2005, Trudeau published ''The Long Road Home'', a book devoted to B.D.", "'s recovery from his loss of a leg in Iraq.", "Although Trudeau opposed the Iraq War, the foreword was written by Senator John McCain, a supporter of the war.", "McCain was impressed by Trudeau's desire to highlight the struggle of seriously wounded veterans, and his desire to assist them.", "Proceeds from the book, and its sequel ''The War Within'' benefited Fisher House.", "* July 2005: Several newspapers declined to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser Karl Rove as \"Turd Blossom\", a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove.", "* In September 2005 when ''The Guardian'' relaunched in a smaller format, ''Doonesbury'' was dropped for reasons of space.", "After a flood of protests, the strip was reinstated with an omnibus covering the issues missed and a full apology.", "* The strips scheduled to run from October 31 to November 5, 2005, and a Sunday strip scheduled for November 13 about the nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court were withdrawn after her nomination was withdrawn.", "The strips have been posted on the official website, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate.", "* Trudeau sought input from readers as to where Alex Doonesbury should attend college in a May 15, 2006, straw poll at Doonesbury.com.", "Voters chose among MIT, Rensselaer, and Cornell.", "Students from Rensselaer and then MIT hacked the system, which was designed to limit each computer to one vote.", "In the end, voters logged 175,000 votes, with MIT grabbing 48% of the total.", "The Doonesbury Town Hall FAQ stated that given that the rules of the poll had not ruled out such methods, \"the will, chutzpah, and bodacious craft of the voting public will be respected\", declaring that Alex will be attending MIT.", "* Before the 2008 presidential election, Trudeau sent out strips to run in the days after the election in which Barack Obama was portrayed as the winner.", "Newspapers were also provided with old strips as an alternative.", "When asked whether he created the original strip with complete confidence in an Obama victory, Trudeau replied: \"Nope, more like rational risk assessment.", "Nate Silver at Fivethirtyeight.com is now giving McCain a 3.7% chance of winning – pretty comfortable odds.", "Here's the way I look at it: If Obama wins, I'm in the flow and commenting on a phenomenon.", "If he loses, it'll be a massive upset, and the goofy misprediction of a comic strip will be pretty much lost in the uproar.", "I figure I can survive a little egg on my face.\"", "In response, McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds said, \"We hope the strip proves to be as predictive as it is consistently lame.", "\"===2010s===* The sequence for the week of March 12–17, 2012, lampooning the changes in abortion law in several states was pulled or moved to the editorial page by a number of newspapers.", "* In 2014, the site at doonesbury.com moved under washingtonpost.com, and now it redirects to the latter." ], [ "Criticism", "Charles M. Schulz of ''Peanuts'' called Trudeau \"unprofessional\" for taking a long sabbatical.", "(See also, similar comments by Schulz about sabbaticals taken by Bill Watterson.)", "Nor was the return of the strip itself greeted with universal acclaim; in 1985, ''Saturday Review'' listed Trudeau as one of the country's \"Most Overrated People in American Arts and Letters\", commenting that the \"most publicized return since MacArthur's has produced a strip that is predictable, mean-spirited, and not as funny as before.", "\"''Doonesbury'' has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years.", "A 1984 series of strips showing Vice President George H. W. Bush placing his manhood in a blind trust—in parody of Bush's use of that financial instrument to fend off concerns that his governmental decisions would be influenced by his investment holdings—brought the politician to complain, \"''Doonesbury'' carrying water for the opposition.", "Trudeau is coming out of deep left field.", "\"Some conservatives have intensely criticized ''Doonesbury''.", "Several examples are cited in the Milestones section of the strip's website.", "The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication.", "For example, when Lacey Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits called the strip blasphemous.", "The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack was run in November 1986.Liberal politicians skewered by Trudeau in the strip have also complained, including Democrats such as former U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill and California Governor Jerry Brown.Strips about post-World War II American wars have also generated controversy, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars.After many letter-writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics.", "In 2005, Continental Features refused to continue printing the Sunday ''Doonesbury'', causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed.", "Of the 38, only one newspaper, ''The Anniston Star'' in Anniston, Alabama, continued to carry the Sunday ''Doonesbury'', though of necessity in black and white.Some newspapers have dealt with the criticism by moving the strip from the comics page to the editorial page, because many people believe that a politically based comic strip like ''Doonesbury'' does not belong in a traditionally child-friendly comics section.", "The ''Lincoln Journal'' started the trend in 1973.In some papers (such as the ''Tulsa World'' and ''Orlando Sentinel'') ''Doonesbury'' appears on the opinions page alongside ''Mallard Fillmore'', a politically conservative comic strip." ], [ "Awards and honors", "* In 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored.", "The Editorial Cartoonists' Society subsequently passed a resolution condemning the Pulitzer Committee.", "(After being assured that the award was irrevocable, Trudeau supported the resolution.)", "''Doonesbury'' was also a Nominated Pulitzer Finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005.", "* In 1977, the short film ''A Doonesbury Special'' won the Grand Jury Prize from the Cannes Film Festival.", "It was nominated for the Palme d'Or for \"Best Short Film\".", "It was also nominated for an Academy Award.", "* Trudeau received Certificates of Achievement from the US Army 4th Battalion 67th Armor Regiment and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War.", "The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection ''Welcome to Club Scud!", "''* Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1995.", "* Trudeau was awarded the US Army's Commander's Award for Public Service in 2006 for his series of strips about B.D.", "'s recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq.", "* In 2008, Trudeau received the Mental Health Research Advocacy Award from the Yale School of Medicine for his depiction of the mental-health issues facing soldiers upon returning home from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars.", "* In 2020, Trudeau was inducted into the New York State Writers Hall of Fame." ], [ "See also", "* List of published collections of ''Doonesbury''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Trudeau, Garry, ''Doonesbury Flashbacks'' CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows.", "Published by Mindscape, 1995.", "* NCS Awards" ], [ "External links", "* ''Doonesbury'' home page* ''Doonesbury''—The Sandbox-Military Blog* ''Doonesbury'': Drawing and Quartering for Fun and Profit—''Time'' article from February 9, 1976* * Garry Trudeau Papers.", "Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dice" ], [ "Introduction", "Four traditional dice showing all six different sides.Dice of different sizes being thrown in slow motion.", "'''Dice''' (: '''die''' or '''dice''') are small, throwable objects with marked sides that can rest in multiple positions.", "They are used for generating random values, commonly as part of tabletop games, including dice games, board games, role-playing games, and games of chance.A traditional die is a cube with each of its six faces marked with a different number of dots (pips) from one to six.", "When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing a random integer from one to six on its upper surface, with each value being equally likely.", "Dice may also have polyhedral or irregular shapes, may have faces marked with numerals or symbols instead of pips and may have their numbers carved out from the material of the dice instead of marked on it.", "Loaded dice are designed to favor some results over others for cheating or entertainment." ], [ "History", "Roman die, found in Leicestershire, EnglandDice have been used since before recorded history, and it is uncertain where they originated.", "It is theorized that dice developed from the practice of fortune-telling with the talus of hoofed animals, colloquially known as knucklebones.", "The Egyptian game of senet (played before 3000 BCE and up to the 2nd century CE) was played with flat two-sided throwsticks which indicated the number of squares a player could move, and thus functioned as a form of dice.", "Perhaps the oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800 and 2500 BCE.", "Bone dice from Skara Brae, Scotland have been dated to 3100–2400 BCE.", "Excavations from graves at Mohenjo-daro, an Indus Valley civilization settlement, unearthed terracotta dice dating to 2500–1900 BCE, including at least one die whose opposite sides all add up to seven, as in modern dice.Games involving dice are mentioned in the ancient Indian ''Rigveda'', ''Atharvaveda,'' ''Mahabharata'' and Buddhist games list.", "There are several biblical references to \"casting lots\" ( ''yappîlū ḡōrāl''), as in Psalm 22, indicating that dicing (or a related activity) was commonplace when the psalm was composed.", "Knucklebones was a game of skill played in ancient Greece; a derivative form had the four sides of bones receive different values like modern dice.Roman wall painting showing two dice-players, Pompeii, 1st centuryAlthough gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as ''aleam ludere'' (\"to play at dice\").", "There were two sizes of Roman dice.", "''Tali'' were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides.", "''Tesserae'' were smaller dice with sides numbered from one to six.", "Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century CE and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BCE.Dominoes and playing cards originated in China as developments from dice.", "The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE), and coincides with the technological transition from rolls of manuscripts to block printed books.", "In Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku.", "There are two types of sugoroku.", "''Ban-sugoroku'' is similar to backgammon and dates to the Heian period (794–1185 CE), while ''e-sugoroku'' is a racing game.File:Knuck dice Steatite 37x27x21 mm.JPG\|Knucklebones die, made of soapstoneFile:Twenty-sided die (icosahedron) with faces inscribed with Greek letters MET 10.130.1158 001.jpg\|Twenty-sided serpentinite die from Ptolemaic EgyptFile:Roman dice IMG 4367.JPG\|Roman dieFile:historical dice.jpg\|A collection of historical dice from various regions of Asia" ], [ "Use", "Dice are thrown onto a surface either from the hand or from a container designed for this (such as a cup, tray, or tower).", "The face (or corner, in cases such as tetrahedral dice, or edge, for odd-numbered long dice) of the die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw.", "The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics (although luck is often credited for the results of a roll).", "A die roll is made random by uncertainty in minor factors such as tiny movements in the thrower's hand; they are thus a crude form of hardware random number generator.", "One typical contemporary dice game is craps, where two dice are thrown simultaneously and wagers are made on the total value of the two dice.", "Dice are frequently used to introduce randomness into board games, where they are often used to decide the distance through which a piece will move along the board (as in backgammon and ''Monopoly'')." ], [ "Construction", "===Arrangement===Chirality of dice.", "Faces may be placed counterclockwise (top) ''or'' clockwise.Common dice are small cubes, most often across, whose faces are numbered from one to six, usually by patterns of round dots called pips.", "(While the use of Arabic numerals is occasionally seen, such dice are less common.", ")Opposite sides of a modern die traditionally add up to seven, requiring the 1, 2, and 3 faces to share a vertex.", "The faces of a die may be placed clockwise or counterclockwise about this vertex.", "If the 1, 2, and 3 faces run counterclockwise, the die is called \"right-handed\".", "If those faces run clockwise, the die is called \"left-handed\".", "Western dice are normally right-handed, and Chinese dice are normally left-handed.The pips on standard six-sided dice are arranged in specific patterns as shown.", "Asian style dice bear similar patterns to Western ones, but the pips are closer to the center of the face; in addition, the pips are differently sized on Asian style dice, and the pips are colored red on the 1 and 4 sides.", "Red fours may be of Indian origin.File:Die Faces.svg\|Typical facets showing the more compact pip arrangement of an Asian-style die (top) vs. a Western-style die (bottom)===Manufacturing===Western, Asian, and casino diceNon-precision dice are manufactured via the plastic injection molding process, often made of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA).", "The pips or numbers on the die are a part of the mold.", "Different pigments can be added to the dice to make them opaque or transparent, or multiple pigments may be added to make the dice speckled or marbled.The coloring for numbering is achieved by submerging the die entirely in paint, which is allowed to dry.", "The die is then polished via a tumble finishing process similar to rock polishing.", "The abrasive agent scrapes off all of the paint except for the indents of the numbering.", "A finer abrasive is then used to polish the die.", "This process also produces the smoother, rounded edges on the dice.Precision casino dice may have a polished or sand finish, making them transparent or translucent respectively.", "Casino dice have their pips drilled, then filled flush with a paint of the same density as the material used for the dice, such that the center of gravity of the dice is as close to the geometric center as possible.", "This mitigates concerns that the pips will cause a small bias.", "All such dice are stamped with a serial number to prevent potential cheaters from substituting a die.", "Precision backgammon dice are made the same way; they tend to be slightly smaller and have rounded corners and edges, to allow better movement inside the dice cup and stop forceful rolls from damaging the playing surface.===Etymology and terms===The word die comes from Old French ''dé''; from Latin ''datum'' \"something which is given or played\".While the terms ''ace'', ''deuce'', ''trey'', ''cater'', ''cinque'' and ''sice'' are generally obsolete, with the names of the numbers preferred, they are still used by some professional gamblers to designate different sides of the dice.", "''Ace'' is from the Latin ''as'', meaning \"a unit\"; the others are 2 to 6 in Old French.When rolling two dice, certain combinations have slang names.", "The term ''snake eyes'' is a roll of one pip on each die.", "The ''Online Etymology Dictionary'' traces use of the term as far back as 1919.The US term ''boxcars'', also known as ''midnight'', is a roll of six pips on each die.", "The pair of six pips resembles a pair of boxcars on a freight train.", "Many rolls have names in the game of craps.===Unicode representation=== Symnol ⚀ ⚁ ⚂ ⚃ ⚄ ⚅ 🎲 Unicode U+2680 U+2681 U+2682 U+2683 U+2684 U+2685 U+1F3B2 Decimal Using Unicode characters, the faces can be shown in text using the range U+2680 to U+2685 or using decimal ⚀ to ⚅, and the emoji using U+1F3B2 or 🎲 from the Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block." ], [ "Loaded dice", "A loaded, weighted, cheat, or crooked die is one that has been tampered with so that it will land with a specific side facing upwards more often or less often than a fair die would.", "There are several methods for making loaded dice, including rounded faces, off-square faces, and weights.", "Casinos and gambling halls frequently use transparent cellulose acetate dice as tampering is easier to detect than with opaque dice." ], [ "Variants", "===Polyhedral dice===A typical set of polyhedral dice in various colors.", "They consist of the five Platonic solids, along with a ten-sided die that is also used for generating percentages.Various shapes like two-sided or four-sided dice are documented in archaeological findings; for example, from Ancient Egypt and the Middle East.", "While the cubical six-sided die became the most common type in many parts of the world, other shapes were always known, like 20-sided dice in Ptolemaic and Roman times.", "The modern tradition of using ''sets'' of polyhedral dice started around the end of the 1960s when non-cubical dice became popular among players of wargames, and since have been employed extensively in role-playing games and trading card games.", "Dice using both the numerals 6 and 9, which are reciprocally symmetric through rotation, typically distinguish them with a dot or underline.====Common variations====Dice are often sold in sets, matching in color, of six different shapes.", "Five of the dice are shaped like the Platonic solids, whose faces are regular polygons.", "Aside from the cube, the other four Platonic solids have 4, 8, 12, and 20 faces, allowing for those number ranges to be generated.", "The only other common non-cubical die is the 10-sided die, a pentagonal trapezohedron die, whose faces are ten kites, each with two different edge lengths, three different angles, and two different kinds of vertices.", "Such sets frequently include a second 10-sided die either of contrasting color or numbered by tens, allowing the pair of 10-sided dice to be combined to generate numbers between 1 and 100.Using these dice in various ways, games can closely approximate a variety of probability distributions.", "For instance, 10-sided dice can be rolled in pairs to produce a uniform distribution of random percentages, and summing the values of multiple dice will produce approximations to normal distributions.", "Unlike other common dice, a four-sided (tetrahedral) die does not have a side that faces upward when it is at rest on a surface, so it must be read in a different way.", "On some four-sided dice, each face features multiple numbers, with the same number printed near each vertex on all sides.", "In this case, the number around the vertex pointing up is used.", "Alternatively, the numbers on a tetrahedral die can be placed at the middles of the edges, in which case the numbers around the base are used.Normally, the faces on a die will be placed so opposite faces will add up to one more than the number of faces.", "(This is not possible with 4-sided dice and dice with an odd number of faces.)", "Some dice, such as those with 10 sides, are usually numbered sequentially beginning with 0, in which case the opposite faces will add to one less than the number of faces.Some twenty-sided dice have a different arrangement used for the purpose of keeping track of an integer that counts down, such as health points.", "These ''spindown dice'' are arranged such that adjacent integers appear on adjacent faces, allowing the user to easily find the next lower number.", "They are commonly used with collectible card games.", "Faces/Sides Shape Notes 4 Tetrahedron Tetrahedron Each face has three numbers, arranged such that the upright number, placed either near the vertex or near the opposite edge, is the same on all three visible faces.", "The upright numbers represent the value of the roll.", "This die does not roll well and thus it is usually thrown into the air instead.", "6 Cube Cube A common die.", "The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 7.8 Octahedron Octahedron Each face is triangular and the die resembles two square pyramids attached base-to-base.", "Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.10 Pentagonal trapezohedron Pentagonal trapezohedron Each face is a kite.", "The die has two sharp corners, where five kites meet, and ten blunter corners, where three kites meet.", "The ten faces usually bear numbers from zero to nine, rather than one to ten (zero being read as \"ten\" in many applications).", "Often all odd numbered faces converge at one sharp corner, and the even ones at the other.", "The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 9 (if numbered 0–9) or 11 (if numbered 1–10).", "12 Dodecahedron Dodecahedron Each face is a regular pentagon.", "The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is usually 13.20 Icosahedron Icosahedron Faces are equilateral triangles.", "Icosahedra have been found dating to Roman/Ptolemaic times, but it is not known if they were used as gaming dice.", "Modern dice with 20 sides are sometimes numbered 0–9 twice as an alternative to 10-sided dice.", "The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is 21 if numbered 1–20.====Rarer variations====Dice collection: D2–D22, D24, D26, D28, D30, D36, D48, D50, D60 and D100.", "\"Uniform fair dice\" are dice where all faces have equal probability of outcome due to the symmetry of the die as it is face-transitive.", "In addition to the Platonic solids, these theoretically include:* Catalan solids, the duals of the 13 Archimedean solids: 12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides* Trapezohedra, the duals of the infinite set of antiprisms, with kite faces: any even number not divisible by 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 6* Bipyramids, the duals of the infinite set of prisms, with triangle faces: any multiple of 4 (so that a face will face up), starting from 8* Disphenoids, an infinite set of tetrahedra made from congruent non-regular triangles: 4 sides.", "This is a less symmetric tetrahedron than the Platonic tetrahedron, but still sufficiently symmetrical to be face-transitive.", "Similarly, pyritohedra and tetartoids are less symmetrical but still face-transitive dodecahedra: 12 sides.Two other types of polyhedra are technically not face-transitive, but are still fair dice due to symmetry:* antiprisms: the basis of barrel dice* prisms: the basis of long dice and teetotumsLong dice and teetotums can in principle be made with any number of faces, including odd numbers.", "Long dice are based on the infinite set of prisms.", "All the rectangular faces are mutually face-transitive, so they are equally probable.", "The two ends of the prism may be rounded or capped with a pyramid, designed so that the die cannot rest on those faces.", "4-sided long dice are easier to roll than tetrahedra, and are used in the traditional board games dayakattai and daldøs.", "Faces/sides Shape Image Notes 1 Möbius strip or sphere 48px Most commonly a joke die, this is either a sphere with a 1 marked on it or shaped like a Möbius strip.", "2 Flat Cylinder or Flat Prism48x48px A coin flip.", "Some coins with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other are available, but most simply use a common coin.", "3 Rounded-off triangular prism 48px A long die intended to be rolled lengthwise.", "When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards.", "On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3).", "The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll.", "4 Capped 4-sided long die 48px A long die intended to be rolled lengthwise.", "It cannot stand on end as the ends are capped.", "5 Triangular prism 48px A prism that is thin enough to land either on its \"edge\" or \"face\".", "When landing on an edge, the result is displayed by digits (2–4) close to the prism's top edge.", "The triangular faces are labeled with the digits 1 and 5.Note that this design is not isohedral.", "Capped 5-sided long die 48px Five-faced long die for the Korean Game of Dignitaries; notches indicating values are cut into the edges, since in an odd-faced long die these land uppermost.", "6 Capped 6-sided long die 48px Two six-faced long dice are used to simulate the activity of scoring runs and taking wickets in the game of cricket.", "Originally played with labelled six-sided pencils, and often referred to as pencil cricket.", "7 Pentagonal prism 48px Similar in constitution to the 5-sided die.", "Seven-sided dice are used in a seven-player variant of backgammon.", "Seven-sided dice are described in the 13th century ''Libro de los juegos'' as having been invented by Alfonso X in order to speed up play in chess variants.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with seven landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "9 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with nine landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "10 Decahedron 48px A ten-sided die made by truncating two opposite vertices of an octahedron.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "11 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with eleven landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "12 Rhombic dodecahedron 48px Each face is a rhombus.", "13 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with thirteen landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "14 Heptagonal trapezohedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "Truncated octahedron 48px A Truncated octahedron.", "Each face is either a square or a hexagon.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with fourteen landing positions.", "The design is based on the cuboctahedron.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "15 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with fifteen landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "16 Octagonal bipyramid 48px Each face is an isosceles triangle.", "17 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with seventeen landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "18 Rounded rhombicuboctahedron 48px Eighteen faces are squares.", "The eight triangular faces are rounded and cannot be landed on.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "19 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with nineteen landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "21 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with twenty-one landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "22 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with twenty-two landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "24 Triakis octahedron 48px Each face is an isosceles triangle.", "Tetrakis hexahedron 48px Each face is an isosceles triangle.", "Deltoidal icositetrahedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "Pseudo-deltoidal icositetrahedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "Pentagonal icositetrahedron 48px Each face is an irregular pentagon.", "26 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with twenty-six landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "28 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with twenty-eight landing positions.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "30 Rhombic triacontahedron 48px Each face is a rhombus.", "32 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with thirty-two landing positions.", "The design is similar to that of a truncated icosahedron.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "34 Heptadecagonal trapezohedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "36 Truncated sphere 48px A truncated sphere with thirty-six landing positions.", "Rows of spots are present above and below each number 1 through 36 so that this die can be used to roll two six-sided dice simultaneously.", "Note that this design is not isohedral.", "48 Disdyakis dodecahedron 48px Each face is a scalene triangle.", "50 Icosipentagonal trapezohedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "60 Deltoidal hexecontahedron 48px Each face is a kite.", "Pentakis dodecahedron 48px Each face is an isosceles triangle.", "Pentagonal hexecontahedron 48px Each face is an irregular pentagon.", "Triakis icosahedron 48px Each face is an isosceles triangle.", "100 Zocchihedron 48px A sphere containing another sphere with 100 facets flattened into it.", "Note that this design is not isohedral; it does not function as a uniform fair die as some results are more likely than others.", "120 Disdyakis triacontahedron 48px Each face is a scalene triangle.===Non-numeric dice===Fudge diceThe faces of most dice are labelled using sequences of whole numbers, usually starting at one, expressed with either pips or digits.", "However, there are some applications that require results other than numbers.", "Examples include letters for Boggle, directions for ''Warhammer Fantasy Battle'', Fudge dice, playing card symbols for poker dice, and instructions for sexual acts using sex dice.===Alternatively-numbered dice===Dice may have numbers that do not form a counting sequence starting at one.", "One variation on the standard die is known as the \"average\" die.", "These are six-sided dice with sides numbered 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, which have the same arithmetic mean as a standard die (3.5 for a single die, 7 for a pair of dice), but have a narrower range of possible values (2 through 5 for one, 4 through 10 for a pair).", "They are used in some table-top wargames, where a narrower range of numbers is required.", "Other numbered variations include Sicherman dice and intransitive dice.===Spherical dice===A spherical dieA die can be constructed in the shape of a sphere, with the addition of an internal cavity in the shape of the dual polyhedron of the desired die shape and an internal weight.", "The weight will settle in one of the points of the internal cavity, causing it to settle with one of the numbers uppermost.", "For instance, a sphere with an octahedral cavity and a small internal weight will settle with one of the 6 points of the cavity held downwards by the weight." ], [ "Applications", "''Playing Dice'' by Master Jean de Mauléon (c. 1520)Many board games use dice to randomize how far pieces move or to settle conflicts.", "Typically, this has meant that rolling higher numbers is better.", "Some games, such as ''Axis & Allies'', have inverted this system by making the lower values more potent.", "In the modern age, a few games and game designers have approached dice in a different way by making each side of the die similarly valuable.", "In ''Castles of Burgundy'', players spend their dice to take actions based on the die's value.", "In this game, a six is not better than a one, or vice versa.", "In ''Quarriors'' (and its descendant, ''Dicemasters''), different sides of the dice can offer completely different abilities.", "Several sides often give resources while others grant the player useful actions.Dice can be used for divination and using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy.", "A pair of common dice is usual, though other forms of polyhedra can be used.", "Tibetan Buddhists sometimes use this method of divination.", "It is highly likely that the Pythagoreans used the Platonic solids as dice.", "They referred to such dice as \"the dice of the gods\" and they sought to understand the universe through an understanding of geometry in polyhedra.Typical role-playing dice, showing a variety of colors and styles.", "Note the older hand-inked green 12-sided die (showing an 11), manufactured before pre-inked dice were common.", "Many players collect or acquire a large number of mixed and unmatching dice.Polyhedral dice are commonly used in role-playing games.", "The fantasy role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons'' (D&D) is largely credited with popularizing dice in such games.", "Some games use only one type, like ''Exalted'' which uses only ten-sided dice.", "Others use numerous types for different game purposes, such as D&D, which makes use of all common polyhedral dice.", "Dice are usually used to determine the outcome of events.", "Games typically determine results either as a total on one or more dice above or below a fixed number, or a certain number of rolls above a certain number on one or more dice.", "Due to circumstances or character skill, the initial roll may have a number added to or subtracted from the final result, or have the player roll extra or fewer dice.", "To keep track of rolls easily, dice notation is frequently used.Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination; the first die represents the planets, the Sun, the Moon, and the nodes of the Moon, the second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses.", "A specialized icosahedron die provides the answers of the Magic 8 Ball, conventionally used to provide answers to yes-or-no questions.Dice can be used to generate random numbers for use in passwords and cryptography applications.", "The Electronic Frontier Foundation describes a method by which dice can be used to generate passphrases.", "Diceware is a method recommended for generating secure but memorable passphrases, by repeatedly rolling five dice and picking the corresponding word from a pre-generated list.===Notation===In many gaming contexts, especially tabletop role-playing games, shorthand notations representing different dice rolls are used.", "A \"d\" or \"D\" is used to indicate a die with a specific number of sides; for example,d4denotes a four-sided die.", "If several dice of the same type are to be rolled, this is indicated by a leading number specifying the number of dice.", "Hence,6d8 means the player should roll six eight-sided dice and add the results.", "Modifiers to a die roll can also be indicated as desired.", "For example, 3d6+4 instructs the player to roll three six-sided dice, calculate the total, and add four to it." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "References", "===Bibliography=== Diaconis, Persi; and Keller, Joseph B.; \"Fair Dice\", , ''The American Mathematical Monthly'', 96(4):337–339, 1989 (Discussion of dice that are fair \"by symmetry\" and \"by continuity\".", ")* Iverson, G. R.; Longcour, W. H.; et al.", "; ''Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws'', Psychometrika, vol.", "36, no.", "1, March 1971* Knizia, Reiner, ''Dice Games Properly Explained'', Elliot Right Way Books, 1999," ], [ "External links", "* analysis of dice probabilities, also featuring Uspenski's work on rolling multiple dice" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dumpster diving" ], [ "Introduction", "A person dumpster divingVideo of impoverished individuals \"dumpster diving\" at a neighborhood trash dump in Kabul'''Dumpster diving''' (also '''totting''', '''skipping''', '''skip diving''' or '''skip salvage''') is salvaging from large commercial, residential, industrial and construction containers for unused items discarded by their owners but deemed useful to the picker.", "It is not confined to dumpsters and skips specifically and may cover standard household waste containers, curb sides, landfills or small dumps.Different terms are used to refer to different forms of this activity.", "For picking materials from the curbside trash collection, expressions such as '''curb shopping''', '''trash picking''' or '''street scavenging''' are sometimes used.", "In the UK, if someone is primarily seeking recyclable metal, they are '''scrapping''', and if they are picking the leftover food from farming left in the fields, they are '''gleaning'''.People dumpster dive for items such as clothing, furniture, food, and similar items in good working condition.", "Some people do this out of necessity due to poverty; others do it for ideological reasons or professionally and systematically for profit." ], [ "Etymology", "The term \"dumpster diving\" emerged in the 1980s, combining \"diving\" with \"dumpster\", a large commercial trash bin.", "The term \"Dumpster\" itself comes from the Dempster Dumpster, a brand of bins manufactured by Dempster Brothers beginning in 1937.", "\"Dumpster\" became genericized by the 1970s.", "According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the term \"dumpster diving\" is chiefly found in American English and first appeared in print in 1983, with the verb \"dumpster-dive\" appearing a few years later.", "In British English, the practice may be known as \"skipping\", from skip, another term for this type of container.Alternative names for the practice include bin-diving, containering, D-mart, dumpstering, totting, and skipping.", "In Australia, garbage picking is called \"skip dipping.\"" ], [ "Participants", "skip at the back of an office building in Central LondonThe term \"binner\" is often used to describe individuals who collect recyclable materials for their deposit value.", "For example, in Vancouver, British Columbia, binners, or bottle collectors, search garbage cans and dumpsters for recyclable materials that can be redeemed for their deposit value.", "On average, these binners earn about $40 a day for several garbage bags full of discarded containers.", "Some are scammers seeking for receipts to use in committing return fraud.The karung guni, Zabbaleen, the rag and bone man, waste picker, junk man or bin hoker are terms for people who make their living by sorting and trading trash.", "A similar process known as gleaning was practised in rural areas and some ancient agricultural societies, where the residue from farmers' fields was collected.Some dumpster divers, who self-identify as freegans, aim to reduce their ecological footprint by living from dumpster-dived-goods, sometimes exclusively." ], [ "Overview", "The activity is performed by people out of necessity in the developing world.", "Some scavengers perform in organized groups, and some organize on various internet forums and social networking websites.", "By reusing, or repurposing, resources destined for the landfill, dumpster diving is sometimes considered to be an environmentalist endeavor, and is thus practiced by many pro-green communities.", "The wastefulness of consumer society and throw-away culture compels some individuals to rescue usable items (for example, computers or smartphones, which are frequently discarded due to the extensive use of planned obsolescence in the technology industry) from destruction and divert them to those who can make use of the items.A wide variety of things may be disposed while still repairable or in working condition, making salvage of them a source of potentially free items for personal use, or to sell for profit.", "Irregular, blemished or damaged items that are still otherwise functional are regularly thrown away.", "Discarded food that might have slight imperfections, near its expiration date, or that is simply being replaced by newer stock is often tossed out despite being still edible.", "Many retailers are reluctant to sell this stock at reduced prices because of the risks that people will buy it instead of the higher-priced newer stock, that extra handling time is required, and that there are liability risks.", "In the United Kingdom, cookery books have been written on the cooking and consumption of such foods, which has contributed to the popularity of skipping.", "Artists often use discarded materials retrieved from trash receptacles to create works of found objects or assemblage.Students have been known to partake in dumpster diving to obtain high tech items for technical projects, or simply to indulge their curiosity for unusual items.", "Dumpster diving can additionally be used in support of academic research.", "Garbage picking serves as the main tool for garbologists, who study the sociology and archeology of trash in modern life.", "Private and government investigators may pick through garbage to obtain information for their inquiries.", "Illegal cigarette consumption may be deduced from discarded packages.Dumpster diving can be hazardous, due to potential exposure to biohazardous matter, broken glass, and overall unsanitary conditions that may exist in dumpsters.Arguments against garbage picking often focus on the health and cleanliness implications of people rummaging in trash.", "This exposes the dumpster divers to potential health risks, and, especially if the dumpster diver does not return the non-usable items to their previous location, may leave trash scattered around.", "Divers can also be seriously injured or killed by garbage collection vehicles; in January 2012, in La Jolla, Swiss-American man Alfonso de Bourbon was killed by a truck while dumpster diving.=== Dumpster diving with criminal intentions (Garbage theft) ===The unauthorized taking of materials from a dumpster or other waste disposal container is commonly referred to as \"garbage theft\".", "Dumpster diving is a different idiom.", "Due to the typical low value of the stolen goods, garbage theft is not typically recognized as a serious crime, with laws against it frequently focusing on combating identity theft instead.", "Depending on the state or nation's rules surrounding low-level crime, garbage theft may be considered a form of petty theft and subject to a penalty that often entails a brief period of incarceration, a modest fine, or both.", "As a privacy violation, discarded medical records as trash led to a $140,000 penalty against Massachusetts billing company Goldthwait Associates and a group of pathology offices in 2013 and a $400,000 settlement between Midwest Women's Healthcare Specialists and 1,532 clients in Kansas City in 2014.Identity theft has historically been carried out through garbage theft, with thieves utilizing bank and credit card statements discovered in trash to assume the identity of a victim or access their credit.", "Criminals have been known to dumpster dive for cash receipts as part of a scheme to steal items and return them for cash, a form of return fraud known as \"shoplisting.\"", "Police investigating shoplifting in Bellingham, Washington, found dozens of receipts from retailers such as The Home Depot, Rite Aid and Fred Meyer, along with a list of items on the receipts.", "Suspects believed to have taken receipts from trash receptacles near Walmart locations were arrested for return fraud in 2016 in Madison, Wisconsin." ], [ "Legal status", "Since dumpsters are usually located on private premises, divers may occasionally get in trouble for trespassing while dumpster diving, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor.", "Some businesses may lock dumpsters to prevent pickers from congregating on their property, vandalism to their property, and to limit potential liability if a dumpster diver is injured while on their property.Police searches of discarded waste as well as similar methods are also generally not considered violations; evidence seized in this manner has been permitted in many criminal trials.", "In the United States this has been affirmed by numerous courts including and up to the Supreme Court, in the decision ''California v. Greenwood''.", "The doctrine is not as well established in regard to civil litigation.Companies run by private investigators specializing in such techniques have emerged as a result of the need for discreet, undetected retrieval of documents and evidence for civil and criminal trials.", "Private investigators have also written books on \"P.I.", "technique\" in which dumpster diving or its equivalent \"wastebasket recovery\" figures prominently.=== By country ===In 2009, a Belgian dumpster diver and eco-activist nicknamed Ollie was detained for a month for removing food from a garbage can and was accused of theft and burglary.", "On February 25, 2009, he was arrested for removing food from a garbage can at an AD Delhaize supermarket in Bruges.", "Ollie's trial evoked protests in Belgium against restrictions from taking discarded food items.In Ontario, Canada, the ''Trespass to Property Act''—legislation dating back to the ''British North America Act'' of 1867—grants property owners and security guards the power to ban anyone from their premises, for any reason, permanently.", "This is done by issuing a notice to the intruder, who will only be breaking the law upon return.", "Similar laws exist in Prince Edward Island and Saskatchewan.", "A recent case in Canada, which involved a police officer who retrieved a discarded weapon from a trash receptacle as evidence, created some controversy.", "The judge ruled the policeman's actions as legal although there was no warrant present, which led some to speculate the event as validation for any Canadian citizen to raid garbage disposals.Skipping in England and Wales may qualify as theft within the Theft Act 1968 or as common-law theft in Scotland, though there is very little enforcement in practice.In Germany, dumpster diving is referred to as \"containern\", and a waste container's contents are regarded as the property of the container's owner.", "Therefore, taking items from such a container is viewed as theft.", "However, the police will routinely disregard the illegality of garbage picking since the items found are generally of low value.", "There has only been one known instance where people were prosecuted.", "In 2009 individuals were arrested on assumed burglary as they had surmounted a supermarket's fence which was then followed by a theft complaint by the owner; the case was suspended.In the United States, the 1988 ''California v. Greenwood'' case in the U.S. Supreme Court held that there is no common law expectation of privacy for discarded materials.", "There are, however, limits to what can legally be taken from a company's refuse.", "In a 1983 Minnesota case involving the theft of customer lists from a garbage can, ''Tennant Company v. Advance Machine Company'' (355 N.W.2d 720), the owner of the discarded information was awarded $500,000 in damages." ], [ "Items", "Food obtained by dumpster diving in Linköping, SwedenDumpster diving is practiced differently in developed countries than in developing countries.", "* '''Food'''.", "In many developing countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten as food is scarce in comparison to developed nations.", "In countries like the United States, where 40 to 50 percent of food is wasted, the trash contains a lot more food to gather.", "In many countries, charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to impoverished neighbourhoods.", "Trash pickers, Karung guni, Zabaleen, and rag and bone men in these countries may concentrate on looking for usable items or scrap materials to sell rather than food items.", "In the United States, Canada, and Europe, some bakeries, grocery stores, or restaurants will routinely donate food according to a Good Samaritan Food Donation Act, but more often, because of health laws or company policy, they are required to discard food items by the expiration date, because of overstock, being overly ripened, spoiled, cosmetically imperfect, or blemished.Unsold books from a bookstore near the University of Washington are piled into a dumpster.", "'''Books and periodicals'''.", "As proof to publishing houses of unsold merchandise, booksellers will routinely remove the front covers of printed materials to render them destroyed prior to disposing of their remains in the garbage.", "Though readable, many damaged publications have disclaimers and legal notices against their existence or sale.", "* '''Irregular or damaged goods'''.", "Offices, factories, department stores, and other commercial establishments may equally throw out non-perishable items that are irregular, were returned, have minor damages, or are replaced by newer inventory.", "Many items tend to be in such a state of disrepair or cosmetically flawed that they will require some work to make the items functionally usable.", "For this reason, employees will at times intentionally destroy their items prior to being discarded to prevent them from being reused or resold.", "* '''Returned items'''.", "Manufacturers often find it cheaper to routinely discard items returned as defective under warranty instead of repairing them, although a device is often repairable or usable as a source of spare parts to repair other, similar discarded devices.", "* '''School supplies'''.", "At the end of each school year many people throw away perfectly useful supplies like pencils, pens, notebooks and art supplies.", "* '''Electronic waste'''.", "Some consumer electronics are dumped because of their rapid depreciation, obsolescence, cost to repair, or expense to upgrade.", "Owners of functional computers may find it easier to dump them rather than donate because many nonprofit organizations and schools are unable, or unwilling, to work with used equipment.", "Occasionally, vendors dispose of unsaleable, non-defective new merchandise as landfill.", "The Atari video game burial in Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the video game crash of 1983 is a well-known example; a 2014 excavation recovered about 1300 games for curation as museum exhibits or auction.Al-Fathel neighborhood of Baghdad.", "* '''Clothing'''.", "While thrift stores routinely refuse used goods which they cannot cheaply and easily resell, the items which they do accept cost them nothing.", "There is therefore no shrinkage cost associated with discarding mendable garments, repairable appliances or even working donated items which are overstock or find no buyer after some arbitrary length of time.", "* '''Metal'''.", "Sometimes waste may contain recyclable metals and materials that can be reused or sold to recycling plants and scrap yards.", "The most common recyclable metals found are steel and aluminum.", "* '''Wood'''.", "Called '''urban lumberjacking''', to salvage wood either for home heating, or home construction projects.", "* '''Empty cans and bottles'''.", "Several countries, particularly in Northern Europe have enforced a system in which empty cans and bottles can be returned to stores for money.", "Usually the amount received per can/bottle is relatively low, so many simply discard them in dumpsters.=== Other sources ===* '''Residential buildings'''.", "Clothing, furniture, appliances, and other housewares may be found at residential buildings.", "* '''College dormitories'''.", "Items may be found at colleges with dormitories at the end of the semester when students throw away many items such as furniture, clothes and electronics." ], [ "Notable instances", "In the 1960s, Jerry Schneider, using recovered instruction manuals from The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Company, used the company's own procedures to acquire hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of telephone equipment over several years until his arrest.The ''Castle Infinity'' videogame, after its shutdown in 2005, was brought back from the dead by a fan rescuing its servers from the trash.In October 2013, in North London, three men were arrested and charged under the 1824 Vagrancy Act when they were caught taking discarded food: tomatoes, mushrooms, cheese and cakes from bins behind an Iceland supermarket.", "The charges were dropped on 29 January 2014 after much public criticism as well as a request by Iceland's chief executive, Malcolm Walker.In 1996, the source code for the Atari 7800 was discovered in the dumpster of the Atari office when the company closed." ], [ "In popular culture", "=== Books ===* Author John Hoffman wrote two books based on his own dumpster-diving exploits: ''The Art and Science of Dumpster Diving'' (1993; ) and ''Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course: How to Turn Other People's Trash into Money, Publicity, and Power'' (2002; ), and was featured in the documentary DVD ''The Ultimate Dive'', which was directed by Suzanne Girot and described by the Internet Movie Database as a \"Tongue-in-cheek how-to film on the art and science of dumpster diving.", "\"* In 2001, dumpster diving was popularized in the book ''Evasion,'' published by CrimethInc.", "* In Kim Stanley Robinson's science fiction novel ''Fifty Degrees Below'' (2005), the character Frank Vanderwal joins, for a time, a group of freegans (referred to as \"fregans\" in the novel) who frequently prepare feasts culled from dumpsters; kind-hearted restaurateurs aid them by setting aside foods which have not been touched by the public.", "* Jeff Ferrell, Professor of Sociology at Texas Christian University, is the author of ''Empire of Scrounge: Inside the Urban Underground of Dumpster Diving, Trash Picking, and Street Scavenging'' (2005; ).", "* Cory Doctorow integrated garbage picking characters into the plots of his novels ''Someone Comes to Town, Someone Leaves Town'' and ''Pirate Cinema''.", "* David Boarder Gilles' '' A Mass Conspiracy to Feed People: Food Not Bombs and the World-class Waste of Global Cities'' (2021) is an ethnography of this global movement of grassroots soup kitchens that recover wasted grocery surpluses and redistribute them to those in need.", "=== Television programs ===* British television shows have featured home renovations and decoration using salvaged materials.", "''Changing Rooms'' (1996–2004) is one such show, broadcast on BBC One.", "* TLC's ''Extreme Cheapskates'' and ''Extreme Couponing'' featured people who regularly dumpster dive to avoid spending money on different items—in the case of the latter, unwanted newspapers and newspaper inserts containing coupons were the subject of dumpster diving.=== Films ===* ''Surfing the Waste: A Musical Documentary About Dumpster Diving'', a film by Paul Aflalo, Sandra Lombardi and Tomoe Yoshihara, with music composed by Alden Penner and Nic Boshart.", "* ''Dumpster Wars: Reno's Trash Politics'' (2008)* ''I Love Trash'' (2007), a 30-minute documentary by David Brown and Greg Mann.", "OCLC's WorldCat provided a synopsis: \"''I Love Trash'' is a documentary about the art of dumpster diving.", "Starting with an empty apartment, only the clothes they were wearing and a flashlight, David and Greg find everything they might otherwise buy, in trash cans and dumpsters.", "All their food, clothes, electronics, art materials and entertainment, all out of the trash.\"", "Accolades: Skyfest Film and Script Festival, (won 2nd place for Documentary Films); and Lake Michigan Film Competition, (won 3rd place for Documentary films).", "* The 2010 documentary film ''Dive!", "'', a short documentary written and directed by Jeremy Seifert, investigates dumpster diving in the Los Angeles area.", "''Dive!''", "premiered in October 2009 at the Gig Harbor Film Festival, where it won the Audience Choice Award.", "It has gone on to win awards at many other film festivals, including Best Documentary at the DC Independent Film Festival and Best Film at the Dutch Environmental Film Festival.", "* ''Spoils: Extraordinary Harvest''.", "A short film/mystery film and documentary by Alex Mallis.", "(2012) Accolades: Official Selection, New Orleans Film Festival.", "Official Selection, Independent Film Festival of Boston.", "Official Selection, DOC NYC.", "* ''The Leftovers: A Documentary about People Who Eat Trash'' (2008), a 28-minute Swedish documentary by Michael Cavanagh and Kerstin Übelacker.", "Mykel Bently, Paul Hood, Krystal Trickey, Nick Gill, and Sofia Arborelius (the latter two were exchange students) joined together for this dumpster diver adventure.", "* ''From Dumpster To Dinner Plate'' (2011), an award-winning New Zealand short documentary directed by Vanessa Hudson.", "\"As the cost of food reaches record highs an underground movement of dumpster divers is rapidly gaining momentum fuelled by consumers who are forced to find creative ways to feed themselves.\"" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''Art and Science of Dumpster Diving'' by John Hoffman; * ''Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course'' by John Hoffman (brings dumpster diving into the computer era) Paladin Press 2002; * ''Evasion,'' (2003), CrimethInc.", "Far East, an autobiography detailing one anarchist's shoplifting- and dumpster-diving-supported travels.", "* ''Mongo: Adventures in Trash'' by Ted Botha; * ''Encyclopedia of Garbage'' by Steve Coffel, William L. Rathje; *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital synthesizer" ], [ "Introduction", "Jordan Rudess performing with a digital synthA '''digital synthesizer''' is a synthesizer that uses digital signal processing (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds.", "This in contrast to older analog synthesizers, which produce music using analog electronics, and samplers, which play back digital recordings of acoustic, electric, or electronic instruments.", "Some digital synthesizers emulate analog synthesizers; others include sampling capability in addition to digital synthesis." ], [ "History", "The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with computers, as part of academic research into sound generation.", "In 1957, the first programming language for computer music, MUSIC, was developed by Max Mathews on an IBM 704 at Bell Labs in 1957.It generates digital audio waveforms through direct synthesis.EMS MUSYS-3 (1970) (based on )Circa 1969, EMS MUSYS 3 system was developed by Peter Grogono (software), David Cockerell (hardware and interfacing) and Peter Zinovieff (system design and operation) at their London (Putney) Studio.", "The system ran on two mini-computers, Digital Equipment PDP-8's.", "These had a pair of fast D/A and A/D converters,on as a corner of radio program 12,000 (12k) bytes of core memory (RAM), backed up by a hard drive of 32k and by tape storage (DecTape).", "The earliest digital sampling was done on that system during 1971–1972 for Harrison Birtwistle's \"''Chronometer''\" released in 1975.In 1972–1974, Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer was developed by Dartmouth College Professors Jon Appleton and Frederick J. Hooven, in association with NED co-founders Sydney A. Alonso and Cameron W. Jones.In 1977, Bell Labs Digital Synthesizer was developed by Hal Ales at Bell Labs.In 1977, New England Digital (NED) released the Synclavier, the first commercial synthesizer to use purely digital sound generation and also the world's first commercial FM synthesizer.Fairlight CMI series II (1982), exhibited at NAMM ShowEarly commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as additive synthesis and FM synthesis.", "Two other early commercial digital synthesizers were the Fairlight CMI, introduced in 1979, and the New England Digital Synclavier II, introduced in 1979 as an upgrade to the original Synclavier.", "The Fairlight CMI was the one of the earlier sampling synthesizers, while the Synclavier originally used FM synthesis technology licensed from Yamaha, before adding the world's first 16-bit, real-time hard drive streaming sampler later in 1982.The Fairlight CMI and the Synclavier were both expensive systems, retailing for more than $20,000 in the early 1980s.", "The cost of digital synthesizers began falling rapidly in the early 1980s.", "E-mu Systems introduced the Emulator sampling synthesizer in 1982 at a retail price of $7,900.Although not as flexible or powerful as either the Fairlight CMI or the Synclavier, its lower cost and portability made it popular.The Clavia Nord Lead is a popular virtual analog synthWith the addition of sophisticated sequencers on board, now added to built-in effects and other features, the 'workstation' synthesizer had been born.", "These always include a multi-track sequencer, and can often record and play back samples, and in later years full audio tracks, to be used to record an entire song.", "These are usually also ROMplers, playing back samples, to give a wide variety of realistic instrument and other sounds such as drums, string instruments and wind instruments to sequence and compose songs, along with popular keyboard instrument sounds such as electric pianos and organs.As there was still interest in analog synthesizers, and with the increase of computing power, over the 1990s another type of synthesizer arose: the analog modeling, or \"virtual analog\" synthesizer.", "These use computing power to simulate traditional analog waveforms and circuitry such as envelopes and filters, with the most popular examples of this type of instrument including the Nord Lead and Access Virus.Digital synthesizers can now be completely emulated in software (\"softsynth\"), and run on conventional PC hardware.", "Such soft implementations require careful programming and a fast CPU to get the same latency response as their dedicated equivalents.", "To reduce latency, some professional sound card manufacturers have developed specialized Digital Signal Processing (DSP) hardware.", "Dedicated digital synthesizers have the advantage of a performance-friendly user interface (physical controls like buttons for selecting features and enabling functionality, and knobs for setting variable parameters).", "On the other hand, software synthesizers have the advantages afforded by a rich graphical display.With focus on performance-oriented keyboards and digital computer technology, manufacturers of commercial electronic instruments created some of the earliest digital synthesizers for studio and experimental use with computers being able to handle built-in sound synthesis algorithms.=== In Japan ===The GS-1 was the first commercial digital synthesizer by Yamaha based on FM synthesis.", "For $16,000, the buyer also got a desktop computer for programming it.In 1973, the Japanese company Yamaha licensed the patent for frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis) from John Chowning, who had experimented with it at Stanford University since 1971.Yamaha's engineers began adapting Chowning's algorithm for use in a commercial digital synthesizer, adding improvements such as the \"key scaling\" method to avoid the introduction of distortion that normally occurred in analog systems during frequency modulation, though it would take several years before Yamaha were to release their FM digital synthesizers.", "In the 1970s, Yamaha were granted a number of patents, under the company's former name \"Nippon Gakki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha\", evolving Chowning's early work on FM synthesis technology.", "Yamaha built the first prototype digital synthesizer in 1974.Released in 1979, the Casio VL-1 was the first low budget digital synthesizer, selling for $69.95.Yamaha eventually commercialized their FM synthesis technology and released the company's first FM digital synthesizer in 1980, the Yamaha GS-1, but at an expensive retail price of $16,000.The Yamaha DX7 (1983) signalled the rise of digital synthesizers.", "Also due to its affordable price of around $2,000, it became a huge success with about 200,000 units sold.", "While being notoriously difficult to program by the user, its pre-installed sounds significantly influenced 1980s pop and rock music.Introduced in 1983, the Yamaha DX7 was the breakthrough digital synthesizer to have a major impact, both innovative and affordable, and thus spelling the decline of analog synthesizers.", "It used FM synthesis and, although it was incapable of the sampling synthesis of the Fairlight CMI, its price was around $2,000, putting it within range of a much larger number of musicians.", "The DX-7 was also known for its \"key scaling\" method to avoid distortion and for its recognizably bright tonality that was partly due to its high sampling rate of 57 kHz.", "It became indispensable to many music artists of the 1980s, and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time.In 1987, Roland released its own influential synthesizer of the time, the D-50.This popular synth broke new ground in affordably combining short samples and digital oscillators, as well as the innovation of built-in digital effects (reverb., chorus, equalizer).", "Roland called this Linear Arithmetic (LA) synthesis.", "This instrument is responsible for some of the very recognisable preset synthesizer sounds of the late 1980s, such as the Pizzagogo sound used on Enya's \"Orinoco Flow.", "\"It gradually became feasible to include high quality samples of existing instruments as opposed to synthesizing them.", "In 1988, Korg introduced the last of the hugely popular trio of digital synthesizers of the 1980s after the DX7 and D50, the M1.This heralded both the increasing popularisation of digital sample-based synthesis, and the rise of 'workstation' synthesizers.", "After this time, many popular modern digital synthesizers have been described as not being full synthesizers in the most precise sense, as they play back samples stored in their memory.", "However, they still include options to shape the sounds through use of envelopes, LFOs, filters and effects such as reverb.", "The Yamaha Motif and Roland Fantom series of keyboards are typical examples of this type, described as 'ROMplers'; at the same time, they are also examples of \"workstation\" synthesizers.As the cost of processing power and memory fell, new types of synthesizers emerged, offering a variety of novel sound synthesis options.", "The Korg Oasys was one such example, packaging multiple digital synthesizers into a single unit." ], [ "Analog vs. digital", "An analog synthesizer creates sound using electronic circuitry, such as voltage-controlled oscillators and voltage-controlled filters.", "In contrast, a digital synthesizer generates a stream of numbers, often using some form of digital signal processor, which are then converted to sound using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC).A digital synthesizer is in essence a computer with (often) a piano or organ keyboard and an LCD as a user interface.", "Because computer technology is rapidly advancing, it is often possible to offer more features in a digital synthesizer than in an analog synthesizer at a given price.", "However, both technologies have their own merit.", "Some forms of synthesis, such as, for instance, sampling and additive synthesis are not feasible in analog synthesizers, while on the other hand, many musicians prefer the character of analog synthesizers over their digital equivalent." ], [ "Usage in Popular Music", "The new wave era of the 1980s first brought the digital synthesizer to the public ear.", "Bands like Talking Heads and Duran Duran used the digitally made sounds on some of their most popular albums.", "Other more pop-inspired bands like Hall & Oates began incorporating the digital synthesizer into their sound in the 1980s.", "Through breakthroughs in technology in the 1990s many modern synthesizers use DSP." ], [ "Digital synthesis", "Working in more or less the same way, every digital synthesizer appears similar to a computer.", "At a steady sample rate, digital synthesis produces a stream of numbers.", "Sound from speakers is then produced by a conversion to analog form.", "Direct digital synthesis is the typical architecture for digital synthesizers.", "Through signal generation, voice and instrument-level processing, a signal flow is created and controlled either by MIDI capabilities or voice and instrument-level controls." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Vintage Synth Explorer, a great resource on vintage analog and digital hardware synthesizers.", "* Psycle, a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer and sequencer/tracker (open source and totally free)* Buzz, a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer (free but proprietary)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Definition of music" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''definition of music''' endeavors to give an accurate and concise explanation of music's basic attributes or essential nature and it involves a process of defining what is meant by the term ''music''.", "Many authorities have suggested definitions, but defining music turns out to be more difficult than might first be imagined, and there is ongoing debate.", "A number of explanations start with the notion of music as ''organized sound,'' but they also highlight that this is perhaps too broad a definition and cite examples of organized sound that are not defined as music, such as human speech and sounds found in both natural and industrial environments .", "The problem of defining music is further complicated by the influence of culture in music cognition.The ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' defines music as \"the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to produce beauty of form, harmony, and expression of emotion\".", "However, some music genres, such as noise music and musique concrète, challenge these ideas by using sounds not widely considered as musical, beautiful or harmonious, like randomly produced electronic distortion, feedback, static, cacophony, and sounds produced using compositional processes which utilize indeterminacy.An often-cited example of the dilemma in defining music is the work ''4′33″'' (1952) by the American composer John Cage (1912–1992).", "The written score has three movements and directs the performer(s) to appear on stage, indicate by gesture or other means when the piece begins, then make no sound throughout the duration of the piece, marking sections and the end by gesture.", "The audience hears only whatever ambient sounds may occur in the room.", "Some argue that ''4′33″'' is not music because, among other reasons, it contains no sounds that are conventionally considered \"musical\" and the composer and performer(s) exert no control over the organization of the sounds heard.", "Others argue it is music because the conventional definitions of musical sounds are unnecessarily and arbitrarily limited, and control over the organization of the sounds is achieved by the composer and performer(s) through their gestures that divide what is heard into specific sections and a comprehensible form." ], [ "Concepts of music", "Because of differing fundamental concepts of music, the languages of many cultures do not contain a word that can be accurately translated as \"music\" as that word is generally understood by Western cultures.", "Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music.", "Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetoric, poetry, dance, and instrumental music used the Nahuatl term ''In xochitl-in kwikatl'' to refer to a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserved the word ''Kwikakayotl'' (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions.", "There is no term for music in Nigerian languages Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa.", "Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Western culture typically means by the term ''music''.", "() The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for ''music'', but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (''kantun''), European and non-Mapuche music (''kantun winka''), ceremonial songs (''öl''), and ''tayil''.While some languages in West Africa have no term for music, some West African languages accept the general concepts of music.", "() ''Musiqi'' is the Persian word for the science and art of music, ''muzik'' being the sound and performance of music,() though some things European-influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded." ], [ "Music vs. noise", "Ben Watson points out that Ludwig van Beethoven's ''Große Fuge'' (1825) \"sounded like noise\" to his audience at the time.", "Indeed, Beethoven's publishers persuaded him to remove it from its original setting as the last movement of a string quartet.", "He did so, replacing it with a sparkling ''Allegro''.", "They subsequently published it separately.", "Musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez considers the difference between noise and music nebulous, explaining that \"The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no ''single'' and ''intercultural'' universal concept defining what music might be\"." ], [ "Definitions", "===Organized sound===An often-cited definition of music is that it is \"organized sound\", a term originally coined by modernist composer Edgard Varèse in reference to his own musical aesthetic.", "Varèse's concept of music as \"organized sound\" fits into his vision of \"sound as living matter\" and of \"musical space as open rather than bounded\".", "He conceived the elements of his music in terms of \"sound-masses\", likening their organization to the natural phenomenon of crystallization.", "Varèse thought that \"to stubbornly conditioned ears, anything new in music has always been called noise\", and he posed the question, \"what is music but organized noises?", "\"The fifteenth edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' states that \"while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit.\"", "A human organizing element is often felt to be implicit in music (sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as \"musical\", but perhaps less often as \"music\").", "The composer R. Murray states that the sound of classical music \"has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality.\"", "However, in the view of semiologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, \"just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both\".", "(See \"music as social construct\" below.", ")====Language====Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method, comparable to mathematics.===Musical universals===Most definitions of music include a reference to sound and a list of universals of music can be generated by stating the elements (or aspects) of sound: pitch, timbre, loudness, duration, spatial location and texture.).", "However, in terms more specifically relating to music: following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category.", "As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition.", "This is primarily because other cultures have different understandings in relation to the sounds that English-language writers refer to as music.===Social construct===Many people do, however, share a general idea of music.", "The Websters definition of music is a typical example: \"the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity\" (''Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', online edition).===Subjective experience===This approach to the definition focuses not on the ''construction'' but on the ''experience'' of music.", "An extreme statement of the position has been articulated by the Italian composer Luciano Berio: \"Music is everything that one listens to with the intention of listening to music\".", "This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities.", "It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as non-music if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's ''essence'' ''as music''." ], [ "Specific definitions", "===Clifton===In his 1983 book, ''Music as Heard'', which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as \"an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative ...", "This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects.\"", "More precisely, \"music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism\".", "It is therefore \"a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object\".Clifton accordingly differentiates music from non-music on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects.", "Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: \"a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced.\"", "However, \"It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening ''to'' the sounds.", "First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling.", "Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such.", "Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds\".In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from non-music: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and non-music are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement.", "\"It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ''ordered'' in this definition of music\".", "This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since \"it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering.", "Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise non-introspective musical analysis.", "But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion\".Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called \"phenomena\", and the activity of describing phenomena is called \"phenomenology\".", "It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards.Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings.", "... To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things.", "First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance.", "... Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials.", "... Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful.===Nattiez===\"Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture\", according to Jean.", "It is often contrasted with noise.", "According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: \"The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus ... By all accounts there is no ''single'' and ''intercultural'' universal concept defining what music might be\".", "Given the above demonstration that \"there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical\", an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.Nattiez (1990, 17) describes definitions according to a tripartite semiological scheme similar to the following:Poietic ProcessEsthesic ProcessComposer (Producer) →Sound (Trace) ←Listener (Receiver)There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic:\" By 'poietic' I understand describing the ''link'' among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the ''result'' of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment.", "Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape.", "\"\"By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies\".", "The neutral level is that of the physical \"trace\", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or \"social\" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).Table describing types of definitions of music:poietic level(choice of the composer)neutral level(physical definition)esthesic level(perceptive judgment) music musical sound sound of theharmonicspectrum agreeable sound non-music noise(nonmusical) noise(complex sound) disagreeablenoiseBecause of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms.", "There is the study of sound and vibration or acoustics, the cognitive study of music, the study of music theory and performance practice or music theory and ethnomusicology and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called musicology.===Xenakis===Composer Iannis Xenakis in \"Towards a Metamusic\" (chapter 7 of ''Formalized Music'') defined music in the following way:#It is a sort of comportment necessary for whoever thinks it and makes it.#It is an individual pleroma, a realization.#It is a fixing in sound of imagined virtualities (cosmological, philosophical, ..., arguments)#It is normative, that is, unconsciously it is a model for being or for doing by sympathetic drive.#It is catalytic: its mere presence permits internal psychic or mental transformations in the same way as the crystal ball of the hypnotist.#It is the gratuitous play of a child.#It is a mystical (but atheistic) asceticism.", "Consequently, expressions of sadness, joy, love and dramatic situations are only very limited particular instances." ], [ "See also", " Zoomusicology* Sound art" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''** * **** * * * ** * * * * ** * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Originally published in ''Southwest Review'', 1991.", "* Gutmann, P. (2015).", "\"John Cage and the Avant-Garde: The Sounds of Silence}, classicalnotes.net.", "Retrieved 2 December 2015.", "* Kennedy, Michael.", "1985.", "''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', revised and enlarged edition of ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music'', third edition, 1980.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.", "; .", "* List, George.", "1985.", "\"Hopi Melodic Concepts\".", "''Journal of the American Musicological Society'' 38, no.", "1 (Spring): 143–152.", "* Little, William, and C. T. Onions, eds.", "1965.", "''The Oxford Universal Dictionary Illustrated: An illustrated Edition of the Shorter Oxford Dictionary'', third edition, revised, 2 vols.", "London: The Caxton Publishing Co.* Merriam-webster.com,.", "(2015).", "music: \"sounds that are sung by voices or played on musical instruments.\"", "Retrieved 1 December 2015.", "}* Nettl, Bruno.", "2001.\"Music\".", "''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell.", "London: Macmillan Publishers." ], [ "External links", "** What is Music?", "A brief sketch of some definitions found throughout history by Marcel Cobussen* MusicNovatory.com The Science of Music, a generative music theory" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dayton, Ohio" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dayton''' () is a city in and the county seat of Montgomery County, Ohio, United States.", "A small part of the city extends into Greene County.", "As of the 2020 census, the city proper had a population of 137,644, making it the sixth-most populous city in Ohio.", "Dayton anchors the state's fourth-largest metropolitan area, the Dayton metropolitan area, which had 814,049 residents.", "Dayton is located within Ohio's Miami Valley region, north of Cincinnati and west of Columbus.", "It is a principal city of the Dayton–Springfield–Sidney combined statistical area, home to a population of 1,086,512.Dayton was founded in 1796 along the Great Miami River and named after Jonathan Dayton, a Founding Father who owned a significant amount of land in the area.", "It grew in the 19th century as a canal town and was home to many patents and inventors, most notably the Wright brothers, who developed the first successful motor-operated airplane.", "It later developed an industrialized economy and was home to the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs.", "With the decline of heavy manufacturing in the late 20th century, Dayton's businesses have diversified into a service economy.Ohio's borders are within of roughly 60 percent of the country's population and manufacturing infrastructure, making Dayton a logistics hub.", "The city is home to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, a significant contributor to research and development in the industrial, aeronautical, and astronautical engineering fields.", "Along with defense and aerospace, healthcare accounts for much of the Dayton area's economy.", "Significant institutions in Dayton include the Air Force Institute of Technology, Carillon Historical Park, Dayton Art Institute, Dayton Performing Arts Alliance, National Museum of the United States Air Force, and University of Dayton." ], [ "History", "Dayton was founded on April 1, 1796, by 12 settlers known as the Thompson Party.", "They traveled in March from Cincinnati up the Great Miami River by pirogue and landed at what is now St. Clair Street, where they found two small camps of Native Americans.", "Among the Thompson Party was Benjamin Van Cleve, whose memoirs provide insights into the Ohio Valley's history.", "Two other groups traveling overland arrived several days later.", "The oldest surviving building is Newcom Tavern, which was used for various purposes, including housing Dayton's first church, which is still in existence.In 1797, Daniel C. Cooper laid out Mad River Road, the first overland connection between Cincinnati and Dayton, opening the \"Mad River Country\" to settlement.", "Ohio was admitted into the Union in 1803, and the village of Dayton was incorporated in 1805 and chartered as a city in 1841.The city was named after Jonathan Dayton, a captain in the American Revolutionary War who signed the U.S. Constitution and owned a significant amount of land in the area.", "In 1827, construction on the Dayton–Cincinnati canal began, which provided a better way to transport goods from Dayton to Cincinnati and contributed significantly to Dayton's economic growth during the 1800s.===Innovation===Dayton in 1870Innovation led to business growth in the region.", "In 1884, John Henry Patterson acquired James Ritty's National Manufacturing Company along with his cash register patents and formed the National Cash Register Company (NCR).", "The company manufactured the first mechanical cash registers and played a crucial role in the shaping of Dayton's reputation as an epicenter for manufacturing in the early 1900s.", "In 1906, Charles F. Kettering, a leading engineer at the company, helped develop the first electric cash register, which propelled NCR into the national spotlight.", "NCR also helped develop the US Navy Bombe, a code-breaking machine that helped crack the Enigma machine cipher during World War II.Dayton has been the home for many patents and inventions since the 1870s.", "According to the National Park Service, citing information from the U.S. Patent Office, Dayton had granted more patents per capita than any other U.S. city in 1890 and ranked fifth in the nation as early as 1870.The Wright brothers, inventors of the airplane, and Charles F. Kettering, world-renowned for his numerous inventions, hailed from Dayton.", "The city was also home to James Ritty's Incorruptible Cashier, the first mechanical cash register, and Arthur E. Morgan's hydraulic jump, a flood prevention mechanism that helped pioneer hydraulic engineering.", "Paul Laurence Dunbar, an African-American poet and novelist, penned his most famous works in the late 19th century and became an integral part of the city's history.===Birthplace of aviation===Powered aviation began in Dayton.", "Orville and Wilbur Wright were the first to construct and demonstrate powered flight.", "Although the first flight was in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, their Wright Flyer was built in and returned to Dayton for improvements and further flights at Huffman Field, a cow pasture northeast of Dayton, near the current Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.When the government tried to move development to Langley field in southern Virginia, six Dayton businessmen including Edward A.", "Deeds, formed the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company in Moraine and established a flying field.", "Deeds also opened a field to the north in the flood plain of the Great Miami River between the confluences of that river, the Stillwater River, and the Mad River, near downtown Dayton.", "Later named McCook Field for Alexander McDowell McCook, an American Civil War general, this became the Army Signal Corps' primary aviation research and training location.", "Wilbur Wright also purchased land near Huffman prairie to continue their research.During World War I, the Army purchased 40 acres adjacent to Huffman Prairie for the Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot.", "As airplanes developed more capability, they needed more runway space than McCook could offer, and a new location was sought.", "The Patterson family formed the Dayton Air Service Committee, Inc which held a campaign that raised $425,000 in two days and purchased northeast of Dayton, including Wilbur Wright Field and the Huffman Prairie Flying Field.", "Wright Field was \"formally dedicated\" on October 12, 1927.After World War II, Wright Field and the adjacent Patterson Field, Dayton Army Air Field, and Clinton Army Air Field were merged as the Headquarters, Air Force Technical Base.", "On January 13, 1948, the facility was renamed Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.===Great Dayton Flood===Flooding on Ludlow Street in downtown Dayton during the Great Dayton Flood, 1913A catastrophic flood in March 1913, known as the Great Dayton Flood, led to the creation of the Miami Conservancy District, a series of dams as well as hydraulic pumps installed around Dayton, in 1914.===The war effort===Like other cities across the country, Dayton was heavily involved in the war effort during World War II.", "Several locations around the city hosted the Dayton Project, a branch of the larger Manhattan Project, to develop polonium triggers used in early atomic bombs.", "The war efforts led to a manufacturing boom throughout the city, including high demand for housing and other services.", "At one point, emergency housing was put into place due to a housing shortage in the region, much of which is still in use today.Alan Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.", "He visited the National Cash Register (NCR) company in Dayton in December 1942.He was able to show that it was not necessary to build 336 Bombes, so the initial order was scaled down to 96 machines to decipher German Enigma-machine-encrypted secret messages during World War II.===Post-war Dayton===Between the 1940s and the 1970s, the city saw significant growth in suburban areas from population migration.", "Veterans were returning from military service in large numbers seeking industrial and manufacturing jobs, a part of the local industry that was expanding rapidly.", "Advancements in architecture also contributed to the suburban boom.", "New, modernized shopping centers and the Interstate Highway System allowed workers to commute greater distances and families to live further from the downtown area.", "More than 127,000 homes were built in Montgomery County during the 1950s.During this time, the city was the site of several race riots, including one in 1955 following the murder of Emmett Till, the 1966 Dayton race riot, two in 1967 (following a speech by civil rights activist H. Rap Brown and another following the police killing of an African American man), and one in 1968 as part of the nationwide King assassination riots.Since the 1980s, however, Dayton's population has declined, mainly due to the loss of manufacturing jobs and decentralization of metropolitan areas, as well as the national housing crisis that began in 2008.While much of the state has suffered for similar reasons, the impact on Dayton has been greater than most.", "Dayton had the third-greatest percentage loss of population in the state since the 1980s, behind Cleveland and Youngstown.", "Despite this, Dayton has begun diversifying its workforce from manufacturing into other growing sectors such as healthcare and education.===Peace accords===In 1995, the Dayton Agreement, a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the former Yugoslavia, was negotiated at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, near Fairborn, Ohio, from November 1 to 21.Richard Holbrooke wrote about these events in his memoirs: There was also a real Dayton out there, a charming Ohio city, famous as the birthplace of the Wright brothers.", "Its citizens energized us from the outset.", "Unlike the population of, say, New York City, Geneva or Washington, which would scarcely notice another conference, Daytonians were proud to be part of history.", "Large signs at the commercial airport hailed Dayton as the \"temporary center of international peace.\"", "The local newspapers and television stations covered the story from every angle, drawing the people deeper into the proceedings.", "When we ventured into a restaurant or a shopping center downtown, people crowded around, saying that they were praying for us.", "Warren Christopher was given at least one standing ovation in a restaurant.", "Families on the airbase placed \"candles of peace\" in their front windows, and people gathered in peace vigils outside the base.", "One day they formed a \"peace chain,\" although it was not large enough to surround the sprawling eight-thousand-acre base.", "Ohio's famous ethnic diversity was on display.===2000s initiatives===Downtown expansion that began in the 2000s has helped revitalize the city and encourage growth.", "Day Air Ballpark, home of the Dayton Dragons, was built in 2000.The highly successful minor league baseball team has been an integral part of Dayton's culture.", "In 2001, the city's public park system, Five Rivers MetroParks, built RiverScape MetroPark, an outdoor entertainment venue that attracts more than 400,000 visitors each year.", "A new performance arts theater, the Schuster Center, opened in 2003.A large health network in the region, Premier Health Partners, expanded its Miami Valley Hospital with a 12-story tower addition.In 2010, the Downtown Dayton Partnership, in cooperation with the City of Dayton and community leaders, introduced the Greater Downtown Dayton Plan.", "It focuses on job creation and retention, infrastructure improvements, housing, recreation, and collaboration.", "The plan is to be implemented through the year 2020.===Nicknames===A photograph of the Miami and Erie Canal from ''Geography of Ohio'', 1923Dayton is known as the \"Gem City\".", "The nickname's origin is uncertain, but several theories exist.", "In the early 19th century, a well-known racehorse named Gem hailed from Dayton.", "In 1845, an article published in the ''Cincinnati Daily Chronicle'' by an author known as T stated:In the late 1840s, Major William D. Bickham of the ''Dayton Journal'' began a campaign to nickname Dayton the \"Gem City.\"", "The name was adopted by the city's Board of Trade several years later.", "Paul Laurence Dunbar referred to the nickname in his poem, \"Toast to Dayton\", as noted in the following excerpt:She shall ever claim our duty,For she shines—the brightest gemThat has ever decked with beauty Dear Ohio's diadem.Dayton also plays a role in a nickname given to the state of Ohio, \"Birthplace of Aviation.\"", "Dayton is the hometown of the Wright brothers, aviation pioneers who are credited with inventing and building the first practical airplane in history.", "After their first manned flights in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, which they had chosen due to its ideal weather and climate conditions, the Wrights returned to Dayton and continued testing at nearby Huffman Prairie.Additionally, Dayton is colloquially referred to as \"Little Detroit\".", "This nickname comes from Dayton's prominence as a Midwestern manufacturing center." ], [ "Geography", "Aerial view of Downtown Dayton (NE to SW)According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.===Climate===Dayton's climate features warm, muggy summers and cold, dry winters, and is classified as a humid continental climate (Köppen ''Dfa'').", "Unless otherwise noted, all normal figures quoted within the text below are from the official climatology station, Dayton International Airport, at an elevation of about to the north of downtown Dayton, which lies within the valley of the Miami River; thus temperatures there are typically cooler than in downtown.At the airport, monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July.", "The highest temperature ever recorded in Dayton was on July 22, 1901, and the coldest was on February 13 during the Great Blizzard of 1899.On average, there are 14 days of + highs and 4.5 nights of sub- lows annually.", "Snow is moderate, with a normal seasonal accumulation of , usually occurring from November to March, occasionally April, and rarely October.", "Precipitation averages annually, with total rainfall peaking in May.Dayton is subject to severe weather typical of the Midwestern United States.", "Tornadoes are possible from the spring to the fall.", "Floods, blizzards, and severe thunderstorms can also occur.On Memorial Day of 2019, Dayton suffered extensive property damage and one death during a tornado outbreak, in which a total of 15 tornadoes touched down in the Dayton area.", "Although some of the tornadoes were only EF0 and remained on the ground for less than a mile, one was an EF4 measuring a half-mile-wide (805 meters), which tore through the communities of Brookville, Trotwood, Dayton, Northridge, and Riverside.", "Several streets were closed, including portions of I-75 and North Dixie Drive in Northridge.", "64,000 residents lost power and much of the region's water supply was cut off.===Ecology===The Dayton Audubon Society is the National Audubon Society's local chapter.", "The Dayton chapter manages local activities contributing to the annual, hemisphere-wide Christmas Bird Count.", "The Chapter began participation in the National Count in 1924.The local Count was initially coordinated by Ben Blincoe, who was succeeded by Jim Hill in 1970.In the mid-1960s, the freezing of Lake Erie and associated marshlands led species of waterfowl to appear in the Dayton-area, where surface waters remained unfrozen.", "Nine varieties of birds have been observed every year in the Dayton area: downy woodpecker, Carolina chickadee, tufted titmouse, brown creeper, cardinal, junco, tree sparrow, song sparrow and crow.=== Cityscape ===Panorama of Dayton==== Architecture ====Unlike many Midwestern cities its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two or three full lanes in each direction) that improved access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular.", "The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning; streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around.", "Also, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths.Old Montgomery County Courthouse, built in 1847, and the current courthouse behind it.A courthouse building was built in downtown Dayton in 1888 to supplement Dayton's original Neoclassical courthouse, which still stands.", "This second, \"new\" courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park.", "The Old Court House has been a favored political campaign stop.", "On September 17, 1859, Abraham Lincoln delivered an address on its steps.", "Eight other presidents have visited the courthouse, either as presidents or during presidential campaigns: Andrew Johnson, James Garfield, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.The Dayton Arcade, which opened on March 3, 1904, was built in the hopes of replacing open-air markets throughout the city.", "Throughout the decades, the Arcade has gone through many transformations but has retained its charm.", "Some of its main features include a Flemish facade at the Third Street entrance, a glass dome above the Arcade rotunda, and a chateau roof line above the Third Street facade.", "The Dayton Arcade is currently under renovations with no official completion date set.In 2009, the CareSource Management Group finished construction of a $55 million corporate headquarters in downtown Dayton.", "The , 10-story building was downtown's first new office tower in more than a decade.Dayton's two tallest buildings are the Kettering Tower at and the KeyBank Tower at .", "Kettering Tower was originally Winters Tower, the headquarters of Winters Bank.", "The building was renamed after Virginia Kettering when Winters was merged into Bank One.", "KeyBank Tower was known as the MeadWestvaco Tower before KeyBank gained naming rights to the building in 2008.Ted Rall said in 2015 that over the last five decades Dayton has been demolishing some of its architecturally significant buildings to reduce the city's rental vacancy rate and thus increase the occupancy rate.==== Neighborhoods ====Central Avenue Historic District in Grafton HillDayton's ten historic neighborhoods—Oregon District, Wright Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Kenilworth, St. Anne's Hill, and South Park—feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, Jacobethan, Tudor Revival, English Gothic, Chateauesque, Craftsman, Queen Anne, Georgian Revival, Colonial Revival, Renaissance Revival Architecture, Shingle Style Architecture, Prairie, Mission Revival, Eastlake/Italianate, American Foursquare, and Federal styles.", "Downtown Dayton is also a large area that encompasses several neighborhoods itself and has seen a recent uplift and revival.==== Suburbs ====Dayton's suburbs with a population of 10,000 or more include Beavercreek, Centerville, Clayton, Englewood, Fairborn, Harrison Township, Huber Heights, Kettering, Miami Township, Miamisburg, Oakwood, Riverside, Springboro, Trotwood, Vandalia, Washington Township, West Carrollton, and Xenia.In the federal government's National Urban Policy and New Community Development Act of 1970, funding was provided for thirteen \"new towns\" or planned cities throughout the country.", "One location was set to become a suburb of Dayton and was known variously as Brookwood or Newfields.", "The goal was to have an entirely new suburb that would eventually house about 35,000 residents.", "The new town was to be located between Trotwood and Brookville, and modeled on the ideas of Ian McHarg.", "The project was abandoned in 1978 and most of the land became Sycamore State Park." ], [ "Demographics", "Dayton's city proper population declined significantly from a peak of 262,332 residents in 1960 to 137,644 residents in 2020.This was in part due to the slowdown of the region's manufacturing sector.", "The metropolitan area as a whole has experienced both population growth and decreases since 1960, with the overall trend leaning towards growth for the metro area.", "The city's most populous ethnic group, white, declined from 78.1% in 1960 to 51.7% by 2010.===2020 census===As of the census of 2020, there were 137,644 people living in the city, for a population density of 2,466.47 people per square mile (952.31/km2).", "There were 68,899 housing units.", "The racial makeup of the city was 47.6% White, 40.7% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.4% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.3% from some other race, and 6.6% from two or more races.", "5.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.There were 63,308 households, out of which 22.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.5% were married couples living together, 30.9% had a male householder with no spouse present, and 38.2% had a female householder with no spouse present.", "47.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 1.95, and the average family size was 2.83.18.9% of the city's population were under the age of 18, 65.0% were 18 to 64, and 16.1% were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 38.4.For every 100 females, there were 101.5 males.According to the U.S. Census American Community Survey, for the period 2016-2020 the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $43,780, and the median income for a family was $60,408.About 25.4% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 39.5% of those under age 18 and 21.5% of those age 65 or over.", "About 53.6% of the population were employed, and 24.4% had a bachelor's degree or higher.===2010 census===As of the 2010 census, there were 141,759 people, 58,404 households, and 31,064 families residing in the city.", "The population density was .", "There were 74,065 housing units at an average density of .", "The racial makeup of the city was 51.7% White, 42.9% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.9% Asian, 1.3% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races.", "Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.0% of the population.There were 58,404 households, of which 28.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.9% were married couples living together, 21.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.8% were non-families.", "38.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.26, and the average family size was 3.03.The median age in the city was 34.4 years.", "22.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.8% were from 45 to 64, and 11.8% were 65 years of age or older.", "The gender makeup of the city was 48.7% male and 51.3% female.=== Crime ===Dayton's crime declined between 2003 and 2008 in key categories according to FBI Uniform Crime Reports and Dayton Police Department data.", "In 2009, crime continued to fall in the city of Dayton.", "Crime in the categories of forcible rape, aggravated assault, property crime, motor vehicle theft, robbery, burglary, theft and arson all showed declines for 2009.Overall, crime in Dayton dropped 40% over the previous year.", "The Dayton Police Department reported a total of 39 murders in 2016, which marked a 39.3% increase in homicides from 2015.John Dillinger, a bank robber during the early 1930s, was captured and arrested by Dayton city police while visiting his girlfriend at a high-class boarding house in downtown Dayton.On August 4, 2019, a mass shooting took place in Dayton.", "Ten people were killed, including the perpetrator; and twenty-seven were injured." ], [ "Economy", "Lockheed C-5 Galaxy at Wright-Patterson Air Force BaseDayton's economy is relatively diversified and vital to the overall economy of the state of Ohio.", "In 2008 and 2009, ''Site Selection'' magazine ranked Dayton the #1 medium-sized metropolitan area in the U.S. for economic development.", "Dayton is also among the top 100 metropolitan areas in both exports and export-related jobs, ranked 16 and 14 respectively by the Brookings Institution.", "The 2010 report placed the value of exports at $4.7 billion and the number of export-related jobs at 44,133.The Dayton Metropolitan Statistical Area ranks 4th in Ohio's Gross Domestic Product with a 2008 industry total of $33.78 billion.", "Additionally, Dayton ranks third among 11 major metropolitan areas in Ohio for exports to foreign countries.", "The Dayton Development Coalition is attempting to leverage the region's large water capacity, estimated to be 1.5 trillion gallons of renewable water aquifers, to attract new businesses.", "Moody's Investment Services revised Dayton's bond rating from A1 to the stronger rating of Aa2 as part of its global recalibration process.", "Standard & Poor's upgraded Dayton's rating from A+ to AA− in the summer of 2009.", "''Bloomberg Businessweek'' ranked Dayton in 2010 as one of the best places in the U.S. for college graduates looking for a job.", "Companies such as Reynolds and Reynolds, Stratacache, CareSource, DP&L (soon AES inc), LexisNexis, Kettering Health Network, Premier Health Partners, and Standard Register have their headquarters in Dayton.", "It is also the former home of the Speedwell Motor Car Company, MeadWestvaco (formerly known as the Mead Paper Company), and NCR.", "NCR was headquartered in Dayton for over 125 years and was a major innovator in computer technology.===Research and development===Stratacache Tower, Dayton's tallest high-riseThe Dayton region gave birth to aviation and is known for its high concentration of aerospace and aviation technology.", "In 2009, Governor Ted Strickland designated Dayton as Ohio's aerospace innovation hub, the state's first such technology hub.", "Two major United States research and development organizations have leveraged Dayton's historical leadership in aviation and maintain their headquarters in the area: The National Air and Space Intelligence Center (NASIC) and the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL).", "Both have their headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.Several research organizations support NASIC, AFRL, and the Dayton community.", "The Advanced Technical Intelligence Center is a confederation of government, academic, and industry partners.", "The University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) is led by the University of Dayton.", "The Cognitive Technologies Division (CTD) of Applied Research Associates, Inc., which carries out human-centered research and design, is headquartered in the Dayton suburb of Fairborn.", "The city of Dayton has started Tech Town, a development project to attract technology-based firms and revitalize the downtown area.", "Tech Town is home to the world's first RFID business incubator.", "The University of Dayton–led Institute for Development & Commercialization of Sensor Technologies (IDCAST) at TechTown is a center for remote sensing and sensing technology.", "It is one of Dayton's technology business incubators housed in The Entrepreneurs Center building.===Healthcare===Southeast tower at Miami Valley Hospital, part of the Premier Health Partners networkThe Kettering Health Network and Premier Health Partners have a major role on the Dayton area's economy.", "Hospitals in the Greater Dayton area have an estimated combined employment of nearly 32,000 and a yearly economic impact of $6.8 billion.", "In addition, several Dayton area hospitals consistently earn top national ranking and recognition including the ''U.S.", "News & World Report''s list of \"America's Best Hospitals\" as well as many of HealthGrades top ratings.", "The most notable hospitals are Miami Valley Hospital and Kettering Medical Center.The Dayton region has several key institutes and centers for health care.", "The Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton focuses on the science and development of human tissue regeneration.", "The National Center for Medical Readiness (NCMR) is also in the Dayton area.", "The center includes Calamityville, which is a disaster training facility.", "Over five years, Calamityville is estimated to have a regional economic impact of $374 million.", "Also, the Neurological Institute at Miami Valley Hospital is an institute focused on the diagnosis, treatment, and research of neurological disorders.===Top employers===According to the city's 2019 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city proper are: Rank Employer Employees(2019) Employees(2018) Employees(2017)1Premier Health Partners12,42512,13813,8582Kettering Health Network9,3198,9098,4153Montgomery County4,2844,3664,3834Dayton Children's Hospital3,3412,9742,4675Sinclair Community College3,1633,0853,0946CareSource3,0212,8002,2007University of Dayton3,0003,0282,9648Dayton Veterans Affairs Medical Center2,4252,4032,2689Dayton Public Schools2,0622,0622,06210City of Dayton1,9631,9721,900" ], [ "Arts and culture", "===Fine arts===The interior of the Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts CenterThe Dayton Region ranked within the top 10% in the nation in arts and culture.", "In a 2012 readers' poll by ''American Style'' magazine, Dayton ranked #2 in the country among mid-size cities as an arts destination, ranking higher than larger cities such as Atlanta, St. Louis, and Cincinnati.", "Dayton is the home of the Dayton Art Institute.The Benjamin and Marian Schuster Performing Arts Center in downtown Dayton is a world-class performing arts center and the home venue of the Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra, Dayton Opera, and the Dayton Ballet.", "In addition to philharmonic and opera performances, the Schuster Center hosts concerts, lectures, and traveling Broadway shows, and is a popular spot for weddings and other events.", "The historic Victoria Theatre in downtown Dayton hosts concerts, traveling Broadway shows, ballet, a summertime classic film series, and more.", "The Loft Theatre, also downtown, is the home of the Human Race Theatre Company.", "The Dayton Playhouse, in West Dayton, is the site of numerous plays and theatrical productions.", "Between 1957 and 1995, the Kenley Players presented live theater productions in Dayton.", "In 2013, John Kenley was inducted into the Dayton Theatre Hall of Fame.", "Dayton is also home to the Winter Guard International world finals, hosting finals for winter guard, indoor percussion, and indoor winds.", "Dayton is the home to several ballet companies including:* The Dayton Ballet, one of the oldest professional dance companies in the United States.", "The Dayton Ballet runs the Dayton Ballet School, the oldest dance school in Dayton and one of the oldest in the country.", "It is the only ballet school in the Miami Valley associated with a professional dance company.", "* The Dayton Contemporary Dance Company (established in 1968), which hosts the largest repertory of African-American-based contemporary dance in the world.", "The company travels nationally and internationally and has been recognized by critics worldwide.Front Street, the largest artists' collective in Dayton, is housed in three industrial buildings on East Second Street.===Entertainment===Thunderbirds at the 2009 Dayton Air ShowThe Vectren Dayton Air Show is an annual air show that takes place at the Dayton International Airport.", "The Vectren Dayton Airshow is one of the largest air shows in the United States.The Dayton area is served by Five Rivers MetroParks, encompassing over 23 facilities for year-round recreation, education, and conservation.", "In cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, the MetroParks maintains over of paved, multi-use scenic trails that connect Montgomery County with Greene, Miami, Warren, and Butler counties.Dayton was home to a thriving funk music scene from the 1970s to the early 1980s, that included bands such as Ohio Players, Roger Troutman & Zapp, Lakeside, Sun, Dayton, Heatwave, and Slave.Dayton was also the birthplace to several influential indie and punk bands such as The Breeders, Guided by Voices, and Brainiac.", "From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the National Folk Festival.", "Since then, the annual Cityfolk Festival has continued to bring folk, ethnic, and world music and arts to Dayton.", "The Five Rivers MetroParks also owns and operates the PNC Second Street Market near downtown Dayton.The Dayton area hosts several arenas and venues.", "South of Dayton in Kettering is the Fraze Pavilion, whose notable performances have included the Backstreet Boys, Boston, and Steve Miller Band.", "South of downtown, on the banks of the Great Miami River, is the University of Dayton Arena, home venue for the University of Dayton Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts.", "It also hosts the Winter Guard International championships, at which hundreds of percussion and color guard ensembles from around the world compete.", "In addition, the Dayton Amateur Radio Association hosts the annual Dayton Hamvention, North America's largest hamfest, at the Greene County Fairgrounds in nearby Xenia.", "The Nutter Center, which is just east of Dayton in the suburb of Fairborn, is the home arena for athletics of Wright State University and the former Dayton Bombers hockey team.", "This venue is used for many concerts, community events, and various national traveling shows and performances.The Oregon District is a historic residential and commercial district in southeast downtown Dayton.", "The district is populated with art galleries, specialty shops, pubs, nightclubs, and coffee houses.The city of Dayton is also host to yearly festivals, such as the Dayton Celtic Festival, the Dayton Blues Festival, Dayton Music Fest, Urban Nights, Women in Jazz, the African American and Cultural Festival, and the Dayton Reggae Fest.===Cuisine===The city's fine dining restaurants include The Pine Club, a nationally known steakhouse.Dayton-style pizzaDayton is home to a variety of pizza chains that have become woven into local culture, the most notable of which are Cassano's and Marion's Piazza, both of which produce Dayton-style pizza, which has a thin, crisp, salty crust dusted on the bottom with cornmeal and topped with a thin layer of thick unsweetened sauce.", "Cheese and other topping ingredients are heavily distributed and spread edge-to-edge with no outer rim of crust, and the finished pizza is cut into bite-size squares.Notable Dayton-based restaurant chains include Hot Head Burritos.In addition to restaurants, the city is also home to Esther Price Candies, a candy and chocolate company, and Mike-sells, the oldest potato chip company in the United States.The city began developing a reputation for its number of breweries and craft beer venues by the late 2010s.===Religion===Many major religions are represented in Dayton.", "Christianity is represented in Dayton by dozens of denominations and their respective churches.", "Notable Dayton churches include the First Lutheran Church, Sacred Heart Church, and Ginghamsburg Church.", "Dayton's Muslim community is largely represented by the Islamic Society of Greater Dayton (ISGD), a Muslim community that includes a mosque on Josie Street.", "Dayton is also home to the United Theological Seminary, one of 13 seminaries affiliated with the United Methodist Church.", "Judaism is represented by Temple Israel.", "Hinduism is represented by the Hindu Temple of Dayton.", "Old North Dayton also has a number of Catholic churches built by immigrants from Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Germany.===Tourism===Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical ParkTourism also accounts for one out of every 14 private sector jobs in the county.", "Tourism in the Dayton region is led by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, the largest and oldest military aviation museum in the world.", "The museum draws over 1.3 million visitors per year and is one of the most-visited tourist attractions in Ohio.", "The museum houses the National Aviation Hall of Fame.Other museums also play significant roles in the tourism and economy of the Dayton area.", "The Dayton Art Institute, a museum of fine arts, owns collections containing more than 20,000 objects spanning 5,000 years of art and archaeological history.", "The Dayton Art Institute was rated one of the top 10 best art museums in the United States for children.", "The Boonshoft Museum of Discovery is a children's museum of science with numerous exhibits, one of which includes an indoor zoo with nearly 100 different animals.There are also some notable historical museums in the region.", "The Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, operated by the National Park Service, commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar.", "The Wright brothers' famous Wright Flyer III aircraft is housed in a museum at Carillon Historical Park.", "Dayton is also home to America's Packard Museum, which contains many restored historical Packard vehicles.", "SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park, a partially reconstructed 12th-century prehistoric American Indian village, is on the south end of Dayton; it is organized around a central plaza dominated by wood posts forming an astronomical calendar.", "The park includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley." ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Dayton was named National Geographic's outdoor adventure capital of the Midwest in 2019 due in large part to the metropolitan area's revitalized Five Rivers MetroPark, extensive bicycle and jogging trail system, urban green spaces, lakes and camping areas.Dayton Regional Bike Trail MapIn cooperation with the Miami Conservancy District, Five Rivers MetroParks hosts 340 miles of paved trails, the largest network of paved off-street trails in the United States.", "The regional trail system represents over 35% of the 900 miles in Ohio's off-street trail network.", "In 2010, the city of Troy was named \"bike friendly\" by the League of American Bicyclists, which gave the city the organization's bronze designation.", "The honorable mention made Dayton one of two cities in Ohio to receive the award, the other being Columbus, and one of 15 cities nationwide.===Sports===The Dayton area is home to several minor league and semi pro teams, as well as NCAA Division I sports programs.", "Club League Sport Venue Established Dayton Dragons Midwest League Baseball Day Air Ballpark 2000 Gem City Roller Derby Women's Flat Track Derby Association Roller Derby Dayton Convention Center 2006 Dayton Dutch Lions USL League Two Soccer DOC Stadium 2009 Dayton Dynamo National Premier Soccer League Soccer Roger Glass Stadium 2015 Dayton Flyers NCAA Division I (multiple) Welcome Stadium (Football), University of Dayton Arena (Basketball), Thomas J. Frericks Center (Volleyball), Woerner Field (Baseball)1903 Wright State Raiders NCAA Division I (multiple) Ervin J. Nutter Center (Basketball), Alumni Field (Soccer), Nischwitz Stadium (Baseball)1968 Dayton Area Rugby Club Midwest Division IIRugby UnionRugby SevensDayton Rugby Grounds1969The Dayton Dragons professional baseball team is a Class A minor league affiliate for the Cincinnati Reds.", "The Dayton Dragons are the first (and only) team in minor league baseball history to sell out an entire season before it began and was voted as one of the top 10 hottest tickets to get in all of professional sports by Sports Illustrated.", "The Dayton Dragons 815 consecutive sellouts surpassed the NBA's Portland Trail Blazers for the longest sellout streak across all professional sports in the U.S.UD Arena during a Dayton Flyers men's basketball game in 2016The University of Dayton and Wright State University both host NCAA basketball.", "The University of Dayton Arena has hosted more games in the NCAA men's basketball tournament over its history than any other venue.", "UD Arena is also the site of the First Round games of the NCAA Tournament.", "In 2012, eight teams competed for the final four spots in the NCAA basketball tournament.", "Wright State University's NCAA men's basketball is the Wright State Raiders and the University of Dayton's NCAA men's basketball team is the Dayton Flyers.The Dayton Gems were a minor league ice hockey team in the International Hockey League from 1964 to 1977, 1979 to 1980, and most recently 2009 to 2012.The Dayton Bombers were an ECHL ice hockey team from 1991 to 2009.They most recently played the North Division of the ECHL's American Conference.", "In June 2009, it was announced the Bombers would turn in their membership back to the league.Despite the folding of the Bombers, hockey remained in Dayton as the Dayton Gems of the International Hockey League were formed in the fall of 2009 at Hara Arena.", "The Gems folded after the 2011–12 season.", "Shortly after the Gems folded, it was announced a new team, the Dayton Demonz, would begin play in 2012 in the Federal Hockey League (FHL).", "The Demonz folded in 2015 and were immediately replaced by the Dayton Demolition, also in the FHL.", "However, the Demolition would cease operations after only one season when Hara Arena decided to close due to financial difficulties.Dayton hosted the first American Professional Football Association game (precursor to the NFL).", "The game was played at Triangle Park between the Dayton Triangles and the Columbus Panhandles on October 3, 1920, and is considered one of the first professional football games ever played.", "Football teams in the Dayton area include the Dayton Flyers and the Dayton Sharks.The Dayton region is also known for the many golf courses and clubs that it hosts.", "The Miami Valley Golf Club, Moraine Country Club, NCR Country Club, and the Pipestone Golf Course are some of the more notable courses.", "Also, several PGA Championships have been held at area golf courses.", "The Miami Valley Golf Club hosted the 1957 PGA Championship, the Moraine Country Club hosted the 1945 PGA Championship, and the NCR Country club hosted the 1969 PGA Championship.", "Additionally, NCR CC hosted the 1986 U.S. Women's Open, the 2005 U.S. Senior Open, the 2013 State Team Championships and most recently the 2022 Senior Women's Open.", "Other notable courses include the Yankee Trace Golf Club, the Beavercreek Golf Club, Dayton Meadowbrook Country Club, Sycamore Creek Country Club, Heatherwoode Golf Club, Community Golf Course, and Kitty Hawk Golf Course.The city of Dayton is the home to the Dayton Area Rugby Club which hosts their home games at the Dayton Rugby Grounds.", "As of 2018, the club fields two men's and one women's side for Rugby Union and several Rugby Sevens sides.", "The club also hosts the annual Gem City 7's tournament." ], [ "Government", "The Dayton City Commission is composed of the mayor and four city commissioners.", "Each city commission member is elected at-large on a non-partisan basis for four-year, overlapping terms.", "All policy items are decided by the city commission, which is empowered by the City Charter to pass ordinances and resolutions, adopt regulations, and appoint the city manager.", "The city manager is responsible for budgeting and implementing policies and initiatives.", "Dayton was the first large American city to adopt the city manager (Henry Matson Waite (engineer)), form of municipal government, in 1913." ], [ "Education", "===Public schools===Dayton Public Schools operates 34 schools that serve 16,855 students, including:* Belmont High* Meadowdale High* Paul Laurence Dunbar High* Ponitz Career Technology Center* Stivers School for the Arts* Thurgood Marshall High===Private schools===The city of Dayton has more than 35 private schools within the city, including:* Archbishop Alter High School* Carroll High School* Chaminade Julienne Catholic High School* Dayton Christian School* Dominion Academy of Dayton* The Miami Valley School* Spring Valley Academy===Charter schools===Dayton has 33 charter schools.", "Three of the top five charter schools named in 2011 are K–8 schools managed by National Heritage Academies.", "Notable charter schools include:* Dayton Early College Academy* Emerson Academy* North Dayton School of Discovery* Pathway School of Discovery* Richard Allen Schools===Colleges and universities===St.", "Mary's Hall and the Immaculate Conception Chapel at the University of DaytonThe Dayton area was ranked tenth for higher education among metropolitan areas in the United States by ''Forbes'' in 2009.The city is home to two major universities.", "The University of Dayton is a private, Catholic institution founded in 1850 by the Marianist order.", "It has the only American Bar Association (ABA)-approved law school in the Dayton area.", "The University of Dayton is Ohio's largest private university and is also home to the University of Dayton Research Institute, which ranks third in the nation for sponsored materials research, and the Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at Dayton, which focuses on human tissue regeneration.The public Wright State University became a state university in 1967.Wright State University established the National Center for Medical Readiness, a national training program for disaster preparedness and relief.", "Wright State's Boonshoft School of Medicine is the Dayton area's only medical school and is a leader in biomedical research.Dayton is also home to Sinclair Community College, the largest community college at a single location in Ohio and one of the nation's largest community colleges.", "Sinclair is acclaimed as one of the country's best community colleges.", "Sinclair was founded as the YMCA college in 1887.Other schools just outside Dayton that shape the educational landscape are Antioch College and Antioch University, both in Yellow Springs, Central State University in Wilberforce, Kettering College of Medical Arts and School of Advertising Art in Kettering, DeVry University in Beavercreek, Cedarville University, Clark State Community College and Wittenberg University in Springfield.", "The Air Force Institute of Technology, which was founded in 1919 and serves as a graduate school for the United States Air Force, is at the nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.===Institutions===* Boonshoft School of Medicine* Dayton Art Institute* Ohio Institute of Photography and Technology* School of Advertising Art* Wright State University" ], [ "Media", "Dayton Daily News building at 1611 S. Main St.===Print===Dayton is served in print by ''The Dayton Daily News'', the city's sole remaining daily newspaper.", "The ''Dayton Daily News'' is owned by Cox Enterprises.", "The Dayton region's main business newspaper is the ''Dayton Business Journal''.", "The ''Dayton City Paper,'' a community paper focused on music, art, and independent thought ceased operation in 2018.", "''The Dayton Weekly News'' has been published since 1993, providing news and information to Dayton's African-American community.There are numerous magazines produced in and for the Dayton region.", "''The Dayton Magazine'' provides insight into arts, food, and events.", "''Focus on Business'' is published by the Chamber of Commerce to provide awareness of companies and initiatives affecting the regional economy===Television===Nielsen Media Research ranked the 11-county Dayton television market as the No.", "62 market in the United States.", "The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including: WDTN, channel 2 – NBC, operated by Nexstar Media Group; WHIO-TV, channel 7 – CBS, operated by Cox Media Group; WPTD, channel 16 – PBS, operated by ThinkTV, which also operates WPTO, assigned to Oxford; WKEF, channel 22 – ABC/Fox, operated by Sinclair Broadcasting; WBDT, channel 26 – The CW, operated by Vaughan Media (a shell corporation of Nexstar), assigned to Springfield; WKOI-TV, channel 43 – Ion Television, assigned to Richmond, Indiana; and WRGT-TV, channel 45 – My Network TV, operated under a local marketing agreement by Sinclair Broadcasting.", "The nationally syndicated morning talk show ''The Daily Buzz'' originated from WBDT, the former ACME Communications property in Miamisburg, before moving to its current home in Florida.===Radio===Dayton is also served by 42 AM and FM radio stations directly, and numerous other stations are heard from elsewhere in southwest Ohio, which serve outlying suburbs and adjoining counties." ], [ "Transportation", "===Public transit===Share of the City Railway Company (of Dayton, Ohio), issued May 2, 1899The Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area.", "In addition to routes covered by traditional diesel-powered buses, RTA has several electric trolley bus routes.", "The Dayton trolleybus system is the second longest-running of the five remaining trolleybus systems in the U.S., having entered service in 1933.It is the present manifestation of an electric transit service that has operated continuously in Dayton since 1888.Dayton operates a Greyhound Station which provides inter-city bus transportation to and from Dayton.", "The hub is in the Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority North-West hub in Trotwood.===Airports===Terminal building at Dayton International AirportDayton International Airport lies in a northern exclave of the city and offers service to 21 markets through 10 airlines.", "In 2008, it served 2.9 million passengers.", "The Dayton International Airport is also a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, United States Postal Service, and major commercial freight carriers.The Dayton area also has several regional airports.", "The Dayton–Wright Brothers Airport is a general aviation airport owned by the City of Dayton south of the central business district of Dayton on Springboro Pike in Miami Township.", "It serves as the reliever airport for Dayton International Airport.", "The airport primarily serves corporate and personal aircraft users.", "The Dahio Trotwood Airport, also known as Dayton-New Lebanon Airport, is a privately owned, public-use airport west of the central business district of Dayton.", "The Moraine Airpark is a privately owned, public-use airport southwest of the city of Dayton.===Major highways===The Dayton region is primarily served by three interstates:* Interstate 75 runs north to south through the city of Dayton and many of Dayton's north and south suburbs, including Kettering and Centerville south of Dayton and Vandalia, Tipp City, and Troy north of Dayton.", "* Interstate 70 is a major east–west interstate that runs through many of Dayton's east and west suburbs, including Huber Heights, Butler Township, Englewood, and Brookville, and intersects with I-75 in Vandalia, Ohio, just north of the city.", "This intersection of I-70 and I-75 is also known as \"Freedom Veterans Crossroads\", which was officially named by the U.S. Department of Transportation in 2004.I-70 is the major route to the airport.", "* Interstate 675 is a partial interstate ring on the southeastern and eastern suburbs of Dayton.", "It runs northeast to south and connects to I-70 to the northeast and I-75 to the south.Other major routes for the region include:* US 35 is a major limited access east–west highway that bisects the city.", "It is most widely used between Drexel and Xenia.", "* Route 40 is a major east–west highway that runs parallel to (and 2 miles north of) I-70* State Route 4 is a freeway that is most heavily traveled between I-75 and I-70.", "* State Route 444 is north–south state highway.", "Its southern terminus is at its interchange with Route 4, and its northern terminus is at Interstate 675.This limited-access road serves Dayton and Fairborn and is a significant route to access points serving Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.From 2010 through 2017, the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) performed a $533 million construction project to modify, reconstruct and widen I-75 through downtown Dayton, from Edwin C Moses Blvd.", "to Stanley Avenue.===Rail===Dayton hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals.", "Two Class I railroads, CSX and Norfolk Southern Railway, operate switching yards in the city.Formerly the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, New York Central Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad, and afterward, Amtrak made long-distance passenger train stops at Dayton Union Station on S. Sixth Street.", "The last train leaving there was the ''National Limited'' in October 1979." ], [ "Sister cities", "Holon, IsraelDayton's sister cities are:Sarajevo, Bosnia and HerzegovinaAugsburg, GermanyHolon, IsraelMonrovia, LiberiaŌiso, JapanRushmoor, England" ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also", "* List of mayors of Dayton, Ohio* List of people from Dayton, Ohio* List of U.S. cities with large Black populations* National Aviation Hall of Fame* Politics of Dayton, Ohio* USS ''Dayton'', 2 ships" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Conover, Charlotte Reeve.", "''Dayton, Ohio : an intimate history'' (1995) online* Drury, Augustus Waldo.", "''History of the City of Dayton and Montgomery County, Ohio'' (S. J. Clarke Publishing Company, 1909).", "online* Funk, Nellis R. ''A Pictorial History of the Great Dayton Flood, March 25, 26, 27, 1913'' (1913) online; a primary source* Millsap, Adam.", "\"How the Gem city lost its luster and how it can get it back: A case study of Dayton, Ohio.\"", "''Mercatus Research Paper'' (2017).", "online* Pocock, Emil.", "\"Popular Roots of Jacksonian Democracy: The Case of Dayton, Ohio, 1815-1830.\"", "''Journal of the Early Republic'' 9.4 (1989): 489–515.online* Sealander, Judith.", "''Grand Plans: Business Progressivism and Social Change in Ohio's Miami Valley, 1890-1929'' (1988) on Dayton and surrounding region.", "* Sharts, Joseph W. ''Biography Of Dayton - An Economic Interpretation of Local History'' (1922) online* Walker, John T. \"Socialism in Dayton, Ohio, 1912 to 1925: Its membership, organization, and demise.\"", "''Labor History'' 26.3 (1985): 384–404.", "* Watras, Joseph.", "\"The Racial Desegregation of Dayton, Ohio, Public Schools, 1966–2008.\"", "''Ohio History'' 117.1 (2010): 93–107.online" ], [ "External links", "* City website* Dayton Area Chamber of Commerce* Greater Dayton CVB" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diode" ], [ "Introduction", "Various semiconductor diodes.", "Bottom: A bridge rectifier.", "In most diodes, a white or black painted band identifies the cathode into which electrons will flow when the diode is conducting.", "Electron flow is the reverse of conventional current flow.Structure of a vacuum tube diode.", "The filament itself may be the cathode, or more commonly (as shown here) used to heat a separate metal tube which serves as the cathode.A '''diode''' is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance).", "It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.A semiconductor diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals.", "It has an exponential current–voltage characteristic.", "Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices.", "The discovery of asymmetric electrical conduction across the contact between a crystalline mineral and a metal was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874.Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconducting materials such as gallium arsenide and germanium are also used.The obsolete '''thermionic diode''' is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate.Among many uses, diodes are found in rectifiers to convert alternating current (AC) power to direct current (DC), demodulation in radio receivers, and can even be used for logic or as temperature sensors.", "A common variant of a diode is a light-emitting diode, which is used as electric lighting and status indicators on electronic devices." ], [ "Main functions", "=== Unidirectional current flow ===The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's ''forward'' direction), while blocking it in the opposite direction (the ''reverse'' direction).", "Its hydraulic analogy is a check valve.", "This unidirectional behavior can convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification.", "As rectifiers, diodes can be used for such tasks as extracting modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.=== Threshold voltage ===A semiconductor diode's exponential current–voltage characteristic results in more complicated behavior than a simple on–off action.", "Since exponential functions can be viewed as having a \"knee\" voltage, for simplicity, a diode is commonly said to have a ''forward threshold voltage'', above which there is significant current and below which there is almost no current.", "However, this is only an approximation as the forward characteristic is gradual in its current–voltage curve.+Forward threshold voltage for various semiconductorsTypeForward threshold voltageSilicon diodes0.6 V to 0.7 VGermanium diodes0.25 V to 0.3 VSchottky diodes0.15 V to 0.45 VLight-emitting diodes (LEDs)1.6 V (red) to 4 V (violet).", "has a complete list.Since a diode's forward-direction voltage drop varies only a little with the current, and is more so a function of temperature, this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or as a somewhat imprecise voltage reference.=== Reverse breakdown ===A diode's high resistance to current flowing in the reverse direction suddenly drops to a low resistance when the reverse voltage across the diode reaches a value called the breakdown voltage.", "This effect is used to used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes) or to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes).=== Other functions ===A semiconductor diode's current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the materials during manufacture.", "These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions.", "For example, to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (light-emitting diodes).", "Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits.Diodes, both vacuum and semiconductor, can be used as shot-noise generators." ], [ "History", "Thermionic (vacuum-tube) diodes and solid-state (semiconductor) diodes were developed separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio receiver detectors.", "Until the 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequently in radios because the early point-contact semiconductor diodes were less stable.", "In addition, most receiving sets had vacuum tubes for amplification that could easily have the thermionic diodes included in the tube (for example the 12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum-tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers were capable of handling some high-voltage/high-current rectification tasks better than the semiconductor diodes (such as selenium rectifiers) that were available at that time.In 1873, Frederick Guthrie observed that a grounded, white-hot metal ball brought in close proximity to an electroscope would discharge a positively charged electroscope, but not a negatively charged electroscope.", "In 1880, Thomas Edison observed unidirectional current between heated and unheated elements in a bulb, later called Edison effect, and was granted a patent on application of the phenomenon for use in a DC voltmeter.", "About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a radio detector.", "Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on 16 November 1904 (followed by in November 1905).", "Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in almost all electronics such as radios, televisions, sound systems, and instrumentation.", "They slowly lost market share beginning in the late 1940s due to selenium rectifier technology and then to semiconductor diodes during the 1960s.", "Today they are still used in a few high power applications where their ability to withstand transient voltages and their robustness gives them an advantage over semiconductor devices, and in musical instrument and audiophile applications.In 1874, German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the \"unilateral conduction\" across a contact between a metal and a mineral.", "Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in 1894.The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and received a patent for it on 20 November 1906.Other experimenters tried a variety of other minerals as detectors.", "Semiconductor principles were unknown to the developers of these early rectifiers.", "During the 1930s understanding of physics advanced and in the mid-1930s researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized the potential of the crystal detector for application in microwave technology.", "Researchers at Bell Labs, Western Electric, MIT, Purdue and in the UK intensively developed point-contact diodes (''crystal rectifiers'' or ''crystal diodes'') during World War II for application in radar.", "After World War II, AT&T used these in its microwave towers that criss-crossed the United States, and many radar sets use them even in the 21st century.", "In 1946, Sylvania began offering the 1N34 crystal diode.", "During the early 1950s, junction diodes were developed.In 2022, the first superconducting diode effect without an external magnetic field was realized." ], [ "Etymology", "At the time of their invention, asymmetrical conduction devices were known as rectifiers.", "In 1919, the year tetrodes were invented, William Henry Eccles coined the term ''diode'' from the Greek roots ''di'' (from ''δί''), meaning 'two', and ''ode'' (from ''οδός''), meaning 'path'.", "The word ''diode'' however was already in use, as were ''triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode'', as terms of multiplex telegraphy.Although all diodes ''rectify'', ''\"rectifier\"'' usually applies to diodes used for power supply, to differentiate them from diodes intended for small signal circuits." ], [ "Vacuum tube diodes", "A thermionic diode is a thermionic-valve device consisting of a sealed, evacuated glass or metal envelope containing two electrodes: a cathode and a plate.", "The cathode is either ''indirectly heated'' or ''directly heated''.", "If indirect heating is employed, a heater is included in the envelope.In operation, the cathode is heated to red heat, around .", "A directly heated cathode is made of tungsten wire and is heated by a current passed through it from an external voltage source.", "An indirectly heated cathode is heated by infrared radiation from a nearby heater that is formed of Nichrome wire and supplied with current provided by an external voltage source.A vacuum tube containing two power diodesThe operating temperature of the cathode causes it to release electrons into the vacuum, a process called thermionic emission.", "The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth metals, such as barium and strontium oxides.", "These have a low work function, meaning that they more readily emit electrons than would the uncoated cathode.The plate, not being heated, does not emit electrons; but is able to absorb them.The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and the plate.", "When the plate voltage is positive with respect to the cathode, the plate electrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the tube from cathode to plate.", "When the plate voltage is negative with respect to the cathode, no electrons are emitted by the plate, so no current can pass from the plate to the cathode.==Semiconductor diodes==Close-up of an EFD108 germanium point-contact diode in DO7 glass package, showing the sharp metal wire (''cat whisker'') that forms the semiconductor junction.===Point-contact diodes===Point-contact diodes were developed starting in the 1930s, out of the early crystal detector technology, and are now generally used in the 3 to 30 gigahertz range.", "Point-contact diodes use a small diameter metal wire in contact with a semiconductor crystal, and are of either ''non-welded'' contact type or ''welded contact'' type.", "Non-welded contact construction utilizes the Schottky barrier principle.", "The metal side is the pointed end of a small diameter wire that is in contact with the semiconductor crystal.", "In the welded contact type, a small P region is formed in the otherwise N-type crystal around the metal point during manufacture by momentarily passing a relatively large current through the device.", "Point contact diodes generally exhibit lower capacitance, higher forward resistance and greater reverse leakage than junction diodes.===Junction diodes=======p–n junction diode====A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon, but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used.", "Impurities are added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called an n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called a p-type semiconductor.", "When the n-type and p-type materials are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons occurs from the n to the p side resulting in a third region between the two where no charge carriers are present.", "This region is called the depletion region because there are no charge carriers (neither electrons nor holes) in it.", "The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions.", "The boundary between these two regions, called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place.", "When a sufficiently higher electrical potential is applied to the P side (the anode) than to the N side (the cathode), it allows electrons to flow through the depletion region from the N-type side to the P-type side.", "The junction does not allow the flow of electrons in the opposite direction when the potential is applied in reverse, creating, in a sense, an electrical check valve.====Schottky diode====Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor junction rather than a p–n junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.===Current–voltage characteristic===A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its current–voltage characteristic.", "The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers through the so-called ''depletion layer'' or ''depletion region'' that exists at the p–n junction between differing semiconductors.", "When a p–n junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons \"recombine\".", "When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side.", "The region around the p–n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit.", "For each electron–hole pair recombination made, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is created in the P-doped region.", "As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination.", "At this point, there is a \"built-in\" potential across the depletion zone.A PN junction diode in low forward bias mode.", "The depletion width decreases as voltage increases.", "Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V.", "Observe the different quasi Fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red curves).====Reverse bias====If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow (unless electron–hole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light; see photodiode).", "This is called the ''reverse bias'' phenomenon.====Forward bias====However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in a substantial electric current through the p–n junction (i.e.", "substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine at the junction).", "Thus, if an external voltage greater than and opposite to the built-in voltage is applied, a current will flow and the diode is said to be \"turned on\" as it has been given an external ''forward bias''.At higher currents, the forward voltage drop of the diode increases.", "A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at full rated current for power diodes.", "(See also: )==== Operating regions ====Current–voltage characteristic of a p–n junction diode showing three regions: '''breakdown''', '''reverse''' biased, '''forward''' biased.", "The exponential's \"knee\" is at Vd.", "The leveling off region which occurs at larger forward currents is not shown.A diode's current–voltage characteristic can be approximated by four operating regions.", "From lower to higher bias voltages, these are:* '''Breakdown''': At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage (PIV), a process called reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the p–n junction) that usually damages the device permanently.", "The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in that manner.", "In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable.", "A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p–n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse voltage is \"clamped\" to a known value (called the ''Zener voltage''), and avalanche does not occur.", "Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power they can withstand in the clamped reverse-voltage region.", "Also, following the end of forwarding conduction in any diode, there is reverse current for a short time.", "The device does not attain its full blocking capability until the reverse current ceases.", "* '''Reverse biased''': For a bias between breakdown and 0 V, the reverse current is very small.", "For a normal P–N rectifier diode, the reverse current through the device in the micro-ampere (μA) range is very low.", "However, this is temperature dependent, and at sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA or more).", "There is also a tiny surface leakage current caused by electrons simply going around the diode as though it were an imperfect insulator.", "* '''Forward biased''': The current–voltage curve is exponential in accordance with the Shockley diode equation.", "When the forward voltage is smaller than the barrier potential of the p-n junction, this current is relatively small, at which point the diode starts to conduct significantly, which gives rise to the names ''forward threshold voltage'' or ''cut-in voltage.''", "When plotting using a large linear current scale, this voltage level appears at the smooth \"knee\" of a sharp exponential rise, so it may be called the ''knee voltage''.", "::: Note: This voltage may loosely be referred to simply as the diode's ''forward voltage drop'' (or just ''voltage drop'', hence the label Vd in the picture), since a consequence of the steepness of the exponential is that a diode's voltage drop will not significantly exceed the threshold voltage under normal forward bias operating conditions.", "Datasheets typically quote a typical or maximum ''forward voltage'' (VF) for a specified current and temperature (e.g.", "20 mA and 25 '''°'''C for LEDs), so the user has a guarantee about where in the knee a certain amount of current will kick in.", "* '''Leveling off''': At larger forward currents the current–voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of the bulk semiconductor.", "The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance.", "This region is particularly important for power diodes and can be modeled by a ''Shockley ideal diode'' in series with a fixed resistor.===Shockley diode equation===The ''Shockley ideal diode equation'' or the ''diode law'' (named after the bipolar junction transistor co-inventor William Bradford Shockley) models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of diodes in moderate forward or reverse bias.", "The article Shockley diode equation provides details.===Small-signal behavior===At forward voltages less than the saturation voltage, the voltage versus current characteristic curve of most diodes is not a straight line.", "The current can be approximated by as explained in the Shockley diode equation article.In detector and mixer applications, the current can be estimated by a Taylor's series.", "The odd terms can be omitted because they produce frequency components that are outside the pass band of the mixer or detector.", "Even terms beyond the second derivative usually need not be included because they are small compared to the second order term.", "The desired current component is approximately proportional to the square of the input voltage, so the response is called ''square law'' in this region.===Reverse-recovery effect===Following the end of forwarding conduction in a p–n type diode, a reverse current can flow for a short time.", "The device does not attain its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction is depleted.The effect can be significant when switching large currents very quickly.", "A certain amount of \"reverse recovery time\" r (on the order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be required to remove the reverse recovery charge r from the diode.", "During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the reverse direction.", "This might give rise to a large current in the reverse direction for a short time while the diode is reverse biased.", "The magnitude of such a reverse current is determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and the diode is said to be in the storage-phase.", "In certain real-world cases it is important to consider the losses that are incurred by this non-ideal diode effect.", "However, when the slew rate of the current is not so severe (e.g.", "Line frequency) the effect can be safely ignored.", "For most applications, the effect is also negligible for Schottky diodes.The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for the generation of extremely short pulses.===Types of semiconductor diode===Current–voltage curves of several types of diodesNormal (p–n) diodes, which operate as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or germanium.", "Before the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous oxide and later selenium was used.", "Their low efficiency required a much higher forward voltage to be applied (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per \"cell\", with multiple cells stacked so as to increase the peak inverse voltage rating for application in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than the later silicon diode of the same current ratings would require.", "The vast majority of all diodes are the p–n diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits, which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.", ";Avalanche diodes:These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage.", "These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism: the ''avalanche effect''.", "This occurs when the reverse electric field applied across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current.", "Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed.", "The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, resulting in many collisions between them on the way through the channel.", "The only practical difference between the two types is they have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.", ";Constant-current diodes:These are actually JFETs with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode.", "They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value.", "Also called ''CLDs'', ''constant-current diodes'', ''diode-connected transistors'', or ''current-regulating diodes''.", ";Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes:These are point-contact diodes.", "The 1N21 series and others are used in mixer and detector applications in radar and microwave receivers.", "The 1N34A is another example of a crystal diode.", ";Gunn diodes: These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance.", "With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.", ";Light-emitting diodes (LEDs):In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, charge carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side.", "Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced.", "The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time.", "All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; \"white\" LEDs are actually a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating, or combinations of three LEDs of a different color.", "LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications.", "An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.", ";Laser diodes: When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed.", "Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.", ";Thermal diodes: This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature because of their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling.", "Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductors, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behavior of charge carriers in N and P-type semiconductor to move heat.", ";Photodiodes: All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation.", "This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light-blocking material.", "Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light).", "A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications.", "Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array.", "These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.", ";PIN diodes:A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or ''intrinsic'', layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure.", "They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators.", "They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors.", "PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages.", "Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.", ";Schottky diodes:Schottky diodes are constructed from metal to semiconductor contact.", "They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes.", "Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation.", "They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes.", "Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes—so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes.", "They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.", "; Super barrier diodes: Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode.", ";Gold-doped diodes: As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps the fast recombination of minority carriers.", "This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop.", "Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes).", "They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes).", "A typical example is the 1N914.", "; Snap-off or step recovery diodes: The term ''step recovery'' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices.", "After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform).", "SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.", ";Stabistors or ''forward reference diodes'': The term ''stabistor'' refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics.", "These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.", ";Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS): These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients.", "Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.", ";Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes:These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling, allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits.", "Because of the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments.", "Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.", ";Varicap or varactor diodes: These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors.", "These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly on to the frequency.", "They also enabled tunable oscillators in the early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.", ";Zener diodes: These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes.", "This effect called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference.", "The term Zener diodes is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes are used for breakdown voltages above that value.", "In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient response of the diodes to near-zero.", "Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above).", "Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark).===Graphic symbols===The symbol used to represent a particular type of diode in a circuit diagram conveys the general electrical function to the reader.", "There are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor.", "The triangle in the symbols points to the forward direction, i.e.", "in the direction of conventional current flow.File:Diode symbol.svg\|DiodeFile:LED symbol.svg\|Light-emitting diode (LED)File:Photodiode symbol.svg\|PhotodiodeFile:Schottky diode symbol.svg\|Schottky diodeFile:Transient voltage suppression diode symbol.svg\|Transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS)File:Tunnel diode symbol.svg\|Tunnel diodeFile:Varicap symbol.svg\|VaricapFile:Zener diode symbol.svg\|Zener diodeFile:Diode pinout en fr.svg\|Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol.", "Thin bar depicts the cathode.===Numbering and coding schemes===There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC standard and the European Pro Electron standard:====EIA/JEDEC====The standardized 1N-series numbering ''EIA370'' system was introduced in the US by EIA/JEDEC (Joint Electron Device Engineering Council) about 1960.Most diodes have a 1-prefix designation (e.g., 1N4003).", "Among the most popular in this series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal), 1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rectifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power rectifier).====JIS====The JIS semiconductor designation system has all semiconductor diode designations starting with \"1S\".====Pro Electron====The European Pro Electron coding system for active components was introduced in 1966 and comprises two letters followed by the part code.", "The first letter represents the semiconductor material used for the component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and the second letter represents the general function of the part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable capacitance, X = multiplier, Y = rectifier and Z = voltage reference); for example:* AA-series germanium low-power/signal diodes (e.g., AA119)* BA-series silicon low-power/signal diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching diode)* BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g., BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)* BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g., BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)Other common numbering/coding systems (generally manufacturer-driven) include:* GD-series germanium diodes (e.g., GD9)this is a very old coding system* OA-series germanium diodes (e.g., OA47)a coding sequence developed by Mullard, a UK company" ], [ "Related devices", "* Rectifier* Transistor* Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)* TRIAC* DIAC* VaristorIn optics, an equivalent device for the diode but with laser light would be the optical isolator, also known as an optical diode, that allows light to only pass in one direction.", "It uses a Faraday rotator as the main component." ], [ "Applications", "===Radio demodulation===envelope demodulator circuit.The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts.", "The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the crystal detector article.", "In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal.", "The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving only the positive peaks of the carrier wave.", "The audio is then extracted from the rectified carrier wave using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves via audio speaker.In microwave and millimeter wave technology, beginning in the 1930s, researchers improved and miniaturized the crystal detector.", "Point contact diodes (''crystal diodes'') and Schottky diodes are used in radar, microwave and millimeter wave detectors.===Power conversion===Schematic of basic ac-to-dc power supplyRectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC).", "Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator or earlier, dynamo.", "Similarly, diodes are also used in ''Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers'' to convert AC into higher DC voltages.===Reverse-voltage protection===Since most electronic circuits can be damaged when the polarity of their power supply inputs are reversed, a series diode is sometimes used to protect against such situations.", "This concept is known by multiple naming variations that mean the same thing: reverse voltage protection, reverse polarity protection, and reverse battery protection.===Over-voltage protection===Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices.", "They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances.", "When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting).", "For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur.", "(A diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode).", "Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors.", "Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see Diode types above).===Logic gates===Diode-resistor logic constructs AND and OR logic gates.", "Functional completeness can be achieved by adding an active device to provide inversion (as done with diode-transistor logic).=== Ionizing radiation detectors ===In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation.", "In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors.This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation.", "A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volt, s of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material.", "If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer, etc.These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current.", "They are often cooled by liquid nitrogen.", "For longer-range (about a centimeter) particles, they need a very large depletion depth and large area.", "For short-range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin.", "The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimeter).", "Germanium and silicon are common materials.", "Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.They have a finite life, especially when detecting heavy particles, because of radiation damage.", "Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert gamma rays to electron showers.Semiconductor detectors for high-energy particles are used in large numbers.", "Because of energy loss fluctuations, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.===Temperature measurements===A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a silicon bandgap temperature sensor.", "From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above, it might ''appear'' that the voltage has a ''positive'' temperature coefficient (at a constant current), but usually the variation of the reverse saturation current term is more significant than the variation in the thermal voltage term.", "Most diodes therefore have a ''negative'' temperature coefficient, typically −2 mV/°C for silicon diodes.", "The temperature coefficient is approximately constant for temperatures above about 20 kelvin.", "Some graphs are given for 1N400x series, and CY7 cryogenic temperature sensor.===Current steering===Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions.", "To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery.", "An uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that the current is only drawn from the battery when necessary.", "Likewise, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics.", "Normally, both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy-duty split-charge diode is used to prevent the higher-charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower-charge battery when the alternator is not running.Diodes are also used in electronic musical keyboards.", "To reduce the amount of wiring needed in electronic musical keyboards, these instruments often use keyboard matrix circuits.", "The keyboard controller scans the rows and columns to determine which note the player has pressed.", "The problem with matrix circuits is that, when several notes are pressed at once, the current can flow backward through the circuit and trigger \"phantom keys\" that cause \"ghost\" notes to play.", "To avoid triggering unwanted notes, most keyboard matrix circuits have diodes soldered with the switch under each key of the musical keyboard.", "The same principle is also used for the switch matrix in solid-state pinball machines.===Waveform clipper===Diodes can be used to limit the positive or negative excursion of a signal to a prescribed voltage.===Clamper===This simple diode clamp will clamp the negative peaks of the incoming waveform to the common rail voltageA diode clamp circuit can take a periodic alternating current signal that oscillates between positive and negative values, and vertically displace it such that either the positive or the negative peaks occur at a prescribed level.", "The clamper does not restrict the peak-to-peak excursion of the signal, it moves the whole signal up or down so as to place the peaks at the reference level.=== Computing exponentials & logarithms ===The diode's exponential current–voltage relationship is exploited to evaluate exponentiation and its inverse function the logarithm using analog voltage signals (see )." ], [ "Abbreviations", "Diodes are usually referred to as ''D'' for diode on PCBs.", "Sometimes the abbreviation ''CR'' for ''crystal rectifier'' is used." ], [ "See also", "* Active rectification* Diode modelling* Fast/ultrafast diode* Flame rectification* Lambda diode* Lr-diode* p–n junction* Small-signal model" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "; Historical circuit books* ''50 Simple LED Circuits''; 1st Ed; R.N.", "Soar; Babani Press; 62 pages; 1977; .", "(archive)* ''38 Practical Tested Diode Circuits For the Home Constructor''; 1st Ed; Bernard Babani; Krisson Printing; 48 pages; 1972.", "(archive)* ''Diode Circuits Handbook''; 1st Ed; Rufus Turner; Howard Sams & Co; 128 pages; 1963; LCCN 63-13904.", "(archive)* ''40 Uses for Germanium Diodes''; 2nd Ed; Sylvania Electric Products; 47 pages; 1949.", "(archive);Historical periodicals* ''Rectifier Applications Handbook''; On Semiconductor; 270 pages; 2001.", "(archive)* ''Silicon Rectifier Handbook''; 1st Ed; Bob Dale; Motorola; 213 pages; 1966.", "(archive)* ''Electronic Rectification''; F.G. Spreadbury; D. Van Nostrand Co; 1962.", "* ''Zener Diode Handbook''; International Rectifier; 96 pages; 1960.", "* ''F.T.", "Selenium Rectifier Handbook''; 2nd Ed; Federal Telephone and Radio; 80 pages; 1953.", "(archive)* ''S.T.", "Selenium Rectifier Handbook''; 1st Ed; Sarkes Tarzian; 80 pages; 1950.", "(archive);Historical databooks* Discrete Databook; 1989; National Semiconductor (now Texas Instruments)* Discrete Databook; 1985; Fairchild (now ON Semiconductor)* Discrete Databook; 1982; SGS (now STMicroelectronics)* Semiconductor Databook; 1965; Motorola (now ON Semiconductor)" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drexel University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Drexel University''' is a private research university with its main campus in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.", "Drexel's undergraduate school was founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel, a financier and philanthropist.", "Founded as '''Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry''', it was renamed '''Drexel Institute of Technology''' in 1936, before assuming its current name in 1970., more than 24,000 students were enrolled in over 70 undergraduate programs and more than 100 master's, doctoral, and professional programs at the university.", "Drexel's cooperative education program (co-op) is a unique aspect of the school's degree programs, offering students the opportunity to gain up to 18 months of paid, full-time work experience in a field relevant to their undergraduate major or graduate degree program prior to graduation." ], [ "History", "===19th century===Statue of Anthony J. Drexel by Moses J. Ezekiel, 1904.Moved to the Drexel campus in 1966.The Main Building, dedicated in 1891The interior of Drexel University's Main Building as seen in 2023Monumental conical pendulum clock by Eugène Farcot and sculpture by Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, which was donated to the university in 1912Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry by Anthony J. Drexel, a Philadelphia financier and philanthropist.", "The original mission of the institution was to provide educational opportunities in the \"practical arts and sciences\" for women and men of all backgrounds.", "===20th century===In 1936, the institution was renamed as the Drexel Institute of Technology; in 1970, it was renamed again as the Drexel Institute of Technology.", "It gained university status, and was finally named Drexel University.Despite changes during its first century, the university has remained a privately controlled, non-sectarian, coeducational center of higher learning committed to practical education and hands-on experience in an occupational setting.", "The central aspect of Drexel University's focus on career preparation, in the form of its cooperative education program, was introduced in 1919.Participating students alternate periods of classroom-based study with periods of full-time, practical work experience related to one's academic major and career interests.Between 1995 and 2009, Drexel University underwent a period of significant change to its programs, enrollment, and facilities under the leadership of Dr. Constantine Papadakis, the university's president during that time.", "Papadakis oversaw Drexel's largest expansion in its history, with a 471 percent increase in its endowment and a 102 percent increase in student enrollment.", "He oversaw improved performance in collegiate rankings, the implementation of a more selective approach to admissions, and a more rigorous academic program at all levels.", "In 2007, Drexel was the host of the 2008 Democratic presidential candidate debate in Philadelphia, televised by MSNBC.===21st century===In 2002, Drexel University acquired and assumed management of the former MCP Hahnemann University, creating the Drexel University College of Medicine.", "In 2006, the university established the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, and in 2011 the School of Law achieved full accreditation by the American Bar Association.Constantine Papadakis died of pneumonia in April 2009 while still employed as the university's president.", "His successor, John Anderson Fry, was previously the president of Franklin & Marshall College and executive vice president of the University of Pennsylvania.", "Under Fry's leadership, Drexel has continued its expansion, including the July 2011 acquisition of The Academy of Natural Sciences." ], [ "Academics", "===Schools and colleges=======College of Arts and Sciences====The College of Arts and Sciences was formed in 1990 when Drexel merged the two existing College of Sciences and College of Humanities together.====Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts and Design====The College of Media Arts and Design \"fosters the study, exploration and management of the arts: media, design, the performing and visual\".", "The college offers 18 undergraduate programs and nine graduate programs, in modern art and design fields that range from architecture, graphic design and dance to fashion design and television management.", "Its wide range of programs has helped the college earn full accreditation from the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, the National Architectural Accrediting Board, and the Council for Interior Design Accreditation.====Bennett S. LeBow College of Business====The Bennett S. LeBow College of Business history dates to the founding in 1891 of the Drexel Institute, that later became Drexel University, and of its Business Department in 1896.Today LeBow offers thirteen undergraduate majors, eight graduate programs, and two doctoral programs; 22 percent of Drexel University's undergraduate students are enrolled in a LeBow College of Business program.", "Gerri C. Lebow Hall, home of the LeBow College of BusinessThe LeBow College of Business has been ranked as the 38th best private business school in the nation.", "Its online MBA program is ranked 14th in the world by the ''Financial Times''; the publication also ranks the undergraduate business program at LeBow as 19th in the United States.", "The part-time MBA program ranks 1st in academic quality in the 2015 edition of ''Business Insider's'' rankings.", "Undergraduate and graduate entrepreneurship programs are ranked 19th in the country by the ''Princeton Review''.====School of Economics====Economics programs at the LeBow College of Business are housed within the School of Economics.", "In addition to the undergraduate program in economics, the school is home to an M.S.", "in Economics program as well as a PhD program in economics.", "Faculty members in the School of Economics have been published in the ''American Economic Review'', ''RAND Journal of Economics'', and ''Review of Economics and Statistics.''", "The school has been ranked among the best in the world for its extensive research into matters of international trade.====College of Engineering====Drexel's College of Engineering is one of its oldest and largest academic colleges and served as the original focus of the career-oriented school upon its founding in 1891.The College of Engineering is home to several notable alumni, including two astronauts; financier Bennett S. LeBow, for whom the university's College of Business is named; and Paul Baran, inventor of the packet-switched network.", "Today, Drexel University's College of Engineering, which is home to 19 percent of the undergraduate student body, is known for creating the world's first engineering degree in appropriate technology.", "The college is also one of only 17 U.S. universities to offer a bachelor's degree in architectural engineering, and only one of five private institutions to do so.Avenue of Technology'=====Drexel Engineering Curriculum (tDEC)=====The engineering curriculum used by the school was originally called E4 (Enhanced Educational Experience for Engineers) which was established in 1986 and funded in part by the Engineering Directorate of the National Science Foundation.", "In 1988, the program evolved into tDEC (the Drexel Engineering Curriculum) which is composed of two full years of rigorous core engineering courses which encompass the freshman and sophomore years of the engineering student.", "The College of Engineering hasn't used the tDEC curriculum since approximately 2005.====College of Computing and Informatics====The College of Computing and Informatics is a recent addition to Drexel University, though its programs have been offered to students for many years.", "The college was formed by the consolidation of the former College of Information Science & Technology (often called the \"iSchool\"), the Department of Computer Science, and the Computing and Security Technology program.", "Undergraduate and graduate programs in computer science, software engineering, data science, information systems, and computer security are offered by the college.====College of Medicine====The Drexel University College of Medicine was added to the colleges and schools of the university in 2002, having been formed upon the acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University.", "In addition to its M.D.", "program, the College of Medicine offers more than 40 graduate programs in its Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies.=====Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional Studies=====The Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Professional studies offers both Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degree programs in fields like biochemistry, biotechnology, clinical research, and forensic science.", "The school also serves as the center for biomedical research at Drexel University.====School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems====Founded in 1961 as the United States' first Biomedical Engineering and Science Institute, the School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems focuses on the emerging field of biomedical science at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels.", "Primary research areas within the school include bioinformatics, biomechanics, biomaterials, neuroengineering, and cardiovascular engineering.====College of Nursing and Health Professions====Formed in 2002 along with the College of Medicine, Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions offers more than 25 programs to undergraduate and graduate students in the fields of nursing, nutrition, health sciences, health services, and radiologic technology.", "The college's research into matters of nutrition and rehabilitation have garnered approximately $2.9 million in external research funding on an annual basis.", "The physician assistant program at Drexel's College of Nursing and Health Professions is ranked in the top 15 such programs in the United States; its anesthesia programs and physical therapy programs are, respectively, ranked as top-50 programs nationwide.====Richard C. Goodwin College of Professional Studies====Established in 1892, the department now known as the College of Professional Studies has focused exclusively on educational programs and pursuits for nontraditional adult learners.", "Today, the Goodwin College of Professional Studies offers several options designed for adult learners at all stages of career and educational development.", "Bachelor of Science degree completion programs are offered in part-time evening or weekend formats; graduate programs and doctoral programs are offered at the graduate level, as are self-paced \"continuing education\" courses and nearly a dozen self-paced certification programs.====Pennoni Honors College====The Pennoni Honors College, named for Drexel alumnus and trustee Dr. C.R.", "\"Chuck\" Pennoni '63, '66, Hon.", "'92, and his wife Annette, recognizes and promotes excellence among Drexel students.", "Students admitted to the Honors College live together and take many of the same classes; the college provides these students with access to unique cultural and social activities and a unique guest speaker series.", "Students are also involved in the university's Honors Student Advisory Committee and have the opportunity to take part in Drexel's \"Alternative Spring Break\", an international study tour held each spring.Thomas R. Kline School of Law====Thomas R. Kline School of Law====Upon its founding in 2006, the Thomas R. Kline School of Law, originally known as the Earle Mack School of Law, was the first law school founded in Philadelphia in more than three decades.", "The School of Law offers L.L.M.", "and Master of Legal Studies degrees, in addition to the flagship Juris Doctor program, and uniquely offers cooperative education as part of its curriculum across all programs.", "In 2015, ''Bloomberg Business'' ranked the Kline School of Law as the second most underrated law school in the United States.====School of Education====One of the oldest schools within Drexel University, the modern School of Education dates back to the 1891 founding of the school.", "Originally, the Department of Education offered teacher training to women as one of its original, career-focused degree programs.", "Today, the School of Education offers a coeducational approach to teacher training at the elementary and secondary levels for undergraduates.", "Other undergraduate programs include those focused on the intersection between learning and technology, teacher certification for non-education majors, and a minor in education for students with an interest in instruction.", "Graduate degrees offered by the School of Education include those in administration and leadership, special education, higher education, mathematics education, international education, and educational creativity and innovation.", "Doctoral degrees are offered in educational leadership and learning technologies.", "Drexel University's School of Education offices are located on the third floor of the UCity Square building located at 3401 Market street.====Dornsife School of Public Health====The School of Public Health states that its mission is to \"provide education, conduct research, and partner with communities and organizations to improve the health of populations\".", "To that end, the school offers both a B.S.", "and a minor in public health for undergraduate students as well as several options for students pursuing graduate and doctoral degrees in the field.", "At the graduate level, the Dornsife School offers both a Master of Public Health and an Executive Master of Public Health, as well as an M.S.", "in biostatistics and an M.S.", "in epidemiology.", "Two Doctor of Public Health degrees are also offered, as isa Doctor of Philosophy in epidemiology.", "The school's graduate and doctoral students are heavily invested in the research activities of the Dornsife School of Public Health, which has helped the school attract annual funding for its four research centers.====Center for Hospitality and Sport Management====The Center for Hospitality and Sport Management was formed in 2013, in an effort to house and consolidate academic programs in hospitality, tourism management, the culinary arts, and sport management.", "Academic programs combine the unique skills required of the sports and hospitality industries with the principles and curriculum espoused by the management programs within Drexel's LeBow College of Business.====Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship====Focusing specifically on the skills required to successfully start and launch a business, The Charles D. Close School of Entrepreneurship is the first and only freestanding school of entrepreneurship in the United States.", "Undergraduate students take part in a B.A.", "program in entrepreneurship and innovation, while graduate students a combined Master of Science degree in biomedicine and entrepreneurship.", "Minors in entrepreneurship are also offered to undergraduate students.=====Laurence A. Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship=====Housed within the Close School is the Baiada Institute for Entrepreneurship.", "The institute serves as an incubator for Drexel student startups, providing resources and mentorships to students and some post-graduates who are starting their own business while enrolled in one of the Close School's degree programs or academic minors.===Online education===Drexel University launched its first Internet-based education program, a master's degree in Library & Information Science, in 1996.In 2001, Drexel created its wholly owned, for-profit online education subsidiary, Drexel e-Learning, Inc., better known as Drexel University Online.", "It was announced in October 2013 that Drexel University Online would no longer be a for-profit venture, but rather become an internal division within the university to better serve its online student population.", "Although headquartered in Philadelphia, Drexel announced a new Washington, D.C., location in December 2012 to serve as both an academic and outreach center, catering to the online student population.Drexel University Online founded the National Distance Learning Week, in conjunction with the United States Distance Learning Association, in 2007.In September 2010, Drexel University Online received the Sloan-C award for institution-wide excellence in online education indicating that it had exceptional programs of \"demonstrably high quality\" at the regional and national levels and across disciplines.", "Drexel University Online won the 2008 United States Distance Learning Association's Best Practices Awards for Distance Learning Programming.", "In 2007, the online education subsidiary had a revenue of $40 million.", "In March 2013, Drexel Online had more than 7,000 unique students from all 50 states and more than 20 countries pursuing a bachelor's, master's, or certificate.", ", Drexel University Online offers more than 100 fully accredited master's degrees, bachelor's degrees and certificate programs.===Cooperative education program===Drexel's longstanding cooperative education, or \"co-op\" program is one of the largest and oldest in the United States.", "Drexel has a fully internet-based job database, where students can submit résumés and request interviews with any of the thousands of companies that offer positions.", "Students also have the option of obtaining a co-op via independent search.", "A student graduating from Drexel's 5-year degree program typically has a total of 18 months of co-op with up to three different companies.", "The majority of co-ops are paid, averaging $18,720 per 6-month period, however this figure changes with major.", "About one third of Drexel graduates are offered full-time positions by their co-op employers right after graduation.===Research activity===Drexel is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity\".", "The university was ranked 51st in the 2018 edition of the \"Top 100 Worldwide Universities Granted U.S. Utility Patents\" list released by the National Academy of Inventors and the Intellectual Property Owners Association.===Rankings===USNWR graduate school rankings Education 178 Engineering 74 Law 93 Medicine: Primary Care 94-122 Medicine: Research 91 Nursing: Master's 89USNWR departmental rankings Biological Sciences 159 Chemistry 122 Clinical Psychology 80 Computer Science 82 Library & Information Studies 11 Mathematics 94 Nursing-Anesthesia 43 Physical Therapy 49 Physician Assistant 10 Physics 91 Psychology 148 Public Affairs 152 Public Health 19In its 2024 rankings, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked Drexel tied for 98th among national universities in the United States, tied for 18th in the \"Most Innovative Schools\" category, 95th in \"Best Value Schools\", and tied for 273rd in \"Top Performers on Social Mobility.", "''The Wall Street Journal'' ranked Drexel 54th among 400 institutions in the United States.", "In its 2018 rankings, ''Times Higher Education World University Rankings'' and ''The Wall Street Journal'' ranked Drexel 74th among national universities and 351st-400th among international universities.In its 2018 rankings, ''Forbes'' ranked Drexel 24th among STEM universities.", "In 2019, it also ranked Drexel 226th among 650 national universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, 120th among research universities, 154th among private universities, and 96th among universities in the Northeast.In 2016, ''Bloomberg Businessweek'' ranked the undergraduate business program 78th in the country.", "In 2014, Business Insider ranked Drexel's graduate business school 19th in the country for networking." ], [ "Campuses", "Drexel University's programs are divided across three Philadelphia-area campuses: the University City Campus, the Center City Campus and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus.The Queen Lane Campus===University City Main Campus===The University City Main Campus of Drexel University is located just west of the Schuylkill River in the University City district of Philadelphia.", "It is Drexel's largest and oldest campus; the campus contains the university's administrative offices and serves as the main academic center for students.", "The northern, residential portion of the main campus is located in the Powelton Village section of West Philadelphia.", "The two prominent performing stages at Drexel University are the Mandell Theater and the Main Auditorium.", "The Main Auditorium dates back to the founding of Drexel and construction of its main hall.", "It features over 1000 seats, and a pipe organ installed in 1928.The organ was purchased by Saturday Evening Post publisher Cyrus H. K. Curtis after he had donated a similar organ, the Curtis Organ, to nearby University of Pennsylvania and it was suggested that he do the same for Drexel.", "The 424-seat Mandell Theater was built in 1973 and features a more performance-oriented stage, including a full fly system, modern stage lighting facilities, stadium seating, and accommodations for wheelchairs.", "It is used for the semiannual spring musical, as well as various plays and many events.===Queen Lane Campus===The Queen Lane Campus was purchased by Drexel University as part of its acquisition of MCP Hahnemann University.", "It is located in the East Falls neighborhood of northwest Philadelphia and is primarily utilized by first- and second-year medical students, and researchers.", "A free shuttle is available, connecting the Queen Lane Campus to the Center City Hahnemann and University City Main campuses.=== Center City Campus ===The Center City Campus is in the middle of Philadelphia, straddling the Vine Street Expressway between Broad and 15th Streets.", "Shuttle service is offered between the Center City Campus and both the University City and Queen Lane campuses of the university.===The Academy of Natural Sciences===A complete ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' fossil on display with other dinosaur specimens at The Academy of Natural Sciences.In 2011, The Academy of Natural Sciences entered into an agreement to become a subsidiary of Drexel University.", "Founded in 1812, the Academy of Natural Sciences is America's oldest natural history museum and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research.===Drexel University Sacramento===On January 5, 2009, Drexel University opened the Center for Graduate Studies in Sacramento, California.", "Eventually renamed Drexel University Sacramento upon the addition of an undergraduate program in business administration, the campus also offered an Ed.D.", "program in Educational Leadership and Management and master's degree programs in Business Administration, Finance, Higher Education, Human Resource Development, Public Health, and Interdepartmental Medical Science.", "On March 5, 2015, Drexel University announced the closure of the Sacramento campus, with an 18-month \"phase out\" period designed to allow current students to complete their degrees." ], [ "Student life", "Buckley Volleyball Courts on 33rd and Arch Streets=== Graduate Students Association ===The Graduate Student Association \"advocates the interests and addresses concerns of graduate students at Drexel; strives to enhance graduate student life at the University in all aspects, from academic to campus security; and provides a formal means of communication between graduate students and the University community\".=== Jewish life on campus ===Drexel has an approximate Jewish population of 5% and has both a Chabad House and a Hillel.", "Both provide services to Jewish and non-Jewish students at Drexel.", "Due to an increase in the number of Orthodox Jewish students the Hillel has hot kosher food Monday through Thursday .", "There is also an eruv which is jointly managed by Jewish students from Drexel and the University of Pennsylvania.=== Television ===DUTV is Drexel's Philadelphia cable television station.", "The student operated station is part of the Paul F. Harron Studios at Drexel University.", "The purpose of DUTV is to provide \"the people of Philadelphia with quality educational television, and providing Drexel students the opportunity to gain experience in television management and production\".", "The Programing includes an eclectic variety of shows from a bi-monthly news show, DNews, to old films, talk shows dealing with important current issues and music appreciation shows.", "Over 75 percent of DUTV's programming is student produced.=== Publications ===''The Triangle'' has been the university's newspaper since 1926 and currently publishes on a biweekly basis every Friday of the academic term.", "''The Triangle'' has won several Mark of Excellence Awards which honor the best in Student Journalism from the Society of Professional Journalists.", "First place in Editorial Writing (2000), General Column Writing (2000), Second place in Editorial Writing (2001), and third place in Sports Column Writing (2001).", "In 2004, it won two National Pacemaker Awards for excellence in college newspapers.", "In December 2019 ''The Triangle'' announced the creation of their podcasting division, \"Tri-Pod,\", which debuted on January 10, 2020.Tri-Pod had two podcasts, \"Last Call\".", "and \"Mark and Jair Explain Sports\".", "The school yearbook was first published in 1911 and named the Lexerd in 1913.Prior to the publishing of a campus-wide yearbook in 1911 ''The Hanseatic'' and ''The Eccentric'' were both published in 1896 as class books.===Housing===North Hall by architect Michael GravesDrexel requires all non-commuting first- and second-year students to live in one of its ten residence halls or in \"university approved housing\".Second-year students have the option of living in a residence hall designated for upperclassmen, or \"university approved housing\".", "The residence halls for upperclassmen are North and Caneris Halls.", "North Hall operates under the For Students By Students Residential Experience Engagement Model, developed by the Residential Living Office.", "There are many apartments that are university approved that second-year students can choose to live in.", "Three of the largest apartment buildings that fit this description are Chestnut Square, University Crossings, and The Summit, all owned by American Campus Communities.", "Many other students live in smaller apartment buildings or individual townhouse-style apartments in Powelton Village.", "A second-year student can choose one of the already listed university approved housing options or petition the university to add a new property to the approved list.", "===Student organizations===Drexel University recognizes over 250 student organizations in the following categories:* Academic* Club Sports* Community Service/Social Action* Cultural* Fraternity & Sorority Life* General Interest* Honorary* Media* Performing and Fine Arts* Political* Spiritual & Religious===Greek life===Approximately 12 percent of Drexel's undergraduate population are members of a social Greek-letter organization.", "There are currently fourteen Interfraternity Council (IFC) chapters, seven Panhellenic Council (PHC) chapters and thirteen Multi-cultural Greek Council (MGC) chapters." ], [ "Athletics", "Mario the Magnificent, mascot of Drexel, by Eric BergDrexel Dragons wordmarkDrexel's school mascot is a dragon known as \"Mario the Magnificent\", named in honor of alumnus and Board of Trustees member Mario V. Mascioli.", "The Dragon has been the mascot of the school since around the mid-1920s; the first written reference to the Dragons occurred in 1928, when the football team was called \"The Dragons in The Triangle\".", "Before becoming known as the Dragons, the athletic teams had been known by such names as the Blue & Gold, the Engineers, and the Drexelites.", "The school's sports teams, now known as the Drexel Dragons, participate in the NCAA's Division I as a member of the Coastal Athletic Association.", "They do not currently field a varsity football team.In addition to its NCAA Division I teams, Drexel University is home to 33 active club teams including men's ice hockey, lacrosse, water polo, squash, triathlon, and cycling.", "Other club teams include soccer, baseball, rugby, field hockey, and roller hockey.", "The club teams operate under the direction of the Club Sports Council and the Recreational Sports Office." ], [ "Alumni", "File:Paul_Baran.jpg\|Paul Baran, engineer, inventor of packet switchingFile:Malik Rose cropped.jpg\|Malik Rose, former NBA playerFile:The Gong Show Chuck Barris 1976.jpg\|Chuck Barris, game show hostFile:Jessie Willcox Smith, photograph estimate 1880-1910.jpg\|Jesse Willcox Smith, illustrator File:Christopher Ferguson in 2018.jpg\|Christopher Ferguson, retired NASA astronautFile: Lex Fridman teaching at MIT in 2018.png\|Lex Fridman, computer scientist and podcasterSince its founding the university has graduated over 100,000 alumni.", "Certificate-earning alumni such as artist Violet Oakley and illustrator Frank Schoonover reflect the early emphasis on art as part of the university's curriculum.", "With World War II, the university's technical programs swelled, and as a result Drexel graduated alumni such as Paul Baran, one of the founding fathers of the Internet and one of the inventors of the packet switching network, and Norman Joseph Woodland, the inventor of barcode technology.", "In addition to its emphasis on technology Drexel has graduated several notable athletes such as National Basketball Association (NBA) basketball players Michael Anderson, Damion Lee, and Malik Rose, and several notable business people such as Raj Gupta, former president and Chief executive officer (CEO) of Rohm and Haas, and Kenneth C. Dahlberg, former CEO of Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC).", "Alassane Dramane Ouattara President of the Republic of Ivory Coast.", "In 2018, Tirthak Saha -a 2016 graduate of the ECE school - was named to the Forbes 30 Under 30 list for achievements in the Energy field.In 1991, the university's centennial anniversary, Drexel created an association called the Drexel 100, for alumni who have demonstrated excellence work, philanthropy, or public service.", "After the creation of the association 100 alumni were inducted in 1992 and since then the induction process has been on a biennial basis.", "In 2006 164 total alumni had been inducted into the association." ], [ "Awards", "Drexel University created the annual $100,000 Anthony J. Drexel Exceptional Achievement Award to recognize a faculty member from a U.S. institution whose work transforms both research and the society it serves.", "The first recipient was bioengineer James J. Collins of Boston University (now at MIT) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.In 2004, in conjunction with BAYADA Home Health Care, Drexel University's College of Nursing and Health Professions created the BAYADA Award for Technological Innovation in Nursing Education and Practice.", "The award honors nursing educators and practicing nurses whose innovation leads to improved patient care or improved nursing education." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Drexel URBN Center.JPG\|The URBN Center, home of the Westphal College of Media Arts and DesignFile:Drexel URBN Center int.jpg\|The top floor of Drexel's URBN Center (as seen in 2022).File:Hagerty Library Drexel.JPG\|The W.W. Hagerty Library at the University City Main CampusFile:Drexel Rec Center.JPG\|The Drexel Recreation CenterFile:Drexel Law School.JPG\|The Drexel University School of LawFile:Drexel Nesbitt Hall.JPG\|Nesbitt Hall located on 33rd and Market StreetsFile:Vidas Athletic Field.JPG\|Vidas Athletic FieldFile:The Drexel Armory.JPG\|The Armory at Drexel UniversityFile:Buckley Volleyball Courts at Drexel University.JPG\|Beach Volleyball courts at Buckley GreenFile:Hess Engineering Labs Drexel University.JPG\|Hess Engineering Research Laboratories (Now demolished)File:Daskalakis Athletic Center Drexel.JPG\|John A. Daskalakis Athletic CenterFile:Drexel2.JPG\|Drexel University Center for Graduate Studies, Sacramento, CaliforniaFile:Papadakis living wall.jpg\|A \"living wall\" inside the Papadakis Integrated Science BuildingFile:Drexel Main Building.jpg\|Drexel Main BuildingFile:SR2015 Drexel Campus 162.jpg\|Drexel's Lebow College of BusinessFile:Mario the Magnificent.jpg\|Drexel's Mascot: Mario the Magnificent" ], [ "See also", "* Association of Independent Technological Universities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* * Drexel Athletics website*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Daedalus" ], [ "Introduction", "In Greek mythology, '''Daedalus''' (, ; Greek: Δαίδαλος; Latin: ''Daedalus''; Etruscan: ''Taitale'') was a skillful architect and craftsman, seen as a symbol of wisdom, knowledge and power.", "He is the father of Icarus, the uncle of Perdix, and possibly also the father of Iapyx.", "Among his most famous creations are the wooden cow for Pasiphaë, the Labyrinth for King Minos of Crete which imprisoned the Minotaur, and wings that he and his son Icarus used to attempt to escape Crete.", "It was during this escape that Icarus did not heed his father's warnings and flew too close to the sun; the wax holding his wings together melted and Icarus fell to his death." ], [ "Epigraphic evidence", "The name ''Daidalos'' seems to be attested in Linear B, a writing system used to record Mycenaean Greek.", "The name appears in the form ''da-da-re-jo-de'', possibly referring to a sanctuary." ], [ "Family", "Daedalus's parentage was supplied as a later addition, with various authors attributing different parents to him.", "His father is claimed to be either Eupalamus, Metion, or Palamaon.", "Similarly, his mother was either Alcippe, Iphinoe, Phrasmede or Merope, daughter of King Erechtheus.", "Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew named either Talos, Calos, or Perdix.The Athenians rewrote the Cretan-born Daedalus as an Athenian himself, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus who only fled to Crete after killing his nephew." ], [ "Inventor, architect, artist", "A mythical craftsman named Daedalus is first mentioned in roughly 1400 BC on the Knossian Linear B tablets.", "He is later mentioned by Homer as the creator of a dancing floor for Ariadne, similar to that which Hephaestus placed on the Shield of Achilles.", "It is clear that this Daedalus was not an original character of Homer's.", "Rather, Homer was referencing mythology that his audience was already familiar with.Upper body of a Daedalic statue of a Kore, poros stone.", "Eleftherna, archaic period, 7th century BC.Daedalus is not mentioned again in literature until the fifth century BC, but he is widely praised as an inventor, artist, and architect, though classical sources disagree on which inventions exactly are attributable to him.", "In Pliny's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry, including tools like the axe, saw, glue, and more.", "Supposedly, he first invented masts and sails for ships for the navy of King Minos.", "He is also said to have carved statues so spirited they appeared to be living and moving.", "Pausanias, in traveling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see ''xoana'') that impressed him.", "In fact, so many other statues and artworks are attributed to Daedalus by Pausanias and various other sources that likely many of them were never made by him.Plato cited Daedalus's handiwork as a metaphor for genuine understanding of truth, as opposed to belief that coincidentally happens to be true, in a Socratic dialogue with Meno.", "Socrates argues that while truth, like one of Daedalus's \"moving\" statues, is inherently valuable, their animacy would mean they are worthless if the owner cannot shackle them in place to stop them from wandering off.Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to many Greek craftsmen and many Greek contraptions and inventions that represented dextrous skill.", "A specific sort of early Greek sculptures are named Daedalic sculpture in his honor.", "In Boeotia there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned and an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire.", "It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid.", "The image was called daedala''.''", "Some sources claim that the daedala did not receive their name from Daedalus, but the opposite.", "Pausanias claims that Daedalus was not the name given to the inventor at birth, but that he was named so later after the daedala.Some of the functions of Daedalus overlapped with those of Aristaeus (Aristaeos), another famous Greek inventor god.", "But Aristaeos mostly concerned himself with the rural and agricultural arts." ], [ "Mythology", "=== Nephew ===Perdix (Talus) changed into a partridge when thrown from the Acropolis by an envious Daedalus (1602-1607)Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival.", "His sister had placed her son under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts as an apprentice.", "His nephew is named variously as Perdix, Talos, or Calos, although some sources say that Perdix was the name of Daedalus' sister.", "The nephew showed striking evidence of ingenuity.", "Finding the spine of a fish on the seashore, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw.", "He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses.", "Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he attempted to murder him by throwing him down from the Acropolis in Athens.", "Athena saved his nephew and turned him into a partridge.", "Tried and convicted for this murder attempt, Daedalus left Athens and fled to Crete.===The Labyrinth===Daedalus created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur was kept.", "Daedalus and Pasiphaë.", "Roman fresco in the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, first century ADPoseidon had given a white bull to King Minos to use it as a sacrifice.", "Instead, the king kept the bull for himself and sacrificed another.", "As revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made King Minos's wife, Pasiphaë, lust for the bull.", "Pasiphaë asked Daedalus to help her.", "Daedalus built a hollow, wooden cow, covered in real cow hide for Pasiphaë, so she could mate with the bull.", "As a result, Pasiphaë gave birth to the Minotaur, a creature with the body of a man, but the head and tail of a bull.", "King Minos ordered the Minotaur to be imprisoned and guarded in the Labyrinth built by Daedalus for that purpose.", "''Daedalus escapes (iuvat evasisse)'' by Johann Christoph Sysang (1703-1757)In the story of the Labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way back out with the help of Ariadne's thread.", "It is Daedalus himself who gives Ariadne the clue as to how to escape the labyrinth.Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numerous winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end.", "Ovid, in his ''Metamorphoses'', suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it.===Icarus===Print of Icarus falling after his wings were broken.The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one by Ovid in his ''Metamorphoses''.", "''Daedalus and Icarus'', c. 1645, by leftAfter Theseus and Ariadne eloped together, Daedalus and his son Icarus were imprisoned by King Minos in the labyrinth that he had built.", "He could not leave Crete by sea, as King Minos kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched.", "Since Minos controlled the land routes as well, Daedalus set to work to make wings for himself and his son Icarus.", "Using bird feathers of various sizes, thread, and beeswax, he shaped them to resemble a bird's wings.", "When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the beeswax (holding his feathers together) and the wings would break, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers and make them heavy and he would fall.", "After Daedalus and Icarus had passed Samos, Delos, and Lebynthos, Icarus disobeyed his father and began to soar upward toward the sun.", "He flew too close to the sun.", "Without any warning, the sun melted the wax (which held the feathers together) and they fell off.", "Icarus kept flapping his \"wings\".", "But he realized he had no feathers left.", "He was only flapping his featherless arms.", "The feathers—one by one—fell like snowflakes, and down, down, and down he went into the sea (where he sank to the bottom and drowned).", "Seeing Icarus' wings floating in the sea, Daedalus wept, cursed his art, and (after finding Icarus's dead body on an island shore) buried Icarus's body on the island shore.", "Then he named the island Icaria in the memory of his child.", "The southeast end of the Aegean Sea where Icarus fell into the water was also called \"Mare Icarium\" or the Icarian Sea.", "''The Lament for Icarus'' by H. J. Draper (1898) In a twist of fate, a partridge, presumably the nephew Daedalus murdered, mocked Daedalus as he buried his son.", "The fall and death of Icarus is seemingly portrayed as punishment for Daedalus's murder of his nephew.=== The shell riddle ===After burying Icarus, Daedalus traveled to Camicus in Sicily, where he stayed as a guest under the protection of King Cocalus.", "There Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings as an offering to the god.", "In an invention of Virgil (Aeneid VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily.Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle.", "He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it.", "When he reached Camicus, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, accepted the shell and gave it to Daedalus.", "Daedalus tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through.", "With the riddle solved, Minos realized that Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and insisted he be handed over.", "Cocalus agreed to do so, but convinced Minos to take a bath first.", "In the bath, Cocalus' daughters killed Minos, possibly by pouring boiling water over his body.", "In some versions, it is Cocalus that kills Minos in the bath.", "Other variants say that Daedalus himself poured the boiling water, or that he had built the pipes that could supply hot water to the bath and this was used to instead pour ''boiling'' water on him.=== Death ===At least two locations are associated with the death of Daedalus.", "One version of the story says he retired to the Cretan colony of Telmessos, ruled by Minos's estranged brother Sarpedon, and while wandering outside the city, he was bitten by a snake and died.", "A town on this site, Daidala, is said to be named after him, and is mentioned in Roman sources.", "Another version of the story places his death on a small island in the Nile river, where he was later worshipped.The anecdotes are literary and late.", "However, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s BC on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani." ], [ "Later depictions in art and literature", "Daedalus and the myths associated with him are often depicted in paintings, sculptures, and more by later artists.", "The myth about his flight and the fall of Icarus is especially popular in depictions.", "A few noteworthy pieces are included below.File:DEDAL ZA JASNA (Small).JPG\|Small bronze sculpture of Daedalus, 3rd century BC; found on Plaoshnik, North MacedoniaFile:Pompeya Villa Imperiale 08.jpg\|Daedalus and Icarus, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century ADFile:Dedalo e Pasifae.JPG\|Daedalus and Pasiphaë, fresco in Pompeii, 1st century ADFile:PBrueghelElderIcarus.jpg\|''Landscape with the Fall of Icarus'' (detail) by Peter Brueghel the Elder, ca.", "1558.File:Fall of Icarus Blondel decoration Louvre INV2624.jpg\|The Fall of Icarus by Merry-Josoph Blondel (1819) (Louvre)File:Lord Frederick Leighton FLL006.jpg\|''Daedalus and Icarus'', by Frederick Leighton, c. 1869File:Daedalus und Ikarus MK1888.png\|Daedalus constructs wings for his son, Icarus, after a Roman relief in the Villa Albani, Rome (''Meyers Konversationslexikon'', 1888)File:Dædalus and Icarus.gif\|''Dædalus and Icarus'' by H.A.Guerber (1896)There are also a number of adaptations of the myth of Daedalus and Icarus in modern literature and film, including a poem by Edward Field." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.Vol.", "3.Books 4.59–8.Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888-1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Maurus Servius Honoratus, ''In Vergilii carmina comentarii.", "Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii;'' recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen.", "Georgius Thilo.", "Leipzig.", "B. G. Teubner.", "1881.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.''", "''3 vols''.", "Leipzig, Teubner.", "1903.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Ovid, ''Metamorphoses'', Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Suida, ''Suda Encyclopedia'' translated by Ross Scaife, David Whitehead, William Hutton, Catharine Roth, Jennifer Benedict, Gregory Hays, Malcolm Heath Sean M. Redmond, Nicholas Fincher, Patrick Rourke, Elizabeth Vandiver, Raphael Finkel, Frederick Williams, Carl Widstrand, Robert Dyer, Joseph L. Rife, Oliver Phillips and many others.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Tzetzes, John, ''Book of Histories'', Book I translated by Ana Untila from the original Greek of T. Kiessling's edition of 1826.Online version at theio.com" ], [ "External links", "* Thomas Bulfinch's ''Mythology''* \"Daedalus\" at the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''* Andrew Stewart, ''One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works''.", "Begins with Daedalus.", "* Peter Hunt, \" Ekphrasis or Not?", "Ovid (Met.", "8.183-235 ) in Pieter Bruegel the Elder's Landscape with the Fall of Icarus\".", "Archived from the original 10 July 2009.", "* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873).", "\"Daedalus\"* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Daedalus and Icarus)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deception Pass" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deception Pass''' (; ) is a strait separating Whidbey Island from Fidalgo Island, in the northwest part of the U.S. state of Washington.", "It connects Skagit Bay, part of Puget Sound, with the Strait of Juan de Fuca.", "A pair of bridges known collectively as Deception Pass Bridge cross Deception Pass.", "The bridges were added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982." ], [ "History", "Deception IslandThe Deception Pass area has been home to various Coast Salish tribes for thousands of years.", "The first Europeans to see Deception Pass were members of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper on the ''Princesa Real''.", "The Spanish gave it the name ''Boca de Flon''.A group of sailors led by Joseph Whidbey, part of the Vancouver Expedition, found and mapped Deception Pass on June 7, 1792.George Vancouver gave it the name \"Deception\" because it had misled him into thinking Whidbey Island was a peninsula.", "The \"deception\" was heightened due to Whidbey's failure to find the strait at first.", "In May 1792, Vancouver was anchored near the southern end of Whidbey Island.", "He sent Joseph Whidbey to explore the waters east of Whidbey Island, now known as Saratoga Passage, using small boats.", "Whidbey reached the northern end of Saratoga Passage and explored eastward into Skagit Bay, which is shallow and difficult to navigate.", "He returned south to rejoin Vancouver without having found Deception Pass.", "It appeared that Skagit Bay was a dead-end and that Whidbey Island and Fidalgo Island were a long peninsula attached to the mainland.", "In June, the expedition sailed north along the west coast of Whidbey Island.", "Vancouver sent Joseph Whidbey to explore inlets leading to the east.", "The first inlet turned out to be a \"very narrow and intricate channel, which...abounded with rocks above and beneath the surface of the water\".", "This channel led to Skagit Bay, thus separating Whidbey Island from the mainland.", "Vancouver apparently felt he and Joseph Whidbey had been deceived by the tricky strait.", "Vancouver wrote of Whidbey's efforts: \"This determined the shore they had been exploring to be an island, which, in consequence of Mr. Whidbey’s circumnavigation, I distinguished by the name of Whidbey’s Island: and this northern pass, leading into Skagit Bay, Deception Passage\".In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge, is a small island known as Ben Ure Island.", "The island became infamous for its activity of human smuggling of migrant Chinese people for local labor.", "Ben Ure and his partner Lawrence \"Pirate\" Kelly were quite profitable at their human smuggling business and played hide-and-seek with the United States Customs Department for years.", "Ure's own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880s consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife.", "Local tradition has it that his wife would camp on the nearby Strawberry Island (which was visible from the open sea) and signal him with a fire on the island's summit to alert him to whether or not it was safe to attempt to bring the human cargo he illegally transported ashore.", "For transport, Ure would tie the people up in burlap bags so that if customs agents approached he could toss the bagged people overboard.", "The tidal currents carried the entrapped drowned migrants' bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass; many ended up in Dead Man's Bay.View looking south from Pass Island.", "From left to right, are visible Strawberry Island, part of Ben Ure Island, the bulk of Whidbey Island and the south span of the Deception Pass Bridge.Plaque explaining the history of Deception Pass: ''Deception Pass - Named By Captain George Vancouver 10 June 1792.Feeling That He Had Been \"Deceived\" As To The Nature Of The Inner Waterway, Port Gardner (Now Saratoga Passage) he Wrote On His Chart \"Deception Pass.", "\"''Between 1910 and 1914, a prison rock quarry was operated on the Fidalgo Island side of the pass.", "Nearby barracks housed some 40 prisoners, members of an honors program out of Walla Walla State Penitentiary and the prison population was made up of several types of prisoners, including those convicted of murder.", "Guards stood watch at the quarry as prisoners cut the rock into gravel and loaded it onto barges at the base of the cliff atop the pass's waters.", "The quarried rock was then barged to the Seattle waterfront.", "The camp was dismantled in 1924 and although abandoned as a quarry, the remains of the camp can still be found.", "The location is hazardous; over the years there have been several fatal accidents when visitors have ventured onto the steep cliffs.Upon completion on July 31, 1935, the span Deception Pass Bridge connected Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island, and Pass Island to Fidalgo Island.", "Prior to the bridge, travelers used an inter-island ferry to commute between Fidalgo and Whidbey islands." ], [ "Currents", "Deception Pass is a dramatic seascape where the tidal flow and whirlpools beneath the twin bridges connecting Fidalgo Island to Whidbey Island move quickly.", "During ebb and flood tide current speed reaches about , flowing in opposite directions between ebb and flood.", "This swift current can lead to standing waves, large whirlpools, and roiling eddies.", "This swift current phenomenon can be viewed from the twin bridges' pedestrian walkways or from the trail leading below the larger south bridge from the parking lot on the Whidbey Island side.", "Boats can be seen waiting on either side of the pass for the current to stop or change direction before going through.", "Thrill-seeking kayakers go there during large tide changes to surf the standing waves and brave the class 2 and 3 rapid conditions." ], [ "Scuba diving", "Diving Deception Pass is dangerous and only for the most competent and prepared divers.", "There are a few times each year that the tides are right for a drift dive from the cove, under the bridge, and back to the cove as the tide changes.", "These must be planned well in advance by divers who know how to read currents and are aware of the dangerous conditions.", "However, because of the large tidal exchange, Deception Pass hosts some of the most spectacular colors and life in the Pacific Northwest.", "The walls and bottom are covered in colorful invertebrates, lingcod, greenlings, and barnacles everywhere." ], [ "State park", "Tourist sign at Deception Pass State ParkDeception Pass is surrounded by '''Deception Pass State Park''', one of the most visited Washington state parks with over two million annual visitors.", ";HistoryThe park was officially established in 1923, when the original of a military reserve was transferred to Washington State Parks.", "The park's facilities were greatly enhanced in the 1930s when the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) built roads, trails, and buildings in order to develop the park.", "The road to West Beach was created in 1950, opening up a stretch of beach to hordes of vehicles.", "The former fish hatchery at Bowman Bay became a part of the park in the early 1970s.", "The old entrance to the park was closed in 1997 when a new entrance was created at the intersection of Highway 20 and Cornet Bay road, improving access into and out of the park.Ancient Douglas fir tree estimated to be 850 years old at Deception pass state park;Activities and amenitiesThe park's recreational facilities include campgrounds, hiking trails, beaches, and tidepools.", "Several miles of the Pacific Northwest Trail are within the park, most notably including the section that crosses Deception Pass on the Highway 20 bridge.", "In addition, the Cornet Bay Retreat Center provides cabins and dining and recreation facilities.", "Cornet Bay offers boat launches and fishing opportunities, while Bowman Bay has an interpretive center that explains the story of the Civilian Conservation Corps throughout Washington state.", "Near the center is a CCC honor statue, which can be found in 30 different states in the country.", "Fishing is popular in Pass Lake, on the north side of the bridge.", "Boat rentals and guided tours of the park are also offered.", ";IslandsIncluded in the park are ten islands: Northwest Island, Deception Island, Pass Island, Strawberry, Ben Ure, Kiket, Skagit, Hope, and Big and Little Deadman Islands.", "Ben Ure Island is partially privately owned.", "The island is not open to the public except for a small rentable cabin available via the state park, which is only accessible by rowboat." ], [ "In popular culture", "Jonathan Raban's 1999 travel memoir ''Passage to Juneau'' describes the history of the pass and Raban's passage through it in a 30 ft yacht.", "The 2002 horror movie ''The Ring'' was in part filmed near the pass.", "The bridge is fictionalized as a toll bridge named \"Desolation Bridge\" in season one of The Killing.", "Seattle shoegaze act The Sight Below filmed the 2008 video for their track \"Further Away\" at Deception Pass, with Deception Island's scenic imagery prominently featured.", "Seattle grunge band Mudhoney named a song on their 1993 EP Five Dollar Bob's Mock Cooter Stew \"Deception Pass.\"", "Seattle progressive rock band Queensrÿche filmed scenes of their video \"Anybody Listening\" near Deception Pass and Deception Island." ], [ "See also", "* Juan Carrasco (explorer)* Deception Pass ferry" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Deception Pass State Park Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission* Deception Pass Park Foundation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dominoes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dominoes''' is a family of tiled-based game played with gaming pieces.", "Each domino is a rectangular tile, usually with a line dividing its face into two square ''ends''.", "Each end is marked with a number of spots (also called ''pips'' or ''dots'') or is blank.", "The backs of the tiles in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design.", "The gaming pieces make up a domino set, sometimes called a ''deck'' or ''pack''.", "The traditional European domino set consists of 28 tiles, also known as pieces, bones, rocks, stones, men, cards or just dominoes, featuring all combinations of spot counts between zero and six.", "A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set.", "Another form of entertainment using domino pieces is the practice of domino toppling.A boxed domino set dating from the late 19th or early 20th centuryThe earliest mention of dominoes is from Song dynasty China found in the text ''Former Events in Wulin'' by Zhou Mi (1232–1298).", "Modern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two.", "European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe.The name \"domino\" is probably derived from the resemblance to a kind of carnival costume worn during the Venetian Carnival, often consisting of a black-hooded robe and a white mask.", "Despite the coinage of the word \"polyomino\" as a generalization, there is no connection between the word \"domino\" and the number 2 in any language.The most commonly played domino games are Domino Whist, Matador, and Muggins (All Fives).", "Other popular forms include Texas 42, Chicken Foot, Concentration, Double Fives, and Mexican Train.", "In Britain, the most popular league and pub game is Fives and Threes.Dominoes have sometimes been used for divination, such as bone throwing in Chinese culture and in the African diaspora." ], [ "Construction and composition of domino sets", "European-style dominoes are traditionally made of bone, silver lip ocean pearl oyster shell (mother of pearl), ivory, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips (inlaid or painted).", "Some sets feature the top half thickness in MOP, ivory, or bone, with the lower half in ebony.", "Alternatively, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone (e.g., marble, granite or soapstone); other woods (e.g., ash, oak, redwood, and cedar); metals (e.g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal.", "These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial; also, such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials.", "DominoesModern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look.", "Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value (one-spots might have black pips while two-spots might be green, three red, etc.)", "to facilitate finding matching ends.", "Occasionally, one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards.", "Such sets are lightweight, compact, and inexpensive, and like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze.", "Sometimes, the tiles have a metal pin (called a spinner or pivot) in the middle.The traditional domino set contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double-six set because the highest-value piece has six pips on each end (the \"double six\").", "The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six-sided dice, but because blank ends having no spots are used, seven faces are possible, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double-six set.However, this is a relatively small number especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are \"extended\" by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces.", "Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three; so the common extended sets are double-nine (55 tiles), double-12 (91 tiles), double-15 (136 tiles), and double-18 (190 tiles), which is the maximum in practice.", "Larger sets such as double-21 (253 tiles) could theoretically exist, but they seem to be extremely rare if not nonexistent, as that would be far more than is normally necessary for most domino games, even with eight players.", "As the set becomes larger, identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes more difficult, so some large domino sets use more readable Arabic numerals instead of pips." ], [ "History", "Dutch sailors playing dominoes, 1890s=== Chinese dominoes ===In China, early \"domino\" tiles were functionally identical to playing cards.", "An identifiable version of Chinese dominoes developed in the 12th or 13th century.The oldest written mention of domino tiles in China dates to the 13th century and comes from Hangzhou where ''pupai'' (gambling plaques or tiles) and dice are listed as items sold by peddlers during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of Song (r. 1162–1189).", "It is not entirely clear that ''pupai'' means dominoes, but the same term is used two centuries later by the Ming author Lu Rong (1436–1494) in a context that clearly describes domino tiles.", "The earliest known manual on dominoes is the ''Manual of the Xuanhe Period'' which purports to be written by Qu You (1341–1427), but some scholars believe it is a later forgery.The traditional 32-piece Chinese domino set, made to represent each possible face of two thrown dice and thus have no blank faces, differs from the 28-piece domino set found in the West during the mid 18th century, although Chinese dominoes with blank faces were known during the 17th century.Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two six-sided dice (2d6).", "One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die.", "Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the tiles into two suits: military and civil.", "Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European ones.=== Dominoes in Europe and North America ===''The domino players'' by Friedrich SturmModern dominoes first appeared in Italy during the 18th century, but they differ from Chinese dominoes in a number of respects, and there is no confirmed link between the two.", "European dominoes may have developed independently, or Italian missionaries in China may have brought the game to Europe.", "Having been established in Italy, the game of dominoes spread rapidly to Austria, southern Germany and France.", "The game became fashionable in France in the mid-18th century.", "The name ''domino'' does not appear before that time, being first recorded in 1771, in the ''Dictionnaire de Trévoux''.There are two earlier recorded meanings for the French word ''domino'', one referring to the masquerades of the period, derived from the term for the hooded garment of a priest, the other referred to crude and brightly colored woodcuts on paper formerly popular among French peasants.", "The way by which this word became the name of the game of domino remains unclear.", "The earliest game rules in Europe describe a simple block game for two or four players.", "Later French rules add the variant of ''Domino à la Pêche'' (\"Fishing Domino\"), an early draw game as well as a three-hand game with a pool.From France, the game was introduced to England by the late 1700s, purportedly brought in by French prisoners-of-war.", "The early forms of the game in England were the ''Block Game'' and ''Draw Game''.", "The rules for these games were reprinted, largely unchanged, for over half a century.", "In 1863, a new game variously described as ''All Fives, Fives'' or ''Cribbage Dominoes'' appeared for the first time in both English and American sources; this was the first scoring game and it borrowed the counting and scoring features of cribbage, but 5 domino spots instead of 15 card points became the basic scoring unit, worth 1 game point.", "The game was played to 31 and employed a cribbage board to keep score.In 1864, ''The American Hoyle'' describes three new variants: Muggins, Bergen and Rounce; alongside the Block Dominoes and Draw Dominoes.", "In Muggins, the cribbage board was dropped, 5 spots scored 5 points, and game was now 200 for two players and 150 for three or four.", "Despite the name, there was no 'muggins rule' as in Cribbage to challenge a player who fails to declare his scoring combinations.", "This omission was rectified in the 1868 edition of ''The Modern Pocket Hoyle'', but reprints of both rule sets continued to be produced in parallel for around twenty years before the version with the muggins rule prevailed.", "From around 1871, however, the names of All Fives and Muggins, became conflated and many publications issued rules for 'Muggins or All Fives' or 'Muggins or Fives' without making any distinction between the two.", "This confusion continues to the present day with some publications equating the names and others describing All Fives as a separate game.In 1889, dominoes was described as having spread worldwide, \"but nowhere is it more popular than in the cafés of France and Belgium.", "From the outset, the European game was different from the Chinese one.", "European domino sets contain neither the military-civilian suit distinctions of Chinese dominoes nor the duplicates that went with them.", "Moreover, according to Michael Dummett, in the Chinese games it is only the identity of the tile that matters; there is no concept of matching.", "Instead, the basic set of 28 unique tiles contains seven additional pieces, six of them representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank-blank (0–0) combination.", "Subsequently 45-piece (double eight) sets appeared in Austria and, in recent times, 55-piece (double nine) and 91-piece (double twelve) sets have been produced.All the early games are still played today alongside games that have sprung up in the last 60 years such as Five Up, Mexican Train and Chicken Foot, the last two taking advantage of the larger domino sets available.Some modern descriptions of All Fives are quite different from the original, having lost much of their cribbage character and incorporating a single spinner, making it identical, or closely related, to Sniff.", "Most published rule sets for Muggins include the rule that gives the game its name, but some modern publications omit it even though the muggins rule has been described as the unique feature of this game.Dominoes is now played internationally.", "It is recognized as an \"ingrained cultural activity within the Caribbean\" but is also popular with the Windrush generation (who have Caribbean heritage) in the UK.In the U.S. state of Alabama, it was illegal to play dominoes on Sunday within the state until the relevant section of the Alabama Criminal Code was repealed, effective April 21, 2015." ], [ "Tiles and suits", "Complete double-six setDominoes (also known as bones, cards, men, pieces or tiles), are normally twice as long as they are wide, which makes it easier to re-stack pieces after use.", "A domino usually features a line in the middle to divide it visually into two squares, called ends.", "The value of either side is the number of spots or pips.", "In the most common variant (double-six), the values range from six pips down to none or blank.", "The sum of the two values, i.e.", "the total number of pips, may be referred to as the '''rank''' or '''weight''' of a tile; a tile may be described as \"heavier\" than a \"lighter\" one that has fewer (or no) pips.Tiles are generally named after their two values.", "For instance, the following are descriptions of the tile bearing the values two and five:* Deuce-five* Five-deuce* 2-5* 5-2A tile that has the same pips-value on each end is called a '''double''' or '''doublet''', and is typically referred to as double-zero , double-one , and so on.", "Conversely, a tile bearing different values is called a '''single'''.Every tile which features a given number is a member of the '''suit''' of that number.", "A single tile is a member of two suits: for example, belongs both to the suit of threes and the suit of blanks, or 0 suit.In some versions the doubles can be treated as an additional suit of doubles.", "In these versions, the belongs both to the suit of sixes and the suit of doubles.", "However, the dominant approach is that each double belongs to only one suit.The most common domino sets commercially available are double six (with 28 tiles) and double nine (with 55 tiles).", "Larger sets exist and are popular for games involving several players or for players looking for long domino games.The number of tiles in a double-'''n''' set obeys the following formula::This formula can be simplified a little bit when is made equal to the ''total number of doubles in the domino set'':The total number of pips in a double-'''n''' set is found by:\t i.e.", "the number of tiles multiplied by the maximum pip-count ('''n''')e.g.", "a 6-6 set has (7 × 8) / 2 = 56/2 = 28 tiles, the average number of pips per tile is 6 (range is from 0 to 12), giving a total pip count of 6 × 28 = 168" ], [ "Rules", "The most popular type of play are layout games, which fall into two main categories, blocking games and scoring games.", "* Most domino games are blocking games, where the objective is to empty one's hand while blocking the opponent's.", "In the end, a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands.", "* In scoring games, the scoring is different and happens mostly during game play, making it the principal objective.", "* A popular version played predominantly in Singapore, referenced as Hector's Rules, allows for playing double tiles on opponents' hands and awards a bonus play of an additional tile immediately after playing a double tile.", "* If an opponent lays all their tiles on their turn, the game is a tie.===Blocking game===The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double-six set.", "The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the ''stock'' or ''boneyard''.", "Each player draws seven tiles from the stock.", "Once the players begin drawing tiles, they are typically placed on-edge in front of the players, so players can see their own tiles, but not the value of their opponents' tiles.", "Players can thus see how many tiles remain in their opponents' hands at all times.One player begins by downing (playing the first tile) one of their tiles.", "This tile starts the line of play, in which values of adjacent pairs of tile ends must match.", "The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends; if a player is unable to place a valid tile, they must continue drawing tiles from the stock until they are able to place a tile.", "The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can play.", "If that occurs, whoever caused the block receives all of the remaining player points not counting their own.===Scoring game===Players accrue points during game play for certain configurations, moves, or emptying one's hand.", "Most scoring games use variations of the draw game.", "If a player does not call \"domino\" before the tile is laid on the table, and another player says domino after the tile is laid, the first player must pick up an extra domino.===Draw game===In a draw game (blocking or scoring), players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is (nearly) empty.", "The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player's hand plus the number of pips in the stock.", "Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock.", "The draw game is often referred to as simply \"dominoes\".Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams.===Line of play===Five-Up played with multicolored tiles: the doubles serve as spinners, allowing the line of play to branch.The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table.", "It starts with a single tile and typically grows in two opposite directions when players add matching tiles.", "In practice, players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table.The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another.", "In many rules, the doubles serve as spinners, i.e., they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch.", "Sometimes, the first tile is required to be a double, which serves as the only spinner.", "In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere.", "Matador has unusual rules for matching.", "Bendomino uses curved tiles, so one side of the line of play (or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons.In Mexican Train and other train games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off.", "Most trains are owned by a player and in most situations players are allowed to extend only their own train.===Scoring===In blocking games, scoring happens at the end of the game.", "After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for the team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing team's hands.", "In some rules, the pip count of the remaining stock is added.", "If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner is often determined by adding the pips in players' hands.In scoring games, each individual can potentially add to the score.", "For example, in Bergen, players score two points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and three points if additionally one open end is formed by a double.", "In Muggins, players score by ensuring the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number.", "In variants of Muggins, the line of play may branch due to spinners.", "In the common U.S. variant known as Fives players score by making the open ends a multiple of five.In British public houses and social clubs, a scoring version of \"5s-and-3s\" is used.", "The game is normally played in pairs (two against two) and is played as a series of \"ends\".", "In each \"end\", the objective is for players to attach a domino from their hand to one end of those already played so that the sum of the end tiles is divisible by five or three.", "One point is scored for each time five or three can be divided into the sum of the two tiles, i.e.", "four at one end and five at the other makes nine, which is divisible by three three times, resulting in three points.", "Double five at one end and five at the other makes 15, which is divisible by three five times (five points) and divisible by five three times (three points) for a total of eight points.An \"end\" stops when one of the players is out, i.e., has played all of their tiles.", "In the event no player is able to empty their hand, then the player with the lowest domino left in hand is deemed to be out and scores one point.", "A game consists of any number of ends with points scored in the ends accumulating towards a total.", "The game ends when one of the pair's total score exceeds a set number of points.", "A running total score is often kept on a cribbage board.", "5s-and-3s is played in a number of competitive leagues in the British Isles.===Card games using domino sets===Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, also domino games of a very different character are played, such as solitaire or trick-taking games.", "Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious proscriptions against playing cards.A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12.A popular domino game in Texas is 42.The game is similar to the card game spades.", "It is played with four players paired into teams.", "Each player draws seven tiles, and the tiles are played into tricks.", "Each trick counts as one point, and any domino with a multiple of five dots counts toward the total of the hand.", "These 35 points of \"five count\" and seven tricks equals 42 points, hence the name." ], [ "Competitive play", " Commemorative Coin of the 2011 Domino World Championship in AbkhaziaDominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker.", "Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world.", "Some organizations organize international competitions.", "Examples include the Anglo Caribbean Dominoes League (ACDL) in the UK which includes over 40 clubs including the Brixton Immortals." ], [ "Dominoes in Unicode", "Since April 2008, the character encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles.", "While a complete domino set has only 28 tiles, the Unicode set has \"reversed\" versions of the 21 tiles with different numbers on each end, a \"back\" image, and everything duplicated as horizontal and vertical orientations, for a total of 100 glyphs.", "Few fonts are known to support these glyphs." ], [ "Historical domino competitions", "Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt.", "Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville, Florida." ], [ "See also", "Domino gamesGlossary of domino termsList of domino games*Chinese dominoesOther related articlesDomino effectDomino theoryDomino show/Domino topplingPolyominoesPub gamesTile-based game*List of world championships in mind sports" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dissociation constant" ], [ "Introduction", "In chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology, a '''dissociation constant''' () is a specific type of equilibrium constant that measures the propensity of a larger object to separate (dissociate) reversibly into smaller components, as when a complex falls apart into its component molecules, or when a salt splits up into its component ions.", "The dissociation constant is the inverse of the association constant.", "In the special case of salts, the dissociation constant can also be called an ionization constant.For a general reaction:: A_\\mathit{x} B_\\mathit{y} \\mathit{x} A{} + \\mathit{y} Bin which a complex breaks down into ''x'' A subunits and ''y'' B subunits, the dissociation constant is defined as:where A, B, and A''x'' B''y'' are the equilibrium concentrations of A, B, and the complex A''x'' B''y'', respectively.One reason for the popularity of the dissociation constant in biochemistry and pharmacology is that in the frequently encountered case where ''x'' = ''y'' = 1, KD has a simple physical interpretation: when , then or equivalently .", "That is, KD, which has the dimensions of concentration, equals the concentration of free A at which half of the total molecules of B are associated with A.", "This simple interpretation does not apply for higher values of ''x'' or ''y''.", "It also presumes the absence of competing reactions, though the derivation can be extended to explicitly allow for and describe competitive binding.", "It is useful as a quick description of the binding of a substance, in the same way that EC50 and IC50 describe the biological activities of substances." ], [ "Concentration of bound molecules", "===Molecules with one binding site ===Experimentally, the concentration of the molecule complex AB is obtained indirectly from the measurement of the concentration of a free molecules, either A or B.In principle, the total amounts of molecule A0 and B0 added to the reaction are known.They separate into free and bound components according to the mass conservation principle::To track the concentration of the complex AB, one substitutes the concentration of the free molecules (A or B), of the respective conservation equations, by the definition of the dissociation constant,:This yields the concentration of the complex related to the concentration of either one of the free molecules:===Macromolecules with identical independent binding sites===Many biological proteins and enzymes can possess more than one binding site.Usually, when a ligand binds with a macromolecule , it can influence binding kinetics of other ligands binding to the macromolecule.A simplified mechanism can be formulated if the affinity of all binding sites can be considered independent of the number of ligands bound to the macromolecule.", "This is valid for macromolecules composed of more than one, mostly identical, subunits.", "It can be then assumed that each of these subunits are identical, symmetric and that they possess only one single binding site.", "Then, the concentration of bound ligands L_{bound} becomes:In this case, , but comprises all partially saturated forms of the macromolecule::where the saturation occurs stepwise:For the derivation of the general binding equation a saturation function is defined as the quotient from the portion of bound ligand to the totalamount of the macromolecule::''K’n'' are so-called macroscopic or apparent dissociation constants and can result from multiple individual reactions.", "For example, if a macromolecule ''M'' has 3 binding sites, ''K’1'' describes a ligand being bound to any of the 3 binding sites.", "In this example, ''K’2'' describes 2 molecules being bound and ''K’3'' 3 molecules being bound to the macromolecule.", "The microscopic or individual dissociation constant describes the equilibrium of ligands binding to specific binding sites.", "Because we assume identical binding sites with no cooperativity, the microscopic dissociation constant must be equal for every binding site and can be abbreviated simply as ''KD''.", "In our example, ''K’1'' is the amalgamation of a ligand binding to either of the 3 possible binding sites (I, II and III), hence 3 microscopic dissociation constants and 3 distinct states of the ligand-macromolecule complex.", "For ''K’2'' there are 6 different microscopic dissociation constants (I-II, I-III, II-I, II-III, III-I, III-II) but only 3 distinct states (it does not matter whether you bind pocket I and II or first II and then I).", "For ''K’3'' there are 3 different dissociation constants - there are only three possibilities to which pocket is filled last (I, II or III) - and 1 state (I-II-III).", "Even when the microscopic dissociation constant is the same for each individual binding event, the macroscopic outcome (''K’1'', ''K’2'' and ''K’3'') is not equal.", "This can be understood intuitively for our example of 3 possible binding sites.", "''K’1'' describes the reaction from one state (no ligand bound) to 3 states (1 ligand bound to either of the 3 binding sides).", "The apparent ''K’1'' would therefore be 3 times smaller than the individual ''KD''.", "''K’2'' describes the reaction from 3 states (1 ligand bound) to 3 states (2 ligands bound), therefore ''K’2'' would be equal to ''KD''.", "''K’3'' describes the reaction from 3 states (2 ligands bound) to 1 state (3 ligands bound), hence the apparent dissociation constant ''K’3'' being 3 times bigger than the microscopic dissociation constant ''KD''.The general relationship between both types of dissociation constants for ''n'' binding sites is:Hence, the ratio of bound ligand to macromolecules becomes:where is the binomial coefficient.Then, the first equation is proved by applying the binomial rule:==Protein-ligand binding==The dissociation constant is commonly used to describe the affinity between a ligand L (such as a drug) and a protein P; i.e., how tightly a ligand binds to a particular protein.", "Ligand-protein affinities are influenced by non-covalent intermolecular interactions between the two molecules such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and van der Waals forces.", "Affinities can also be affected by high concentrations of other macromolecules, which causes macromolecular crowding.The formation of a ligand-protein complex LP can be described by a two-state process: L + P LPthe corresponding dissociation constant is defined:where P, L, and LP represent molar concentrations of the protein, ligand, and protein-ligand complex, respectively.The dissociation constant has molar units (M) and corresponds to the ligand concentration L at which half of the proteins are occupied at equilibrium, i.e., the concentration of ligand at which the concentration of protein with ligand bound LP equals the concentration of protein with no ligand bound P. The smaller the dissociation constant, the more tightly bound the ligand is, or the higher the affinity between ligand and protein.", "For example, a ligand with a nanomolar (nM) dissociation constant binds more tightly to a particular protein than a ligand with a micromolar (μM) dissociation constant.Sub-picomolar dissociation constants as a result of non-covalent binding interactions between two molecules are rare.", "Nevertheless, there are some important exceptions.", "Biotin and avidin bind with a dissociation constant of roughly 10−15 M = 1 fM = 0.000001 nM.Ribonuclease inhibitor proteins may also bind to ribonuclease with a similar 10−15 M affinity.", "The dissociation constant for a particular ligand-protein interaction can change significantly with solution conditions (e.g., temperature, pH and salt concentration).", "The effect of different solution conditions is to effectively modify the strength of any intermolecular interactions holding a particular ligand-protein complex together.Drugs can produce harmful side effects through interactions with proteins for which they were not meant to or designed to interact.", "Therefore, much pharmaceutical research is aimed at designing drugs that bind to only their target proteins (Negative Design) with high affinity (typically 0.1-10 nM) or at improving the affinity between a particular drug and its ''in-vivo'' protein target (Positive Design).===Antibodies===In the specific case of antibodies (Ab) binding to antigen (Ag), usually the term '''affinity constant''' refers to the association constant.", ": Ab + Ag AbAg :This chemical equilibrium is also the ratio of the on-rate (kforward or ka) and off-rate (kback or kd) constants.", "Two antibodies can have the same affinity, but one may have both a high on- and off-rate constant, while the other may have both a low on- and off-rate constant.", ":" ], [ "Acid–base reactions", "For the deprotonation of acids, ''K'' is known as ''K''a, the acid dissociation constant.", "Stronger acids, for example sulfuric or phosphoric acid, have larger dissociation constants; weaker acids, like acetic acid, have smaller dissociation constants.", "(The symbol , used for the acid dissociation constant, can lead to confusion with the association constant and it may be necessary to see the reaction or the equilibrium expression to know which is meant.", ")Acid dissociation constants are sometimes expressed by , which is defined as::This notation is seen in other contexts as well; it is mainly used for covalent dissociations (i.e., reactions in which chemical bonds are made or broken) since such dissociation constants can vary greatly.A molecule can have several acid dissociation constants.", "In this regard, that is depending on the number of the protons they can give up, we define ''monoprotic'', ''diprotic'' and ''triprotic'' acids.", "The first (e.g., acetic acid or ammonium) have only one dissociable group, the second (carbonic acid, bicarbonate, glycine) have two dissociable groups and the third (e.g., phosphoric acid) have three dissociable groups.", "In the case of multiple p''K'' values they are designated by indices: p''K''1, p''K''2, p''K''3 and so on.", "For amino acids, the p''K''1 constant refers to its carboxyl (-COOH) group, p''K''2 refers to its amino (-NH2) group and the p''K''3 is the p''K'' value of its side chain.", ":" ], [ "Dissociation constant of water", "The dissociation constant of water is denoted ''K''w::The concentration of water, H2O, is omitted by convention, which means that the value of ''K''w differs from the value of ''K''eq that would be computed using that concentration.The value of ''K''w varies with temperature, as shown in the table below.", "This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as pH.", ": Water temperature ''K''w p''K''w0 °C0.11214.9525 °C1.02313.9950 °C5.49513.2675 °C19.9512.70100 °C56.2312.25" ], [ "See also", "* Acid* Equilibrium constant* ''K''i Database* Competitive inhibition* pH* Scatchard plot* Ligand binding* Avidity" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dimensional analysis" ], [ "Introduction", "In engineering and science, '''dimensional analysis''' is the analysis of the relationships between different physical quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric current) and units of measurement (such as metres and grams) and tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed.", "The term dimensional analysis is also used to refer to conversion of units from one dimensional unit to another, which can be used to evaluate scientific formulae.", "'''''Commensurable''''' physical quantities are of the same kind and have the same dimension, and can be directly compared to each other, even if they are expressed in differing units of measurement; e.g., metres and feet, grams and pounds, seconds and years.", "''Incommensurable'' physical quantities are of different kinds and have different dimensions, and can not be directly compared to each other, no matter what units they are expressed in, e.g.", "metres and grams, seconds and grams, metres and seconds.", "For example, asking whether a gram is larger than an hour is meaningless.Any physically meaningful equation, or inequality, ''must'' have the same dimensions on its left and right sides, a property known as ''dimensional homogeneity''.", "Checking for dimensional homogeneity is a common application of dimensional analysis, serving as a plausibility check on derived equations and computations.", "It also serves as a guide and constraint in deriving equations that may describe a physical system in the absence of a more rigorous derivation.The concept of '''physical dimension''', and of dimensional analysis, was introduced by Joseph Fourier in 1822." ], [ "Formulation", "The Buckingham π theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of dimensionless parameters, where ''m'' is the rank of the dimensional matrix.", "Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables.A dimensional equation can have the dimensions reduced or eliminated through nondimensionalization, which begins with dimensional analysis, and involves scaling quantities by characteristic units of a system or physical constants of nature.", "This may give insight into the fundamental properties of the system, as illustrated in the examples below.The dimension of a physical quantity can be expressed as a product of the base physical dimensions such as length, mass and time, each raised to an integer (and occasionally rational) power.", "The ''dimension'' of a physical quantity is more fundamental than some ''scale'' or unit used to express the amount of that physical quantity.", "For example, ''mass'' is a dimension, while the kilogram is a particular reference quantity chosen to express a quantity of mass.", "The choice of unit is arbitrary, and its choice is often based on historical precedent.", "Natural units, being based on only universal constants, may be thought of as being \"less arbitrary\".There are many possible choices of base physical dimensions.", "The SI standard selects the following dimensions and corresponding '''dimension symbols''': : time (T), length (L), mass (M), electric current (I), absolute temperature (Θ), amount of substance (N) and luminous intensity (J).The symbols are by convention usually written in roman sans serif typeface.", "Mathematically, the dimension of the quantity is given by : where , , , , , , are the dimensional exponents.", "Other physical quantities could be defined as the base quantities, as long as they form a linearly independent basis – for instance, one could replace the dimension (I) of electric current of the SI basis with a dimension (Q) of electric charge, since .A quantity that has only (with all other exponents zero) is known as a '''geometric quantity'''.", "A quantity that has only both and is known as a '''kinematic quantity'''.", "A quantity that has only all of , , and is known as a '''dynamic quantity'''.A quantity that has all exponents null is said to have '''dimension one'''.The unit chosen to express a physical quantity and its dimension are related, but not identical concepts.", "The units of a physical quantity are defined by convention and related to some standard; e.g., length may have units of metres, feet, inches, miles or micrometres; but any length always has a dimension of L, no matter what units of length are chosen to express it.", "Two different units of the same physical quantity have conversion factors that relate them.", "For example, ; in this case 2.54 cm/in is the conversion factor, which is itself dimensionless.", "Therefore, multiplying by that conversion factor does not change the dimensions of a physical quantity.There are also physicists who have cast doubt on the very existence of incompatible fundamental dimensions of physical quantity, although this does not invalidate the usefulness of dimensional analysis.=== Simple cases ===As examples, the dimension of the physical quantity speed is: The dimension of the physical quantity acceleration is: The dimension of the physical quantity force is: The dimension of the physical quantity pressure is : The dimension of the physical quantity energy is: The dimension of the physical quantity power is: The dimension of the physical quantity electric charge is: The dimension of the physical quantity electric potential difference is: The dimension of the physical quantity capacitance is: === Rayleigh's method ===In dimensional analysis, '''Rayleigh's method''' is a conceptual tool used in physics, chemistry, and engineering.", "It expresses a functional relationship of some variables in the form of an exponential equation.", "It was named after Lord Rayleigh.The method involves the following steps:# Gather all the independent variables that are likely to influence the dependent variable.# If is a variable that depends upon independent variables , , , ..., , then the functional equation can be written as .# Write the above equation in the form , where is a dimensionless constant and , , , ..., are arbitrary exponents.# Express each of the quantities in the equation in some base units in which the solution is required.# By using dimensional homogeneity, obtain a set of simultaneous equations involving the exponents , , , ..., .# Solve these equations to obtain the values of the exponents , , , ..., .# Substitute the values of exponents in the main equation, and form the non-dimensional parameters by grouping the variables with like exponents.As a drawback, Rayleigh's method does not provide any information regarding number of dimensionless groups to be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis." ], [ "Concrete numbers and base units", "Many parameters and measurements in the physical sciences and engineering are expressed as a concrete number—a numerical quantity and a corresponding dimensional unit.", "Often a quantity is expressed in terms of several other quantities; for example, speed is a combination of length and time, e.g.", "60 kilometres per hour or 1.4 kilometres per second.", "Compound relations with \"per\" are expressed with division, e.g.", "60 km/h.", "Other relations can involve multiplication (often shown with a centered dot or juxtaposition), powers (like m2 for square metres), or combinations thereof.A set of base units for a system of measurement is a conventionally chosen set of units, none of which can be expressed as a combination of the others and in terms of which all the remaining units of the system can be expressed.", "For example, units for length and time are normally chosen as base units.", "Units for volume, however, can be factored into the base units of length (m3), thus they are considered derived or compound units.Sometimes the names of units obscure the fact that they are derived units.", "For example, a newton (N) is a unit of force, which may be expressed as the product of mass (with unit kg) and acceleration (with unit m⋅s−2).", "The newton is defined as .=== Percentages, derivatives and integrals ===Percentages are dimensionless quantities, since they are ratios of two quantities with the same dimensions.", "In other words, the % sign can be read as \"hundredths\", since .Taking a derivative with respect to a quantity divides the dimension by the dimension of the variable that is differentiated with respect to.", "Thus:* position () has the dimension L (length);* derivative of position with respect to time (, velocity) has dimension T−1L—length from position, time due to the gradient;* the second derivative , acceleration) has dimension .Likewise, taking an integral adds the dimension of the variable one is integrating with respect to, but in the numerator.", "* force has the dimension (mass multiplied by acceleration);* the integral of force with respect to the distance () the object has travelled (, work) has dimension .In economics, one distinguishes between stocks and flows: a stock has a unit (say, widgets or dollars), while a flow is a derivative of a stock, and has a unit of the form of this unit divided by one of time (say, dollars/year).In some contexts, dimensional quantities are expressed as dimensionless quantities or percentages by omitting some dimensions.", "For example, debt-to-GDP ratios are generally expressed as percentages: total debt outstanding (dimension of currency) divided by annual GDP (dimension of currency)—but one may argue that, in comparing a stock to a flow, annual GDP should have dimensions of currency/time (dollars/year, for instance) and thus debt-to-GDP should have the unit year, which indicates that debt-to-GDP is the number of years needed for a constant GDP to pay the debt, if all GDP is spent on the debt and the debt is otherwise unchanged." ], [ "Dimensional homogeneity (commensurability) {{anchor\|Dimensional homogeneity\|Commensurability}}", "The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity.", "However, the dimensions form an abelian group under multiplication, so:For example, it makes no sense to ask whether 1 hour is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, as these have different dimensions, nor to add 1 hour to 1 kilometre.", "However, it makes sense to ask whether 1 mile is more, the same, or less than 1 kilometre, being the same dimension of physical quantity even though the units are different.", "On the other hand, if an object travels 100 km in 2 hours, one may divide these and conclude that the object's average speed was 50 km/h.The rule implies that in a physically meaningful ''expression'' only quantities of the same dimension can be added, subtracted, or compared.", "For example, if , and denote, respectively, the mass of some man, the mass of a rat and the length of that man, the dimensionally homogeneous expression is meaningful, but the heterogeneous expression is meaningless.", "However, is fine.", "Thus, dimensional analysis may be used as a sanity check of physical equations: the two sides of any equation must be commensurable or have the same dimensions.Even when two physical quantities have identical dimensions, it may nevertheless be meaningless to compare or add them.", "For example, although torque and energy share the dimension , they are fundamentally different physical quantities.To compare, add, or subtract quantities with the same dimensions but expressed in different units, the standard procedure is first to convert them all to the same unit.", "For example, to compare 32 metres with 35 yards, use to convert 35 yards to 32.004 m.A related principle is that any physical law that accurately describes the real world must be independent of the units used to measure the physical variables.", "For example, Newton's laws of motion must hold true whether distance is measured in miles or kilometres.", "This principle gives rise to the form that a conversion factor between a unit that measures the same dimension must take: multiplication by a simple constant.", "It also ensures equivalence; for example, if two buildings are the same height in feet, then they must be the same height in metres." ], [ "Conversion factor", "In dimensional analysis, a ratio which converts one unit of measure into another without changing the quantity is called a ''conversion factor''.", "For example, kPa and bar are both units of pressure, and .", "The rules of algebra allow both sides of an equation to be divided by the same expression, so this is equivalent to .", "Since any quantity can be multiplied by 1 without changing it, the expression \"\" can be used to convert from bars to kPa by multiplying it with the quantity to be converted, including the unit.", "For example, because , and bar/bar cancels out, so ." ], [ "Applications", "Dimensional analysis is most often used in physics and chemistry – and in the mathematics thereof – but finds some applications outside of those fields as well.=== Mathematics ===A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an -ball (the solid ball in ''n'' dimensions), or the area of its surface, the -sphere: being an -dimensional figure, the volume scales as , while the surface area, being -dimensional, scales as .", "Thus the volume of the -ball in terms of the radius is , for some constant .", "Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone.=== Finance, economics, and accounting ===In finance, economics, and accounting, dimensional analysis is most commonly referred to in terms of the distinction between stocks and flows.", "More generally, dimensional analysis is used in interpreting various financial ratios, economics ratios, and accounting ratios.", "* For example, the P/E ratio has dimensions of time (unit: year), and can be interpreted as \"years of earnings to earn the price paid\".", "* In economics, debt-to-GDP ratio also has the unit year (debt has a unit of currency, GDP has a unit of currency/year).", "* Velocity of money has a unit of 1/years (GDP/money supply has a unit of currency/year over currency): how often a unit of currency circulates per year.", "* Annual continuously compounded interest rates and simple interest rates are often expressed as a percentage (adimensional quantity) while time is expressed as an adimensional quantity consisting of the number of years.", "However, if the time includes year as the unit of measure, the dimension of the rate is 1/year.", "Of course, there is nothing special (apart from the usual convention) about using year as a unit of time: any other time unit can be used.", "Furthermore, if rate and time include their units of measure, the use of different units for each is not problematic.", "In contrast, rate and time need to refer to a common period if they are adimensional.", "(Note that effective interest rates can only be defined as adimensional quantities.", ")* In financial analysis, bond duration can be defined as , where is the value of a bond (or portfolio), is the continuously compounded interest rate and is a derivative.", "From the previous point, the dimension of is 1/time.", "Therefore, the dimension of duration is time (usually expressed in years) because is in the \"denominator\" of the derivative.=== Fluid mechanics ===In fluid mechanics, dimensional analysis is performed to obtain dimensionless pi terms or groups.", "According to the principles of dimensional analysis, any prototype can be described by a series of these terms or groups that describe the behaviour of the system.", "Using suitable pi terms or groups, it is possible to develop a similar set of pi terms for a model that has the same dimensional relationships.", "In other words, pi terms provide a shortcut to developing a model representing a certain prototype.", "Common dimensionless groups in fluid mechanics include:* Reynolds number (), generally important in all types of fluid problems: * Froude number (), modeling flow with a free surface: * Euler number (), used in problems in which pressure is of interest: * Mach number (), important in high speed flows where the velocity approaches or exceeds the local speed of sound: where is the local speed of sound." ], [ "History", "The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians.", "The first written application of dimensional analysis has been credited to François Daviet, a student of Lagrange, in a 1799 article at the Turin Academy of Science.This led to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of measurement, a result which was eventually later formalized in the Buckingham π theorem.Simeon Poisson also treated the same problem of the parallelogram law by Daviet, in his treatise of 1811 and 1833 (vol I, p. 39).", "In the second edition of 1833, Poisson explicitly introduces the term ''dimension'' instead of the Daviet ''homogeneity''.In 1822, the important Napoleonic scientist Joseph Fourier made the first credited important contributions based on the idea that physical laws like should be independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables.James Clerk Maxwell played a major role in establishing modern use of dimensional analysis by distinguishing mass, length, and time as fundamental units, while referring to other units as derived.", "Although Maxwell defined length, time and mass to be \"the three fundamental units\", he also noted that gravitational mass can be derived from length and time by assuming a form of Newton's law of universal gravitation in which the gravitational constant is taken as unity, thereby defining .", "By assuming a form of Coulomb's law in which the Coulomb constant ''k''e is taken as unity, Maxwell then determined that the dimensions of an electrostatic unit of charge were , which, after substituting his equation for mass, results in charge having the same dimensions as mass, viz.", ".Dimensional analysis is also used to derive relationships between the physical quantities that are involved in a particular phenomenon that one wishes to understand and characterize.", "It was used for the first time in this way in 1872 by Lord Rayleigh, who was trying to understand why the sky is blue.", "Rayleigh first published the technique in his 1877 book ''The Theory of Sound''.The original meaning of the word ''dimension'', in Fourier's ''Theorie de la Chaleur'', was the numerical value of the exponents of the base units.", "For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time.", "This was slightly changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are T−2L, instead of just the exponents." ], [ "Examples", "=== A simple example: period of a harmonic oscillator ===What is the period of oscillation of a mass attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant suspended in gravity of strength ?", "That period is the solution for of some dimensionless equation in the variables , , , and .The four quantities have the following dimensions: T; M; M/T2; and L/T2.From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, , and putting for some dimensionless constant gives the dimensionless equation sought.", "The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables; here the term \"group\" means \"collection\" rather than mathematical group.", "They are often called dimensionless numbers as well.The variable does not occur in the group.", "It is easy to see that it is impossible to form a dimensionless product of powers that combines with , , and , because is the only quantity that involves the dimension L. This implies that in this problem the is irrelevant.", "Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the ''irrelevance'' of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters.", "If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conclude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of : it is the same on the earth or the moon.", "The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way: , for some dimensionless constant (equal to from the original dimensionless equation).When faced with a case where dimensional analysis rejects a variable (, here) that one intuitively expects to belong in a physical description of the situation, another possibility is that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, but that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity.", "That is, however, not the case here.When dimensional analysis yields only one dimensionless group, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be \"complete\" – although it still may involve unknown dimensionless constants, such as .=== A more complex example: energy of a vibrating wire ===Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length (L) vibrating with an amplitude (L).", "The wire has a linear density (M/L) and is under tension (LM/T2), and we want to know the energy (L2M/T2) in the wire.", "Let and be two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen, given by: The linear density of the wire is not involved.", "The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation: where is some unknown function, or, equivalently as: where is some other unknown function.", "Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious: the energy is proportional to the first power of the tension.", "Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function .", "But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis.", "We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension.", "Or perhaps we might guess that the energy is proportional to , and so infer that .", "The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident.The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex.", "Consider, for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river.", "If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water.", "At what critical velocity will this occur?", "Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before.", "But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood.", "In such cases, the answer may depend on a dimensionless number such as the Reynolds number, which may be interpreted by dimensional analysis.=== A third example: demand versus capacity for a rotating disc ===Dimensional analysis and numerical experiments for a rotating discConsider the case of a thin, solid, parallel-sided rotating disc of axial thickness (L) and radius (L).", "The disc has a density (M/L3), rotates at an angular velocity (T−1) and this leads to a stress (T−2L−1M) in the material.", "There is a theoretical linear elastic solution, given by Lame, to this problem when the disc is thin relative to its radius, the faces of the disc are free to move axially, and the plane stress constitutive relations can be assumed to be valid.", "As the disc becomes thicker relative to the radius then the plane stress solution breaks down.", "If the disc is restrained axially on its free faces then a state of plane strain will occur.", "However, if this is not the case then the state of stress may only be determined though consideration of three-dimensional elasticity and there is no known theoretical solution for this case.", "An engineer might, therefore, be interested in establishing a relationship between the five variables.", "Dimensional analysis for this case leads to the following () non-dimensional groups:: demand/capacity = : thickness/radius or aspect ratio = Through the use of numerical experiments using, for example, the finite element method, the nature of the relationship between the two non-dimensional groups can be obtained as shown in the figure.", "As this problem only involves two non-dimensional groups, the complete picture is provided in a single plot and this can be used as a design/assessment chart for rotating discs." ], [ "Properties", "=== Mathematical properties ===The dimensions that can be formed from a given collection of basic physical dimensions, such as T, L, and M, form an abelian group: The identity is written as 1; , and the inverse of L is 1/L or L−1.L raised to any integer power is a member of the group, having an inverse of L or 1/L.", "The operation of the group is multiplication, having the usual rules for handling exponents ().", "Physically, 1/L can be interpreted as reciprocal length, and 1/T as reciprocal time (see reciprocal second).An abelian group is equivalent to a module over the integers, with the dimensional symbol corresponding to the tuple .", "When physical measured quantities (be they like-dimensioned or unlike-dimensioned) are multiplied or divided by one other, their dimensional units are likewise multiplied or divided; this corresponds to addition or subtraction in the module.", "When measurable quantities are raised to an integer power, the same is done to the dimensional symbols attached to those quantities; this corresponds to scalar multiplication in the module.A basis for such a module of dimensional symbols is called a set of base quantities, and all other vectors are called derived units.", "As in any module, one may choose different bases, which yields different systems of units (e.g., choosing whether the unit for charge is derived from the unit for current, or vice versa).The group identity, the dimension of dimensionless quantities, corresponds to the origin in this module, .In certain cases, one can define fractional dimensions, specifically by formally defining fractional powers of one-dimensional vector spaces, like .", "However, it is not possible to take arbitrary fractional powers of units, due to representation-theoretic obstructions.One can work with vector spaces with given dimensions without needing to use units (corresponding to coordinate systems of the vector spaces).", "For example, given dimensions and , one has the vector spaces and , and can define as the tensor product.", "Similarly, the dual space can be interpreted as having \"negative\" dimensions.", "This corresponds to the fact that under the natural pairing between a vector space and its dual, the dimensions cancel, leaving a dimensionless scalar.The set of units of the physical quantities involved in a problem correspond to a set of vectors (or a matrix).", "The nullity describes some number (e.g., ) of ways in which these vectors can be combined to produce a zero vector.", "These correspond to producing (from the measurements) a number of dimensionless quantities, .", "(In fact these ways completely span the null subspace of another different space, of powers of the measurements.)", "Every possible way of multiplying (and exponentiating) together the measured quantities to produce something with the same unit as some derived quantity can be expressed in the general form: Consequently, every possible commensurate equation for the physics of the system can be rewritten in the form: Knowing this restriction can be a powerful tool for obtaining new insight into the system.=== Mechanics ===The dimension of physical quantities of interest in mechanics can be expressed in terms of base dimensions T, L, and M – these form a 3-dimensional vector space.", "This is not the only valid choice of base dimensions, but it is the one most commonly used.", "For example, one might choose force, length and mass as the base dimensions (as some have done), with associated dimensions F, L, M; this corresponds to a different basis, and one may convert between these representations by a change of basis.", "The choice of the base set of dimensions is thus a convention, with the benefit of increased utility and familiarity.", "The choice of base dimensions is not entirely arbitrary, because they must form a basis: they must span the space, and be linearly independent.For example, F, L, M form a set of fundamental dimensions because they form a basis that is equivalent to T, L, M: the former can be expressed as F = LM/T2, L, M, while the latter can be expressed as T = (LM/F)1/2, L, M.On the other hand, length, velocity and time (T, L, V) do not form a set of base dimensions for mechanics, for two reasons:* There is no way to obtain mass – or anything derived from it, such as force – without introducing another base dimension (thus, they do not ''span the space'').", "* Velocity, being expressible in terms of length and time (), is redundant (the set is not ''linearly independent'').=== Other fields of physics and chemistry ===Depending on the field of physics, it may be advantageous to choose one or another extended set of dimensional symbols.", "In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of T, L, M and Q, where Q represents the dimension of electric charge.", "In thermodynamics, the base set of dimensions is often extended to include a dimension for temperature, Θ.", "In chemistry, the amount of substance (the number of molecules divided by the Avogadro constant, ≈ ) is also defined as a base dimension, N.In the interaction of relativistic plasma with strong laser pulses, a dimensionless relativistic similarity parameter, connected with the symmetry properties of the collisionless Vlasov equation, is constructed from the plasma-, electron- and critical-densities in addition to the electromagnetic vector potential.", "The choice of the dimensions or even the number of dimensions to be used in different fields of physics is to some extent arbitrary, but consistency in use and ease of communications are common and necessary features.=== Polynomials and transcendental functions ===Bridgman’s theorem restricts the type of function that can be used to define a physical quantity from general (dimensionally compounded) quantities to only products of powers of the quantities, unless some of the independent quantities are algebraically combined to yield dimensionless groups, whose functions are grouped together in the dimensionless numeric multiplying factor.", "This excludes polynomials of more than one term or transcendental functions not of that form.Scalar arguments to transcendental functions such as exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions, or to inhomogeneous polynomials, must be dimensionless quantities.", "(Note: this requirement is somewhat relaxed in Siano's orientational analysis described below, in which the square of certain dimensioned quantities are dimensionless.", ")While most mathematical identities about dimensionless numbers translate in a straightforward manner to dimensional quantities, care must be taken with logarithms of ratios: the identity , where the logarithm is taken in any base, holds for dimensionless numbers and , but it does ''not'' hold if and are dimensional, because in this case the left-hand side is well-defined but the right-hand side is not.Similarly, while one can evaluate monomials () of dimensional quantities, one cannot evaluate polynomials of mixed degree with dimensionless coefficients on dimensional quantities: for , the expression makes sense (as an area), while for , the expression does not make sense.However, polynomials of mixed degree can make sense if the coefficients are suitably chosen physical quantities that are not dimensionless.", "For example,: This is the height to which an object rises in time if the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 and the initial upward speed is 500 .", "It is not necessary for to be in ''seconds''.", "For example, suppose = 0.01 minutes.", "Then the first term would be: === Combining units and numerical values ===The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical value or numerical factor, .", ": When like-dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, it is convenient to express them in the same unit so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted.", "But, in concept, there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units.", "For example, 1 metre added to 1 foot is a length, but one cannot derive that length by simply adding 1 and 1.A conversion factor, which is a ratio of like-dimensioned quantities and is equal to the dimensionless unity, is needed:: is identical to The factor 0.3048 m/ft is identical to the dimensionless 1, so multiplying by this conversion factor changes nothing.", "Then when adding two quantities of like dimension, but expressed in different units, the appropriate conversion factor, which is essentially the dimensionless 1, is used to convert the quantities to the same unit so that their numerical values can be added or subtracted.Only in this manner is it meaningful to speak of adding like-dimensioned quantities of differing units.=== Quantity equations ===A '''quantity equation''', also sometimes called a '''complete equation''', is an equation that remains valid independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities.In contrast, in a ''numerical-value equation'', just the numerical values of the quantities occur, without units.", "Therefore, it is only valid when each numerical values is referenced to a specific unit.For example, a quantity equation for displacement as speed multiplied by time difference would be:: for = 5 m/s, where and may be expressed in any units, converted if necessary.In contrast, a corresponding numerical-value equation would be:: where is the numeric value of when expressed in seconds and is the numeric value of when expressed in metres.Generally, the use of numerical-value equations is discouraged." ], [ "Dimensionless concepts", "=== Constants ===The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the in the spring problems discussed above, come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics and often arise from integrating some differential equation.", "Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity.", "This observation can allow one to sometimes make \"back of the envelope\" calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc.=== Formalisms ===Paradoxically, dimensional analysis can be a useful tool even if all the parameters in the underlying theory are dimensionless, e.g., lattice models such as the Ising model can be used to study phase transitions and critical phenomena.", "Such models can be formulated in a purely dimensionless way.", "As we approach the critical point closer and closer, the distance over which the variables in the lattice model are correlated (the so-called correlation length, ) becomes larger and larger.", "Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmise on \"dimensional grounds\" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be , where is the dimension of the lattice.It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael J. Duff, that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless.", "The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other.", "The three independent dimensionful constants: , , and , in the fundamental equations of physics must then be seen as mere conversion factors to convert Mass, Time and Length into each other.Just as in the case of critical properties of lattice models, one can recover the results of dimensional analysis in the appropriate scaling limit; e.g., dimensional analysis in mechanics can be derived by reinserting the constants , , and (but we can now consider them to be dimensionless) and demanding that a nonsingular relation between quantities exists in the limit , and .", "In problems involving a gravitational field the latter limit should be taken such that the field stays finite." ], [ "Dimensional equivalences", "Following are tables of commonly occurring expressions in physics, related to the dimensions of energy, momentum, and force.=== SI units === Energy, T−2L2M Expression Nomenclature Mechanical = force, = distance = action, = time, = power = mass, = velocity, = momentum = angular momentum, = moment of inertia, = angular velocity Ideal gases = pressure, = volume, = temperature, = amount of substance Waves = area of wave front, = wave intensity, = time, = Poynting vector Electromagnetic = electric charge, = electric potential (for changes this is voltage) = electric field, = magnetic field, = permittivity, = permeability, = 3d volume = electric dipole moment, = magnetic moment, = area (bounded by a current loop), ''I'' = electric current in loop Momentum, T−1LM Expression Nomenclature Mechanical = mass, = velocity, = force, = time = action, = angular momentum, = displacement Thermal = root mean square velocity, ''m'' = mass (of a molecule) Waves = density, = volume, = phase velocity Electromagnetic = magnetic vector potential Force, T−2LM Expression Nomenclature Mechanical = mass, = acceleration Thermal = entropy, = temperature, = displacement (see entropic force) Electromagnetic = electric field, = magnetic field, = velocity, = charge" ], [ "Programming languages", "Dimensional correctness as part of type checking has been studied since 1977.Implementations for Ada and C++ were described in 1985 and 1988.Kennedy's 1996 thesis describes an implementation in Standard ML, and later in F#.", "There are implementations for Haskell, OCaml, and Rust, Python, and a code checker for Fortran.Griffioen's 2019 thesis extended Kennedy's Hindley–Milner type system to support Hart's matrices.McBride and Nordvall-Forsberg show how to use dependent types to extend type systems for units of measure.Mathematica 13.2 has a function for transformations with quantities named NondimensionalizationTransform that applies a nondimensionalization transform to an equation.", "Mathematica also has a function to find the dimensions of a unit such as 1 J named UnitDimensions.", "Mathematica also has a function that will find dimensionally equivalent combinations of a subset of physical quantities named DimensionalCombations.", "Mathematica can also factor out certain dimension with UnitDimensions by specifying an argument to the function UnityDimensions.", "For example, you can use UnityDimensions to factor out angles.", "In addition to UnitDimensions, Mathematica can find the dimensions of a QuantityVariable with the function QuantityVariableDimensions." ], [ "Geometry: position vs. displacement", "=== Affine quantities ===Some discussions of dimensional analysis implicitly describe all quantities as mathematical vectors.", "(In mathematics scalars are considered a special case of vectors; vectors can be added to or subtracted from other vectors, and, inter alia, multiplied or divided by scalars.", "If a vector is used to define a position, this assumes an implicit point of reference: an origin.", "While this is useful and often perfectly adequate, allowing many important errors to be caught, it can fail to model certain aspects of physics.", "A more rigorous approach requires distinguishing between position and displacement (or moment in time versus duration, or absolute temperature versus temperature change).Consider points on a line, each with a position with respect to a given origin, and distances among them.", "Positions and displacements all have units of length, but their meaning is not interchangeable:* adding two displacements should yield a new displacement (walking ten paces then twenty paces gets you thirty paces forward),* adding a displacement to a position should yield a new position (walking one block down the street from an intersection gets you to the next intersection),* subtracting two positions should yield a displacement,* but one may ''not'' add two positions.This illustrates the subtle distinction between ''affine'' quantities (ones modeled by an affine space, such as position) and ''vector'' quantities (ones modeled by a vector space, such as displacement).", "* Vector quantities may be added to each other, yielding a new vector quantity, and a vector quantity may be added to a suitable affine quantity (a vector space ''acts on'' an affine space), yielding a new affine quantity.", "* Affine quantities cannot be added, but may be subtracted, yielding ''relative'' quantities which are vectors, and these ''relative differences'' may then be added to each other or to an affine quantity.Properly then, positions have dimension of ''affine'' length, while displacements have dimension of ''vector'' length.", "To assign a number to an ''affine'' unit, one must not only choose a unit of measurement, but also a point of reference, while to assign a number to a ''vector'' unit only requires a unit of measurement.Thus some physical quantities are better modeled by vectorial quantities while others tend to require affine representation, and the distinction is reflected in their dimensional analysis.This distinction is particularly important in the case of temperature, for which the numeric value of absolute zero is not the origin 0 in some scales.", "For absolute zero,: −273.15 °C ≘ 0 K = 0 °R ≘ −459.67 °F,where the symbol ≘ means ''corresponds to'', since although these values on the respective temperature scales correspond, they represent distinct quantities in the same way that the distances from distinct starting points to the same end point are distinct quantities, and cannot in general be equated.For temperature differences,: 1 K = 1 °C ≠ 1 °F = 1 °R.", "(Here °R refers to the Rankine scale, not the Réaumur scale).Unit conversion for temperature differences is simply a matter of multiplying by, e.g., 1 °F / 1 K (although the ratio is not a constant value).", "But because some of these scales have origins that do not correspond to absolute zero, conversion from one temperature scale to another requires accounting for that.", "As a result, simple dimensional analysis can lead to errors if it is ambiguous whether 1 K means the absolute temperature equal to −272.15 °C, or the temperature difference equal to 1 °C.=== Orientation and frame of reference ===Similar to the issue of a point of reference is the issue of orientation: a displacement in 2 or 3 dimensions is not just a length, but is a length together with a ''direction''.", "(This issue does not arise in 1 dimension, or rather is equivalent to the distinction between positive and negative.)", "Thus, to compare or combine two dimensional quantities in a multi-dimensional space, one also needs an orientation: they need to be compared to a frame of reference.This leads to the extensions discussed below, namely Huntley's directed dimensions and Siano's orientational analysis.=== Huntley's extensions ===Huntley has pointed out that a dimensional analysis can become more powerful by discovering new independent dimensions in the quantities under consideration, thus increasing the rank of the dimensional matrix.He introduced two approaches:* The magnitudes of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally independent.", "For example, rather than an undifferentiated length dimension L, we may have Lx represent dimension in the x-direction, and so forth.", "This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent.", "* Mass as a measure of the quantity of matter is to be considered dimensionally independent from mass as a measure of inertia.==== Directed dimensions ====As an example of the usefulness of the first approach, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannonball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component and a horizontal velocity component , assuming it is fired on a flat surface.", "Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then , the distance travelled, with dimension L, , , both dimensioned as T−1L, and the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension T−2L.With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range may be written:: Or dimensionally: from which we may deduce that and , which leaves one exponent undetermined.", "This is to be expected since we have two fundamental dimensions T and L, and four parameters, with one equation.However, if we use directed length dimensions, then will be dimensioned as T−1L, as T−1L, as L and as T−2L.", "The dimensional equation becomes:: and we may solve completely as , and .", "The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions is apparent.Huntley's concept of directed length dimensions however has some serious limitations:* It does not deal well with vector equations involving the ''cross product'',* nor does it handle well the use of ''angles'' as physical variables.It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, L, L, L, symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest.", "He invokes a procedure that involves the \"symmetry\" of the physical problem.", "This is often very difficult to apply reliably: It is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of \"symmetry\" is being invoked.", "Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied?", "What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries?Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts.", "What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts?", "What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts?", "Are they the same or different?", "These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's directed length dimensions to real problems.==== Quantity of matter ====In Huntley's second approach, he holds that it is sometimes useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (''inertial mass''), and mass as a measure of the quantity of matter.", "'''Quantity of matter''' is defined by Huntley as a quantity only to inertial mass, while not implicating inertial properties.", "No further restrictions are added to its definition.For example, consider the derivation of Poiseuille's Law.", "We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe.", "Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass, we may choose as the relevant variables: Symbol Variable Dimension mass flow rate T−1M pressure gradient along the pipe T−2L−2M density L−3M dynamic fluid viscosity T−1L−1M radius of the pipe LThere are three fundamental variables, so the above five equations will yield two independent dimensionless variables:: : If we distinguish between inertial mass with dimension and quantity of matter with dimension , then mass flow rate and density will use quantity of matter as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass.", "We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written:: where now only is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to by methods outside of dimensional analysis).", "This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield Poiseuille's law.Huntley's recognition of quantity of matter as an independent quantity dimension is evidently successful in the problems where it is applicable, but his definition of quantity of matter is open to interpretation, as it lacks specificity beyond the two requirements he postulated for it.", "For a given substance, the SI dimension amount of substance, with unit mole, does satisfy Huntley's two requirements as a measure of quantity of matter, and could be used as a quantity of matter in any problem of dimensional analysis where Huntley's concept is applicable.=== Siano's extension: orientational analysis ===Angles are, by convention, considered to be dimensionless quantities.", "As an example, consider again the projectile problem in which a point mass is launched from the origin at a speed and angle above the ''x''-axis, with the force of gravity directed along the negative ''y''-axis.", "It is desired to find the range , at which point the mass returns to the ''x''-axis.", "Conventional analysis will yield the dimensionless variable , but offers no insight into the relationship between and .Siano has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using ''orientational symbols'' to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol 10.Thus, Huntley's L becomes L1 with L specifying the dimension of length, and specifying the orientation.", "Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own.", "Along with the requirement that , the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results: The orientational symbols form a group (the Klein four-group or \"Viergruppe\").", "In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the \"symmetry of the problem\".", "Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected: a force or a velocity in the z-direction has the orientation of .", "For angles, consider an angle that lies in the z-plane.", "Form a right triangle in the z-plane with being one of the acute angles.", "The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation and the side opposite has an orientation .", "Since (using to indicate orientational equivalence) we conclude that an angle in the xy-plane must have an orientation , which is not unreasonable.", "Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that has orientation while has orientation 10.These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form , where and are real scalars.", "An expression such as is not dimensionally inconsistent since it is a special case of the sum of angles formula and should properly be written:: which for and yields .", "Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e.", "the orientation of a phase angle is .The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems.", "In this approach, one solves the dimensional equation as far as one can.", "If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral, putting it into normal form.", "The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols.", "The solution is then more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives.", "Often, the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, , being in the xy-plane will thus have dimension and the range of the projectile will be of the form:: Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield and , and orientational homogeneity requires that .", "In other words, that must be an odd integer.", "In fact, the required function of theta will be which is a series consisting of odd powers of .It is seen that the Taylor series of and are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like and are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical.Siano's orientational analysis is compatible with the conventional conception of angular quantities as being dimensionless, and within orientational analysis, the radian may still be considered a dimensionless unit.", "The orientational analysis of a quantity equation is carried out separately from the ordinary dimensional analysis, yielding information that supplements the dimensional analysis." ], [ "See also", "* Buckingham π theorem* Dimensionless numbers in fluid mechanics* Fermi estimate – used to teach dimensional analysis* Numerical-value equation* Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis* Similitude – an application of dimensional analysis* System of measurement=== Related areas of mathematics ===* Covariance and contravariance of vectors* Exterior algebra* Geometric algebra* Quantity calculus" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * As postscript* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , (5): 147, (6): 101, (7): 129* * * * " ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* List of dimensions for variety of physical quantities* Unicalc Live web calculator doing units conversion by dimensional analysis* A C++ implementation of compile-time dimensional analysis in the Boost open-source libraries* Buckingham's pi-theorem* Quantity System calculator for units conversion based on dimensional approach * Units, quantities, and fundamental constants project dimensional analysis maps* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 25" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===36 – Forces of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, under the command of Wu Han, conquer the separatist Chengjia empire, reuniting China.", " 274 – A temple to Sol Invictus is dedicated in Rome by Emperor Aurelian.", "* 333 – Roman Emperor Constantine the Great elevates his youngest son Constans to the rank of ''Caesar''.", "* 336 – First documentary sign of Christmas celebration in Rome.", "* 350 – Vetranio meets Constantius II at Naissus (Serbia) and is forced to abdicate his imperial title.", "Constantius allows him to live as a private citizen on a state pension.", "* 508 – Clovis I, king of the Franks, is baptized into the Catholic faith at Reims, by Saint Remigius.", "* 597 – Augustine of Canterbury and his fellow-labourers baptise in Kent more than 10,000 Anglo-Saxons.", "* 800 – The coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor, in Rome.", "* 820 – Eastern Emperor Leo V is murdered in a church of the Great Palace of Constantinople by followers of Michael II.", "1000 – The foundation of the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary is established as a Christian kingdom by Stephen I of Hungary.", "1013 – Sweyn Forkbeard takes control of the Danelaw and is proclaimed king of England.", "1025 – Coronation of Mieszko II Lambert as king of Poland.", "1046 – Henry III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement II.", "1066 – William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy is crowned king of England, at Westminster Abbey, London.", "1076 – Coronation of Bolesław II the Generous as king of Poland.", "1100 – Baldwin of Boulogne is crowned the first King of Jerusalem in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem.", "1130 – Count Roger II of Sicily is crowned the first king of Sicily.", "1261 – Eleven-year-old John IV Laskaris of the restored Eastern Roman Empire is deposed and blinded by orders of his co-ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos.", "1492 – The carrack ''Santa María'', commanded by Christopher Columbus, runs onto a reef off Haiti due to an improper watch.", "1553 – Battle of Tucapel: Mapuche rebels under Lautaro defeat the Spanish conquistadors and executes the governor of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia.", "1559 – Pope Pius IV is elected, four months after his predecessor's death.===1601–1900===1758 – Halley's Comet is sighted by Johann Georg Palitzsch, confirming Edmund Halley's prediction of its passage.", "This was the first passage of a comet predicted ahead of time.", "1766 – Mapuches in Chile launch a series of surprise attacks against the Spanish starting the Mapuche uprising of 1766.", "1776 – American Revolutionary War: George Washington and the Continental Army cross the Delaware River at night to attack Hessian forces serving Great Britain at Trenton, New Jersey, the next day.", "1793 – General \"Mad Anthony\" Wayne and a 300 man detachment identify the site of St. Clair's 1791 defeat by the large number of unburied human remains at modern Fort Recovery, Ohio.", "1809 – Dr. Ephraim McDowell performs the first ovariotomy, removing a 22-pound tumor.", "1814 – Rev.", "Samuel Marsden holds the first Christian service on land in New Zealand at Rangihoua Bay.", "1815 – The Handel and Haydn Society, oldest continually performing arts organization in the United States, gives its first performance.", "1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy concludes after beginning the previous evening.", "1831 – The Great Jamaican Slave Revolt begins; up to 20% of Jamaica's slaves mobilize in an ultimately unsuccessful fight for freedom.", "1837 – Second Seminole War: American general Zachary Taylor leads 1,100 troops against the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee.", "1868 – Pardons for ex-Confederates: United States President Andrew Johnson grants an unconditional pardon to all Confederate veterans.===1901–present===1914 – World War I: A series of unofficial truces occur across the Western Front to celebrate Christmas.", "1915 – The National Protection War breaks out against the Empire of China, as military leaders Cai E and Tang Jiyao proclaim the independence of Yunnan and begin a campaign to restore the Republic.", "1927 – B. R. Ambedkar and his followers burn copies of the Manusmriti in Mahad, Maharashtra, to protest its treatment of Dalit people.", "1932 – A magnitude 7.6 earthquake in Gansu, China kills 275 people.", "1941 – Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, appointed commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet on December 17, arrives at Pearl Harbor.", "* 1941 – World War II: Battle of Hong Kong ends, beginning the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong.", "* 1941 – Admiral Émile Muselier seizes the archipelago of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, which become the first part of France to be liberated by the Free French Forces.", "1946 – The first European self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is initiated within the Soviet Union's F-1 nuclear reactor.", "1950 – The Stone of Scone, traditional coronation stone of British monarchs, is taken from Westminster Abbey by Scottish nationalist students.", "It later turns up in Scotland on April 11, 1951.", "1951 – A bomb explodes at the home of Harry T. Moore and Harriette V. S. Moore, early leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, killing Harry instantly and fatally wounding Harriette.", "1962 – The Soviet Union conducts its final above-ground nuclear weapon test, in anticipation of the 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.", "1963 – Turkish Cypriot Bayrak Radio begins transmitting in Cyprus after Turkish Cypriots are forcibly excluded from Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation.", "1968 – Apollo program: ''Apollo 8'' performs the first successful Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver, sending the crew and spacecraft on a trajectory back to Earth from Lunar orbit.", "* 1968 – Kilvenmani massacre: Forty-four Dalits (untouchables) are burnt to death in Kizhavenmani village, Tamil Nadu, a retaliation for a campaign for higher wages by Dalit laborers.", "1976 – EgyptAir Flight 664, a Boeing 707-366C, crashes on approach to Don Mueang International Airport, killing 71 people.", "1977 – Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin meets in Egypt with its president Anwar Sadat.", "1986 – Iraqi Airways Flight 163, a Boeing 737-270C, is hijacked and crashes in Arar, Saudi Arabia, killing 63 people.", "1989 – Romanian Revolution: Deposed President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife, Elena, are condemned to death and executed after a summary trial.", "1991 – Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the Soviet Union (the union itself is dissolved the next day).", "Ukraine's referendum is finalized and Ukraine officially leaves the Soviet Union.", "1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 310, a Yakovlev Yak-42, crashes near Bejuma, Carabobo State, Venezuela, killing 22 people.", "2003 – UTA Flight 141, a Boeing 727-223, crashes at the Cotonou Airport in Benin, killing 141 people.", " 2003 – The ill-fated ''Beagle 2'' probe, released from the Mars Express spacecraft on December 19, stops transmitting shortly before its scheduled landing.", "2004 – The ''Cassini'' orbiter releases ''Huygens'' probe which successfully landed on Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005.", "2012 – An Antonov An-72 plane crashes close to the city of Shymkent, killing 27 people.", "* 2012 – Air Bagan Flight 011, a Fokker 100, crashes on approach to Heho Airport in Heho, Myanmar, killing two people.", "2016 – A Russian Defence Ministry Tupolev Tu-154 carrying members of the Alexandrov Ensemble crashes into the Black Sea shortly after takeoff, killing all 92 people on board.", "2019 – Twenty people are killed and thousands are left homeless by Typhoon Phanfone in the Philippines.", "2020 – An explosion in Nashville, Tennessee, occurs, leaving three civilians in the hospital.", "2021 – The James Webb Space Telescope is launched." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1250 – John IV Laskaris, Byzantine emperor (d. 1305)1281 – Alice de Lacy, 4th Countess of Lincoln (d. 1348)1400 – John Sutton, 1st Baron Dudley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1487)1424 – Margaret Stewart, Dauphine of France (d. 1445)1461 – Christina of Saxony, Queen consort of Denmark (d. 1521)1490 – Francesco Marinoni, Italian Roman Catholic priest (d. 1562)1493 – Antoinette de Bourbon, French noblewoman (d. 1583)1505 – Christine of Saxony, German noblewoman (d. 1549)1564 – Johannes Buxtorf, German Calvinist theologian (d. 1629)1583 – Orlando Gibbons, English organist and composer (d. 1625)1584 – Margaret of Austria, Queen of Spain (d. 1611)===1601–1900===1601 – Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675)1628 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (d. 1707)1642 (OS) – Isaac Newton, English physicist and mathematician (d. 1726/1727)1652 – Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician, anatomist, and scholar (d. 1713)1665 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish-English poet and songwriter (d. 1746)1674 – Thomas Halyburton, Scottish minister and theologian (d. 1712)1686 – Giovanni Battista Somis, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1763)1700 – Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1758)1711 – Jean-Joseph de Mondonville, French violinist and composer (d. 1772)1716 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (d. 1774)1717 – Pope Pius VI (d. 1799)1728 – Johann Adam Hiller, German composer and conductor (d. 1804)1730 – Philip Mazzei, Italian-American physician and philosopher (d. 1816)1745 – Chevalier de Saint-Georges, Caribbean-French violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1799)1757 – Benjamin Pierce, American general and politician, 17th Governor of New Hampshire (d. 1839)1766 – Christmas Evans, Welsh Nonconformist preacher (d. 1838)1771 – Dorothy Wordsworth, English diarist and poet (d. 1855)1776 – Sydney, Lady Morgan, Irish author and poet (d. 1859)1810 – L. L. Langstroth, American apiarist, clergyman and teacher (d. 1895) 1821 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founder of the American Red Cross (d. 1912)1825 – Stephen F. Chadwick, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Oregon (d. 1895)1829 – Patrick Gilmore, Irish-American composer and bandleader (d. 1892)1856 – Pud Galvin, American baseball player and manager (d. 1902)1861 – Francis Henry Buzzacott, American hunter, explorer and army scout famous for writing Buzzacott's Masterpiece (d. 1947)1861 – Madan Mohan Malaviya, Indian educator, lawyer, and politician, President of the Indian National Congress (d. 1946)1865 – Evangeline Booth, English 4th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1950)1869 – Charles Finger, English-American journalist and author (d. 1941)1872 – Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman and philanthropist (d. 1965)1873 – Otto Frederick Hunziker, Swiss-American agriculturalist and educator (d. 1959)1874 – Lina Cavalieri, Italian soprano and actress (d. 1944)1875 – Francis Aveling, Canadian psychologist and priest (d. 1941)* 1875 – Theodor Innitzer, Austrian cardinal (d. 1955)1876 – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Pakistan (d. 1948) 1876 – Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)1878 – Louis Chevrolet, American race car driver and businessman, co-founded Chevrolet (d. 1941) 1878 – Noël, Countess of Rothes, philanthropist, social leader and heroine of Titanic disaster (d. 1956)* 1878 – Joseph M. Schenck, Russian-American film producer (d. 1961)1883 – Hugo Bergmann, Czech-Israeli philosopher and academic (d. 1975) 1883 – Hana Meisel, Belarusian-Israeli agronomist and politician (d. 1972)1884 – Samuel Berger, American boxer (d. 1925) 1884 – Evelyn Nesbit, American model and actress (d. 1967)1886 – Malak Hifni Nasif, Egyptian poet and activist (d. 1918) 1886 – Kid Ory, American trombonist and bandleader (d. 1973)1887 – Conrad Hilton, American entrepreneur (d. 1979)1889 – Lila Bell Wallace, American publisher and philanthropist, co-founded ''Reader's Digest'' (d. 1984)1890 – Noel Odell, English geologist and mountaineer (d. 1987)1891 – Kenneth Anderson, Indian-English general and politician, Governor of Gibraltar (d. 1959)* 1891 – Clarrie Grimmett, New Zealand-Australian cricketer (d. 1980)1899 – Humphrey Bogart, American actor (d. 1957)===1901–present===1901 – Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester (d. 2004)1902 – William Bell, American tuba player and educator (d. 1971) 1902 – Barton MacLane, American actor, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1969)1903 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1981)1904 – Gerhard Herzberg, German-Canadian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)1906 – Lew Grade, Baron Grade, Ukrainian-English film producer (d. 1998) 1906 – Ernst Ruska, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)1907 – Cab Calloway, American singer-songwriter and bandleader (d. 1994) 1907 – Mike Mazurki, Ukrainian-American wrestler and actor (d. 1990)* 1907 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (d. 1988)1908 – Quentin Crisp, English author and illustrator (d. 1999) 1908 – Ernest L. Massad, American general (d. 1993)* 1908 – Jo-Jo Moore, American baseball player (d. 2001)1909 – Zora Arkus-Duntov, Belgian-American engineer (d. 1996)1911 – Louise Bourgeois, French-American sculptor and painter (d. 2010)1913 – Candy Candido, American singer, bass player, and voice actor (d. 1999) 1913 – Tony Martin, American singer (d. 2012)1914 – James Fletcher Jnr, New Zealand businessman (d. 2007) 1914 – Oscar Lewis, American anthropologist of Latin America (d. 1970)1915 – Pete Rugolo, Italian-American composer and producer (d. 2011)1916 – Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian soldier and politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012)1917 – Arseny Mironov, Russian scientist, engineer, pilot, oldest active researcher in aircraft aerodynamics and flight testing (d. 2019) 1917 – Lincoln Verduga Loor, Ecuadorian journalist and politician (d. 2009)1918 – Anwar Sadat, Egyptian lieutenant and politician, 3rd President of Egypt, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)1919 – Naushad Ali, Indian composer and director (d. 2006)* 1919 – Paul David, Canadian cardiologist and politician, founded the Montreal Heart Institute (d. 1999)* 1919 – Noele Gordon, English actress (d. 1985)1921 – Zaib-un-Nissa Hamidullah, Indian-Pakistani journalist and author (d. 2000) 1921 – Steve Otto, Polish-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989)1922 – William Demby, American author (d. 2013)1923 – René Girard, French-American historian, philosopher, and critic (d. 2015)* 1923 – Louis Lane, American conductor and educator (d. 2016)1924 – Rod Serling, American screenwriter and producer, created ''The Twilight Zone'' (d. 1975) 1924 – Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Indian poet and politician, 10th Prime Minister of India (d. 2018)1925 – Carlos Castaneda, Peruvian-American anthropologist and author (d. 1998) 1925 – Ned Garver, American baseball player (d. 2017)* 1925 – Sam Pollock, Canadian businessman (d. 2007)1926 – Enrique Jorrín, Cuban violinist and composer (d. 1987)1927 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (d. 1975)* 1927 – Leo Kubiak, American basketball and baseball player* 1927 – Ram Narayan, Indian sarangi player1928 – Irish McCalla, American actress and model (d. 2002) 1928 – Dick Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2019)1929 – Christine M. Jones, American educator and politician (d. 2013) 1929 – China Machado, Chinese-born Portuguese-American fashion model, editor and television producer (d. 2016)* 1929 – Chris Kenner, American singer and songwriter (d. 1976)1930 – Emmanuel Agassi, Iranian-American boxer and coach 1930 – Armenak Alachachian, Armenian basketball player and coach (d. 2017)* 1930 – Mary Rose Tuitt, Montserrat politician (d. 2005)1932 – Mabel King, American actress and singer (d. 1999)1933 – Basil Heatley, English runner (d. 2019)1935 – Sadiq al-Mahdi, Sudanese politician, Prime Minister of Sudan (d. 2020) 1935 – Stephen Barnett, American scholar and academic (d. 2009)* 1935 – Jeanne Hopkins Lucas, American educator and politician (d. 2007)1936 – Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy 1936 – Ismail Merchant, Indian-English director and producer (d. 2005)1937 – Maung Aye, Burmese military officer 1937 – O'Kelly Isley Jr., American R&B/soul singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1938 – Duane Armstrong, American painter 1938 – Noel Picard, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)1939 – Ghulam Ahmad Bilour, Pakistani businessman and politician 1939 – Bob James, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer * 1939 – Akong Rinpoche, Tibetan-Chinese spiritual leader (d. 2013)1940 – Hilary Spurling, English journalist and author1941 – Kenneth Calman, Scottish physician and academic1942 – Françoise Dürr, French tennis player and coach 1942 – Barbara Follett, English politician* 1942 – Barry Goldberg, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer * 1942 – Enrique Morente, Spanish singer-songwriter (d. 2010)1943 – Wilson Fittipaldi Júnior, Brazilian race car driver and businessman 1943 – Ravish Malhotra, Indian pilot and military officer* 1943 – Eve Pollard, English journalist and author* 1943 – Hanna Schygulla, German actress* 1943 – Jacqui McShee, English singer1944 – Kenny Everett, British comedian and broadcaster (d. 1995) 1944 – Jairzinho, Brazilian footballer* 1944 – Sam Strahan, New Zealand rugby player (d. 2019)1945 – Rick Berman, American screenwriter and producer 1945 – Mike Pringle, Zambian-Scottish lawyer and politician* 1945 – Noel Redding, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2003)* 1945 – Ken Stabler, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015)1946 – Jimmy Buffett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (d. 2023)1948 – Merry Clayton, American singer and actress* 1948 – Kay Hymowitz, American sociologist and writer* 1948 – Barbara Mandrell, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1948 – Joel Santana, Brazilian footballer and manager1949 – Simone Bittencourt de Oliveira, Brazilian singer 1949 – Nawaz Sharif, Pakistani politician, 12th Prime Minister of Pakistan* 1949 – Sissy Spacek, American actress 1950 – Peter Boardman, English mountaineer and author (d. 1982) 1950 – Karl Rove, American political strategist and activist* 1950 – Manny Trillo, Venezuelan baseball player and manager1952 – Tolossa Kotu, Ethiopian runner and coach 1952 – CCH Pounder, Guyanese-American actress* 1952 – Desireless, French singer and songwriter1953 – Kaarlo Maaninka, Finnish runner1954 – Annie Lennox, Scottish singer-songwriter and pianist1957 – Mansoor Akhtar, Pakistani cricketer 1957 – Chris Kamara, English footballer and sportscaster* 1957 – Shane MacGowan, English-Irish singer-songwriter (d. 2023)1958 – Cheryl Chase, American voice actress and singer 1958 – Rickey Henderson, American baseball player and coach* 1958 – Konstantin Kinchev, Russian singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1958 – Alannah Myles, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress1959 – Michael P. Anderson, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2003) 1959 – Ramdas Athawale, Indian poet and politician1961 – Íngrid Betancourt, Colombian political scientist and politician1962 – Francis Dunnery, English musician1964 – Ian Bostridge, English tenor 1964 – Gary McAllister, Scottish footballer and manager1965 – Ed Davey, English politician, Leader of the Liberal Democrats 1965 – Dmitri Mironov, Russian ice hockey player* 1965 – David Rath, Czech physician and politician1966 – Toshi Arai, Japanese race car driver1967 – Jason Thirsk, American bass player (d. 1996)1968 – Helena Christensen, Danish model and actress 1968 – Jim Dowd, American ice hockey player1969 – Nicolas Godin, French musician 1969 – Noel Goldthorpe, Australian rugby league player* 1969 – Frederick Onyancha, Kenyan runner1970 – Emmanuel Amunike, Nigerian footballer and manager 1970 – Rodney Dent, American basketball player1971 – Dido, English singer-songwriter 1971 – Noel Hogan, Irish musician and songwriter* 1971 – Justin Trudeau, Canadian educator and politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Canada1972 – Mac Powell, American singer-songwriter and producer 1972 – Qu Yunxia, Chinese runner1973 – Robbie Elliott, English footballer and coach 1973 – Chris Harris, American wrestler* 1973 – Daisuke Miura, Japanese baseball player and coach* 1973 – Alexandre Trudeau, Canadian journalist and director1975 – Hideki Okajima, Japanese baseball player 1975 – Choi Sung-yong, South Korean footballer and manager* 1975 – Marcus Trescothick, English cricketer1976 – Tuomas Holopainen, Finnish keyboard player, songwriter, and producer 1976 – Atko Väikmeri, Estonian footballer* 1976 – Armin van Buuren, Dutch DJ and record producer1977 – Ali Tandoğan, Turkish footballer 1977 – Israel Vázquez, Mexican boxer1978 – Simon Jones, Welsh cricketer 1978 – Joel Porter, Australian footballer and manager* 1978 – Jeremy Strong, American actor1979 – Ferman Akgül, Turkish singer-songwriter 1979 – Laurent Bonnart, French footballer* 1979 – Robert Huff, English race car driver* 1979 – Hyun Young-min, South Korean footballer1980 – Laura Sadler, English actress (d. 2003) 1980 – Marcus Trufant, American football player1981 – Trenesha Biggers, American wrestler and model1981 – Camille Herron, American ultramarathon runner* 1981 – Christian Holst, Danish-Faroese footballer* 1981 – Willy Taveras, Dominican baseball player1982 – Shawn Andrews, American football player 1982 – Rob Edwards, Welsh footballer* 1982 – Ethan Kath, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter and producer * 1982 – Chris Rene, American singer-songwriter and producer1984 – Chris Cahill, Samoan footballer 1984 – Alastair Cook, English cricketer* 1984 – Jessica Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer* 1984 – Lisa Origliasso, Australian singer, actress, and fashion designer* 1984 – Chris Richard, American basketball player1985 – Martin Mathathi, Kenyan runner 1985 – Rusev, Bulgarian-American professional wrestler* 1985 – Perdita Weeks, Welsh actress1987 – Ceyhun Gülselam, Turkish footballer 1987 – Demaryius Thomas, American football player (d. 2021)1988 – Eric Gordon, American basketball player 1988 – Lukas Hinds-Johnson, German rugby player* 1988 – Joãozinho, Brazilian footballer1992 – Mitakeumi Hisashi, Japanese sumo wrestler1993 – Emi Takei, Japanese actress, fashion model and singer1999 – Adut Akech, South Sudanese-Australian fashion model" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 304 – Saint Anastasia* 795 – Pope Adrian I* 820 – Emperor Leo V* 936 – Zhang Jingda, general of Later Tang* 940 – Makan ibn Kaki, Iranian general1147 – Guy II, Count of Ponthieu (b.", ")1156 – Peter the Venerable, French abbot and saint (b.", "1092)* 1156 – Sverker the Elder, king of Sweden1294 – Mestwin II, Duke of Pomerania1395 – Elisabeth, Countess of Neuchâtel, Swiss ruler1406 – Henry III of Castile (b.", "1379)1505 – George Grey, 2nd Earl of Kent, English politician (b.", "1454)1553 – Pedro de Valdivia, Spanish explorer and politician, 1st Royal Governor of Chile (b.", "1500)===1601–1900===1634 – Lettice Knollys, English noblewoman (b.", "1543)1635 – Samuel de Champlain, French soldier, geographer, and explorer (b.", "1567)1676 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire (b.", "1592)* 1676 – Matthew Hale, English lawyer and jurist, Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales (b.", "1609)1683 – Kara Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman general and politician, 111th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1634)1730 – Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine, Scottish peer and general (b.", "1676)1758 – James Hervey, English priest and author (b.", "1714)1784 – Yosa Buson, Japanese poet and painter (b.", "1716)1796 – Velu Nachiyar, Queen of Sivagangai (b.", "1730)1824 – Barbara von Krüdener, German mystic and author (b.", "1764)* 1824 – William Lawless, Irish revolutionary, later French Army general (b.", "1772)1868 – Linus Yale, Jr., American engineer and businessman (b.", "1821)1875 – Young Tom Morris, Scottish golfer (b.", "1851)1880 – Fridolin Anderwert, Swiss lawyer and politician, President of the Swiss National Council (b.", "1828)===1901–present===1916 – Albert Chmielowski, Polish saint, founded the Albertine Brothers (b.", "1845)1921 – Vladimir Korolenko, Russian journalist, author, and activist (b.", "1853)1925 – Karl Abraham, German psychoanalyst and author (b.", "1877)1926 – Emperor Taishō of Japan (b.", "1879)1928 – Miles Burke, American boxer (b.", "1885)1930 – Jakob Mändmets, Estonian journalist and author (b.", "1871)1933 – Francesc Macià, Catalan colonel and politician, 122nd President of Catalonia (b.", "1859)1935 – Paul Bourget, French author and critic (b.", "1852)1938 – Karel Čapek, Czech author and playwright (b.", "1890)1940 – Agnes Ayres, American actress (b.", "1898)1941 – Richard S. Aldrich, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1884)1944 – George Steer, South African-English journalist and author (b.", "1909)1946 – W. C. Fields, American actor, comedian, juggler, and screenwriter (b.", "1880)1947 – Gaspar G. Bacon, American lawyer and politician, 51st Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (b.", "1886)1949 – Leon Schlesinger, American animator and producer, founded Warner Bros. Cartoons (b.", "1884)1950 – Neil Francis Hawkins, English politician (b.", "1903)1952 – Margrethe Mather, American photographer (b.", "1886)1953 – Patsy Donovan, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b.", "1865) 1953 – William Haselden, British cartoonist (b.", "1872)1956 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (b.", "1878)1957 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, founded Pathé Records (b.", "1863)1961 – Owen Brewster, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 54th Governor of Maine (b.", "1888) 1961 – Otto Loewi, German-American pharmacologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1873)1963 – Tristan Tzara, Romanian-French poet, playwright, painter, and critic (b.", "1896)1970 – Michael Peto, Hungarian-English photographer and journalist (b.", "1908)1973 – İsmet İnönü, Turkish general and politician, 2nd President of Turkey (b.", "1884) 1973 – Gabriel Voisin, French pilot and engineer (b.", "1880)1975 – Gaston Gallimard, French publisher, founded Éditions Gallimard (b.", "1881) 1975 – Gunnar Kangro, Estonian mathematician and author (b.", "1913)1977 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor and director (b.", "1889)1979 – Joan Blondell, American actress and singer (b.", "1906)* 1979 – Jordi Bonet, Canadian painter and sculptor (b.", "1932)1980 – Fred Emney, English actor and comedian (b.", "1900)1983 – Joan Miró, Spanish painter and sculptor (b.", "1893)1988 – Shōhei Ōoka, Japanese author and critic (b.", "1909) 1988 – Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle, English entomologist and lepidopterist (b.", "1920)1989 – Benny Binion, American poker player and businessman (b.", "1904) 1989 – Elena Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, First Lady of Romania (b.", "1916)* 1989 – Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romanian general and politician, 1st President of Romania (b.", "1918)* 1989 – Betty Garde, American actress (b.", "1905)* 1989 – Frederick F. Houser, American judge and politician, 34th Lieutenant Governor of California (b.", "1905)* 1989 – Billy Martin, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1928)* 1989 – Robert Pirosh, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1910)1991 – Wilbur Snyder, American football player and wrestler (b.", "1929)1992 – Monica Dickens, British-American nurse and author (b.", "1915)1993 – Pierre Victor Auger, French physicist and academic (b.", "1899)1994 – Zail Singh, Indian politician, 7th President of India (b.", "1916)1995 – Emmanuel Levinas, Lithuanian-French philosopher and academic (b.", "1906) 1995 – Dean Martin, American singer and actor (b.", "1917)* 1995 – Chang Kee-ryo, Korean surgeon (b.", "1914)1996 – Bill Hewitt, Canadian sportscaster (b.", "1928)1997 – Anatoli Boukreev, Kazakh mountaineer and explorer (b.", "1958)* 1997 – Denver Pyle, American actor (b.", "1920)1998 – John Pulman, English snooker player (b.", "1923)2000 – Neil Hawke, Australian cricketer and footballer (b.", "1939)* 2000 – Willard Van Orman Quine, American philosopher and academic (b.", "1908)2001 – Alfred A. Tomatis, French otolaryngologist and academic (b.", "1920)2003 – Nicholas Mavroules, American politician (b.", "1929)2004 – Gennadi Strekalov, Russian engineer and astronaut (b.", "1940)2005 – Derek Bailey, English guitarist (b.", "1930)* 2005 – Robert Barbers, Filipino police officer, lawyer, and politician, 15th Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b.", "1944)* 2005 – Birgit Nilsson, Swedish operatic soprano (b.", "1918)* 2005 – Joseph Pararajasingham, Sri Lankan journalist, businessman, and politician (b.", "1934)2006 – James Brown, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1933)2007 – Des Barrick, English cricketer (b.", "1927)* 2007 – Jim Beauchamp, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1939)2008 – Eartha Kitt, American singer and actress (b.", "1927)2009 – Vic Chesnutt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1964)2010 – Carlos Andrés Pérez, Venezuelan politician, 66th President of Venezuela (b.", "1922)2011 – Giorgio Bocca, Italian journalist (b.", "1920)* 2011 – Jim Sherwood, American saxophonist (b.", "1942)* 2011 – Simms Taback, American author and illustrator (b.", "1932)2012 – Erico Aumentado, Filipino journalist, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1940) 2012 – Halfdan Hegtun, Norwegian radio host and politician (b.", "1918)* 2012 – Joe Krivak, American football player and coach (b.", "1935)* 2012 – Turki bin Sultan, Saudi Arabian politician (b.", "1959)* 2012 – Şerafettin Elçi, Turkish lawyer, politician, government minister (b.", "1938)2013 – Anthony J. Bryant, American historian and author (b.", "1961) 2013 – David R. Harris, English geographer, anthropologist, archaeologist and academic (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Wayne Harrison, English footballer (b.", "1967)* 2013 – Mike Hegan, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1942)* 2013 – Lola Lange, Canadian rural feminist and appointee to the Royal Commission on the Status of Women (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Mel Mathay, Filipino politician, 8th Mayor of Quezon City (b.", "1932)2014 – Ricardo Porro, Cuban-French architect (b.", "1925) 2014 – Geoff Pullar, English cricketer (b.", "1935)* 2014 – David Ryall, English actor (b.", "1935)2015 – George Clayton Johnson, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1929) 2015 – Dorothy M. Murdock, American author and historian (b.", "1961)2016 – Valery Khalilov, Russian military musician and composer (b.", "1952) 2016 – George Michael, British singer and songwriter (b.", "1963)* 2016 – Vera Rubin, American astronomer (b.", "1928)2017 – D. Herbert Lipson, American magazine publisher (''Philadelphia'', ''Boston'') (b.", "1929) 2018 – Sulagitti Narasamma, Indian midwife (b.", "1920)2019 – Ari Behn, Norwegian writer (b.", "1972)2020 – K. C. Jones, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1932)2021 – Wayne Thiebaud, American artist (b.", "1920)2022 – Fabián O'Neill, Uruguayan footballer (b.", "1973)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Children's Day (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Republic of Congo) Christian feast day:Anastasia of Sirmium (Catholic Church)Stephen (Armenian Apostolic Church)*December 25 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Christmas Day, Christian festival commemorating the birth of Jesus.", "(Internationally observed)Tulsi Pujan Diwas (India)Constitution Day (Taiwan)Good Governance Day (India)Quaid-e-Azam's Day (Pakistan)Takanakuy (Chumbivilcas Province, Peru)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 25" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital television" ], [ "Introduction", "A map depicting digital terrestrial television standards'''Digital television''' ('''DTV''') is the transmission of television signals using digital encoding, in contrast to the earlier analog television technology which used analog signals.", "At the time of its development it was considered an innovative advancement and represented the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s.", "Modern digital television is transmitted in high-definition television (HDTV) with greater resolution than analog TV.", "It typically uses a widescreen aspect ratio (commonly 16:9) in contrast to the narrower format (4:3) of analog TV.", "It makes more economical use of scarce radio spectrum space; it can transmit up to seven channels in the same bandwidth as a single analog channel, and provides many new features that analog television cannot.", "A transition from analog to digital broadcasting began around 2000.Different digital television broadcasting standards have been adopted in different parts of the world; below are the more widely used standards:* Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) uses coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation and supports hierarchical transmission.", "This standard has been adopted in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, for a total of approximately 60 countries.", "* Advanced Television System Committee (ATSC) standard uses eight-level vestigial sideband (8VSB) for terrestrial broadcasting.", "This standard has been adopted by 9 countries: the United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Bahamas, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti and Suriname.", "* Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting (ISDB) is a system designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers and also portable or mobile receivers.", "It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving.", "It supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding.", "This standard has been adopted in Japan and the Philippines.", "ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which has been adopted in most of South America and Portuguese-speaking African countries.", "* Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast (DTMB) adopts time-domain synchronous (TDS) OFDM technology with a pseudo-random signal frame to serve as the guard interval (GI) of the OFDM block and the training symbol.", "The DTMB standard has been adopted in China, including Hong Kong and Macau.", "* Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) is a digital radio transmission technology developed in South Korea as part of the national information technology project for sending multimedia such as TV, radio and datacasting to mobile devices such as mobile phones, laptops and GPS navigation systems." ], [ "History", "=== Background ===Digital television's roots are tied to the availability of inexpensive, high performance computers.", "It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.", "Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video, requiring around 200Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV).=== Development ===In the mid-1980s, Toshiba released a television set with digital capabilities, using integrated circuit chips such as a microprocessor to convert analog television broadcast signals to digital video signals, enabling features such as freezing pictures and showing two channels at once.", "In 1986, Sony and NEC Home Electronics announced their own similar TV sets with digital video capabilities.", "However, they still relied on analog TV broadcast signals, with true digital TV broadcasts not yet being available at the time.A digital TV broadcast service was proposed in 1986 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) and the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunication (MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an \"Integrated Network System\" service.", "However, it was not possible to practically implement such a digital TV service until the adoption of motion-compensated DCT video compression formats such as MPEG made it possible in the early 1990s.In the mid-1980s, as Japanese consumer electronics firms forged ahead with the development of HDTV technology, and as the MUSE analog format was proposed by Japan's public broadcaster NHK as a worldwide standard.", "Japanese advancements were seen as pacesetters that threatened to eclipse US electronics companies.", "Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration.Between 1988 and 1991, several European organizations were working on DCT-based digital video coding standards for both SDTV and HDTV.", "The EU 256 project by the CMTT and ETSI, along with research by Italian broadcaster RAI, developed a DCT video codec that broadcast SDTV at 34Mbit/s and near-studio-quality HDTV at about 70140Mbit/s.", "RAI demonstrated this with a 1990 FIFA World Cup broadcast in March 1990.An American company, General Instrument, also demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal in 1990.This led to the FCC being persuaded to delay its decision on an advanced television (ATV) standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions.", "First, the Commission declared that the new TV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images.", "Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being simulcast on different channels.", "The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles.", "Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.The final standard adopted by the FCC did not produce a universal standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution.", "This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior.", "Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones.", "Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom.", "The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not flicker in the manner of interlaced scanning.", "It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa.", "The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats.", "For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line.", "Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format.=== Inaugural launches ===DirecTV in the US launched the first commercial digital satellite platform in May 1994, using the Digital Satellite System (DSS) standard.", "Digital cable broadcasts were tested and launched in the US in 1996 by TCI and Time Warner.", "The first digital terrestrial platform was launched in November 1998 as ONdigital in the UK, using the DVB-T standard." ], [ "Technical information", "=== Formats and bandwidth ===Comparison of image quality between ISDB-T (1080i broadcast, top) and NTSC (480i transmission, bottom)Digital television supports many different picture formats defined by the broadcast television systems which are a combination of size and aspect ratio (width to height ratio).With digital terrestrial television (DTT) broadcasting, the range of formats can be broadly divided into two categories: high-definition television (HDTV) for the transmission of high-definition video and standard-definition television (SDTV).", "These terms by themselves are not very precise, and many subtle intermediate cases exist.One of several different HDTV formats that can be transmitted over DTV is: pixels in progressive scan mode (abbreviated ''720p'') or pixels in interlaced video mode (''1080i'').", "Each of these uses a 16:9 aspect ratio.", "HDTV cannot be transmitted over analog television channels because of channel capacity issues.SDTV, by comparison, may use one of several different formats taking the form of various aspect ratios depending on the technology used in the country of broadcast.", "NTSC can deliver a resolution in 4:3 and in 16:9, while PAL can give in 4:3 and in 16:9.However, broadcasters may choose to reduce these resolutions to reduce bit rate (e.g., many DVB-T channels in the UK use a horizontal resolution of 544 or 704 pixels per line).Each commercial broadcasting terrestrial television DTV channel in North America is allocated enough bandwidth to broadcast up to 19 megabits per second.", "However, the broadcaster does not need to use this entire bandwidth for just one broadcast channel.", "Instead, the broadcast can use Program and System Information Protocol and subdivide across several video subchannels (a.k.a.", "feeds) of varying quality and compression rates, including non-video datacasting services.A broadcaster may opt to use a standard-definition (SDTV) digital signal instead of an HDTV signal, because current convention allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or \"multiplex\") to be subdivided into multiple digital subchannels, (similar to what most FM radio stations offer with HD Radio), providing multiple feeds of entirely different television programming on the same channel.", "This ability to provide either a single HDTV feed or multiple lower-resolution feeds is often referred to as distributing one's bit budget or multicasting.", "This can sometimes be arranged automatically, using a statistical multiplexer.", "With some implementations, image resolution may be less directly limited by bandwidth; for example in DVB-T, broadcasters can choose from several different modulation schemes, giving them the option to reduce the transmission bit rate and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers.=== Reception ===There are several different ways to receive digital television.", "One of the oldest means of receiving DTV (and TV in general) is from terrestrial transmitters using an antenna (known as an ''aerial'' in some countries).", "This delivery method is known as digital terrestrial television (DTT).", "With DTT, viewers are limited to channels that have a terrestrial transmitter in range of their antenna.Other delivery methods include digital cable and digital satellite.", "In some countries where transmissions of TV signals are normally achieved by microwaves, digital multichannel multipoint distribution service is used.", "Other standards, such as digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) and digital video broadcasting - handheld (DVB-H), have been devised to allow handheld devices such as mobile phones to receive TV signals.", "Another way is Internet Protocol television (IPTV), which is the delivery of TV over a computer network.", "Finally, an alternative way is to receive digital TV signals via the open Internet (Internet television), whether from a central streaming service or a P2P (peer-to-peer) system.Some signals are protected by encryption and backed up with the force of law under the WIPO Copyright Treaty and national legislation implementing it, such as the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act.", "Access to encrypted channels can be controlled by a removable card, for example via the Common Interface or CableCard.=== Protection parameters ===Digital television signals must not interfere with each other, and they must also coexist with analog television until it is phased out.", "The following table gives allowable signal-to-noise and signal-to-interference ratios for various interference scenarios.", "This table is a crucial regulatory tool for controlling the placement and power levels of stations.", "Digital TV is more tolerant of interference than analog TV.", "System Parameters(protection ratios) Canada US EBUITU-mode M3 Japan & Brazil C/N for AWGN Channel +19.5 dB(16.5 dB) +15.19 dB +19.3 dB +19.2 dB Co-Channel DTV into Analog TV +33.8 dB +34.44 dB +34 ≈37 dB +38 dB Co-Channel Analog TV into DTV +7.2 dB +1.81 dB +4 dB +4 dB Co-Channel DTV into DTV +19.5 dB(16.5 dB) +15.27 dB +19 dB +19 dB Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV −16 dB −17.43 dB −5 ~ −11 dB −6 dB Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV −12 dB −11.95 dB −1 ~ −10 −5 dB Lower Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV −48 dB −47.33 dB −34 ~ −37 dB −35 dB Upper Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV −49 dB −48.71 dB −38 ~ −36 dB −37 dB Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV −27 dB −28 dB −30 dB −28 dB Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV −27 dB −26 dB −30 dB −29 dB=== Interaction ===People can interact with a DTV system in various ways.", "One can, for example, browse the electronic program guide.", "Modern DTV systems sometimes use a return path providing feedback from the end user to the broadcaster.", "This is possible over cable TV or through an Internet connection but is not possible with a standard antenna alone.Some of these systems support video on demand using a communication channel localized to a neighborhood rather than a city (terrestrial) or an even larger area (satellite).=== 1seg ===1seg (1-segment) is a special form of ISDB.", "Each channel is further divided into 13 segments.", "Twelve are allocated for HDTV and the other for narrow-band receivers such as mobile televisions and cell phones." ], [ "Comparison to analog", "DTV has several advantages over analog television, the most significant being that digital channels take up less bandwidth, and the bandwidth allocations are flexible depending on the level of compression and resolution of the transmitted image.", "This means that digital broadcasters can provide more digital channels in the same space, provide high-definition television service, or provide other non-television services such as multimedia or interactivity.", "DTV also permits special services such as multiplexing (more than one program on the same channel), electronic program guides and additional languages (spoken or subtitled).", "The sale of non-television services may provide an additional revenue source to broadcasters.Digital and analog signals react to interference differently.", "For example, common problems with analog television include ghosting of images, noise from weak signals, and other problems that degrade the quality of the image and sound, although the program material may still be watchable.", "With digital television, because of the cliff effect, reception of the digital signal must be very nearly complete; otherwise, neither audio nor video will be usable.Analog TV began with monophonic sound and later developed multichannel television sound with two independent audio signal channels.", "DTV allows up to 5 audio signal channels plus a subwoofer bass channel, producing broadcasts similar in quality to movie theaters and DVDs.Digital TV signals require less transmission power than analog TV signals to be broadcast and received satisfactorily.=== Compression artifacts, picture quality monitoring, and allocated bandwidth ===DTV images have some picture defects that are not present on analog television or motion picture cinema, because of present-day limitations of bit rate and compression algorithms such as MPEG-2.This defect is sometimes referred to as mosquito noise.Because of the way the human visual system works, defects in an image that are localized to particular features of the image or that come and go are more perceptible than defects that are uniform and constant.", "However, the DTV system is designed to take advantage of other limitations of the human visual system to help mask these flaws, e.g.", "by allowing more compression artifacts during fast motion where the eye cannot track and resolve them as easily and, conversely, minimizing artifacts in still backgrounds that, because time allows, may be closely examined in a scene.Broadcast, cable, satellite, and Internet DTV operators control the picture quality of television signal encoders using sophisticated, neuroscience-based algorithms, such as the structural similarity index measure (SSIM) video quality measurement tool.", "Another tool called visual information fidelity (VIF), is used in the Netflix VMAF video quality monitoring system.=== Effects of poor reception ===Changes in signal reception from factors such as degrading antenna connections or changing weather conditions may gradually reduce the quality of analog TV.", "The nature of digital TV results in a perfectly decodable video initially, until the receiving equipment starts picking up interference that overpowers the desired signal or if the signal is too weak to decode.", "Some equipment will show a garbled picture with significant damage, while other devices may go directly from perfectly decodable video to no video at all or lock up.", "This phenomenon is known as the digital cliff effect.Block errors may occur when transmission is done with compressed images.", "A block error in a single frame often results in black boxes in several subsequent frames, making viewing difficult.For remote locations, distant channels that, as analog signals, were previously usable in a snowy and degraded state may, as digital signals, be perfectly decodable or may become completely unavailable.", "The use of higher frequencies add to these problems, especially in cases where a clear line-of-sight from the receiving antenna to the transmitter is not available, because usually higher frequency signals can't pass through obstacles as easily.=== Effect on old analog technology ===Television sets with only analog tuners cannot decode digital transmissions.", "When analog broadcasting over the air ceases, users of sets with analog-only tuners may use other sources of programming (e.g.", "cable, recorded media) or may purchase set-top converter boxes to tune in the digital signals.", "In the United States, a government-sponsored coupon was available to offset the cost of an external converter box.The digital television transition began as early as the late 1990s and has been completed on a country-by-country basis in most parts of the world.=== Disappearance of TV-audio receivers ===Prior to the conversion to digital TV, analog television broadcast audio for TV channels on a separate FM carrier signal from the video signal.", "This FM audio signal could be heard using standard radios equipped with the appropriate tuning circuits.However, after the digital television transition, no portable radio manufacturer has yet developed an alternative method for portable radios to play just the audio signal of digital TV channels; DTV radio is not the same thing.=== Environmental issues ===The adoption of a broadcast standard incompatible with existing analog receivers has created the problem of large numbers of analog receivers being discarded during digital television transition.", "One superintendent of public works was quoted in 2009 saying; \"some of the studies I’ve read in the trade magazines say up to a quarter of American households could be throwing a TV out in the next two years following the regulation change\".", "In 2009, an estimated 99 million analog TV receivers were sitting unused in homes in the US alone and, while some obsolete receivers are being retrofitted with converters, many more are simply dumped in landfills where they represent a source of toxic metals such as lead as well as lesser amounts of materials such as barium, cadmium and chromium.According to one campaign group, a CRT computer monitor or TV contains an average of of lead.", "According to another source, the lead in glass of a CRT varies from 1.08 lb to 11.28 lb, depending on screen size and type, but the lead is in the form of \"stable and immobile\" lead oxide mixed into the glass.", "It is claimed that the lead can have long-term negative effects on the environment if dumped as landfill.", "However, the glass envelope can be recycled at suitably equipped facilities.", "Other portions of the receiver may be subject to disposal as hazardous material.Local restrictions on disposal of these materials vary widely; in some cases second-hand stores have refused to accept working color television receivers for resale due to the increasing costs of disposing of unsold TVs.", "Those thrift stores which are still accepting donated TVs have reported significant increases in good-condition working used television receivers abandoned by viewers who often expect them not to work after digital transition.In Michigan in 2009, one recycler estimated that as many as one household in four would dispose of or recycle a TV set in the following year.", "The digital television transition, migration to high-definition television receivers and the replacement of CRTs with flatscreens are all factors in the increasing number of discarded analog CRT-based television receivers." ], [ "See also", "* Autoroll* Broadcast television systems* Digital television in the United Kingdom* Digital television in the United States* Digital terrestrial television* Text to Speech in Digital Television" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Hart, Jeffrey A., ''Television, technology, and competition : HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan'', New York : Cambridge University Press, 2004." ], [ "External links", "* Overview of Digital Television Development Worldwide Proceedings of the IEEE, VOL.", "94, NO.", "1, JANUARY 2006 (University of Texas at San Antonio)* The FCC's US consumer-oriented DTV website * Digital TV Consumer test reports - UK Government-funded website to support Digital Switchover* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Declaration of Arbroath" ], [ "Introduction", " The 'Tyninghame' copy of the Declaration from 1320, in the National Archives of Scotland The '''Declaration of Arbroath''' (; ; ) is the name usually given to a letter, dated 6 April 1320 at Arbroath, written by Scottish barons and addressed to Pope John XXII.", "It constituted King Robert I's response to his excommunication for disobeying the pope's demand in 1317 for a truce in the First War of Scottish Independence.", "The letter asserted the antiquity of the independence of the Kingdom of Scotland, denouncing English attempts to subjugate it.Generally believed to have been written in Arbroath Abbey by Bernard of Kilwinning (or of Linton), then Chancellor of Scotland and Abbot of Arbroath, and sealed by fifty-one magnates and nobles, the letter is the sole survivor of three created at the time.", "The others were a letter from the King of Scots, Robert I, and a letter from four Scottish bishops which all made similar points.", "The ''Declaration'' was intended to assert Scotland's status as an independent, sovereign state and defend Scotland's right to use military action when unjustly attacked.Submitted in Latin, the ''Declaration'' was little known until the late 17th century, and is unmentioned by any of Scotland's major 16th-century historians.", "In the 1680s, the Latin text was printed for the first time and translated into English in the wake of the Glorious Revolution, after which time it was sometimes described as a declaration of independence." ], [ "Overview", "The Declaration of Arbroath included in the text of the ''Scotichronicon'' in the British Library.The ''Declaration'' was part of a broader diplomatic campaign, which sought to assert Scotland's position as an independent kingdom, rather than its being a feudal land controlled by England's Norman kings, as well as to lift the excommunication of Robert the Bruce.", "The pope had recognised Edward I of England's claim to overlordship of Scotland in 1305 and Bruce was excommunicated by the Pope for murdering John Comyn before the altar at Greyfriars Church in Dumfries in 1306.This excommunication was lifted in 1308; subsequently the pope threatened Robert with excommunication again if Avignon's demands in 1317 for peace with England were ignored.", "Warfare continued, and in 1320 John XXII again excommunicated Robert I.", "In reply, the ''Declaration'' was composed and signed and, in response, the papacy rescinded King Robert Bruce's excommunication and thereafter addressed him using his royal title.The wars of Scottish independence began as a result of the deaths of King Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 and his heir the \"Maid of Norway\" in 1290, which left the throne of Scotland vacant and the subsequent succession crisis of 1290–1296 ignited a struggle among the Competitors for the Crown of Scotland, chiefly between the House of Comyn, the House of Balliol, and the House of Bruce who all claimed the crown.", "After July 1296's deposition of King John Balliol by Edward of England and then February 1306's killing of John Comyn III, Robert Bruce's rivals to the throne of Scotland were gone, and Robert was crowned king at Scone that year.", "Edward I, the \"Hammer of Scots\", died in 1307; his son and successor Edward II did not renew his father's campaigns in Scotland.", "In 1309 a parliament held at St Andrews acknowledged Robert's right to rule, received emissaries from the Kingdom of France recognising the Bruce's title, and proclaimed the independence of the kingdom from England.By 1314 only Edinburgh, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Roxburgh, and Stirling remained in English hands.", "In June 1314 the Battle of Bannockburn had secured Robert Bruce's position as King of Scots; Stirling, the Central Belt, and much of Lothian came under Robert's control while the defeated Edward II's power on escaping to England via Berwick weakened under the sway of his cousin Henry, Earl of Lancaster.", "King Robert was thus able to consolidate his power, and sent his brother Edward Bruce to claim the Kingdom of Ireland in 1315 with an army landed in Ulster the previous year with the help of Gaelic lords from the Isles.", "Edward Bruce died in 1318 without achieving success, but the Scots campaigns in Ireland and in northern England were intended to press for the recognition of Robert's crown by King Edward.", "At the same time, it undermined the House of Plantagenet's claims to overlordship of the British Isles and halted the Plantagenets' effort to absorb Scotland as had been done in Ireland and Wales.", "Thus were the Scots nobles confident in their letters to Pope John of the distinct and independent nature of Scotland's kingdom; the ''Declaration of Arbroath'' was one such.", "According to historian David Crouch, \"The two nations were mutually hostile kingdoms and peoples, and the ancient idea of Britain as an informal empire of peoples under the English king's presidency was entirely dead.", "\"The text describes the ancient history of Scotland, in particular the ''Scoti'', the Gaelic forebears of the Scots who the ''Declaration'' claims have origins in ''Scythia Major'' prior to migrating via Spain to Great Britain \"1,200 years from the Israelite people's crossing of the Red Sea\".", "The ''Declaration'' describes how the Scots had \"thrown out the Britons and completely destroyed the Picts\", resisted the invasions of \"the Norse, the Danes and the English\", and \"held itself ever since, free from all slavery\".", "It then claims that in the Kingdom of Scotland, \"one hundred and thirteen kings have reigned of their own Blood Royal, without interruption by foreigners\".", "The text compares Robert Bruce with the Biblical warriors Judah Maccabee and Joshua.The ''Declaration'' made a number of points: that Edward I of England had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that Robert the Bruce had delivered the Scottish nation from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scottish people, rather than the King of Scots." ], [ "Debates", "Some have interpreted this last point as an early expression of popular sovereignty – that government is contractual and that kings can be chosen by the community rather than by God alone.", "It has been considered to be the first statement of the contractual theory of monarchy underlying modern constitutionalism.", "It has also been argued that the ''Declaration'' was not a statement of popular sovereignty (and that its signatories would have had no such concept) but a statement of royal propaganda supporting Bruce's faction.", "A justification had to be given for the rejection of King John Balliol in whose name William Wallace and Andrew de Moray had rebelled in 1297.The reason given in the ''Declaration'' is that Bruce was able to defend Scotland from English aggression whereas King John could not.Whatever the true motive, the idea of a contract between King and people was advanced to the Pope as a justification for Bruce's coronation whilst John de Balliol, who had abdicated the Scottish throne, still lived as a Papal prisoner.There is also recent scholarship that suggests that the Declaration was substantially derived from the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, also sent in protest of English actions.", "There are substantial similarities in content between the 1317 Irish Remonstrance and the Declaration of Arbroath, produced three years later.", "It is also clear that the drafters of the Declaration of Arbroath would have access to the 1317 Irish Remonstrance, it having been circulated to Scotland in addition to the Pope.", "It has been suggested therefore that the 1317 Remonstrance was a \"prototype\" for the Declaration of Arbroath, suggesting Irish-Scottish cooperation in attempts to protest against English interference." ], [ "Text", "For the full text in Latin and a translation in English, See Declaration of Arbroath on WikiSource." ], [ "Signatories", "There are 39 names—eight earls and thirty-one barons—at the start of the document, all of whom may have had their seals appended, probably over the space of some time, possibly weeks, with nobles sending in their seals to be used.", "The folded foot of the document shows that at least eleven additional barons and freeholders (who were not noble) who were not listed on the head were associated with the letter.", "On the extant copy of the ''Declaration'' there are only 19 seals, and of those 19 people only 12 are named within the document.", "It is thought likely that at least 11 more seals than the original 39 might have been appended.", "The ''Declaration'' was then taken to the papal court at Avignon by Sir Adam Gordon, Sir Odard de Maubuisson, and Bishop Kininmund who was not yet a bishop and probably included for his scholarship.The Pope heeded the arguments contained in the ''Declaration'', influenced by the offer of support from the Scots for his long-desired crusade if they no longer had to fear English invasion.", "He exhorted Edward II in a letter to make peace with the Scots.", "However, it did not lead to his recognising Robert as King of Scots, and the following year was again persuaded by the English to take their side and issued six bulls to that effect.Eight years later, on 1 March 1328, the new English king, Edward III, signed a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton.", "In this treaty, which was in effect until 1333, Edward renounced all English claims to Scotland.", "In October 1328, the interdict on Scotland, and the excommunication of its king, were removed by the Pope." ], [ "Manuscript", "The original copy of the ''Declaration'' that was sent to Avignon is lost.", "The only existing manuscript copy of the ''Declaration'' survives among Scotland's state papers, measuring 540mm wide by 675mm long (including the seals), it is held by the National Archives of Scotland in Edinburgh, a part of the National Records of Scotland.", "The most widely known English language translation was made by Sir James Fergusson, formerly Keeper of the Records of Scotland, from text that he reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft.", "G. W. S. Barrow has shown that one passage in particular, often quoted from the Fergusson translation, was carefully written using different parts of ''The Conspiracy of Catiline'' by the Roman author, Sallust (86–35 BC) as the direct source:" ], [ "List of signatories", "Listed below are the signatories of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320.The letter itself is written in Latin.", "It uses the Latin versions of the signatories' titles, and in some cases, the spelling of names has changed over the years.", "This list generally uses the titles of the signatories' Wikipedia biographies.", "Duncan, Earl of Fife (changed sides in 1332)Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray (nephew and supporter of King Robert although briefly fought for the English after being captured by them, Guardian of the Realm after Robert the Bruce's death)Patrick Dunbar, Earl of March (or Earl of Dunbar) (changed sides several times)Malise, Earl of Strathearn (King Robert loyalist) Malcolm, Earl of Lennox (King Robert loyalist)William, Earl of Ross (earlier betrayed King Robert's female relatives to the English)Magnús Jónsson, Earl of OrkneyWilliam de Moravia, Earl of SutherlandWalter, High Steward of Scotland (King Robert loyalist)William de Soules, Lord of Liddesdale and Butler of Scotland (later imprisoned for plotting against the King) Sir James Douglas, Lord of Douglas (one of King Robert's leading loyalists)Roger de Mowbray, Lord of Barnbougle and Dalmeny (later imprisoned for plotting against King Robert)David, Lord of Brechin (later executed for plotting against King Robert)David de Graham of KincardineIngram de Umfraville (fought on the English side at Bannockburn but then changed sides to support King Robert)John de Menteith, guardian of the earldom of Menteith (earlier betrayed William Wallace to the English)Alexander Fraser of Touchfraser and Cowie Gilbert de la Hay, Constable of Scotland (King Robert loyalist) Robert Keith, Marischal of Scotland (King Robert loyalist) Henry St Clair of RosslynJohn de Graham, Lord of Dalkeith, Abercorn & EskdaleDavid Lindsay of CrawfordWilliam Oliphant, Lord of Aberdalgie and Dupplin (briefly fought for the English) Patrick de Graham of LovatJohn de Fenton, Lord of Baikie and BeaufortWilliam de Abernethy of SaltounDavid Wemyss of WemyssWilliam MushetFergus of ArdrossanEustace Maxwell of CaerlaverockWilliam Ramsay William de Monte Alto, Lord of FerneAlan MurrayDonald CampbellJohn CameronReginald le Chen, Lord of Inverugie and DuffusAlexander Seton Andrew de LeslieAlexander StraitonIn addition, the names of the following do not appear in the document's text, but their names are written on seal tags and their seals are present:Alexander de Lamberton (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332)Edward Keith (subsequently Marischal of Scotland; d. 1346)Arthur Campbell (Bruce loyalist)Thomas de Menzies (Bruce loyalist)John de Inchmartin (became a supporter of Edward Balliol after the Battle of Dupplin Moor, 1332; d. after 1334)John DurauntThomas de Morham" ], [ "Legacy", "In 1998 former majority leader Trent Lott succeeded in instituting an annual \"National Tartan Day\" on 6 April by resolution of the United States Senate.", "US Senate Resolution 155 of 10 November 1997 states that \"the Declaration of Arbroath, the Scottish Declaration of Independence, was signed on April 6, 1320 and the American Declaration of Independence was modeled sic on that inspirational document\".", "However, although this influence is accepted by some historians, it is disputed by others.", "In 2016 the Declaration of Arbroath was placed on the UK Memory of the World Register, part of UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme.2020 was the 700th anniversary of the Declaration of Arbroath's composition; an ''Arbroath 2020'' festival was arranged but postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "The National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh planned to display the document to the public for the first time in fifteen years." ], [ "See also", "* Declaration of independence* Claim of Right 1989* Barons' Letter of 1301, refutation of Papal claim to Scottish suzerainty by English barons" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "****" ], [ "External links", " * * Declaration of Arbroath on National Archives of Scotland website (includes full Latin text and English translation)* Transcription and Translation of the Declaration of Arbroath, 6 April 1320" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digital data" ], [ "Introduction", "Digital clock.", "The time shown by the digits on the face at any instant is digital data.", "The actual precise time is analog data.", "'''Digital data''', in information theory and information systems, is information represented as a string of discrete symbols, each of which can take on one of only a finite number of values from some alphabet, such as letters or digits.", "An example is a text document, which consists of a string of alphanumeric characters.", "The most common form of digital data in modern information systems is ''binary data'', which is represented by a string of binary digits (bits) each of which can have one of two values, either 0 or 1.Digital data can be contrasted with ''analog data'', which is represented by a value from a continuous range of real numbers.", "Analog data is transmitted by an analog signal, which not only takes on continuous values but can vary continuously with time, a continuous real-valued function of time.", "An example is the air pressure variation in a sound wave.", "The word ''digital'' comes from the same source as the words digit and ''digitus'' (the Latin word for ''finger''), as fingers are often used for counting.", "Mathematician George Stibitz of Bell Telephone Laboratories used the word ''digital'' in reference to the fast electric pulses emitted by a device designed to aim and fire anti-aircraft guns in 1942.The term is most commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-world information is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digital photography." ], [ "Symbol to digital conversion", "Since symbols (for example, alphanumeric characters) are not continuous, representing symbols digitally is rather simpler than conversion of continuous or analog information to digital.", "Instead of sampling and quantization as in analog-to-digital conversion, such techniques as polling and encoding are used.A symbol input device usually consists of a group of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are switched.", "Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again.", "This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main CPU.", "When a new symbol has been entered, the device typically sends an interrupt, in a specialized format, so that the CPU can read it.For devices with only a few switches (such as the buttons on a joystick), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word.", "This is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control).", "But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.Devices with many switches (such as a computer keyboard) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines.", "When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together.", "Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed.", "When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state.", "The symbol is then encoded or converted into a number based on the status of modifier keys and the desired character encoding.A custom encoding can be used for a specific application with no loss of data.", "However, using a standard encoding such as ASCII is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard.It is estimated that in the year 1986, less than 1% of the world's technological capacity to store information was digital and in 2007 it was already 94%.", "The year 2002 is assumed to be the year when humankind was able to store more information in digital than in analog format (the \"beginning of the digital age\")." ], [ "States", "Digital data come in these three states: data at rest, data in transit, and data in use.", "The confidentiality, integrity, and availability have to be managed during the entire lifecycle from 'birth' to the destruction of the data." ], [ "Properties of digital information", "All digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog data with respect to communications:* '''Synchronization:''' Since digital information is conveyed by the sequence in which symbols are ordered, all digital schemes have some method for determining the beginning of a sequence.", "In written or spoken human languages, synchronization is typically provided by pauses (spaces), capitalization, and punctuation.", "Machine communications typically use special synchronization sequences.", "* '''Language:''' All digital communications require a ''formal language'', which in this context consists of all the information that the sender and receiver of the digital communication must both possess, in advance, for the communication to be successful.", "Languages are generally arbitrary and specify the meaning to be assigned to particular symbol sequences, the allowed range of values, methods to be used for synchronization, etc.", "* '''Errors:''' Disturbances (noise) in analog communications invariably introduce some, generally small deviation or error between the intended and actual communication.", "Disturbances in digital communication only result in errors when the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturbing the sequence of symbols.", "It is generally possible to have near-error-free digital communication.", "Further, techniques such as check codes may be used to detect errors and correct them through redundancy or re-transmission.", "Errors in digital communications can take the form of ''substitution errors,'' in which a symbol is replaced by another symbol, or ''insertion/deletion'' errors, in which an extra incorrect symbol is inserted into or deleted from a digital message.", "Uncorrected errors in digital communications have an unpredictable and generally large impact on the information content of the communication.", "* '''Copying:''' Because of the inevitable presence of noise, making many successive copies of an analog communication is infeasible because each generation increases the noise.", "Because digital communications are generally error-free, copies of copies can be made indefinitely.", "* '''Granularity:''' The digital representation of a continuously variable analog value typically involves a selection of the number of symbols to be assigned to that value.", "The number of symbols determines the precision or resolution of the resulting datum.", "The difference between the actual analog value and the digital representation is known as ''quantization error''.", "For example, if the actual temperature is 23.234456544453 degrees, but only two digits (23) are assigned to this parameter in a particular digital representation, the quantizing error is 0.234456544453.This property of digital communication is known as ''granularity''.", "* '''Compressible:''' According to Miller, \"Uncompressed digital data is very large, and in its raw form, it would actually produce a larger signal (therefore be more difficult to transfer) than analog data.", "However, digital data can be compressed.", "Compression reduces the amount of bandwidth space needed to send information.", "Data can be compressed, sent, and then decompressed at the site of consumption.", "This makes it possible to send much more information and results in, for example, digital television signals offering more room on the airwave spectrum for more television channels.\"" ], [ "Historical digital systems", "Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic.", "* DNA genetic code is a naturally occurring form of digital data storage.", "* Written text (due to the limited character set and the use of discrete symbols – the alphabet in most cases)* The ''abacus'' was created sometime between 1000 BC and 500 BC, it later became a form of calculation frequency.", "Nowadays it can be used as a very advanced, yet basic digital calculator that uses beads on rows to represent numbers.", "Beads only have meaning in discrete up and down states, not in analog in-between states.", "* A ''beacon'' is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off).", "In particular, ''smoke signals'' are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog \"carrier\" (smoke) is modulated with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information.", "* Morse code uses six digital states—dot, dash, intra-character gap (between each dot or dash), short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)—to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an electrical telegraph or a flashing light.", "* The Braille uses a six-bit code rendered as dot patterns.", "* Flag semaphore uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away.", "* International maritime signal flags have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other.", "* More recently invented, a modem modulates an analog \"carrier\" signal (such as sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital sound pulses.", "A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital \"signal\" and \"no signal\" information (i.e.", "\"sound\" and \"silence\") on magnetic cassette tape for use with early home computers." ], [ "See also", "* Analog-to-digital converter* Barker code* Binary number* Comparison of analog and digital recording* Data (computer science)* Data remanence* Digital architecture* Digital art* Digital control* Digital divide* Digital electronics* Digital infinity* Digital native* Digital physics* Digital recording* Digital Revolution* Digital video* Digital-to-analog converter* Internet forum" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Tocci, R. 2006.Digital Systems: Principles and Applications (10th Edition).", "Prentice Hall." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deduction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deduction''' may refer to:" ], [ "Philosophy", "* Deductive reasoning, the mental process of drawing inferences in which the truth of their premises ensures the truth of their conclusion* Natural deduction, a class of proof systems based on simple and self-evident rules of inference that aim to closely mirror how reasoning actually occurs" ], [ "Taxation", "* Tax deduction, variable tax dollars subtracted from gross income Itemized deduction, eligible expense that individual taxpayers in the United States can report on their Federal income tax returns Standard deduction, dollar amount that non-itemizers may subtract from their income" ], [ "Other uses", "* English modals of deduction, English modal verbs to state how sure somebody is about something.", "* Deduction (food stamps), used in the United States to calculate a household's monthly food stamp benefit goods" ], [ "See also", "* Induction (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Demon" ], [ "Introduction", "Bronze statuette of the Assyro-Babylonian demon king Pazuzu, , LouvreA '''demon''' is a malevolent supernatural entity.", "Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, and television series.Belief in demons probably goes back to the Paleolithic age, stemming from humanity's fear of the unknown, the strange and the horrific.", "In ancient Near Eastern religions and in the Abrahamic religions, including early Judaism and ancient-medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered a harmful spiritual entity which may cause demonic possession, calling for an exorcism.", "Large portions of Jewish demonology, a key influence on Christianity and Islam, originated from a later form of Zoroastrianism, and was transferred to Judaism during the Persian era.", "Demons may or may not also be considered to be devils: minions of the Devil.", "In many traditions, demons are independent operators, with different demons causing different types of evils (destructive natural phenomena, specific diseases, etc.).", "In religions featuring a principal Devil (e.g.", "Satan) locked in an eternal struggle with God, demons are often also thought to be subordinates of the principal Devil.", "As lesser spirits doing the Devil's work, they have additional duties— causing humans to have sinful thoughts and tempting humans to commit sinful actions.", "The original Ancient Greek word '''' () did not carry negative connotations, as it denotes a spirit or divine power.", "The Greek conception of a '''' notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates.", "In Christianity, morally ambivalent '''' were replaced by demons, forces of evil only striving for corruption.", "Such demons are not the Greek intermediary spirits, but hostile entities, already known in Iranian beliefs.", "In Western esotericism and Renaissance magic, which grew out of an amalgamation of Greco-Roman magic, Jewish Aggadah and Christian demonology, a demon is believed to be a spiritual entity that may be conjured and controlled.Belief in demons remains an important part of many modern religions and occultist traditions.", "Demons are still feared largely due to their alleged power to possess living creatures.", "In the contemporary Western occultist tradition (perhaps epitomized by the work of Aleister Crowley), a demon (such as Choronzon, which is Crowley's interpretation of the so-called \"Demon of the Abyss\") is a useful metaphor for certain inner psychological processes (inner demons), though some may also regard it as an objectively real phenomenon." ], [ "Etymology", "Mephistopheles (a medieval demon from German folklore) flying over Wittenberg, in a lithograph by Eugène Delacroix.The Ancient Greek word ('''') denotes a spirit or divine power, much like the Latin '''' or ''''.", "''Daimōn'' most likely came from the Greek verb '''' (\"to divide\" or \"distribute\").", "The Greek conception of a ''daimōn'' notably appears in the philosophical works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates.", "The original Greek word '''' does not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of the Koine (''''), and later ascribed to any cognate words sharing the root.The Greek terms do not have any connotations of evil or malevolence.", "In fact, ('''', which literally translates as \"good-spiritedness\") means happiness.", "By the early centuries of the Roman Empire, cult statues were seen, by Pagans and their Christian neighbors alike, as inhabited by the numinous presence of the Greco-Roman gods: \"Like pagans, Christians still sensed and saw the gods and their power, and as something, they had to assume, lay behind it, by an easy traditional shift of opinion they turned these pagan ''daimones'' into malevolent 'demons', the troupe of Satan.", "Far into the Byzantine period, Christians eyed their cities' old pagan statuary as a seat of the demons' presence.", "It was no longer beautiful, it was infested.\"", "The term had first acquired its negative connotations in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which drew on the mythology of ancient Semitic religions.", "This was then inherited by the Koine text of the New Testament.", "The English use of ''demon'' as synonym for devils goes back at least as far as about 825.The German word (''''), however, is different from devil ('''') and demons as evil spirits, and akin to the original meaning of ''daimon''.", "The Western Modern era conception of a ''demon'', as in the ''Ars Goetia'', derives seamlessly from the ambient popular culture of Late Antiquity." ], [ "Ancient Egypt", "Ram-headed demon.", "The hands probably outstretch to hold two snakes.", "From a royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings, Thebes, Egypt.", "End of the 18th Dynasty, around 1325 BCEThe exact definition of \"demon\" in Egyptology posed a major problem for modern scholarship, since the borders between a deity and a demon are sometimes blurred and the ancient Egyptian language lacks a term for the modern English \"demon\".", "Both deities and demons can act as intermediaries to deliver messages to humans.", "By that, they share some resemblance to the Greek daimon.", "However, magical writings indicate that ancient Egyptians acknowledged the existence of malevolent demons by highlighting the demon names with red ink.", "Demons in this culture appeared to be subordinative and related to a specific deity, yet they may have occasionally acted independently of the divine will.", "The existence of demons can be related to the realm of chaos, beyond the created world.", "But even this negative connotation cannot be denied in light of the magical texts.", "The role of demons in relation to the human world remains ambivalent and largely depends on context.Ancient Egyptian demons can be divided into two classes: \"guardians\" and \"wanderers\".> \"Guardians\" are tied to a specific place; their demonic activity is topographically defined and their function can be benevolent towards those who have the secret knowledge to face them.", "Demons protecting the underworld may prevent human souls from entering paradise.", "Only by knowing the right charms is the deceased able to enter the ''Halls of Osiris''.", "Here, the aggressive nature of the guardian demons is motivated by the need to protect their abodes and not by their evil essence.", "Accordingly, demons guarded sacred places or the gates to the netherworld.", "During the Ptolemaic and Roman period, the guardians shifted towards the role of genius loci and they were the focus of local and private cults.The \"wanderers\" are associated with possession, mental illness, death and plagues.", "Many of them serve as executioners for the major deities, such as Ra or Osiris, when ordered to punish humans on earth or in the netherworld.", "Wanderers can also be agents of chaos, arising from the world beyond creation to bring about misfortune and suffering without any divine instructions, led only by evil motivations.", "The influences of the wanderers can be warded off and kept at the borders of the human world by the use of magic, but they can never be destroyed.", "A sub-category of \"wanderers\" are nightmare demons, which were believed to cause nightmares by entering a human body." ], [ "Mesopotamia", "Ancient Sumerian cylinder seal impression showing the god Dumuzid being tortured in the Underworld by ''galla'' demonsThe ancient Mesopotamians believed that the underworld was home to many demons, which are sometimes referred to as \"offspring of ''arali''\".", "These demons could sometimes leave the underworld and terrorize mortals on earth.", "One class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld were known as ''galla''; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur.", "They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number.", "Several extant poems describe the ''galla'' dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld.", "Like other demons, however, ''galla'' could also be benevolent and, in a hymn from King Gudea of Lagash ( 2144 – 2124 BCE), a minor god named Ig-alima is described as \"the great ''galla'' of Girsu\".Lamashtu was a demonic goddess with the \"head of a lion, the teeth of a donkey, naked breasts, a hairy body, hands stained (with blood?", "), long fingers and fingernails, and the feet of Anzû\".", "She was believed to feed on the blood of human infants and was widely blamed as the cause of miscarriages and cot deaths.", "Although Lamashtu has traditionally been identified as a demoness, the fact that she could cause evil on her own without the permission of other deities strongly indicates that she was seen as a goddess in her own right.", "Mesopotamian peoples protected against her using amulets and talismans.", "She was believed to ride in her boat on the river of the underworld and she was associated with donkeys.", "She was believed to be the daughter of An.Pazuzu is a demonic god who was well known to the Babylonians and Assyrians throughout the first millennium BCE.", "He is shown with \"a rather canine face with abnormally bulging eyes, a scaly body, a snake-headed penis, the talons of a bird and usually wings\".", "He was believed to be the son of the god Hanbi.", "He was usually regarded as evil, but he could also sometimes be a beneficent entity who protected against winds bearing pestilence and he was thought to be able to force Lamashtu back to the underworld.", "Amulets bearing his image were positioned in dwellings to protect infants from Lamashtu and pregnant women frequently wore amulets with his head on them as protection from her.Šul-pa-e's name means \"youthful brilliance\", but he was not envisioned as youthful god.", "According to one tradition, he was the consort of Ninhursag, a tradition which contradicts the usual portrayal of Enki as Ninhursag's consort.", "In one Sumerian poem, offerings made to Šhul-pa-e in the underworld and, in later mythology, he was one of the demons of the underworld.According to ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'', originally published in 12 volumes from 1901 to 1906, \"In Chaldean mythology the seven evil deities were known as ''shedu'', storm-demons, represented in ox-like form.\"", "They were represented as winged bulls, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective jinn of royal palaces." ], [ "Judaism", "There are differing opinions in Judaism about the existence or non-existence of demons (''shedim'' or ''se'irim'').", "Some Rabbinic scholars assert that demons have existed in Talmudic times, but do not exist regularly in present.", "When prophecy, divine presence, and divine inspiration gradually decreased, the demonic powers of impurity have become correspondingly weak, too.=== Hebrew Bible ===The Hebrew Bible mentions two classes of demonic spirits, the ''se'irim'' and the ''shedim''.", "The word ''shedim'' (sing ''shed'' or ''sheyd'') appears in two places in the Hebrew Bible.", "The ''se'irim'' (sing.", "''sa'ir'', \"male goat\") are mentioned once in Leviticus 17:7, probably a recollection of Assyrian demons in the shape of goats.", "They might be a metaphorical symbol for life-threatening animals, such as hyenas, ostrichs, and jackals.", "The ''shedim'', however, are not pagan demigods, but the foreign gods themselves.", "Both entities appear in a scriptural context of animal or child sacrifice to non-existent false gods.Various diseases and ailments were ascribed to demons, particularly those affecting the brain and those of internal nature.", "Examples include catalepsy, headache, epilepsy and nightmares.", "There also existed a demon of blindness, \"Shabriri\" (lit.", "\"dazzling glare\") who rested on uncovered water at night and blinded those who drank from it.Demons supposedly entered the body and caused the disease while overwhelming or \"seizing\" the victim.", "To cure such diseases, it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, at which the Essenes excelled.", "Josephus, who spoke of demons as \"spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them\", but which could be driven out by a certain root, witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian and ascribed its origin to King Solomon.", "In mythology, there were few defences against Babylonian demons.", "The mythical mace Sharur had the power to slay demons such as Asag, a legendary ''gallu'' or ''edimmu'' of hideous strength.=== Talmudic tradition and Midrashim ===In the Jerusalem Talmud, notions of ''shedim'' (\"demons\" or \"spirits\") are almost unknown or occur only very rarely, whereas in the Babylonian Talmud there are many references to ''shedim'' and magical incantations.", "The existence of ''shedim'' in general was not questioned by most of the Babylonian Talmudists.", "As a consequence of the rise of influence of the Babylonian Talmud over that of the Jerusalem Talmud, late rabbis, in general, took as fact the existence of ''shedim'', nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality.", "However, rationalists like Maimonides and Saadia Gaon and others explicitly denied their existence, and completely rejected concepts of demons, evil spirits, negative spiritual influences, attaching and possessing spirits.", "They thought the essential teaching about ''shedim'' and similar spirits is, that they should not be an object of worship, not a reality to be acknowledged or feared.", "Their point of view eventually became mainstream Jewish understanding.The opinion of some authors is not clear.", "Abraham ibn Ezra states that insane people can see the image of ''se'irim'', when they go astray and ascribe to them powers independent from God.", "It is not clear from his work, if he considered these images of ''se'irim'' as manifestations of actual spirits or merely delusions.", "Despite academic consensus, Rabbis disputed that Maimonides denied the existence of demons entirely.", "He would only dispute the existence of demons in his own life time, but not that demons had existed once.Occasionally an angel is called ''satan'' in the Babylon Talmud.", "But ''satans'' do not refer to demons as they remain at the service of God: \"Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns\".Aggadic tales from the Persian tradition describe the ''shedim'', the'' mazziḳim'' (\"harmers\"), and the'' ruḥin'' (\"spirits\").", "There were also ''lilin'' (\"night spirits\"), ''ṭelane'' (\"shade\", or \"evening spirits\"), ''ṭiharire'' (\"midday spirits\"), and'' ẓafrire'' (\"morning spirits\"), as well as the \"demons that bring famine\" and \"such as cause storm and earthquake\".", "According to some aggadic stories, demons were under the dominion of a king or chief, usually ''Asmodai''.=== Kabbalah ===In Kabbalah, demons are regarded as a necessary part of the divine emanation in the material world and a byproduct of human sin (Qlippoth).", "After they are created, they assume an existence on their own.", "Demons would attach themselves to the sinner and start to multiply as an act of self-preservation.", "Medieval Kabbalists characterize such demons as punishing angels of destruction.", "They are subject to the divine will, and do not act independently.Other demonic entities, such as the ''shedim'', might be considered benevolent.", "The Zohar classifies them as those who are like humans and submit to the Torah, and those who have no fear of God and are like animals.=== Second Temple Judaism ===The sources of demonic influence were thought to originate from the Watchers or Nephilim, who are first mentioned in Genesis 6 and are the focus of 1 Enoch Chapters 1–16, and also in Jubilees 10.The Nephilim were seen as the source of the sin and evil on Earth because they are referenced in Genesis 6:4 before the story of the Flood.", "In Genesis 6:5, God sees evil in the hearts of men.", "Ethiopic Enoch refers to Genesis 6:4–5, and provides further description of the story connecting the Nephilim to the corruption of humans.", "According to the Book of Enoch, sin originates when angels descend from heaven and fornicate with women, birthing giants.", "The Book of Enoch shows that these fallen angels can lead humans to sin through direct interaction or through providing forbidden knowledge.", "Most scholars understand the text, that demons originate from the evil spirits of the deceased giants, cursed by God to wander the Earth.", "Dale Martin disagrees with this interpretation, arguing that the ghosts of the Nephilim are distinct.", "The evil spirits would make the people sacrifice to the demons, but they were not demons themselves.", "The spirits are stated in Enoch to \"corrupt, fall, be excited, and fall upon the earth, and cause sorrow\".The Book of Jubilees conveys that sin occurs when Cainan accidentally transcribes astrological knowledge used by the Watchers.", "This differs from Enoch in that it does not place blame on the angels.", "However, in Jubilees 10:4 the evil spirits of the Watchers are discussed as evil and still remain on Earth to corrupt humans.", "God binds only 90% of the Watchers and destroys them, leaving 10% to be ruled by Mastema.", "Because the evil in humans is great, only 10% would be needed to corrupt and lead humans astray.", "These spirits of the giants are also referred to as \"the bastards\" in the apotropaic prayer Songs of the Sage, which lists the names of demons the narrator hopes to expel.To the Qumran community during the Second Temple period, this apotropaic prayer was assigned, stating: \"And, I the Sage, declare the grandeur of his radiance in order to frighten and terrify all the spirits of the ravaging angels and the bastard spirits, demons, Liliths, owls\" (''Dead Sea Scrolls'', \"Songs of the Sage\", Lines 4–5)." ], [ "Indian religions", "=== Hinduism ===The Army of Super Creatures – from The Saugandhika Parinaya Manuscript (1821 CE)In the Veda, gods (''deva'') and anti-gods (''asura'') share both the upper world.", "It is only by the time of the Brahmanas that they are said to inhabit the underworld.", "The identification of ''asura'' with ''demons'' stems from the description of asura as \"formerly gods\" (''pūrvadeva'').", "The gods are said to have claimed heaven for themselves and tricked the demons, ending on earth.", "During the Vedic period, gods aid humans against demons.", "By that, gods secure their own place in heaven, using humans as tools to defeat their cosmic enemies.", "''Asura'', in the earliest hymns of the Rigveda, originally meant any supernatural spirit, either good or bad.", "Since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word ''asura'', representing a category of celestial beings, is a cognate with Old Persian ''Ahura''.", "Ancient Hinduism tells that Devas (also called ''suras'') and Asuras are half-brothers, sons of the same father Kashyapa; although some of the Devas, such as Varuna, are also called Asuras.", "Later, during Puranic age, Asura and Rakshasa came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings.", "Daitya (lit.", "sons of the mother \"Diti\"), Danava (lit.", "sons of the mother \"Danu\"), Maya Danava, Rakshasa (lit.", "from \"harm to be guarded against\"), and asura are incorrectly translated into English as \"demon\".With increase in asceticism during the post-Vedic period, withdrawal of sacrificial rituals was considered a threat to the gods.", "Ascetic humans or ascetic demons were supposed to be more powerful than gods.", "Pious, highly enlightened Asuras and Rakshasas, such as Prahlada and Vibhishana, are not uncommon.", "The Asura are not fundamentally against the gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall.", "Many people metaphorically interpret the Asura as manifestations of the ignoble passions in the human mind and as symbolic devices.", "There were also cases of power-hungry asuras challenging various aspects of the gods, but only to be defeated eventually and seek forgiveness.Hinduism advocates the reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's karma.", "Souls (Atman) of the dead are adjudged by the Yama and are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn.", "Humans that have committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often mischief mongers, spirits for a length of time before being reborn.", "Many kinds of such spirits (Vetalas and Pishachas) are recognized in the later Hindu texts.", "According to Hinduism, demons are not inherently evil beings, but good by following their ''dharma'' what is being evil and deceitful.", "However, nothing is purely evil or good, and a demon could eventually abandon his demonic nature.=== Buddhism ===Belief in demons does not constitute an essential feature in Buddhism.", "However, since belief in demons were common during the rise of Buddhism, they are integrated into the ''cycle of Saṃsāra''.", "Accordingly, their malevolent condition is due to their bad ''karma'' from their previous lives.", "When Buddhism spread, it accommodated itself with indigenous popular ideas about demons." ], [ "Iranian demons", "===Zoroastrianism===Div-e Sepid, literally \"white demon\", the chieftain of demons from the epic ShahnamehArzhang Div (The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)Black Div (The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp)Rostam carried by Akvan Div (cropped)The Zorastrian belief in demons (''Daeva'', later ''div'') had strong influence on the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity and Islam.In hell, demons continue to torment the damned.Book 3 of the Denkard describes demons as the opposite of the creative power of God.", "As such, they cannot create, but only corrupt, and thus, evil is merely the corruption of the good.", "Since demons can only destroy, they will ultimately destroy themselves.", "Chapter 30 questions the reality of demons, since their existence seem to rely on their destruction of good.", "Therefore, Ahriman and his demons would miss any substance and exist only as absence of good.=== Manichaeism ===Manichaeism was a major religion founded in the third century AD by the Parthian prophet Mani (), in the Sasanian Empire.", "One of its key concepts is the doctrine of ''Two Principles and Three Moments''.", "Accordingly, the world could be described as resulting from a past moment, in which two principles (good and evil) were separate, a contemporary moment in which both principles are mixed due to an assault of the world of darkness on the realm of light, and a future moment when both principles are distinct forever.", "Thus, evil and demons played a significant role within Manichaean teachings.There are numberless designations for various groups of demonic entities in Manichaean cosmology.", "The general term used for the beings of the world of darkness is ''dyw'' (''dev'').", "Before the demons attacked the realm of light, they have been in constant battle and intercourse against each other.", "It is only in the realm of darkness demons are described in their physical form.", "After their assault on the world above, they have been overcome by the Living Spirit, and imprisoned in the structure of the world.", "From that point onwards, they impact human's ethical life, and appear as personified ethical qualities, mostly greed, envy, grief, and wrath (desire for destruction).Ibn al-Jawzi, in his work ''Talbīs Iblīs'' (devils' delusion), credits the Manichaeans with believing that each ''Light'' and ''Darkness'' (God and the Devil) consist of four bodies and one spirit.", "The bodies of ''Light'' (God) were referred to as angels, while the bodies of ''Darkness'' (Devil) were referred to as ''ifrits''.", "''Light'' and ''Darkness'' would multiple by angels and demons respectively.In ''The Book of Giants'', one of the canonical seven treatises also known from Jewish intertestamental literature, the Grigori (''egrēgoroi'') beget giant half-demon offspring with human woman.", "In the Middle Persian version of the ''Book of Giants'' they are referred to as ''kʾw'', while in the Coptic ''Kephalaia'' as ''gigas''.", "In accordance with some interpretations of Genesis 6:1–4, the giant offspring became the ancient tyrannic rulers over mankind, until overthrown by the angels of punishment.", "Nonetheless, these demons are still active in the microcosm, such as ''Āz'' and ''Āwarzōg''.", "Views on stars (''abāxtarān'') are mixed.", "On one hand, they are regarded as light particles of the world soul fixed in the sky.", "On the other hand, stars are identified with powers hindering the soul from leaving the material world.", "The Third Messenger (Jesus) is said to have chained up demons in the sky.", "Their offspring, the ''nephilim'' (''nĕf īlīm'') or ''asrestar'' (''āsarēštārān''), ''Ašqalūn'' and ''Nebrō’ēl'' in particular, play instrumental roles in the creation of Adam and Eve.", "According to Manichaeism, the watchers, known as angels in Jewish lore, are not considered angels, but demons.=== In the ''Shahnameh'' ===Gate of Citadel of semnan 9.Rustam slaying the Div-e Sepid (White Div)The poem begins with the kings of the Pishdadian dynasty.", "They defeat and subjugate the demonic divs.", "Tahmuras commanded the divs and became known as ''dīvband'' (binder of demons).", "Jamshid, the fourth king of the world, ruled over both angels and divs, and served as a high priest of Ahura Mazda (Hormozd).", "Like his father, he slayed many divs, however, spared some under the condition they teach him new valuable arts, such as writing in different languages.", "After a just reign over hundreds of years, Jamshid grew haughty and claimed, because of his wealth and power, divinity for himself.", "Whereupon God withdraws his blessings from him, and his people get unsatisfied with their king.", "With the ceasing influence of God, the devil gains power and aids Zahhak to usurp the throne.", "Jamshid dies sawn in two by two demons.", "Tricked by Ahriman (or Iblis), Zahhak grew two snakes on his shoulders and becomes the demonic serpent-king.", "The King Kay Kāvus fails to conquer the legendary Mazandaran, the land of divs and gets captured.", "To save his king, Rustam takes a journey and fights through seven trials.", "Divs are among the common enemies Rustam faces, the last one the Div-e Sepid, the demonic king of Mazandaran.The div in the Shahnameh might include both demonic supernatural beings as well as evil humans.Rustam's battle against the demonic may also have a symbolic meaning: Rustam represents wisdom and rationality, fights the demon, embodiment of passion and instinct.", "Rustam's victory over the White Div is also a triumph over men's lower drives, and killing the demon is a way to purge the human soul from such evil inclinations.", "The killing of the White Div is an inevitable act to restore the human king's eyesight.", "Eliminating the divs is an act of self-preservation to safeguard the good in oneself's, and the part acceptable in a regulated society." ], [ "Native North American demons", "=== Wendigo ===The Algonquian people traditionally believe in a spirit called a wendigo.", "The spirit is believed to possess people who then become cannibals.", "In Athabaskan folklore, there is a belief in wechuge, a similar cannibal spirit." ], [ "Christianity", "=== Old Testament ===The existence of demons as inherently malicious spirits within Old Testamental texts is absent.", "Though there are evil spirits sent by YHWH, they can hardly be called ''demons'', since they serve and do not oppose the governing deity.", "First then the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, the \"gods of other nations\" were merged into a single category of demons (daimones) with implied negativity.The Greek Daimons were associated with demi-divine entities, deities, illnesses and fortune-telling.", "The Jewish translators rendered them all as demons, depicting their power as nullified comparable to the description of shedim in the Tanakh.", "Although all these supernatural powers were translated, none were angels, despite sharing a similar function to that of the Greek Daimon.", "This established a dualism between the angels on God's side and negatively evaluated demons of pagan origin.", "Their relationship to the God-head became the main difference between angels and demons, not their degree of benevolence.", "Both angels and demons might be fierce and terrifying.", "However, the angels act always at service of the high god of the Israelites, differing from the pagan demons, who represent the powers of foreign deities.", "The Septuagint refers to evil spirits as demons (daimon).=== New Testament ===Medieval illumination from the Ottheinrich Folio depicting the exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac by JesusThrough the New Testament, demons appear 55 times, and 46 times in reference to demonic possession or exorcisms.", "Some old English Bible translations such as King James Version do not have the word 'demon' in their vocabulary and translate it as 'devil'.", "As adversaries of Jesus, demons are not morally ambivalent spirits, but evil; causes of misery, suffering, and death.", "They are not tempters, but the cause of pain, suffering, and maladies, both physical and mental.", "Temptation is reserved for the devil only.", "Unlike spirits in pagan beliefs, demons are not intermediary spirits who must be sacrificed for the appeasement of a deity.", "Possession also shows no trace of positivity, contrary to some pagan depictions of spirit possession.", "They are explicitly said to be ruled by the Devil or Beelzebub.", "Their origin is unclear, the texts take the existence of demons for granted.", "Many early Christians, like Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Lactantius assumed demons were ghosts of the Nephilim, known from Intertestamental writings.", "Because of references to Satan as the lord of demons and evil angels of Satan throughout the New Testament, other scholars identified fallen angels with demons.", "Demons as entirely evil entities, who have been born evil, may not fit the proposed origin of evil in free will, taught in alternate or opposing theologies.=== Pseudepigrapha and deuterocanonical books ===A demon from ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent'', written in Georgian by Nikrai.Demons are included in biblical interpretation.", "In the story of Passover, the Bible tells the story as \"the Lord struck down all the firstborn in Egypt\" ().", "In the Book of Jubilees, which is considered canonical only by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, this same event is told slightly differently: \"All the powers of the demon Mastema had been let loose to slay all the first-born in the land of Egypt.", "And the powers of the Lord did everything according as the Lord commanded them.\"", "(Jubilees 49:2–4)In the Genesis flood narrative, the author explains how God was noticing \"how corrupt the earth had become, for all the people on earth had corrupted their ways\" ().", "In Jubilees, the sins of man are attributed to \"the unclean demons who began to lead astray the children of the sons of Noah, and to make to err and destroy them\" (Jubilees 10:1).", "In Jubilees, Mastema questions the loyalty of Abraham and tells God to \"bid him offer him as a burnt offering on the altar, and Thou wilt see if he will do this command\" (Jubilees 17:16).", "The discrepancy between the story in Jubilees and the story in Genesis 22 exists with the presence of Mastema.", "In Genesis, God tests the will of Abraham merely to determine whether he is a true follower, however; in Jubilees, Mastema has an agenda behind promoting the sacrifice of Abraham's son, \"an even more demonic act than that of Satan in Job\".", "In Jubilees, where Mastema, an angel tasked with tempting mortals into sin and iniquity, requests that God give him a tenth of the spirits of the children of the watchers, demons, in order to aid the process (Jubilees 10:7–9).", "These demons are passed into Mastema's authority, where once again, an angel is in charge of demonic spirits.In the Testament of Solomon, written sometime in the first three centuries C.E., the demon Asmodeus explains that he is the son of an angel and a human mother.", "Another demon describes himself as having died in the \"massacre in the age of giants\".", "''Beelzeboul'', the prince of demons, appears as a fallen angel, not as a demon, but makes people worship demons as their gods.=== Christian demonology ===''The Torment of Saint Anthony'' (1488) by Michelangelo, depicting Saint Anthony being assailed by demons''Death and the Miser'' (detail), a Hieronymus Bosch painting, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.Saint Francis Borgia performing an exorcism, as depicted by GoyaSince Early Christianity, demonology has developed from a simple acceptance of demons to a complex study that has grown from the original ideas taken from Jewish demonology and Christian scriptures.", "Christian demonology is studied in depth within the Roman Catholic Church, although many other Christian churches affirm and discuss the existence of demons.Building upon the few references to ''daimon'' in the New Testament, especially the poetry of the Book of Revelation, Christian writers of apocrypha from the second century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about \"demons\" that was largely independent of Christian scripture.While daimons were considered as both potentially benevolent or malevolent, Origen argued against Celsus that daimons are exclusively evil entities, supporting the later idea of (evil) demons.", "According to Origen's cosmology, increasing corruption and evil within the soul, the more estranged the soul gets from God.", "Therefore, Origen opined that the most evil demons are located underground.", "Besides the fallen angels known from Christian scriptures, Origen talks about Greek daemons, like nature spirits and giants.", "These creatures were thought to inhabit nature or air and nourish from pagan sacrifices roaming the earth.", "However, there is no functional difference between the spirits of the underworld and of earth, since both have fallen from perfection into the material world.", "Origen sums them up as fallen angels and thus equal to demons.Many ascetics, like Origen and Anthony the Great, described demons as psychological powers, tempting to evil, in contrast to benevolent angels advising good.", "According to ''Life of Anthony'', written in Greek around 360 by Athanasius of Alexandria, most of the time, the demons were expressed as an internal struggle, inclinations, and temptations.", "But after Anthony successfully resisted the demons, they would appear in human form to tempt and threaten him even more intensely.Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite described ''evil'' as \"defiancy\" and does not give ''evil'' an ontological existence.", "He explains demons are deficient creatures, who willingly turn themselves towards the unreal and non-existence.", "Their dangerous nature results not from the power of their nature, but from their tendency to drag others into the \"void\" and the unreal, away from God.Michael Psellos proposed the existence of several types of demons, deeply influenced by the material nature of the regions they dwell.", "The highest and most powerful demons attack the mind of people using their \"imaginative action\" (phantastikos) to produce illusions in the mind.", "The lowest demons, on the other hand, are almost mindless, gross, and grunting spirits, which try to possess people instinctively, simply attracted by the warmth and life of humans.", "These cause diseases, fatal accidents and animalistic behavior in their victims.", "They are unable to speak, while other lower types of demons might give out false oracles.", "The demons are divided into:''Leliouria'': The highest demons who inhabit the ether, beyond the moon''Aeria'': Demons of the air below the moon''Chthonia'': Inhabiting the land''Hyraia/Enalia'': Dwelling in the water''Bypochtbonia'': They live beneath the earth''Misophaes'': The lowest type of demon, blind and almost senseless in the lowest hellInvocation of Saints, holy men and women, especially ascetics, reading the Gospel, holy oil or water is said to drive them out.", "However, Psellos' schemes have been too inconsistent to answer questions about the hierarchy of fallen angels.", "The devil's position is impossible to assign in this scheme and it does not respond to living perceptions of felt experience and was considered rather impractical to have a lasting effect or impact on Christian demonology.The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real beings rather than just symbolic devices.", "The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many exorcisms each year.", "The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance, which any Christian can offer for themselves or others.At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify demons according to various proposed demonic hierarchies.In recent times, scholars doubted that independent demons exist, and rather considers them, aking to Jewish ''satan'', to be servants of God.", "According to S. N. Chiu, God is shown sending a demon against Saul in 1 Samuel 16 and 18 in order to punish him for the failure to follow God's instructions, showing God as having the power to use demons for his own purposes, putting the demon under his divine authority.", "According to the ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', demons, despite being typically associated with evil, are often shown to be under divine control, and not acting of their own devices." ], [ "Mandaeism", "In Mandaeism, the World of Darkness (), also referred to as Sheol, is the underworld located below Tibil (Earth).", "It is ruled by its king Ur (Leviathan) and its queen Ruha, mother of the seven planets and twelve constellations.", "The great dark Ocean of Sup (or Suf) lies in the World of Darkness.", "The great dividing river of Hitfun, analogous to the river Styx in Greek mythology, separates the World of Darkness from the World of Light.Prominent infernal beings found in the World of Darkness include ''lilith'', ''nalai'' (vampire), ''niuli'' (hobgoblin), ''gadalta'' (ghost), ''satani'' (Satan) and various other demons and evil spirits." ], [ "Gnosticism", "Gnosticism largely relies on Greek and Persian dualism, especially on Platonism.", "In accordance with Platonism, they regarded the ''idea'' as good while considering the material and conscious world to be inherently evil.", "The demonized star-deities of late Persian religion became associated with a demon, thus identifying the seven observable planets with an Archon (demonic ruler).", "These demons rule over the earth and the realm of planets, representing different desires and passions.", "According to Origen, the Ophites depicted the world as surrounded by the demonic Leviathan.Like in Christianity, the term ''daimons'' was used for demons and refers to both the Archons as well as to their demonic assistants.", "Judas Iscariot is, in the Gospel of Judas, portrayed as the ''thirtheenth daimon'' for betraying Jesus and a supporter of the Archons.Examples of Gnostic portrayals of demons can be found in the ''Apocryphon of John'' in which they are said to have helped construct the physical Adam and in ''Pistis Sophia'' which states they are ruled over by Hekate and punish corrupt souls." ], [ "Islam", "In Islamic beliefs, demons are called ''Shayāṭīn'' (or ''Daeva'' in Persian language).", "In Islam demons try to lead humans astray from God, by tempting them to sin, teaching them sorcery and cause mischief among humans.", "Occult practises may include conjuring demons, albeit not forbidden per se, it requires acts against God's laws and are therefore forbidden.", "Such acts may include illicit blood-sacrifices, abandoning prayer, and rejecting fasting.", "Based on the Islamic view on Solomon, who is widely believed to have been a ruler over genies and demons, Islam has a rich tradition about conjuring demons.", "Among the demons are the devils (''shayatin'') and the fiends (''div'').", "Both are believed to have worked for Solomon as slaves.", "While the devils usually appear within a Judeo-Christian background, the ''div'' frequently feature in beliefs of Persian and Indian origin.", "But it is to be noted that in Islam both angels and demons are considered to be the creatures of God and so God has ultimate power over all of them.", "God sends devils as companions to those who want to disbelief in this world.", "Even the malicious ''div'' are created by God and thus have a place in the world's order.According to exegesis of the Quran the devils are the offspring of Iblis (Satan).", "They are said to live until the world ceases to exist, always shadow in humans (and jinn) whispering onto their hearts to lead them astray.", "Prayers are used to ward off their attacks, dissolving them temporarily.", "As the counterpart of the angels, they are created rebellious and their abode in Hell is pre-destined.", "They lack free will and are bound to evil.", "The ''ifrit'' and ''marid'' are considered to be two more powerful classes of devils.According to Abu Ali Bal'ami's work on the history of the world, Wahb ibn Munabbih explained that the ''divs'' were the first beings created by God.", "Some argue the devils were created good, but turned evil by Iblis' act of arrogance, the ''div'' were created as vicious creatures and embodiment of evil.", "When Iblis was still among the angels, he led an army against the spirits on the earth.", "Among them were the ''div'', who formed two orders; one of which sided with the jinn and were banished with them, condemned to roam the earth.", "The other, treacherous ''div'' joined Iblis in battle, and was exiled to Hell with him.", "The ''div'' are often depicted as sorcerers whose misdeeds are not bound to temptation only.", "They could cause sickness, mental illnesses, or even turn humans to stone by touching.", "While the devils frequently appear to ordinary humans to tempt them into everything disapproved by society, the ''div'' usually appear to specific heroes." ], [ "Bahá'í Faith", "In the Bahá'í Faith, demons are not regarded as independent evil spirits as they are in some faiths.", "Rather, evil spirits described in various faiths' traditions, such as Satan, fallen angels, demons and jinn, are metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God and follows his lower nature.", "Belief in the existence of ghosts and earthbound spirits is rejected and considered to be the product of superstition." ], [ "Ceremonial magic", "In Occult practises demons are often seen as beneficial and useful, lacking an inherent negative connotation.", "While some people fear demons, or attempt to exorcise them, others willfully attempt to summon them for knowledge, assistance, or power.", "William of Conches () understands 'demon' closer to the Greek 'daimon', reserving the concept of the \"devil\" only for the \"demons of the lower regions\":You think, as I infer from your words, that a demon is the same as a devil, which is not the case.", "For a demon is said to be any invisible being using reason, as if knowing.", "Of these the two high orders are called calodemons, that is, 'good knowing ones', the lower order is called cacodemon, that is, 'evil knowing one', for calos means 'good', cacos 'bad'.The ceremonial magician usually consults a grimoire, which gives the names and abilities of demons as well as detailed instructions for conjuring and controlling them.", "Grimoires are not limited to demons – some give instructions for the invocation of deity, a process called theurgy.", "The use of ceremonial magic to call demons is also known as goetia, the name taken from a section in the famous grimoire known as the ''Lesser Key of Solomon''." ], [ "In modernity", "The classic oni, a Japanese ogre-like creature which often has horns and often translated into English as \"demon\".The Age of Enlightenment, conceptualizes humans as autonomous individuals, mostly independent from outer invisible forces, such as demons or gods ruling over human fate.", "Previously, the world was understood to be inhabited by various spirits and demons.", "With the raise of the rationalistic school of thought, the existence of foreign unknown forces was increasingly rejected.", "Demons were explained as non-existent.", "Visions of demons and ghosts were explained as the products of one's own mind.", "By labelling local deities and demons as superstition, local religious ideas were banished, supporting the promotion of nationwide gods and religions.", "Because of that, demons became increasingly associated with delusions.", "Wilkinson Duran states that people who believe in demons are often marginalized in the United States.", "The notion of possession was at odds with Western philosophy, such as the American Dream and capitalism, which implies the belief that everyone is responsible for their own fate and not at the mercy of external forces." ], [ "Psychological approach", "===Islamic world ===A minority of Muslim scholars in the Medieval Age, often associated with the Muʿtazila and the Jahmītes, denied that demons (jinn, devils, divs etc.)", "have physicality and asserted, they could only affect the mind by ''waswās'' (, 'demonic whisperings in the mind').", "Some scholars, like ibn Sina, rejected the reality of jinn altogether.", "Al-Jāḥiẓ and al-Masʿūdī, explained jinn and demons as a merely psychological phenomena.", "In his ''Kitāb al-Hayawān'', al-Jāḥiẓ states that jinn and demons are the product of loneliness.", "Such a state induces people to mind-games, causing ''waswās''.", "Al-Masʿūdī is similarly critical regarding the reality of demons.", "He states that alleged demonic encounters are the result of fear and \"wrong thinking\".", "Alleged encounters are then told to other generations in bedtime stories and poems.", "When they grow up, they remember such stories in a state of fear or loneliness.", "This encourages their imaginations, resulting in another alleged demonic encounter.=== Western world ===Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt remarked that \"among the activities attributed by myths all over the world to demons, the harmful predominate, so that in popular belief bad demons are clearly older than good ones.\"", "Sigmund Freud developed this idea and claimed that the concept of demons was derived from the important relation of the living to the dead: \"The fact that demons are always regarded as the spirits of those who have died ''recently'' shows better than anything the influence of mourning on the origin of the belief in demons.\"M.", "Scott Peck, an American psychiatrist, wrote two books on the subject, ''People of the Lie: The Hope For Healing Human Evil'' and ''Glimpses of the Devil: A Psychiatrist's Personal Accounts of Possession, Exorcism, and Redemption''.", "Peck describes in some detail several cases involving his patients.", "In ''People of the Lie'' he provides identifying characteristics of an evil person, whom he classified as having a character disorder.", "In ''Glimpses of the Devil'' Peck goes into significant detail describing how he became interested in exorcism in order to debunk the ''myth'' of possession by evil spirits – only to be convinced otherwise after encountering two cases which did not fit into any category known to psychology or psychiatry.", "Peck came to the conclusion that possession was a rare phenomenon related to evil and that possessed people are not actually evil; rather, they are doing battle with the forces of evil.Although Peck's earlier work was met with widespread popular acceptance, his work on the topics of evil and possession has generated significant debate and derision.", "Much was made of his association with (and admiration for) the controversial Malachi Martin, a Roman Catholic priest and a former Jesuit, despite the fact that Peck consistently called Martin a liar and a manipulator." ], [ "See also", "* Acheri* Classification of demons* Empusa* Erinyes* Exorcism, Prayer to Saint Michael* Folk devil* Goblin* * Imp* List of fictional demons* List of occult terms* List of theological demons* Ogre* Spiritual warfare* Theistic Satanism* Troll* Unclean spirit* Yaoguai* Yōkai* Yōsei* Yūrei" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Works cited ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Wundt, W. (1906).", "''Mythus und Religion'', Teil II (''Völkerpsychologie'', Band II).", "Leipzig." ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'': Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Demonology" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Domino effect" ], [ "Introduction", "A falling line of dominoes, each knocking the next overA '''domino effect''' is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a series of similar or related events, a form of chain reaction.", "The term is an analogy to a falling row of dominoes.", "It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively short.", "The term can be used literally (about a series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (about causal linkages within systems such as global finance or politics).", "The literal, mechanical domino effect is exploited in Rube Goldberg machines.", "In chemistry, the principle applies to a domino reaction, in which one chemical reaction sets up the conditions necessary for a subsequent one that soon follows.", "In the realm of process safety, a domino-effect accident is an initial undesirable event triggering additional ones in related equipment or facilities, leading to a total incident effect more severe than the primary accident alone.The metaphorical usage implies that an outcome is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen) – a form of slippery slope argument.", "When this outcome is actually unlikely (the argument is fallacious), it has also been called the ''domino fallacy''." ], [ "See also", "Behavioral contagionButterfly effectCascading failureCausalityChinese whispersCopycat crimeDomino theoryKessler syndromeMathematical inductionRipple effectSnowball effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diffusion pump" ], [ "Introduction", "Six inch oil diffusion pump.Ulvac oil diffusion pump cutaway'''Diffusion pumps''' use a high speed jet of vapor to direct gas molecules in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust.", "They were the first type of high vacuum pumps operating in the regime of free molecular flow, where the movement of the gas molecules can be better understood as diffusion than by conventional fluid dynamics.", "Invented in 1915 by Wolfgang Gaede, he named it a ''diffusion pump'' since his design was based on the finding that gas cannot diffuse against the vapor stream, but will be carried with it to the exhaust.", "However, the principle of operation might be more precisely described as '''gas-jet pump''', since diffusion also plays a role in other types of high vacuum pumps.", "In modern textbooks, the diffusion pump is categorized as a momentum transfer pump.The diffusion pump is widely used in both industrial and research applications.", "Most modern diffusion pumps use silicone oil or polyphenyl ethers as the working fluid." ], [ "History", "In the late 19th century, most vacuums were created using a Sprengel pump, which had the advantage of being very simple to operate, and capable of achieving quite good vacuum given enough time.", "Compared to later pumps, however, the pumping speed was very slow and the vapor pressure of the liquid mercury limited the ultimate vacuum.Following his invention of the molecular pump, Wolfgang Gaede invented the diffusion pump in 1915, and originally used elemental mercury as the working fluid.", "After its invention, the design was quickly commercialized by Leybold.", "It was then improved by Irving Langmuir and W. Crawford.", "Cecil Reginald Burch discovered the possibility of using silicone oil in 1928." ], [ "Oil diffusion pumps", "An oil diffusion pump is used to achieve higher vacuum (lower pressure) than is possible by use of positive displacement pumps alone.", "Although its use has been mainly associated within the high-vacuum range, down to, diffusion pumps today can produce pressures approaching when properly used with modern fluids and accessories.", "The features that make the diffusion pump attractive for high and ultra-high vacuum use are its high pumping speed for all gases and low cost per unit pumping speed when compared with other types of pump used in the same vacuum range.", "Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around.Diffusion pumps used on the Calutron mass spectrometers during the Manhattan Project, visible as black cylinders in the upper half of the imageDiagram of an oil diffusion pumpThe oil diffusion pump is operated with an oil of low vapor pressure.", "The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid and directing the vapor through a jet assembly.", "Note that the oil is gaseous when entering the nozzles.", "Within the nozzles, the flow changes from laminar to supersonic and molecular.", "Often, several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action.", "The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow, water lines or a water-filled jacket.", "As the vapor jet hits the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump, the working fluid condenses and is recovered and directed back to the boiler.", "The pumped gases continue flowing to the base of the pump at increased pressure, flowing out through the diffusion pump outlet, where they are compressed to ambient pressure by the secondary mechanical forepump and exhausted.Unlike turbomolecular pumps and cryopumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable.", "They can function over pressure ranges of.", "They are driven only by convection and thus have a very low energy efficiency.One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber.", "This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits.", "Due to backstreaming, oil diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment, but mercury diffusion pumps may be in the case of ultra high vacuum chambers used for metal deposition.", "Often cold traps and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping speed.The oil of a diffusion pump cannot be exposed to the atmosphere when hot.", "If this occurs, the oil will oxidise and has to be replaced.", "If a fire occurs, the smoke and residue may contaminate other parts of the system.===Oil types===The least expensive diffusion pump oils are based on hydrocarbons which have been purified by double-distillation.", "Compared with the other fluids, they have higher vapor pressure, so are usually limited to a pressure of.", "They are also the most likely to burn or explode if exposed to oxidizers.The most common silicone oils used in diffusion pumps are trisiloxanes, which contain the chemical group Si-O-Si-O-Si, to which various phenyl groups or methyl groups are attached.", "These are available as the so called 702 and 703 blends, which were formerly manufactured by Dow Corning.", "These can be further separated into 704 and 705 oils, which are made up of the isomers of tetraphenyl tetramethyl trisiloxane and pentaphenyl trimethyl trisiloxane respectively.For pumping reactive species, usually a polyphenyl ether based oil is used.", "These oils are the most chemical and heat resistant type of diffusion pump oil." ], [ "Steam ejectors", "Plot of pumping speed as a function of pressure for a diffusion pump.Early Langmuir mercury diffusion pump ''(vertical column)'' and its backing pump ''(in background)'', about 1920.The diffusion pump was widely used in manufacturing vacuum tubes, the key technology which dominated the radio and electronics industry for 50 years.", "The steam ejector is a popular form of pump for vacuum distillation and freeze-drying.", "A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber.", "Steam ejectors can have single or multiple stages, with and without condensers in between the stages.", "While both steam ejectors and diffusion pumps use jets of vapor to entrain gas, they work on fundamentally different principles - steam ejectors rely on viscous flow and mixing to pump gas, whereas diffusion pumps use molecular diffusion.", "This has several consequences.", "In diffusion pumps, the inlet pressure can be much lower than the static pressure of jet, whereas in steam ejectors the two pressures are about the same.", "Also, diffusion pumps are capable of much higher compression ratios, and cannot discharge directly to atmosphere." ], [ "See also", "* Turbomolecular pump* Vacuum pump* Aspirator (pump)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An oil diffusion pump built from glass by the Arizona State University Main" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Domenico Alberti" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Domenico Alberti''' (c. 1710 – 14 October 1746 (according to other sources: 1740)) was an Italian singer, harpsichordist, and composer.Alberti was born in Venice and studied music with Antonio Lotti.", "He wrote operas, songs, and sonatas for keyboard instruments, for which he is best known today.", "His sonatas frequently employ arpeggiated accompaniment in the left hand in one of several patterns that are now collectively known as ''Alberti bass''.", "Alberti was one of the earliest composers to use those patterns, but was not the first or only one.", "The most well-known of these patterns consists of regular broken chords, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again, with the pattern repeated.Today, Alberti is regarded as a minor composer, and his works are played or recorded only irregularly.", "However, the Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and it became an important element in much keyboard music of the classical music era.An example of Alberti bass (Mozart's ''Piano Sonata, K 545''):centerIn his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer, and often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord.", "In 1736, he served as a page for Pietro Andrea Cappello, the Venetian ambassador to Spain.", "While at the Spanish court, the famous castrato singer Farinelli heard him sing.", "Farinelli was said to have been impressed, although Alberti was an amateur.Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed.", "It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived.", "They all have two movements, each in binary form.It is probable that Mozart's first violin sonatas, written at the age of seven, were modeled on Alberti's work." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doris Day" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Doris Day''' (born '''Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff'''; April 3, 1922 – May 13, 2019) was an American actress and singer.", "She began her career as a big band singer in 1939, achieving commercial success in 1945 with two No.", "1 recordings, \"Sentimental Journey\" and \"My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time\" with Les Brown and His Band of Renown.", "She left Brown to embark on a solo career and recorded more than 650 songs from 1947 to 1967.Day was one of the greatest Hollywood film stars of the 1950s and 1960s.", "Her film career began with ''Romance on the High Seas'' (1948).", "She starred in films of many genres, including musicals, comedies, dramas and thrillers.", "She played the title role in ''Calamity Jane'' (1953) and starred in Alfred Hitchcock's ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1956) with James Stewart.", "Some of her best-known films are those in which she costarred with Rock Hudson, including ''Pillow Talk'' (1959), for which she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress.", "She also worked with James Garner on both ''Move Over, Darling'' (1963) and ''The Thrill of It All'' (1963) and starred alongside Clark Gable, Cary Grant, James Cagney, David Niven, Ginger Rogers, Jack Lemmon, Frank Sinatra, Kirk Douglas, Lauren Bacall, and Rod Taylor in various films.", "After ending her film career in 1968, only briefly removed from the height of her popularity, she starred in her own television sitcom ''The Doris Day Show'' (1968–1973).In 1989, Day was awarded the Golden Globe and the Cecil B. DeMille Award for Lifetime Achievement in Motion Pictures.", "In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "In 2008, she received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award as well as a Legend Award from the Society of Singers.", "In 2011, she was awarded the Los Angeles Film Critics Association's Career Achievement Award.", "In 2011, Day released her 29th studio album, ''My Heart'', which contained new material and became a UK Top 10 album.", ", she was one of eight recording artists to have been the top box-office earner in the United States four times." ], [ "Early life", "Childhood home in CincinnatiDay was born Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff (named after actress Doris Kenyon) on April 3, 1922, in Cincinnati, Ohio, the daughter of German-American parents Alma Sophia (''née'' Welz; 1895–1976) and William Joseph Kappelhoff (1892–1967).", "Her mother was a homemaker, and her father was a music teacher and choirmaster.", "Her paternal grandfather Franz Joseph Wilhelm Kappelhoff immigrated to the United States in 1875 and settled within the large German community in Cincinnati.", "For most of her life, Day stated that she was born in 1924, but on the occasion of her 95th birthday, the Associated Press found her birth certificate that showed a 1922 date of birth.Day had two older brothers: Richard (1917–1919), who died before her birth, and Paul (1919–1957).", "Her father's infidelity caused her parents to separate in 1932 when she was 10.She developed an early interest in dance, and in the mid-1930s formed a dance duo with Jerry Doherty that performed in nationwide competitions.", "On October 13, 1937, while Day was riding with friends, their car collided with a freight train, and she broke her right leg, curtailing her prospects as a professional dancer." ], [ "Career", "===Early career (1938–1947)===Day and Bob Crosby (1940)While recovering from her car accident, Day sang along with the radio and discovered her singing talent.", "She later said: \"During this long, boring period, I used to while away a lot of time listening to the radio, sometimes singing along with the likes of Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller.", "But the one radio voice I listened to above others belonged to Ella Fitzgerald.", "There was a quality to her voice that fascinated me, and I'd sing along with her, trying to catch the subtle ways she shaded her voice, the casual yet clean way she sang the words.", "\"Day's mother Alma arranged for Doris to receive singing lessons from Grace Raine.", "After three lessons, Raine told Alma that Day had \"tremendous potential\" and gave her three lessons per week for the price of one.", "Years later, Day said that Raine had a greater effect on her singing style and career than had anyone else.Day at the Aquarium Jazz Club, New York (1946)During the eight months when she was receiving singing lessons, Day secured her first professional jobs as a vocalist on the WLW radio program ''Carlin's Carnival'' and in a local restaurant, Charlie Yee's Shanghai Inn.", "During her radio performances, she first caught the attention of Barney Rapp, who was seeking a female vocalist and asked her to audition for the job.", "According to Rapp, he had auditioned about 200 other singers.In 1939, Rapp suggested the stage name Doris Day because the Kappelhoff surname was too long for marquees and he admired her rendition of the song \"Day After Day\".", "After working with Rapp, Day worked with bandleaders Jimmy James, Bob Crosby and Les Brown.", "In 1941, Day appeared as a singer in three Soundies with the Les Brown band.While working with Brown, Day recorded her first hit recording, \"Sentimental Journey\", released in early 1945.It soon became an anthem for World War II servicemen.", "The song continues to be associated with Day, and she rerecorded it on several occasions, including a version for her 1971 television special.", "During 1945–46, Day (as vocalist with the Les Brown Band) had six other top ten hits on the ''Billboard'' chart: \"My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time\", Tain't Me\", \"Till the End of Time\", \"You Won't Be Satisfied (Until You Break My Heart)\", \"The Whole World Is Singing My Song\" and \"I Got the Sun in the Mornin.", "Les Brown said, \"As a singer Doris belongs in the company of Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra.", "\"===Early film career (1948–1954)===Gordon MacRae and Day in ''Starlift'' (1951)While singing with the Les Brown band and for nearly two years on Bob Hope's weekly radio program, Day toured extensively across the United States.Her performance of the song \"Embraceable You\" impressed songwriter Jule Styne and his partner Sammy Cahn, and they recommended her for a role in ''Romance on the High Seas'' (1948).", "Day was cast for the role after auditioning for director Michael Curtiz.", "She was shocked to receive the offer and admitted to Curtiz that she was a singer without acting experience.", "but he appreciated her honesty and felt that \"her freckles made her look like the All-American Girl.", "\"The film provided her with a No.", "2 hit recording as a soloist, \"It's Magic\", which occurred two months after her first No.", "1 hit \"Love Somebody\", a duet with Buddy Clark.", "Day recorded \"Someone Like You\" before the film ''My Dream Is Yours'' (1949), which featured the song.", "In 1950, she collaborated as a singer with the polka musician Frankie Yankovic, and the U.S. servicemen in Korea voted her their favorite star.Day continued to appear in light musicals such as ''On Moonlight Bay'' (1951), ''By the Light of the Silvery Moon'' (1953) and ''Tea For Two'' (1950) for Warner Bros.Day with Howard Keel in ''Calamity Jane'' (1953)Her most commercially successful film for Warner Bros. was ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (1951), a musical biography of lyricist Gus Kahn that broke box-office records of 20 years.", "It was Day's fourth film directed by Curtiz.", "She appeared as the title character in the comedic western-themed musical ''Calamity Jane'' (1953).", "A song from the film, \"Secret Love\", won the Academy Award for Best Original Song and became Day's fourth No.", "1 hit single in the United States.Between 1950 and 1953, the albums from six of her film musicals charted in the Top 10, including three that reached No.", "1.After filming ''Lucky Me'' (1954) with Bob Cummings and ''Young at Heart'' (1955) with Frank Sinatra, Day elected to not renew her contract with Warner Brothers.During this period, Day also had her own radio program, ''The Doris Day Show''.", "It was broadcast on CBS in 1952–1953.===Breakthrough (1955–1958)===Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955)Primarily recognized as a musical-comedy actress, Day began to accept more dramatic roles in order to broaden her range.", "Her dramatic star turn as singer Ruth Etting in ''Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955), with top billing above James Cagney, received critical and commercial success, becoming Day's greatest film success to that point.", "Cagney said that she had \"the ability to project the simple, direct statement of a simple, direct idea without cluttering it,\" comparing her performance to that of Laurette Taylor in the Broadway production ''The Glass Menagerie'' (1945).", "Day felt that it was her best film performance.", "The film's producer Joe Pasternak said, \"I was stunned that Doris did not get an Oscar nomination.\"", "The film's soundtrack album became a No.", "1 hit.Day starred in Alfred Hitchcock's suspense film ''The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)'' opposite James Stewart.", "She sang two songs in the film, \"Que Sera, Sera (Whatever Will Be, Will Be)\", which won an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and \"We'll Love Again\".", "The film was Day's 10th to reach the top 10 at the box office.", "She played the title role in the film noir thriller ''Julie'' (1956) with Louis Jourdan.After three successive dramatic films, Day returned to her musical/comedic roots in ''The Pajama Game'' (1957) with John Raitt, based on the Broadway play of the same name.", "She appeared in the Paramount comedy ''Teacher's Pet'' (1958) alongside Clark Gable and Gig Young.", "She costarred with Richard Widmark and Gig Young in the romantic comedy film ''The Tunnel of Love'' (1958) and with Jack Lemmon in ''It Happened to Jane'' (1959).", "''Billboard'' annual nationwide poll of disc jockeys had ranked Day as the No.", "1 female vocalist nine times in ten years (1949 through 1958), but her success and popularity as a singer was now being overshadowed by her box-office appeal.===Box-office success (1959–1968)===Day in a publicity portrait for ''Midnight Lace'' (1960)In 1959, Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with a series of romantic comedies beginning with ''Pillow Talk'' (1959), costarring Rock Hudson, who became a lifelong friend, and Tony Randall.", "Day received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Actress, her only career Oscar nomination.", "Day, Hudson and Randall appeared in two more films together, ''Lover Come Back'' (1961) and ''Send Me No Flowers'' (1964).Along with David Niven and Janis Paige, Day starred in ''Please Don't Eat the Daisies'' (1960) and with Cary Grant in the comedy ''That Touch of Mink'' (1962).", "During 1960 and the 1962-1964 period, she ranked No.", "1 at the box office, the second woman to be No.", "1 four times, an accomplishment equaled by no other actress except Shirley Temple.", "She set a record that has yet to be matched by receiving seven consecutive Laurel Awards as the top female box-office star.Day teamed with James Garner starting with ''The Thrill of It All'', followed by ''Move Over, Darling'' (both 1963).", "The film's theme song \"Move Over Darling\", cowritten by her son, reached No.", "8 in the UK.", "Between these comedic film appearances, Day costarred with Rex Harrison in the thriller ''Midnight Lace'' (1960), an update of the stage thriller ''Gaslight''.Day's next film ''Do Not Disturb'' (1965) was popular with audiences, but her popularity soon waned.", "By the late 1960s, in the period of the emerging sexual revolution, some critics and comics dubbed Day \"The World's Oldest Virgin,\" and she slipped from the list of top box-office stars, last appearing in the top ten with the hit film ''The Glass Bottom Boat'' (1966).", "Among the roles that she declined was that of Mrs. Robinson in ''The Graduate'', a role that eventually went to Anne Bancroft.", "In her memoirs, Day said that she had rejected the part on moral grounds, finding the script \"vulgar and offensive.", "\"Day starred in the Western film ''The Ballad of Josie'' in 1967.That same year, Day recorded ''The Love Album'', although it was not released until 1994.In 1968, she starred in the comedy film ''Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?''", "about the Northeast blackout of November 9, 1965.Her final feature, the comedy ''With Six You Get Eggroll'', was released in 1968.From 1959 to 1970, Day received nine Laurel Award nominations (and won four times) for best female performance in eight comedies and one drama.", "From 1959 through 1969, she received six Golden Globe nominations for best female performance in three comedies, one drama (''Midnight Lace''), one musical (''Jumbo'') and her television series.===Bankruptcy and television career===On the set of ''The Doris Day Show''After her third husband Martin Melcher died on April 20, 1968, Day was shocked to discover that Melcher and his business partner and advisor Jerome Bernard Rosenthal had squandered her earnings, leaving her deeply in debt.", "Rosenthal had been her attorney since 1949 when he had represented her in her uncontested divorce action against her second husband, saxophonist George W. Weidler.", "Day filed suit against Rosenthal in February 1969 and won a successful decision in 1974, but she did not receive compensation until a settlement was reached in 1979.Day also learned to her displeasure that Melcher had committed her to a television series that became ''The Doris Day Show''.Day hated the idea of performing on television but felt obligated to forge ahead with the series.", "The first episode of ''The Doris Day Show'' aired on September 24, 1968, and featured a rerecorded version of \"Que Sera, Sera\" as its theme song.", "Day persevered with the show, needing to work to repay her debts, but only after CBS ceded creative control to her and her son.", "The show enjoyed a successful five-year run, although it may be best remembered for its abrupt season-to-season changes in casting and premise.Day with John Denver on the TV special ''Doris Day Today''(CBS, February 19, 1975)After the end of the television show's run in 1973, Day largely retired from acting but completed two television specials, ''The Doris Mary Anne Kappelhoff Special'' (1971) and ''Doris Day Today'' (1975), and she was a guest on various shows in the 1970s.In the 1985–86 season, Day hosted her own television talk show, ''Doris Day's Best Friends'', on the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN).", "The network canceled the show after 26 episodes despite the worldwide publicity that it had received.", "One episode featured Rock Hudson, who was showing the first public symptoms of AIDS, including severe weight loss and fatigue.", "He died from the disease later that year.", "Day later said, \"He was very sick.", "But I just brushed that off and I came out and put my arms around him and said, 'Am I glad to see you'.", "\"===1980s and 1990s===In October 1985, the Supreme Court of California rejected Rosenthal's appeal of the multimillion-dollar judgment awarded to Day in her suit against him for legal malpractice and upheld the conclusions of a trial court and an appeals court that Rosenthal had acted improperly.", "In April 1986, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review the lower court's judgment.", "In June 1987, Rosenthal filed a $30 million lawsuit against lawyers whom he claimed had cheated him out of millions of dollars in real-estate investments.", "He named Day as a codefendant, describing her as an \"unwilling, involuntary plaintiff whose consent cannot be obtained.\"", "Rosenthal claimed that much of the money that Day had lost was the result of the unwise advice of other attorneys who had suggested that she sell three hotels at a loss, as well as some oil leases in Kentucky and Ohio.", "He claimed that he had made the investments under a long-term plan and did not intend to sell them until they appreciated in value.", "Two of the hotels sold in 1970 for about $7 million, and their estimated worth in 1986 was $50 million.Terry Melcher stated that his father's premature death saved Day from financial ruin.", "It was not known whether Martin Melcher had himself been duped by Rosenthal, and Day stated publicly that she believed him to be innocent of any deliberate wrongdoing, stating that he \"simply trusted the wrong person.\"", "Author David Kaufman asserts that Day's former costar Louis Jourdan, maintained that Day disliked her husband, but Day's public statements regarding Melcher appear to contradict that assertion.Day was scheduled to present, along with Patrick Swayze and Marvin Hamlisch, the award for Best Original Score Oscar at the 61st Academy Awards in March 1989, but she suffered a deep leg cut from a sprinkler and was unable to attend.Day was inducted into the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame in 1981 and received the Cecil B. DeMille Award for career achievement in 1989.In 1994, Day's ''Greatest Hits'' album entered the British charts.", "Her cover of \"Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps\" was included in the soundtrack of the Australian film ''Strictly Ballroom.", "''===2000s===Day participated in celebrations of her birthday with an annual Doris Day music marathon.She declined tribute offers from the American Film Institute and the Kennedy Center Honors because they both require that recipients attend in person.", "In 2004, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush for her achievements in the entertainment industry and for her work on behalf of animals.", "President Bush stated:Columnist Liz Smith and film critic Rex Reed mounted vigorous campaigns to gather support for an Academy Honorary Award for Day.", "According to ''The Hollywood Reporter'', the academy had offered her the honorary Oscar multiple times, but she declined as she saw the film industry as a part of her past life.", "Day received a Grammy for Lifetime Achievement in Music in 2008, albeit again in absentia.Day received Grammy Hall of Fame Awards in 1998, 1999 and 2012 for her recordings of \"Sentimental Journey\", \"Secret Love\" and \"Que Sera, Sera\", respectively.", "She was inducted into the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2007, and in 2010 received the first Legend Award presented by the Society of Singers.===2010s===At the age of 89, Day released ''My Heart'' in the United Kingdom on September 5, 2011, her first new album since the 1994 release of ''The Love Album'', which had been recorded in 1967.The album is a compilation of previously unreleased recordings produced by Day's son Terry Melcher.", "Tracks include the 1970s Joe Cocker hit \"You Are So Beautiful\", the Beach Boys' \"Disney Girls\" and jazz standards such as \"My Buddy\", which Day originally sang in the film ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (1951).In the U.S., the album reached No.", "12 on Amazon's bestseller list and helped raise funds for the Doris Day Animal League.", "Day became the oldest artist to score a UK Top 10 with an album featuring new material.In January 2012, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association presented Day with a Lifetime Achievement Award.In April 2014, Day made an unexpected public appearance to attend the annual Doris Day Animal Foundation benefit.Clint Eastwood offered Day a role in a film that he was planning to direct in 2015, but she eventually declined.Day granted ABC a telephone interview on her birthday in 2016 that was accompanied by photos of her life and career." ], [ "Animal-welfare and HIV/AIDS activism", "During the filming of ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'', Day observed the mistreatment of animals in a marketplace scene and was inspired to act against animal abuse.", "She was so appalled at the conditions with which the animals used in filming were kept that she refused to work unless they received sufficient food and proper care.", "The production company erected feeding stations for the animals and fed them every day before Day would agree to return to work.In 1971, she cofounded Actors and Others for Animals and appeared in a series of newspaper advertisements denouncing the wearing of fur along with Mary Tyler Moore, Angie Dickinson and Jayne Meadows.In 1978, Day founded the Doris Day Pet Foundation, now the Doris Day Animal Foundation (DDAF).", "An independent nonprofit 501(c)(3) grant-giving public charity, DDAF funds other nonprofit causes that promote animal welfare.To complement the Doris Day Animal Foundation, Day formed the Doris Day Animal League (DDAL) in 1987, a national nonprofit citizens' lobbying organization on behalf of animals.", "Day actively lobbied the United States Congress in support of legislation designed to safeguard animal welfare on a number of occasions, and in 1995 she originated the annual World Spay Day.", "The DDAL merged into the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) in 2006.The Doris Day Horse Rescue and Adoption Center, which helps abused and neglected horses, opened in 2011 in Murchison, Texas on the grounds of an animal sanctuary started by Day's late friend, author Cleveland Amory.", "Day contributed $250,000 toward the founding of the center.A posthumous auction of 1,100 of Day's possessions in April 2020 generated $3 million for the Doris Day Animal Foundation.Doris Day actively engaged in HIV/AIDS awareness for many years.", "Her commitment was primarily focused on raising awareness and fundraising for HIV/AIDS research.", "She co-organized several fundraising events for HIV/AIDS-related charities and provided financial contributions to research and support programs for individuals affected by the disease.", "In 2011, the Canadian magazine Gay Globe paid tribute to Doris Day by featuring her on the cover of their #79 edition." ], [ "Personal life", "Day's only child was music producer and songwriter Terry Melcher, who had a hit in the 1960s with \"Hey Little Cobra\" under the name the Rip Chords before becoming a successful producer whose acts included the Byrds, Paul Revere & the Raiders and the Beach Boys.", "In the late 1960s, Melcher became acquainted with Charles Manson and nearly signed him to a record deal.", "In August 1969, the Tate murders, orchestrated by Manson, were committed at the Benedict Canyon house that Melcher had formerly occupied.", "Melcher died of melanoma in November 2004.Since the 1980s, Day owned a hotel in Carmel-by-the-Sea called the Cypress Inn, an early pet–friendly hotel that was featured in ''Architectural Digest'' in 1999.===Marriages===Day was married four times.", "From April 1941 to February 1943, she was married to trombonist Al Jorden (1917–1967), whom she met in Barney Rapp's band.", "Jorden, a violent schizophrenic, committed suicide.", "When Day became pregnant and refused to have an abortion, he beat her in an attempt to force a miscarriage.", "Their son was born Terrence Paul Jorden in 1942, and he adopted the surname of Melcher when he was adopted by Day's third husband.Her second marriage was to George William Weidler (1926–1989), a saxophonist and brother of actress Virginia Weidler, from March 30, 1946, to May 31, 1949.Weidler and Day met again several years later during a brief reconciliation and he introduced her to Christian Science.Day married American film producer Martin Melcher (1915–1968), who produced many of her films, on April 3, 1951, her 29th birthday, and the marriage lasted until he died in April 1968.Melcher adopted Day's son Terry.", "As Day and Melcher were both Christian Scientists, she refused to visit a doctor for some time after experiencing symptoms that might have suggested cancer.", "Following Melcher's death, Day separated from the Church of Christ, Scientist and grew close to charismatic Protestants such as Kathryn Kuhlman, although she never lost interest in Christian Science teaching and practice.Day's fourth marriage was to Barry Comden (1935–2009) from April 14, 1976, until April 2, 1982.He was the ''maître d'hôtel'' at one of Day's favorite restaurants.", "He knew of her great love of dogs and endeared himself to her by giving her a bag of meat scraps and bones as she left the restaurant.", "He later complained that Day cared more for her \"animal friends\" than for him.=== Later life ===After her retirement from films, Day lived in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California.", "She had many pets and adopted stray animals.", "She was a lifelong Republican.In a rare interview with ''The Hollywood Reporter'' on April 4, 2019, the day after her 97th birthday, Day talked about her work on the Doris Day Animal Foundation, founded in 1978.Asked to name the favorite of her films, she answered with ''Calamity Jane'': \"I was such a tomboy growing up, and she was such a fun character to play.", "Of course, the music was wonderful, too—'Secret Love,' especially, is such a beautiful song.", "\"To commemorate her birthday, Day's fans gathered in late March each year for a three-day party in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California.", "The event was also a fundraiser for her animal foundation.", "During the 2019 event, there was a special screening of her film ''Pillow Talk'' (1959) to celebrate its 60th anniversary.", "Speaking about the film, Day stated that she \"had such fun working with my pal, Rock.", "We laughed our way through three films we made together and remained great friends.", "I miss him.", "\"===Death===Day died of pneumonia at her home in Carmel Valley, California, on May 13, 2019, at the age of 97.Her death was announced by the Doris Day Animal Foundation.", "As requested by Day, the foundation announced that there would be no funeral services, grave marker or other public memorials." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Notable films ===* ''Romance on the High Seas'' (1948)* ''Calamity Jane'' (1953)* ''Love Me or Leave Me (1955)'' (1955)* ''The Man Who Knew Too Much'' (1956)* ''Pillow Talk'' (1959)* ''The Thrill of It All'' (1963)* ''Send Me No Flowers'' (1964)* ''The Glass Bottom Boat'' (1966)" ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===* ''You're My Thrill'' (1949)* ''Young Man with a Horn'' (1950)* ''Tea for Two'' (1950)* ''Lullaby of Broadway'' (1951)* ''On Moonlight Bay'' (1951)* ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (1951)* ''By the Light of the Silvery Moon'' (1953)* ''Calamity Jane'' (1953)* ''Young at Heart'' (1954)* ''Love Me or Leave Me'' (1955)* ''Day Dreams'' (1955)* ''Day by Day'' (1956)* ''The Pajama Game'' (1957)* ''Day by Night'' (1957)* ''Hooray for Hollywood'' (1958)* ''Cuttin' Capers'' (1959)* ''What Every Girl Should Know'' (1960)* ''Show Time'' (1960)* ''Listen to Day'' (1960)* ''Bright and Shiny'' (1961)* ''I Have Dreamed'' (1961)* ''Duet'' (1962)* ''You'll Never Walk Alone'' (1962)'' Billy Rose's Jumbo'' (1962)'' Annie Get Your Gun'' (1963)* ''Love Him'' (1963)* ''The Doris Day Christmas Album'' (1964)* ''With a Smile and a Song'' (1964)* ''Latin for Lovers'' (1965)* ''Doris Day's Sentimental Journey'' (1965)* ''The Love Album'' (recorded 1967; released in 1994)* ''My Heart'' (with eight previously unissued tracks recorded in 1985; released in 2011)''Source''" ], [ "See also", "* List of awards and nominations received by Doris Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "Barothy, Mary Anne (2007), ''Day at a Time: An Indiana Girl's Sentimental Journey to Doris Day's Hollywood and Beyond''.", "Hawthorne Publishing, Bret, David (2008), ''Doris Day: Reluctant Star''.", "JR Books, London, Brogan, Paul E. (2011), ''Was That a Name I Dropped?", "'', Aberdeen Bay; .", "** Patrick, Pierre; McGee, Garry (2009), ''The Doris Day Companion: A Beautiful Day''.", "BearManor Media, " ], [ "External links", " * Doris Day Animal Foundation* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Distillation" ], [ "Introduction", "Laboratory display of distillation: '''1: '''A heat source '''2: '''Round bottomed flask '''3: '''Still head '''4: '''Thermometer/Boiling point temperature '''5: '''Condenser '''6: '''Cooling water in '''7: '''Cooling water out '''8: '''Distillate/receiving flask '''9: '''Vacuum/gas inlet '''10: '''Still receiver '''11: '''Heat control '''12: '''Stirrer speed control '''13: '''Stirrer/heat plate '''14: '''Heating (Oil/sand) bath '''15:''' Stirring mechanism (not shown) e.g.", "boiling chips or mechanical stirrer '''16: '''Cooling bath.", "'''Distillation''', or classical distillation, is the process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by using selective boiling and condensation, usually inside an apparatus known as a still.", "Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products (which may condense into liquids or solids); this may involve chemical changes such as destructive distillation or cracking.", "Distillation may result in essentially complete separation (resulting in nearly pure components), or it may be a partial separation that increases the concentration of selected components; in either case, the process exploits differences in the relative volatility of the mixture's components.", "In industrial applications, distillation is a unit operation of practically universal importance, but is a physical separation process, not a chemical reaction.", "An installation used for distillation, especially of distilled beverages, is a distillery.", "Distillation includes the following applications:* The distillation of fermented products produces distilled beverages with a high alcohol content or separates other fermentation products of commercial value.", "* Distillation is an effective and traditional method of desalination.", "* In the petroleum industry, oil stabilization is a form of partial distillation that reduces the vapor pressure of crude oil, thereby making it safe for storage and transport as well as reducing the atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons.", "In midstream operations at oil refineries, fractional distillation is a major class of operation for transforming crude oil into fuels and chemical feed stocks.", "* Cryogenic distillation leads to the separation of air into its components – notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon – for industrial use.", "* In the chemical industry, large amounts of crude liquid products of chemical synthesis are distilled to separate them, either from other products, from impurities, or from unreacted starting materials." ], [ "History", "Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis, from the Byzantine Greek manuscript ''Parisinus graces.", "''=== Ancient Near East (3000–330 BCE) ===Early evidence of distillation was found on Akkadian tablets dated describing perfumery operations.", "The tablets provided textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia.=== Aristotle ===Aristotle knew that water condensing from evaporating seawater is fresh:Letting seawater evaporate and condense into freshwater is not distillation, for distillation involves boiling, but the experiment may have been an important step towards distillation.=== Ancient India and China (1–500 CE) ===Distillation was practiced in the ancient Indian subcontinent, which is evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila, Shaikhan Dheri, and Charsadda in Pakistan and Rang Mahal in India dating to the early centuries of the Common Era.", "Frank Raymond Allchin says these terracotta distill tubes were \"made to imitate bamboo\".", "These \"Gandhara stills\" were only capable of producing very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.Distillation in China may have begun during the Eastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd century CE)=== Alexandrian chemists (1–600 CE) ===Early evidence of distillation has been found related to alchemists working in Alexandria in Roman Egypt in the 1st century CE.==== Desalination by distillation ====Distilled water has been in use since at least , when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process.", "Work on distilling other liquids continued in early Byzantine Egypt under Zosimus of Panopolis in the 3rd century.=== Islamic Golden Age ===Medieval Muslim chemists such as Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Latin: Geber, ninth century) and Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Latin: Rhazes, ) experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances.==== Alcohol distillation ====The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī () and to al-Fārābī (), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) '''' (later translated into Latin as '''').", "In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of '''' (\"burning water\", i.e., ethanol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.", "The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.==== Fractional distillation ====The fractional distillation of organic substances plays an important role in the works attributed to Jābir, such as in the ('The Book of Seventy'), translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona () under the title .", "The Jabirian experiments with fractional distillation of animal and vegetable substances, and to a lesser degree also of mineral substances, is the main topic of the , an originally Arabic work falsely attributed to Avicenna that was translated into Latin and would go on to form the most important alchemical source for Roger Bacon ().=== Ancient China (900–1400 CE) ======= Alcohol distillation ====The distillation of beverages began in the Southern Song (10th–13th century) and Jin (12th–13th century) dynasties, according to archaeological evidence.", "A still was found in an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei province, China, dating back to the 12th century.", "Distilled beverages were common during the Yuan dynasty (13th–14th century).=== Modern era ===In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Brunschwig published '''' (''The Book of the Art of Distillation out of Simple Ingredients''), the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version.", "In 1651, John French published ''The Art of Distillation'', the first major English compendium on the practice, but it has been claimed that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work.", "This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.Hieronymus Brunschwig's ''Liber de arte Distillandi de Compositis'' (Strassburg, 1512) Science History InstituteA retortDistillationOld Ukrainian vodka stillSimple liqueur distillation in East TimorAs alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations.", "Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle to act as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection.", "Later, copper alembics were invented.", "Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.", "These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water, for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient.", "These were called pot stills.", "Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes.", "However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols, such as cognac, Scotch whisky, Irish whiskey, tequila, rum, cachaça, and some vodkas.", "Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries.", "Small pot stills are also sold for use in the domestic production of flower water or essential oils.Early forms of distillation involved batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation.", "Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate.", "Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation.", "Chemists reportedly carried out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.In the early 19th century, the basics of modern techniques, including pre-heating and reflux, were developed.", "In 1822, Anthony Perrier developed one of the first continuous stills, and then, in 1826, Robert Stein improved that design to make his patent still.", "In 1830, Aeneas Coffey got a patent for improving the design even further.", "Coffey's continuous still may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units.", "The French engineer Armand Savalle developed his steam regulator around 1846.In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation, and the same and subsequent years saw developments in this theme for oils and spirits.With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied.", "The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods, such as the McCabe–Thiele method by Ernest Thiele and the Fenske equation.", "The first industrial plant in the United States to use distillation as a means of ocean desalination opened in Freeport, Texas in 1961 with the hope of bringing water security to the region.The availability of powerful computers has allowed direct computer simulations of distillation columns." ], [ "Applications", "The application of distillation can roughly be divided into four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing.", "The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate in the processing of beverages and herbs.The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation are that laboratory scale distillation is often performed on a batch basis, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously.", "In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds, and the distillate change during the distillation.", "In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions, which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms – remaining least or non-volatile fraction – removed at the end.", "The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system.", "This results in a more detailed control of the separation process." ], [ "Idealized model", "The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure around the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed.", "A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.It is a misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure, allowing the vapors of each component to collect separately and purely.", "However, this does not occur, even in an idealized system.", "Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law and assume that vapor–liquid equilibria are attained.Raoult's law states that the vapor pressure of a solution is dependent on 1) the vapor pressure of each chemical component in the solution and 2) the fraction of solution each component makes up, a.k.a.", "the mole fraction.", "This law applies to ideal solutions, or solutions that have different components but whose molecular interactions are the same as or very similar to pure solutions.Dalton's law states that the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in the mixture.", "When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise.", "When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid.", "A mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure when the components are mutually soluble.", "A mixture of constant composition does not have multiple boiling points.An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly \"boil first\".", "At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure.", "Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and, thus, are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily vaporize also, albeit at a lower concentration in the vapor.", "Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture.", "In batch distillation, the batch vaporizes, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures.", "Therefore, starting from a given mixture, it appears to have a boiling range instead of a boiling point, although this is because its composition changes: each intermediate mixture has its own, singular boiling point.The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene.", "In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water.", "These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is when the vapor phase and liquid phase contain the same composition.", "Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor–liquid equilibrium data is by measurement.It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure.", "If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied.", "When a binary mixture is vaporized and the other component, e.g., a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler.===Batch or differential distillation===A batch still showing the separation of A and B.Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances, A and B, with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point, in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid that contains a mixture of A and B.", "The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid.", "The ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above).", "The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system.", "This, in turn, means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e., more enriched in B than in the starting liquid).The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B.", "This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase).", "This results in a slowly changing ratio of A : B in the distillate.If the difference in vapour pressure between the two components A and B is large – generally expressed as the difference in boiling points – the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.===Continuous distillation===Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams occur over time during the operation.", "Continuous distillation produces a minimum of two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor and then condensed to a liquid.", "There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time.", "Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time.", "For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages, in practice determined by the number of trays or the height of packing.", "Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays.", "Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor–liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio.", "A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup.", "Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.===General improvements===Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask.", "The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact.", "This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible.", "The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor–liquid equilibrium.There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same.", "Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:* Air condenser* Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)* Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)* Spinning band distillation system." ], [ "Laboratory procedures", "Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations.", "The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a ''still'', consists at a minimum of a reboiler or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapor is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected.", "Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).A completely sealed distillation apparatus could experience extreme and rapidly varying internal pressure, which could cause it to burst open at the joints.", "Therefore, some path is usually left open (for instance, at the receiving flask) to allow the internal pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure.", "Alternatively, a vacuum pump may be used to keep the apparatus at a lower than atmospheric pressure.", "If the substances involved are air- or moisture-sensitive, the connection to the atmosphere can be made through one or more drying tubes packed with materials that scavenge the undesired air components, or through bubblers that provide a movable liquid barrier.", "Finally, the entry of undesired air components can be prevented by pumping a low but steady flow of suitable inert gas, like nitrogen, into the apparatus.===Simple distillation===Schematic of a simple distillation setup.In simple distillation, the vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser.", "Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure.", "That concentration follows Raoult's law.As a result, simple distillation is effective only when the liquid boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C) or when separating liquids from non-volatile solids or oils.", "For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually different enough that the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.A cutaway schematic of a simple distillation operation is shown at right.", "The starting liquid 15 in the boiling flask 2 is heated by a combined hotplate and magnetic stirrer 13 via a silicone oil bath (orange, 14).", "The vapor flows through a short Vigreux column 3, then through a Liebig condenser 5, is cooled by water (blue) that circulates through ports 6 and 7.The condensed liquid drips into the receiving flask 8, sitting in a cooling bath (blue, 16).", "The adapter 10 has a connection 9 that may be fitted to a vacuum pump.", "The components are connected by ground glass joints.===Fractional distillation===For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration.", "Therefore, fractional distillation must be used to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column.", "This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column.", "As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material.", "Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more.", "However, the composition of the fresh vapors is determined once again by Raoult's law.", "Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a ''theoretical plate'') will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.", "In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; ''theoretical plate'' is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.More theoretical plates lead to better separations.", "A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.===Steam distillation===Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.", "The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the surface of a heating element and allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature.", "This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material.", "By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure).", "The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products: an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate.", "The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189°C.", "Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70°C.Perkin triangle distillation setup===Vacuum distillation===Some compounds have very high boiling points.", "To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature.", "Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence.", "This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.===Molecular distillation===Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.", "0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e., the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment.", "The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure.", "That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics.", "Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between.", "Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.=== Short path distillation ===Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path;Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.", "A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers.", "This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound.", "The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing.", "A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus.", "The Kugelrohr apparatus is a kind of short path distillation method which often contains multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.===Air-sensitive vacuum distillation===Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive.", "A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete.", "However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure.", "To do this a \"cow\" or \"pig\" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.The Perkin triangle has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux.", "To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed.", "A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.===Zone distillation===Zone distillation is a distillation process in a long container with partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area.", "The process is worked in theory.", "When zone heater is moving from the top to the bottom of the container then solid condensate with irregular impurity distribution is forming.", "Then most pure part of the condensate may be extracted as product.", "The process may be iterated many times by moving (without turnover) the received condensate to the bottom part of the container on the place of refined matter.", "The irregular impurity distribution in the condensate (that is efficiency of purification) increases with the number of iterations.Zone distillation is the distillation analog of zone recrystallization.", "Impurity distribution in the condensate is described by known equations of zone recrystallization – with the replacement of the distribution co-efficient k of crystallization - for the separation factor α of distillation.===Closed-system vacuum distillation (cryovap)===Non-condensable gas can be expelled from the apparatus by the vapor of relatively volatile co-solvent, which spontaneously evaporates during initial pumping, and this can be achieved with regular oil or diaphragm pump.===Other types===* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still.", "In this process, the product is usually significantly lower boiling than its reactants.", "As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture.", "This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.", "Distillation \"over a reactant\" could be classified as a reactive distillation.", "It is typically used to remove volatile impurity from the distillation feed.", "For example, a little lime may be added to remove carbon dioxide from water followed by a second distillation with a little sulfuric acid added to remove traces of ammonia.", "* Catalytic distillation is the process by which the reactants are catalyzed while being distilled to continuously separate the products from the reactants.", "This method is used to assist equilibrium reactions in reaching completion.", "* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.", "* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.", "* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device.", "This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.", "* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.", "In the laboratory, the Dean-Stark apparatus is used for this purpose to remove water from synthesis products.", "The Bleidner apparatus is another example with two refluxing solvents.", "* Membrane distillation is a type of distillation in which vapors of a mixture to be separated are passed through a membrane, which selectively permeates one component of mixture.", "Vapor pressure difference is the driving force.", "It has potential applications in seawater desalination and in removal of organic and inorganic components.The unit process of evaporation may also be called \"distillation\":* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample.", "Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.", "* In a Kugelrohr apparatus a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds.", "The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample.", "The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.Other uses:* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected.", "The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name – ''wood alcohol''.", "* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation.", "It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation.", "This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively.", "It is also used to produce applejack.", "Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them; As a result, many countries prohibit such applejack as a health measure.", "Also, distillation by evaporation can separate these since they have different boiling points.", "Distillation by filtration: In early alchemy and chemistry, otherwise known as natural philosophy, a form of \"distillation\" by capillary filtration was known as a form of distillation at the time.", "In this, a series of cups or bowls were set upon a stepped support with a \"wick\" of cotton or felt-like material, which had been wetted with water or a clear liquid with each step dripping down through the wetted cloth through capillary action in succeeding steps, creating a \"purification\" of the liquid, leaving solid materials behind in the upper bowls and purifying the succeeding product through capillary action through the moistened cloth.", "This was called \"distillatio\" by filtration by those using the method." ], [ "Azeotropic process", "Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail non-ideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold.", "Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling '''azeotrope''' which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range).", "At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not result in separation.", "For example, 95.6% ethanol (by mass) in water forms an azeotrope at 78.1 °C.If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a more pure distillate.", "These techniques are known as '''azeotropic distillation'''.", "Some techniques achieve this by \"jumping\" over the azeotropic composition (by adding another component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure).", "Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity.", "For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent (or desiccant, such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization.", "Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes.", "Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component.", "The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law.", "The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid–liquid separator (a decanter) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead.", "Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 percent by weight mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist.", "As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.===Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation===The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band.", "By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapor pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to remain identical further along the pressure axis to either side of the azeotropic point.", "When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapors being lost to the vacuum source.", "Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.===Pressure-swing distillation===Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.This improves the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist to optimize distillation by avoiding extremes of pressure and temperature that waste energy.", "This is particularly important in commercial applications.One example of the application of pressure-swing distillation is during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol." ], [ "Industrial process", "Typical industrial distillation towersLarge scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation.", "The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.To control and optimize such industrial distillation, a standardized laboratory method, ASTM D86, is established.", "This test method extends to the atmospheric distillation of petroleum products using a laboratory batch distillation unit to quantitatively determine the boiling range characteristics of petroleum products.Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about and heights ranging from about or more.", "When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different ''fractions'' or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges.", "The \"lightest\" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the \"heaviest\" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.Diagram of a typical industrial distillation towerIndustrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products.", "Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower.", "Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower.", "The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials.", "Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.", "Chemical engineers must choose what combination of reflux rate and number of plates is both economically and physically feasible for the products purified in the distillation column.Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in cryogenic air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon.", "Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble capsDesign and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products.", "Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used.", "For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation.", "Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor–liquid contact devices (referred to as \"plates\" or \"trays\") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage.", "Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages.", "A variety of models have been postulated to estimate tray efficiencies.In modern industrial uses, a packing material is used in the column instead of trays when low pressure drops across the column are required.", "Other factors that favor packing are: vacuum systems, smaller diameter columns, corrosive systems, systems prone to foaming, systems requiring low liquid holdup, and batch distillation.", "Conversely, factors that favor plate columns are: presence of solids in feed, high liquid rates, large column diameters, complex columns, columns with wide feed composition variation, columns with a chemical reaction, absorption columns, columns limited by foundation weight tolerance, low liquid rate, large turn-down ratio and those processes subject to process surges.Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation columnThis packing material can either be random or dumped packing ( wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal.", "Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place.", "Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the vapor–liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous.", "However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of \"theoretical stages\" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays.", "Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings.", "Both these factors affect packing performance.Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed.", "The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio.", "If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved.", "The packing will appear to not be working properly.", "The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected.", "The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed.", "Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor.", "The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency.", "Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.", "Considerable work has been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).===Multi-effect distillation===The goal of multi-effect distillation is to increase the energy efficiency of the process, for use in desalination, or in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water.", "The number of effects is inversely proportional to the kW·h/m3 of water recovered figure and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with single-effect distillation.", "One effect is roughly 636 kW·h/m3: Multi-stage flash distillation can achieve more than 20 effects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the article.", "* Vapor compression evaporation – Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 effects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers.There are many other types of multi-effect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-effect distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed." ], [ "In food processing", "===Beverages===Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process.", "Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol.", "Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage.", "Some of these beverages are then stored in barrels or other containers to acquire more flavor compounds and characteristic flavors." ], [ "Gallery", " File:Retort-in-operation-early-chemistry.png\|Chemistry in its beginnings used retorts as laboratory equipment exclusively for distillation processes.File:Distillation of dry and oxygen-free toluene.jpg\| A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene.File:Vacuum Column.png\|Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineriesFile:Rotavapor.jpg\|A rotary evaporator is able to distill solvents more quickly at lower temperatures through the use of a vacuum.File:Semi-microscale distillation.jpg\|Distillation using semi-microscale apparatus.", "The jointless design eliminates the need to fit pieces together.", "The pear-shaped flask allows the last drop of residue to be removed, compared with a similarly-sized round-bottom flask.", "The small holdup volume prevents losses.", "A \"pig\" is used to channel the various distillates into three receiving flasks.", "If necessary the distillation can be carried out under vacuum using the vacuum adapter at the pig." ], [ "See also", "* Atmospheric distillation of crude oil* Clyssus* Fragrance extraction* Low-temperature distillation* Microdistillery* Sublimation* Dixon rings* Random column packing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Needham, Joseph (1980).", "''Science and Civilisation in China''.", "Cambridge University Press.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Alcohol distillation* Case Study: Petroleum Distillation*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Hilbert" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Hilbert''' (; ; 23 January 1862 – 14 February 1943) was a German mathematician and one of the most influential mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas including invariant theory, the calculus of variations, commutative algebra, algebraic number theory, the foundations of geometry, spectral theory of operators and its application to integral equations, mathematical physics, and the foundations of mathematics (particularly proof theory).Hilbert adopted and defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers.", "In 1900, he presented a collection of problems that set a course for mathematical research of the 20th century.Hilbert and his students contributed to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in modern mathematical physics.", "Hilbert was one of the founders of proof theory and mathematical logic." ], [ "Life", "===Early life and education===Hilbert, the first of two children and only son of Otto, a county judge, and Maria Therese Hilbert (née Erdtmann), the daughter of a merchant, was born in the Province of Prussia, Kingdom of Prussia, either in Königsberg (according to Hilbert's own statement) or in Wehlau (known since 1946 as Znamensk) near Königsberg where his father worked at the time of his birth.", "His paternal grandfather was David Hilbert, a judge and ''Geheimrat''.", "His mother Maria had an interest in philosophy, astronomy and prime numbers, while his father Otto taught him Prussian virtues.", "After his father became a city judge, the family moved to Königsberg.", "David's sister, Elise, was born when he was six.", "He began his schooling aged eight, two years later than the usual starting age.In late 1872, Hilbert entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium (''Collegium fridericianum'', the same school that Immanuel Kant had attended 140 years before); but, after an unhappy period, he transferred to (late 1879) and graduated from (early 1880) the more science-oriented Wilhelm Gymnasium.", "Upon graduation, in autumn 1880, Hilbert enrolled at the University of Königsberg, the \"Albertina\".", "In early 1882, Hermann Minkowski (two years younger than Hilbert and also a native of Königsberg but had gone to Berlin for three semesters), returned to Königsberg and entered the university.", "Hilbert developed a lifelong friendship with the shy, gifted Minkowski.===Career===In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius (i.e., an associate professor).", "An intense and fruitful scientific exchange among the three began, and Minkowski and Hilbert especially would exercise a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers.", "Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, titled ''Über invariante Eigenschaften spezieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunktionen'' (\"On the invariant properties of special binary forms, in particular the spherical harmonic functions\").Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a ''Privatdozent'' (senior lecturer) from 1886 to 1895.In 1895, as a result of intervention on his behalf by Felix Klein, he obtained the position of Professor of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen.", "During the Klein and Hilbert years, Göttingen became the preeminent institution in the mathematical world.", "He remained there for the rest of his life.The Mathematical Institute in Göttingen.", "Its new building, constructed with funds from the Rockefeller Foundation, was opened by Hilbert and Courant in 1930.===Göttingen school===Among Hilbert's students were Hermann Weyl, chess champion Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel.", "John von Neumann was his assistant.", "At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church.Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), and Wilhelm Ackermann (1925).", "Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the ''Mathematische Annalen'', the leading mathematical journal of the time.", "He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1907.===Personal life===Käthe Hilbert with Constantin Carathéodory, before 1932In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), who was the daughter of a Königsberg merchant, \"an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched Hilbert's.\"", "While at Königsberg they had their one child, (1893–1969).Franz suffered throughout his life from mental illness, and after he was admitted into a psychiatric clinic, Hilbert said, \"From now on, I must consider myself as not having a son.\"", "His attitude toward Franz brought Käthe considerable sorrow.Hilbert considered the mathematician Hermann Minkowski to be his \"best and truest friend\".Hilbert was baptized and raised a Calvinist in the Prussian Evangelical Church.", "He later left the Church and became an agnostic.", "He also argued that mathematical truth was independent of the existence of God or other ''a priori'' assumptions.", "When Galileo Galilei was criticized for failing to stand up for his convictions on the Heliocentric theory, Hilbert objected: \"But Galileo was not an idiot.", "Only an idiot could believe that scientific truth needs martyrdom; that may be necessary in religion, but scientific results prove themselves in due time.", "\"===Later years===Like Albert Einstein, Hilbert had closest contacts with the Berlin Group whose leading founders had studied under Hilbert in Göttingen (Kurt Grelling, Hans Reichenbach and Walter Dubislav).Around 1925, Hilbert developed pernicious anemia, a then-untreatable vitamin deficiency whose primary symptom is exhaustion; his assistant Eugene Wigner described him as subject to \"enormous fatigue\" and how he \"seemed quite old,\" and that even after eventually being diagnosed and treated, he \"was hardly a scientist after 1925, and certainly not a Hilbert.", "\"Hilbert was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1932.Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen in 1933.Those forced out included Hermann Weyl (who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930), Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau.", "One who had to leave Germany, Paul Bernays, had collaborated with Hilbert in mathematical logic, and co-authored with him the important book ''Grundlagen der Mathematik'' (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939).", "This was a sequel to the Hilbert–Ackermann book ''Principles of Mathematical Logic'' from 1928.Hermann Weyl's successor was Helmut Hasse.About a year later, Hilbert attended a banquet and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust.", "Rust asked whether \"the Mathematical Institute really suffered so much because of the departure of the Jews.\"", "Hilbert replied, \"Suffered?", "It doesn't exist any longer, does it?", "\"===Death===Hilbert's tomb:''Wir müssen wissenWir werden wissen''By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restaffed the university, as many of the former faculty had either been Jewish or married to Jews.", "Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a native of Königsberg.", "News of his death only became known to the wider world several months after he died.The epitaph on his tombstone in Göttingen consists of the famous lines he spoke at the conclusion of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians on 8 September 1930.The words were given in response to the Latin maxim: \"''Ignoramus et ignorabimus''\" or \"We do not know and we shall not know\":The day before Hilbert pronounced these phrases at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a round table discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his incompleteness theorem.", "Gödel's incompleteness theorems show that even elementary axiomatic systems such as Peano arithmetic are either self-contradicting or contain logical propositions that are impossible to prove or disprove within that system." ], [ "Contributions to mathematics and physics", "===Solving Gordan's Problem===Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous ''finiteness theorem''.", "Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach.", "Attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved.", "To solve what had become known in some circles as ''Gordan's Problem'', Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path.", "As a result, he demonstrated ''Hilbert's basis theorem'', showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form.", "That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof—it did not display \"an object\"—but rather, it was an existence proof and relied on use of the law of excluded middle in an infinite extension.Hilbert sent his results to the ''Mathematische Annalen''.", "Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the ''Mathematische Annalen'', could not appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive.", "His comment was:Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations.", "Encouraged by Klein, Hilbert extended his method in a second article, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the ''Annalen''.", "After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying:Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say:For all his successes, the nature of his proof created more trouble than Hilbert could have imagined.", "Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that \"many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea\"—in other words (to quote Reid): \"Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction\"; \"the proof\" (i.e.", "the symbols on the page) ''was'' \"the object\".", "Not all were convinced.", "While Kronecker would die soon afterwards, his constructivist philosophy would continue with the young Brouwer and his developing intuitionist \"school\", much to Hilbert's torment in his later years.", "Indeed, Hilbert would lose his \"gifted pupil\" Weyl to intuitionism—\"Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker\".", "Brouwer the intuitionist in particular opposed the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it).", "Hilbert responded:===Axiomatization of geometry===The text ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'' (tr.", ": ''Foundations of Geometry'') published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, called Hilbert's axioms, substituting for the traditional axioms of Euclid.", "They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion.", "It is difficult to specify the axioms used by Hilbert without referring to the publication history of the ''Grundlagen'' since Hilbert changed and modified them several times.", "The original monograph was quickly followed by a French translation, in which Hilbert added V.2, the Completeness Axiom.", "An English translation, authorized by Hilbert, was made by E.J.", "Townsend and copyrighted in 1902.This translation incorporated the changes made in the French translation and so is considered to be a translation of the 2nd edition.", "Hilbert continued to make changes in the text and several editions appeared in German.", "The 7th edition was the last to appear in Hilbert's lifetime.", "New editions followed the 7th, but the main text was essentially not revised.Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method.", "In this, Hilbert was anticipated by Moritz Pasch's work from 1882.Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths.", "Geometry may treat ''things'', about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts.", "The elements, such as point, line, plane, and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert is reported to have said to Schoenflies and Kötter, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects.", "It is their defined relationships that are discussed.Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and lines, points and planes, and lines and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points (line segments), and congruence of angles.", "The axioms unify both the plane geometry and solid geometry of Euclid in a single system.===The 23 problems===Hilbert put forth a highly influential list consisting of 23 unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900.This is generally reckoned as the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician.After re-working the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics.", "His approach differed, however, from the later \"foundationalist\" Russell–Whitehead or \"encyclopedist\" Nicolas Bourbaki, and from his contemporary Giuseppe Peano.", "The mathematical community as a whole could engage in problems of which he had identified as crucial aspects of important areas of mathematics.The problem set was launched as a talk \"The Problems of Mathematics\" presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians held in Paris.", "The introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave said:He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress.", "In a subsequent publication, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert.", "See also Hilbert's twenty-fourth problem.", "The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of inevitable debate, whenever it is asked how many have been solved.Some of these were solved within a short time.", "Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure.", "Some continue to remain challenges.The following are the headers for Hilbert's 23 problems as they appeared in the 1902 translation in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society.", ": 1.Cantor's problem of the cardinal number of the continuum.", ": 2.The compatibility of the arithmetical axioms.", ": 3.The equality of the volumes of two tetrahedra of equal bases and equal altitudes.", ": 4.Problem of the straight line as the shortest distance between two points.", ": 5.Lie's concept of a continuous group of transformations without the assumption of the differentiability of the functions defining the group.", ": 6.Mathematical treatment of the axioms of physics.", ": 7.Irrationality and transcendence of certain numbers.", ": 8.Problems of prime numbers (The \"Riemann Hypothesis\").", ": 9.Proof of the most general law of reciprocity in any number field.", ": 10.Determination of the solvability of a Diophantine equation.", ": 11.Quadratic forms with any algebraic numerical coefficients: 12.Extensions of Kronecker's theorem on Abelian fields to any algebraic realm of rationality: 13.Impossibility of the solution of the general equation of 7th degree by means of functions of only two arguments.", ": 14.Proof of the finiteness of certain complete systems of functions.", ": 15.Rigorous foundation of Schubert's enumerative calculus.", ": 16.Problem of the topology of algebraic curves and surfaces.", ": 17.Expression of definite forms by squares.", ": 18.Building up of space from congruent polyhedra.", ": 19.Are the solutions of regular problems in the calculus of variations always necessarily analytic?", ": 20.The general problem of boundary values (Boundary value problems in PDE's).", ": 21.Proof of the existence of linear differential equations having a prescribed monodromy group.", ": 22.Uniformization of analytic relations by means of automorphic functions.", ": 23.Further development of the methods of the calculus of variations.===Formalism===In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto that opened the way for the development of the formalist school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century.", "According to the formalist, mathematics is manipulation of symbols according to agreed upon formal rules.", "It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought.", "There is, however, room to doubt whether Hilbert's own views were simplistically formalist in this sense.====Hilbert's program====In 1920, Hilbert proposed a research project in metamathematics that became known as Hilbert's program.", "He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation.", "He believed that in principle this could be done by showing that:# all of mathematics follows from a correctly chosen finite system of axioms; and# that some such axiom system is provably consistent through some means such as the epsilon calculus.He seems to have had both technical and philosophical reasons for formulating this proposal.", "It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ignorabimus, still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to Emil du Bois-Reymond.This program is still recognizable in the most popular philosophy of mathematics, where it is usually called ''formalism''.", "For example, the Bourbaki group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the axiomatic method as a research tool.", "This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic.Hilbert wrote in 1919:Hilbert published his views on the foundations of mathematics in the 2-volume work, Grundlagen der Mathematik.====Gödel's work====Hilbert and the mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project.", "His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, ended in failure.Gödel demonstrated that any non-contradictory formal system, which was comprehensive enough to include at least arithmetic, cannot demonstrate its completeness by way of its own axioms.", "In 1931 his incompleteness theorem showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated.", "The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely finitary.Nevertheless, the subsequent achievements of proof theory at the very least ''clarified'' consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians.", "Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of recursion theory and then mathematical logic as an autonomous discipline in the 1930s.", "The basis for later theoretical computer science, in the work of Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, also grew directly out of this \"debate\".===Functional analysis===Around 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis.", "In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional Euclidean space, later called Hilbert space.", "His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction.", "Later on, Stefan Banach amplified the concept, defining Banach spaces.", "Hilbert spaces are an important class of objects in the area of functional analysis, particularly of the spectral theory of self-adjoint linear operators, that grew up around it during the 20th century.===Physics===Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a pure mathematician.", "When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend Hermann Minkowski joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert.", "In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar on the subject in 1905.In 1912, three years after his friend's death, Hilbert turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively.", "He arranged to have a \"physics tutor\" for himself.", "He started studying kinetic gas theory and moved on to elementary radiation theory and the molecular theory of matter.", "Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of Albert Einstein and others were followed closely.By 1907, Einstein had framed the fundamentals of the theory of gravity, but then struggled for nearly 8 years to put the theory into its final form.", "By early summer 1915, Hilbert's interest in physics had focused on general relativity, and he invited Einstein to Göttingen to deliver a week of lectures on the subject.", "Einstein received an enthusiastic reception at Göttingen.", "Over the summer, Einstein learned that Hilbert was also working on the field equations and redoubled his own efforts.", "During November 1915, Einstein published several papers culminating in ''The Field Equations of Gravitation'' (see Einstein field equations).", "Nearly simultaneously, Hilbert published \"The Foundations of Physics\", an axiomatic derivation of the field equations (see Einstein–Hilbert action).", "Hilbert fully credited Einstein as the originator of the theory and no public priority dispute concerning the field equations ever arose between the two men during their lives.", "See more at priority.Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics.", "His work was a key aspect of Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann's work on the mathematical equivalence of Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation, and his namesake Hilbert space plays an important part in quantum theory.", "In 1926, von Neumann showed that, if quantum states were understood as vectors in Hilbert space, they would correspond with both Schrödinger's wave function theory and Heisenberg's matrices.Throughout this immersion in physics, Hilbert worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics.", "While highly dependent on higher mathematics, physicists tended to be \"sloppy\" with it.", "To a pure mathematician like Hilbert, this was both ugly, and difficult to understand.", "As he began to understand physics and how physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found – most importantly in the area of integral equations.", "When his colleague Richard Courant wrote the now classic ''Methoden der mathematischen Physik'' (''Methods of Mathematical Physics'') including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added Hilbert's name as author even though Hilbert had not directly contributed to the writing.", "Hilbert said \"Physics is too hard for physicists\", implying that the necessary mathematics was generally beyond them; the Courant-Hilbert book made it easier for them.===Number theory===Hilbert unified the field of algebraic number theory with his 1897 treatise ''Zahlbericht'' (literally \"report on numbers\").", "He also resolved a significant number-theory problem formulated by Waring in 1770.As with the finiteness theorem, he used an existence proof that shows there must be solutions for the problem rather than providing a mechanism to produce the answers.", "He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of Hilbert modular forms in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area.He made a series of conjectures on class field theory.", "The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution lives on in the names of the Hilbert class field and of the Hilbert symbol of local class field theory.", "Results were mostly proved by 1930, after work by Teiji Takagi.Hilbert did not work in the central areas of analytic number theory, but his name has become known for the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture, for reasons that are anecdotal." ], [ "Works", "His collected works (''Gesammelte Abhandlungen'') have been published several times.", "The original versions of his papers contained \"many technical errors of varying degree\"; when the collection was first published, the errors were corrected and it was found that this could be done without major changes in the statements of the theorems, with one exception—a claimed proof of the continuum hypothesis.", "The errors were nonetheless so numerous and significant that it took Olga Taussky-Todd three years to make the corrections." ], [ "See also", "===Concepts===* List of things named after David Hilbert* Foundations of geometry* Hilbert C-module Hilbert cube* Hilbert curve* Hilbert matrix* Hilbert metric* Hilbert–Mumford criterion* Hilbert number* Hilbert ring* Hilbert–Poincaré series* Hilbert series and Hilbert polynomial* Hilbert space* Hilbert spectrum* Hilbert system* Hilbert transform* Hilbert's arithmetic of ends* Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel* Hilbert–Schmidt operator* Hilbert–Smith conjecture===Theorems===* Hilbert–Burch theorem* Hilbert's irreducibility theorem* Hilbert's Nullstellensatz* Hilbert's theorem (differential geometry)* Hilbert's Theorem 90* Hilbert's syzygy theorem* Hilbert–Speiser theorem===Other===* Brouwer–Hilbert controversy* Direct method in the calculus of variations* Entscheidungsproblem* ''Geometry and the Imagination''* General relativity priority dispute" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Sources", "===Primary literature in English translation===* 1918.", "\"Axiomatic thought,\" 1114–1115.", " 1922.", "\"The new grounding of mathematics: First report,\" 1115–1133.", " 1923.", "\"The logical foundations of mathematics,\" 1134–1147.", " 1930.", "\"Logic and the knowledge of nature,\" 1157–1165.", " 1931.", "\"The grounding of elementary number theory,\" 1148–1156.", " 1904.", "\"On the foundations of logic and arithmetic,\" 129–138.", " 1925.", "\"On the infinite,\" 367–392.", " 1927.", "\"The foundations of mathematics,\" with comment by Weyl and Appendix by Bernays, 464–489.", "* * * * * ===Secondary literature===* , available at Gallica.", "The \"Address\" of Gabriel Bertrand of 20 December 1943 at the French Academy: he gives biographical sketches of the lives of recently deceased members, including Pieter Zeeman, David Hilbert and Georges Giraud.", "* Bottazzini Umberto, 2003.", "''Il flauto di Hilbert.", "Storia della matematica''.", "UTET, * Corry, L., Renn, J., and Stachel, J., 1997, \"Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute,\" ''Science 278'': nn-nn.", "* * Dawson, John W. Jr 1997.", "''Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel''.", "Wellesley MA: A. K. Peters.", ".", "* * Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 2000.", "''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''.", "Princeton Univ.", "Press.", "* Gray, Jeremy, 2000.", "''The Hilbert Challenge''.", "* * Mehra, Jagdish, 1974.", "''Einstein, Hilbert, and the Theory of Gravitation''.", "Reidel.", "* Piergiorgio Odifreddi, 2003.", "''Divertimento Geometrico.", "Le origini geometriche della logica da Euclide a Hilbert''.", "Bollati Boringhieri, .", "A clear exposition of the \"errors\" of Euclid and of the solutions presented in the ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'', with reference to non-Euclidean geometry.", "* The definitive English-language biography of Hilbert.", "* * * Sieg, Wilfried, and Ravaglia, Mark, 2005, \"Grundlagen der Mathematik\" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., ''Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics''.", "Elsevier: 981-99.", "(in English) Thorne, Kip, 1995.", "''Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy'', W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Hilbert Bernays Project* Hilbert's 23 Problems Address* ICMM 2014 dedicated to the memory of D.Hilbert* * * * Hilbert's radio speech recorded in Königsberg 1930 (in German) , with English translation * Wolfram MathWorld – Hilbert'Constant* * * 'From Hilbert's Problems to the Future', lecture by Professor Robin Wilson, Gresham College, 27 February 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats).", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Down syndrome" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Down syndrome''' or '''Down's syndrome''', also known as '''trisomy 21''', is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21.It is usually associated with developmental delays, mild to moderate intellectual disability, and characteristic physical features.", "There are three types of Down syndrome, all with the same features: Trisomy 21, the most common type; Mosaic Down syndrome, and Translocation Down syndrome.The parents of the affected individual are usually genetically normal.", "The probability increases from less than 0.1% in 20-year-old mothers to 3% in those of age 45.The extra chromosome is provided at conception as the egg and sperm combine.", "A very small percentage of 1-2% gets the additional chromosome in the embryo stage and it only impacts some of the cells in the body; this is known as Mosaic Down syndrome.", "Usually, babies get 23 chromosomes from each parent for a total of 46, whereas in Down syndrome, a third 21st chromosome is attached.", "It is believed to occur by chance, with no known behavioral activity or environmental factor that changes the probability.", "Down syndrome can be identified during pregnancy by prenatal screening, followed by diagnostic testing, or after birth by direct observation and genetic testing.", "Since the introduction of screening, Down syndrome pregnancies are often aborted (rates varying from 50 to 85% depending on maternal age, gestational age, and maternal race/ethnicity).There is no cure for Down syndrome.", "Education and proper care have been shown to provide good quality of life.", "Some children with Down syndrome are educated in typical school classes, while others require more specialized education.", "Some individuals with Down syndrome graduate from high school, and a few attend post-secondary education.", "In adulthood, about 20% in the United States do paid work in some capacity, with many requiring a sheltered work environment.", "Support in financial and legal matters is often needed.", "Life expectancy is around 50 to 60 years in the developed world, with proper health care.", "Regular screening for health issues common in Down syndrome is recommended throughout the person's life.Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality.", "It occurs in about 1 in 1,000 babies born each year.", "In the US this figure is given as one in 700 births.", "In 2015, Down syndrome was present in 5.4 million individuals globally and resulted in 27,000 deaths, down from 43,000 deaths in 1990.It is named after British physician John Langdon Down, who fully described the syndrome in 1866.Some aspects of the condition were described earlier by French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol in 1838 and French physician Édouard Séguin in 1844.The genetic cause of Down syndrome was discovered in 1959." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "A boy with Down syndrome using a cordless drill to assemble a book caseThose with Down syndrome nearly always have physical and intellectual disabilities.", "As adults, their mental abilities are typically similar to those of an 8- or 9-year-old.", "At the same time, their emotional and social awareness is very high.", "They can have poor immune function and generally reach developmental milestones at a later age.", "They have an increased risk of a number of health concerns, such as congenital heart defect, epilepsy, leukemia, and thyroid diseases.CharacteristicsPercentageCharacteristicsPercentageMental impairment 99%Abnormal teeth 60%Stunted growth 90%Slanted eyes 60%Umbilical hernia 90%Shortened hands 60% Increased skin on back of neck 80%Short neck 60%Low muscle tone 80%Obstructive sleep apnea 60%Narrow roof of mouth 76%Bent fifth finger tip 57%Flat head 75%Brushfield spots in the iris 56%Flexible ligaments 75%Single transverse palmar crease 53%Proportionally large tongue 75%Protruding tongue 47%Abnormal outer ears 70%Congenital heart disease 40%Flattened nose 68%Strabismus ≈35%Separation of first and second toes 68%Undescended testicles 20%===Physical===Feet of a boy with Down syndrome, showing the deviated first toesPeople with Down syndrome may have these physical characteristics: a small chin, epicanthic folds, low muscle tone, a flat nasal bridge, a single crease of the palm, and a protruding tongue.", "A protruding tongue is caused by low tone and weak facial muscles, and often corrected with myofunctional exercises.", "Some characteristic airway features can lead to obstructive sleep apnea in around half of those with Down syndrome.", "Other common features include: excessive joint flexibility, extra space between big toe and second toe, single palm lines and short fingers.Instability of the atlantoaxial joint occurs in about 1-2%.", "Atlantoaxial instability may cause myelopathy due to cervical spinal cord compression later in life, this often manifests as new onset weakness, problems with coordination, bowel or bladder incontinence, and gait dysfunction.", "Serial imaging cannot reliably predict future cervical cord compression, but changes can be seen on neurological exam.", "The condition is surgically corrected with spine surgery.Growth in height is slower, resulting in adults who tend to have short stature—the average height for men is 154 cm (5 ft 1 in), and for women is 142 cm (4 ft 8 in).", "Individuals with Down syndrome are at increased risk for obesity as they age due to hypothyroidism, other medical issues and lifestyle.", "Growth charts have been developed specifically for children with Down syndrome.===Neurological===This syndrome causes about a third of cases of intellectual disability.", "Many developmental milestones are delayed with the ability to crawl typically occurring around 8–22 months rather than 6–12 months, and the ability to walk independently typically occurring around 1–4 years rather than 9–18 months.", "Walking is acquired in 50% of children after 24 months.Most individuals with Down syndrome have mild (IQ: 50–69) or moderate (IQ: 35–50) intellectual disability with some cases having severe (IQ: 20–35) difficulties.", "Those with mosaic Down syndrome typically have IQ scores 10–30 points higher than that.", "As they age, the gap tends to widen between people with Down syndrome and their same-age peers.Commonly, individuals with Down syndrome have better language understanding than ability to speak.", "Babbling typically emerges around 15 months on average.", "10-45% of those with Down syndrome have either a stutter or rapid and irregular speech, making it difficult to understand them.", "After reaching 30 years of age, some may lose their ability to speak.They typically do fairly well with social skills.", "Behavior problems are not generally as great an issue as in other syndromes associated with intellectual disability.", "In children with Down syndrome, mental illness occurs in nearly 30% with autism occurring in 5–10%.", "People with Down syndrome experience a wide range of emotions.", "While people with Down syndrome are generally happy, symptoms of depression and anxiety may develop in early adulthood.Children and adults with Down syndrome are at increased risk of epileptic seizures, which occur in 5–10% of children and up to 50% of adults.", "This includes an increased risk of a specific type of seizure called infantile spasms.", "Many (15%) who live 40 years or longer develop Alzheimer's disease.", "In those who reach 60 years of age, 50–70% have the disease.===Senses===Brushfield spots, visible in the irises of a baby with Down syndromeHearing and vision disorders occur in more than half of people with Down syndrome.", "Vision problems occur in 38-80% of cases.", "Between 20 and 50% have strabismus, in which the two eyes do not move together.", "Cataracts (cloudiness of the lens of the eye) occur in 15%, and may be present at birth.", "Keratoconus (a thin, cone-shaped cornea) and glaucoma (increased eye pressure) are also more common, as are refractive errors requiring glasses or contacts.", "Brushfield spots (small white or grayish/brown spots on the outer part of the iris) are present in 38 to 85% of individuals.Hearing problems are found in 50–90% of children with Down syndrome.", "This is often the result of otitis media with effusion which occurs in 50–70% and chronic ear infections which occur in 40-60%.", "Ear infections often begin in the first year of life and are partly due to poor eustachian tube function.", "Excessive ear wax can also cause hearing loss due to obstruction of the outer ear canal.", "Even a mild degree of hearing loss can have negative consequences for speech, language understanding, and academics.", "It is important to rule out hearing loss as a factor in social and cognitive deterioration.", "Age-related hearing loss of the sensorineural type occurs at a much earlier age and affects 10–70% of people with Down syndrome.===Heart===The rate of congenital heart disease in newborns with Down syndrome is around 40%.", "Of those with heart disease, about 80% have an atrial septal defect or ventricular septal defect with the former being more common.", "Congenital heart disease can also put individuals at a higher risk of pulmonary hypertension, where arteries in the lungs narrow and cause inadequate blood oxygenation.", "Some of the genetic contributions to pulmonary hypertension in individuals with Down Syndrome are abnormal lung development, endothelial dysfunction, and proinflammatory genes.", "Mitral valve problems become common as people age, even in those without heart problems at birth.", "Other problems that may occur include tetralogy of Fallot and patent ductus arteriosus.", "People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of hardening of the arteries.===Cancer===Although the overall risk of cancer in Down syndrome is not changed, the risk of testicular cancer and certain blood cancers, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL) is increased while the risk of other non-blood cancers is decreased.", "People with Down syndrome are believed to have an increased risk of developing cancers derived from germ cells whether these cancers are blood- or non-blood-related.", "In 2008, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced a distinct classification for myeloid proliferation in individuals with Down syndrome.==== Blood cancers ====Leukemia is 10 to 15 times more common in children with Down syndrome.", "In particular, acute lymphoblastic leukemia is 20 times more common and the megakaryoblastic form of acute myeloid leukemia (acute megakaryoblastic leukemia), is 500 times more common.", "Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia (AMKL) is a leukemia of megakaryoblasts, the precursors cells to megakaryocytes which form blood platelets.", "Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Down syndrome accounts for 1–3% of all childhood cases of ALL.", "It occurs most often in those older than nine years or having a white blood cell count greater than 50,000 per microliter and is rare in those younger than one year old.", "ALL in Down syndrome tends to have poorer outcomes than other cases of ALL in people without Down syndrome.", "In short, the likelihood of developing Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) is higher in children with Down syndrome compared to those without Down syndrome.Myeloid leukemia typically precedes Down syndrome and is accompanied by a condition known as Transient Abnormal Myelopoiesis (TAM), which generally disrupts the differentiation of megakaryocytes and erythrocytes.", "In Down syndrome, AMKL is typically preceded by transient myeloproliferative disease (TMD), a disorder of blood cell production in which non-cancerous megakaryoblasts with a mutation in the ''GATA1'' gene rapidly divide during the later period of pregnancy.", "GATA1 mutations combined with Trisomy 21 contribute to a predisposition to Transient Abnormal Myelopoiesis (TAM).", "In Trisomy 21, the process of leukemogenesis starts in early fetal life, with genetic factors, including GATA1 mutations, contributing to the development of Transient Abnormal Myelopoiesis (TAM) on the preleukemic pathway.", "The condition affects 3–10% of babies with Down.", "While it often spontaneously resolves within three months of birth, it can cause serious blood, liver, or other complications.", "In about 10% of cases, TMD progresses to AMKL during the three months to five years following its resolution.==== Non-blood cancers ====People with Down syndrome have a lower risk of all major solid cancers, including those of lung, breast, and cervix, with the lowest relative rates occurring in those aged 50 years or older.", "This low risk is thought to be due to an increase in the expression of tumor suppressor genes present on chromosome 21.One exception is testicular germ cell cancer which occurs at a higher rate in Down syndrome.===Endocrine===Problems of the thyroid gland occur in 20–50% of individuals with Down syndrome.", "Low thyroid is the most common form, occurring in almost half of all individuals.", "Thyroid problems can be due to a poorly or nonfunctioning thyroid at birth (known as congenital hypothyroidism) which occurs in 1% or can develop later due to an attack on the thyroid by the immune system resulting in Graves' disease or autoimmune hypothyroidism.", "Type 1 diabetes mellitus is also more common.===Gastrointestinal===Constipation occurs in nearly half of people with Down syndrome and may result in changes in behavior.", "One potential cause is Hirschsprung's disease, occurring in 2–15%, which is due to a lack of nerve cells controlling the colon.", "Other congenital problems can include duodenal atresia, imperforate anus and gastroesophageal reflux disease.", "Celiac disease affects about 7–20%===Teeth===People with Down syndrome tend to be more susceptible to gingivitis as well as early, severe periodontal disease, necrotising ulcerative gingivitis, and early tooth loss, especially in the lower front teeth.", "While plaque and poor oral hygiene are contributing factors, the severity of these periodontal diseases cannot be explained solely by external factors.", "Research suggests that the severity is likely a result of a weakened immune system.", "The weakened immune system also contributes to increased incidence of yeast infections in the mouth (from ''Candida albicans'').People with Down syndrome also tend to have a more alkaline saliva resulting in a greater resistance to tooth decay, despite decreased quantities of saliva, less effective oral hygiene habits, and higher plaque indexes.Higher rates of tooth wear and bruxism are also common.", "Other common oral manifestations of Down syndrome include enlarged hypotonic tongue, crusted and hypotonic lips, mouth breathing, narrow palate with crowded teeth, class III malocclusion with an underdeveloped maxilla and posterior crossbite, delayed exfoliation of baby teeth and delayed eruption of adult teeth, shorter roots on teeth, and often missing and malformed (usually smaller) teeth.", "Less common manifestations include cleft lip and palate and enamel hypocalcification (20% prevalence).Taurodontism, an elongation of the pulp chamber, has a high prevalence in people with DS.===Fertility===Males with Down syndrome usually do not father children, while females have lower rates of fertility relative to those who are unaffected.", "Fertility is estimated to be present in 30–50% of females.", "Menopause usually occurs at an earlier age.", "The poor fertility in males is thought to be due to problems with sperm development; however, it may also be related to not being sexually active.", "As of 2006, three instances of males with Down syndrome fathering children and 26 cases of females having children have been reported.", "Without assisted reproductive technologies, around half of the children of someone with Down syndrome will also have the syndrome." ], [ "Cause", "The cause of the extra full or partial chromosome is still unknown.", "Most of the time, Down syndrome is caused by a random mistake in cell division during early development of the fetus, but not inherited, and there is no scientific research which shows that environmental factors or the parents' activities contribute to Down syndrome.", "The only factor that has been linked to the increased chance of having a baby with Down syndrome is advanced parental age.", "This is mostly associated with advanced maternal age but about 10 per cent of cases are associated with advanced paternal age.", "Karyotype for Down syndrome (trisomy 21) showing the three copies of chromosome 21Down syndrome is caused by having three copies of the genes on chromosome 21, rather than the usual two.", "The parents of the affected individual are typically genetically normal.", "Those who have one child with Down syndrome have about a 1% possibility of having a second child with the syndrome, if both parents are found to have normal karyotypes.The extra chromosome content can arise through several different ways.", "The most common cause (about 92–95% of cases) is a complete extra copy of chromosome 21, resulting in trisomy 21.In 1–2.5% of cases, some of the cells in the body are normal and others have trisomy 21, known as mosaic Down syndrome.", "The other common mechanisms that can give rise to Down syndrome include: a Robertsonian translocation, isochromosome, or ring chromosome.", "These contain additional material from chromosome 21 and occur in about 2.5% of cases.", "An isochromosome results when the two long arms of a chromosome separate together rather than the long and short arm separating together during egg or sperm development.===Trisomy 21===Down syndrome (also known by the karyotype 47,XX,+21 for females and 47,XY,+21 for males) is mostly caused by a failure of the 21st chromosome to separate during egg or sperm development, known as nondisjunction.", "As a result, a sperm or egg cell is produced with an extra copy of chromosome 21; this cell thus has 24 chromosomes.", "When combined with a normal cell from the other parent, the baby has 47 chromosomes, with three copies of chromosome 21.About 88% of cases of trisomy 21 result from nonseparation of the chromosomes in the mother, 8% from nonseparation in the father, and 3% after the egg and sperm have merged.=== Mosaic Down syndrome ===Mosaic Down syndrome is diagnosed when there is a mixture of two types of cells: some cells have three copies of chromosome 21 but some cells have the typical two copies of chromosome 21.This type is the least common form of Down syndrome and accounts for only about 1% of all cases.", "Children with mosaic Down syndrome may have the same features as other children with Down syndrome.", "However, they may have fewer characteristics of the condition due to the presence of some (or many) cells with a typical number of chromosomes.===Translocation Down syndrome===The extra chromosome 21 material may also occur due to a Robertsonian translocation in 2–4% of cases.", "In this translocation Down syndrome, the long arm of chromosome 21 is attached to another chromosome, often chromosome 14.In a male affected with Down syndrome, it results in a karyotype of 46XY,t(14q21q).", "This may be a new mutation or previously present in one of the parents.", "The parent with such a translocation is usually normal physically and mentally; however, during production of egg or sperm cells, a higher chance of creating reproductive cells with extra chromosome 21 material exists.", "This results in a 15% chance of having a child with Down syndrome when the mother is affected and a less than 5% probability if the father is affected.", "The probability of this type of Down syndrome is not related to the mother's age.", "Some children without Down syndrome may inherit the translocation and have a higher probability of having children of their own with Down syndrome.", "In this case it is sometimes known as ''familial'' Down syndrome." ], [ "Mechanism", "The extra genetic material present in Down syndrome results in overexpression of a portion of the 310 genes located on chromosome 21.This overexpression has been estimated at 50%, due to the third copy of the chromosome present.", "Some research has suggested the Down syndrome critical region is located at bands 21q22.1–q22.3, with this area including genes for the amyloid precursor protein, superoxide dismutase, and likely the ETS2 proto oncogene.", "Other research, however, has not confirmed these findings.", "MicroRNAs are also proposed to be involved.The dementia that occurs in Down syndrome is due to an excess of amyloid beta peptide produced in the brain and is similar to Alzheimer's disease, which also involves amyloid beta build-up.", "Amyloid beta is processed from amyloid precursor protein, the gene for which is located on chromosome 21.Senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles are present in nearly all by 35 years of age, though dementia may not be present.", "It is hypothesized that those with Down syndrome lack a normal number of lymphocytes and produce less antibodies which is said to present an increased risk of infection.===Epigenetics===Down syndrome is associated with an increased risk of some chronic diseases that are typically associated with older age such as Alzheimer's disease.", "It is believed that accelerated aging occurs and increases the biological age of tissues, but molecular evidence for this hypothesis is sparse.", "According to a biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock, it is hypothesized that trisomy 21 increases the age of blood and brain tissue (on average by 6.6 years)." ], [ "Diagnosis", "===Screening before birth===Guidelines recommend screening for Down syndrome to be offered to all pregnant women, regardless of age.", "A number of tests are used, with varying levels of accuracy.", "They are typically used in combination to increase the detection rate.", "None can be definitive, thus if screening is positive, either amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling is required to confirm the diagnosis.When screening tests predict a high possibility of Down syndrome, a more invasive diagnostic test (amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling) is needed to confirm the diagnosis.==== Ultrasound ====Prenatal ultrasound can be used to screen for Down syndrome.", "Findings that indicate increased chances when seen at 14 to 24 weeks of gestation include a small or no nasal bone, large ventricles, nuchal fold thickness, and an abnormal right subclavian artery, among others.", "The presence or absence of many markers is more accurate.", "Increased fetal nuchal translucency (NT) indicates an increased possibility of Down syndrome picking up 75–80% of cases and being falsely positive in 6%.T21.JPG\|Ultrasound of fetus with Down syndrome showing a large bladderNuchal edema in Down Syndrome Dr. W. Moroder.jpg\|Enlarged NT and absent nasal bone in a fetus at 11 weeks with Down syndrome====Blood tests====Several blood markers can be measured to predict the chances of Down syndrome during the first or second trimester.", "Testing in both trimesters is sometimes recommended and test results are often combined with ultrasound results.", "In the second trimester, often two or three tests are used in combination with two or three of: α-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, total hCG, and free βhCG detecting about 60–70% of cases.Testing of the mother's blood for fetal DNA is being studied and appears promising in the first trimester.", "The International Society for Prenatal Diagnosis considers it a reasonable screening option for those women whose pregnancies are at a high likelihood of trisomy 21.Accuracy has been reported at 98.6% in the first trimester of pregnancy.", "Confirmatory testing by invasive techniques (amniocentesis, CVS) is still required to confirm the screening result.====Combinations====+ First- and second-trimester screeningScreenWeek of pregnancy when performedDetection rateFalse positiveDescriptionCombined test 10–13.5 wks 82–87% 5%Uses ultrasound to measure nuchal translucency in addition to blood tests for free or total beta-hCG and PAPP-AQuad screen15–20 wks81% 5%Measures the maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, unconjugated estriol, hCG, and inhibin-AIntegrated test15–20 wks94–96%5%Is a combination of the quad screen, PAPP-A, and NTCell-free fetal DNAFrom 10 wks96–100%0.3%A blood sample is taken from the mother by venipuncture and is sent for DNA analysis.====Efficacy====For combinations of ultrasonography and non-genetic blood tests, screening in both the first and second trimesters is better than just screening in the first trimester.", "The different screening techniques in use are able to pick up 90–95% of cases, with a false-positive rate of 2–5%.", "If Down syndrome occurs in one in 500 pregnancies with a 90% detection rate and the test used has a 5% false-positive rate, this means, of 20 women who test positive on screening, only one will not have a fetus with Down syndrome confirmed.", "If the screening test has a 2% false-positive rate, this means, of 50 women who test positive on screening, one will not have a fetus with Down syndrome.====Invasive genetic testing====Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are more reliable tests, but they increase the risk of miscarriage by between 0.5-1%.", "The risk of limb problems may be increased in the offspring if chorionic villus sampling is performed before 10 weeks.", "An example of an algorithm for determining the indication for prenatal genetic testing of Down syndromeThe risk from the procedure is greater the earlier it is performed, thus amniocentesis is not recommended before 15 weeks gestational age and chorionic villus sampling before 10 weeks gestational age.===Abortion rates===About 92% of pregnancies in Europe with a diagnosis of Down syndrome are terminated.", "As a result, there is almost no one with Down syndrome in Iceland and Denmark, where screening is commonplace.", "In the United States, the termination rate after diagnosis is around 75%, but varies from 61 to 93%, depending on the population surveyed.", "Rates are lower among women who are younger and have decreased over time.", "When asked if they would have a termination if their fetus tested positive, 23–33% said yes, when high-risk pregnant women were asked, 46–86% said yes, and when women who screened positive are asked, 89–97% say yes.===After birth===The diagnosis can often be suspected based on the child's physical appearance at birth.", "Informing the parents of a diagnosis needs to be made as soon as possible, with care and sensitivity.", "Even an uncertain diagnosis needs to be informed of in the same way.", "This allows for a longer time for processing the information.An analysis of the child's chromosomes is needed to confirm the diagnosis, and to determine if a translocation is present, as this may help determine the chances of the child's parents having further children with Down syndrome." ], [ "Management", "Efforts such as early childhood intervention, therapies, screening for common medical issues, a good family environment, and work-related training can improve the development of children with Down syndrome and provide good quality of life.", "Common therapies utilized include physical therapy, occupational therapy and speech therapy.", "Education and proper care can provide a positive quality of life.", "Typical childhood vaccinations are recommended.===Health screening===+ Recommended screening Testing Children Adults Hearing 6 months, 12 months, then yearly 3–5 years T4 and TSH 6 months, then yearly Eyes 6 months, then yearly3–5 years Teeth 2 years, then every 6 months Celiac disease Between 2 and 3 years of age, or earlier if symptoms occur Sleep study 3 to 4 years, or earlier if symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea occur Neck X-rays Between 3 and 5 years of ageA number of health organizations have issued recommendations for screening those with Down syndrome for particular diseases.", "This is recommended to be done systematically.At birth, all children should get an electrocardiogram and ultrasound of the heart.", "Surgical repair of heart problems may be required as early as three months of age.", "Heart valve problems may occur in young adults, and further ultrasound evaluation may be needed in adolescents and in early adulthood.", "Due to the elevated risk of testicular cancer, some recommend checking the person's testicles yearly.===Cognitive development===Some people with Down syndrome experience hearing loss.", "In this instance, hearing aids or other amplification devices can be useful for language learning.", "Speech therapy may be useful and is recommended to be started around nine months of age.", "As those with Down syndrome typically have good hand-eye coordination, learning sign language is a helpful communication tool.", "Augmentative and alternative communication methods, such as pointing, body language, objects, or pictures, are often used to help with communication.", "Behavioral issues and mental illness are typically managed with counseling or medications.Education programs before reaching school age may be useful.", "School-age children with Down syndrome may benefit from inclusive education (whereby students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their peers of the same age), provided some adjustments are made to the curriculum.", "In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 requires public schools generally to allow attendance by students with Down syndrome.Individuals with Down syndrome may learn better visually.", "Drawing may help with language, speech, and reading skills.", "Children with Down syndrome still often have difficulty with sentence structure and grammar, as well as developing the ability to speak clearly.", "Several types of early intervention can help with cognitive development.", "Efforts to develop motor skills include physical therapy, speech and language therapy, and occupational therapy.", "Physical therapy focuses specifically on motor development and teaching children to interact with their environment.", "Speech and language therapy can help prepare for later language.", "Lastly, occupational therapy can help with skills needed for later independence.===Other===Tympanostomy tubes are often needed and often more than one set during the person's childhood.", "Tonsillectomy is also often done to help with sleep apnea and throat infections.", "Surgery does not correct every instance of sleep apnea and a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine may be useful in those cases.Efforts to prevent respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection with human monoclonal antibodies should be considered, especially in those with heart problems.", "In those who develop dementia there is no evidence for memantine, donepezil, rivastigmine, or galantamine." ], [ "Prognosis", "Deaths due to Down syndrome per million persons in 2012 Between 5-15% of children with Down syndrome in Sweden attend regular school.", "Some graduate from high school; however, most do not.", "Of those with intellectual disability in the United States who attended high school about 40% graduated.", "Many learn to read and write and some are able to do paid work.", "In adulthood about 20% in the United States do paid work in some capacity.", "In Sweden, however, less than 1% have regular jobs.", "Many are able to live semi-independently, but they often require help with financial, medical, and legal matters.", "Those with mosaic Down syndrome usually have better outcomes.Individuals with Down syndrome have a higher risk of early death than the general population.", "This is most often from heart problems or infections.", "Following improved medical care, particularly for heart and gastrointestinal problems, the life expectancy has increased.", "This increase has been from 12 years in 1912, to 25 years in the 1980s, to 50 to 60 years in the developed world in the 2000s.", "Data collected between the 1985–2003 showed between 4-12% infants with Down syndrome die in the first year of life.", "The probability of long-term survival is partly determined by the presence of heart problems.", "From research at the turn of the century, it tracked those with congenital heart problems, showing 60% survived to at least 10 years and 50% survived to at least 30 years of age.", "The research failed to track further aging beyond 30 years.", "In those without heart problems, 85% studied survived to at least 10 years and 80% survived to at least 30 years of age.", "It is estimated that 10% lived to 70 years of age in the early 2000s.", "Much of this data is outdated and life expectancy has drastically improved with more equitable healthcare and continuous advancement of surgical practice.", "The National Down Syndrome Society provides information regarding raising a child with Down syndrome." ], [ "Epidemiology", "mother's ageDown syndrome is the most common chromosomal abnormality in humans.", "Globally, , Down syndrome occurs in about 1 per 1,000 births and results in about 17,000 deaths.", "More children are born with Down syndrome in countries where abortion is not allowed and in countries where pregnancy more commonly occurs at a later age.", "About 1.4 per 1,000 live births in the United States and 1.1 per 1,000 live births in Norway are affected.", "In the 1950s, in the United States, it occurred in 2 per 1,000 live births with the decrease since then due to prenatal screening and abortions.", "The number of pregnancies with Down syndrome is more than two times greater with many spontaneously aborting.", "It is the cause of 8% of all congenital disorders.Maternal age affects the chances of having a pregnancy with Down syndrome.", "At age 20, the chance is 1 in 1,441; at age 30, it is 1 in 959; at age 40, it is 1 in 84; and at age 50 it is 1 in 44.Although the probability increases with maternal age, 70% of children with Down syndrome are born to women 35 years of age and younger, because younger people have more children.", "The father's older age is also a risk factor in women older than 35, but not in women younger than 35, and may partly explain the increase in risk as women age." ], [ "History", "Levitas and Reid have suggested that this early Netherlandish painting, ''The Adoration of the Christ Child'', depicts a person with Down syndrome as one of the angels.English physician John Langdon Down first described Down syndrome in 1862, recognizing it as a distinct type of mental disability, and again in a more widely published report in 1866.Édouard Séguin described it as separate from cretinism in 1844.By the 20th century, Down syndrome had become the most recognizable form of mental disability.Due to his perception that children with Down syndrome shared facial similarities with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race, John Langdon Down used the term \"mongoloid\".", "He felt that the existence of Down syndrome confirmed that all peoples were genetically related.", "In the 1950s with discovery of the underlying cause as being related to chromosomes, concerns about the race-based nature of the name increased.In 1961, a group of nineteen scientists suggested that \"mongolism\" had \"misleading connotations\" and had become \"an embarrassing term\".", "The World Health Organization (WHO) dropped the term in 1965 after a request by the delegation from the Mongolian People's Republic.", "While this racist terminology continued to be used until the late twentieth century, it is now considered unacceptable and is no longer in common use.In antiquity, many infants with disabilities were either killed or abandoned.", "In June 2020, the earliest incidence of Down syndrome was found in genomic evidence from an infant that was buried before 3200 BC at Poulnabrone dolmen in Ireland.Researchers believe that a number of historical pieces of art portray Down syndrome, including pottery from the pre-Columbian Tumaco-La Tolita culture in present-day Colombia and Ecuador, and the 16th-century painting ''The Adoration of the Christ Child''.In the 20th century, many individuals with Down syndrome were institutionalized, few of the associated medical problems were treated, and most people died in infancy or early adulthood.", "With the rise of the eugenics movement, 33 of the then 48 U.S. states and several countries began programs of forced sterilization of individuals with Down syndrome and comparable degrees of disability.", "Action T4 in Nazi Germany saw the systematic murder of people with Down syndrome made public policy.With the discovery of karyotype techniques in the 1950s it became possible to identify abnormalities of chromosomal number or shape.", "In 1959 Jérôme Lejeune reported the discovery that Down syndrome resulted from an extra chromosome.", "However, Lejeune's claim to the discovery has been disputed, and in 2014 the Scientific Council of the French Federation of Human Genetics unanimously awarded its Grand Prize to his colleague Marthe Gautier for her role in this discovery.", "The discovery took place in the laboratory of Raymond Turpin at the Hôpital Trousseau in Paris, France.", "Jérôme Lejeune and Marthe Gautier were both his students.As a result of this discovery, the condition became known as trisomy 21.Even before the discovery of its cause, the presence of the syndrome in all races, its association with older maternal age, and its rarity of recurrence had been noticed.", "Medical texts had assumed it was caused by a combination of inheritable factors that had not been identified.", "Other theories had focused on injuries sustained during birth." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Name===Down syndrome is named after John Langdon Down.", "He was the first person to provide an accurate description of the syndrome.", "His research that was published in 1866 earned him the recognition as the Father of the syndrome.", "While others had previously recognized components of the condition, John Langdon Down described the syndrome as a distinct, unique medical condition.In 1975, the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) convened a conference to standardize the naming and recommended replacing the possessive form, \"Down's syndrome\" with \"Down syndrome\".", "However, both the possessive and nonpossessive forms remain in use by the general population.", "The term \"trisomy 21\" is also commonly used.===Ethics===Father with son who has Down syndromeObstetricians routinely offer antenatal screenings for various conditions, including Down syndrome.", "As a medically reasonable procedure, requiring informed consent, people should be given information about it.", "It will then be the woman's choice, based on her personal beliefs, how much or how little screening she wishes.", "When results from testing become available, it is considered an ethical requirement to share the results with the patient.", "Some bioethicists deem it reasonable for parents to select a child who would have the highest well-being.", "One criticism of this reasoning is that it often values those with disabilities less.", "Some parents argue that Down syndrome should not be prevented or cured and that eliminating Down syndrome amounts to genocide.", "The disability rights movement does not have a position on screening, although some members consider testing and abortion discriminatory.", "Some in the United States who are anti-abortion support abortion if the fetus is disabled, while others do not.", "Of a group of 40 mothers in the United States who have had one child with Down syndrome, half agreed to screening in the next pregnancy.Within the US, some Protestant denominations see abortion as acceptable when a fetus has Down syndrome while Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism do not.", "Some of those against screening refer to it as a form of eugenics.", "Disagreement exists within Islam regarding the acceptability of abortion in those carrying a fetus with Down syndrome.", "Some Islamic countries allow abortion, while others do not.", "Parents may be stigmatized whichever decision they make.===Advocacy groups===Advocacy groups for individuals with Down syndrome began to be formed after the Second World War.", "These were organizations advocating for the inclusion of people with Down syndrome into the general school system and for a greater understanding of the condition among the general population, as well as groups providing support for families with children living with Down syndrome.", "Before this individuals with Down syndrome were often placed in mental hospitals or asylums.", "Organizations included the Royal Society for Handicapped Children and Adults founded in the UK in 1946 by Judy Fryd, Kobato Kai founded in Japan in 1964, the National Down Syndrome Congress founded in the United States in 1973 by Kathryn McGee and others, and the National Down Syndrome Society founded in 1979 in the United States.", "The first Roman Catholic order of nuns for women with Down Syndrome, Little Sisters Disciples of the Lamb, was founded in 1985 in France.The first World Down Syndrome Day was held on 21 March 2006.The day and month were chosen to correspond with 21 and trisomy, respectively.", "It was recognized by the United Nations General Assembly in 2011." ], [ "Research", "Efforts are underway to determine how the extra chromosome 21 material causes Down syndrome, as currently this is unknown, and to develop treatments to improve intelligence in those with the syndrome.", "Two efforts being studied are the use stem cells and gene therapy.", "Other methods being studied include the use of antioxidants, gamma secretase inhibition, adrenergic agonists, and memantine.", "Research is often carried out on an animal model, the Ts65Dn mouse." ], [ "Other hominids", "Down syndrome may also occur in hominids other than humans.", "In great apes chromosome 22 corresponds to the human chromosome 21 and thus trisomy 22 causes Down syndrome in apes.", "The condition was observed in a common chimpanzee in 1969 and a Bornean orangutan in 1979, but neither lived very long.", "The common chimpanzee Kanako (born around 1993, in Japan) has become the longest-lived known example of this condition.", "Kanako has some of the same symptoms that are common in human Down syndrome.", "It is unknown how common this condition is in chimps, but it is plausible it could be roughly as common as Down syndrome is in humans." ], [ "In popular culture", "Chris Burke, an actor with Down syndrome, born in 1965'''Individuals'''Jamie Brewer is an American actress and model.", "She is best known for her roles in the FX horror anthology television series ''American Horror Story''.", "In its first season, ''Murder House'', she portrayed Adelaide \"Addie\" Langdon; in the third season, ''Coven'', she portrayed Nan, an enigmatic and clairvoyant witch; in the fourth season ''Freak Show'', she portrayed Chester Creb's vision of his doll, Marjorie; in the seventh season ''Cult'', she portrayed Hedda, a member of the 'SCUM' crew, led by feminist Valerie Solanas; and she also returned to her role as Nan in the eighth season, ''Apocalypse''.", "In February 2015, Brewer became the first woman with Down syndrome to walk the red carpet at New York Fashion Week, for designer Carrie Hammer.", "Sofía Jirau is a Puerto Rican model with Down syndrome, working with top designers and renowned media outlets such Vogue Mexico, People, Hola!, among others.", "In February 2020, Jirau made her debut at New York Fashion Week.", "Then in February 2022, she became the first-ever model with Down Syndrome to be hired by the American retail company Victoria's Secret.", "She walked the LA Fashion Week runway in 2022.Jirau launched a campaign in 2021 called Sin Límites or No Limits “which seeks to make visible the challenges facing the Down syndrome community, demonstrate our ability to achieve our goals, and raise awareness about the condition throughout the world.”Chris Nikic is the first person with Down syndrome to finish an Ironman Triathlon.", "He was awarded the Jimmy V Award for Perseverance at the 2021 ESPY Awards.", "Nikic continues to run races around the world, using his platform to promote his 1% Better message and bring awareness to the endless possibilities for people with Down syndrome.", "Grace Strobel is an American model and the first person with Down Syndrome to represent an American skin-care brand.", "She first joined Obagi in 2020, and continues to be an Ambassador for the brand as of 2022.She walked the runway representing Tommy Hilfiger for Runway of Dreams New York Fashion Week 2020 and Atlantic City Fashion Week.", "Strobel has been featured in ''Forbes'', on ''The Today Show'', ''Good Morning America'', by Rihanna's Fenty Beauty, Lady Gaga's Kindness Channel, and many more.", "She is also a public speaker and gives a presentation called #TheGraceEffect about what it is like to live with Down syndrome.", "'''Television and film'''''Life Goes On'' is an American drama television series that aired on ABC from September 12, 1989, to May 23, 1993.The show centers on the Thatcher family living in suburban Chicago: Drew, his wife Libby, and their children Paige, Rebecca and Charles.", "Charles, called Corky on the show and portrayed by Chris Burke, was the first major character on a television series with Down syndrome.", "Burke's revolutionary role conveyed a realistic portrayal of people with Down syndrome and changed the way audiences viewed people with disabilities.", "''Struck by Lightning'', an Australian film by Jerzy Domaradzki and starring Garry McDonald, is a comedy-drama depicting the efforts by a newly appointed physical education teacher to introduce soccer to a specialized school for youths with Down syndrome.", "''Champions'' (2023) is a film starring 4 main actors with Down syndrome: Madison Tevlin, Kevin Iannucci, Matthew Von Der Ahe and James Day Keith.", "It is an American sports comedy film directed by Bobby Farrelly in his solo directorial debut, from a screenplay written by Mark Rizzo.", "The film stars Woody Harrelson as a temperamental minor-league basketball coach who after an arrest must coach a team of players with intellectual disabilities as community service; Kaitlin Olson, Ernie Hudson, and Cheech Marin also star.", "''Born This Way'' is an American reality television series produced by Bunim/Murray Productions featuring seven adults with Down syndrome with work hard to achieve goals and overcome obstacles.", "The show received a Television Academy Honor in 2016.", "''The Peanut Butter Falcon'' is a 2019 American comedy-drama film written and directed by Tyler Nilson and Michael Schwartz, in their directorial film debut, and starring Zack Gottsagen, Shia LaBeouf, Dakota Johnson and John Hawkes.", "The plot follows a young man with Down syndrome who escapes from an assisted living facility, in order to follow his dream of being a wrestler, and befriends a wayward fisherman on the run.", "As the two men form a rapid bond, a social worker attempts to track them.===Music===The Devo song Mongoloid is about someone with Down Syndrome.", "The Amateur Transplants song Your Baby is about a fetus with Down Syndrome." ], [ "See also", " List of syndromes* Characteristics of syndromic ASD conditions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Futher reading", "* * * " ], [ "External links", " * Down's syndrome by the UK National Health Service" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dyslexia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dyslexia''', previously known as '''word blindness''', is a learning disability ('learning difficulty' in the UK) that affects either reading or writing.", "Different people are affected to different degrees.", "Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, \"sounding out\" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads.", "Often these difficulties are first noticed at school.", "The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.", "People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.", "Some cases run in families.", "Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia is sometimes called \"acquired dyslexia\" or '''alexia'''.", "The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences within the brain's language processing.", "Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, vision, spelling, and reading skills.", "Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn.Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.", "While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.", "Treatments targeting vision are not effective.", "Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world.", "It affects 3–7% of the population; however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.", "While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals.", "It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally.", "Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides." ], [ "Classification", "Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms.", "Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke.", "People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches.", "''Pure alexia'', also known as ''agnosic alexia'' or ''pure word blindness'', is one form of alexia which makes up \"the peripheral dyslexia\" group." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.", "A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.", "These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness.", "They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of ''k'', ''a'', and ''t'' in ''cat'') or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.", "People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called ''dysorthographia'' or ''dysgraphia'', which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages.", "Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness.===Associated conditions===Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.", "These associated disabilities include:; Dysgraphia: A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.", "In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.", "; Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.", "Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.", "Approximately 15% or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD; and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.", "; Auditory processing disorder: A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.", "This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing.", "Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit.", "Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.", "; Developmental coordination disorder: A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control and kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization." ], [ "Causes", " Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animationResearchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.===Neuroanatomy===Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.", "Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex.", "Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language.", "Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed, with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural).", "fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience.", "The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading.", "The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties.", "However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.===Genetics===Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.", "Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.", "The previously cited studies and others suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities.", "Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.", "Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2 and KIAA0319 on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15.===Gene–environment interaction===The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies, which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes.", "Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development.", "Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education and teaching quality have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.", "However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability.", "Measures of gene expression, histone modifications, and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.====Language====The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.", "English and French have comparatively \"deep\" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes.", "Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called \"shallow\" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.", "Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters, have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "Corpus callosum view, front part at top of imageFor most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing.", "With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia.", "In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language.", "Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.", "Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes.===Dual route theory===The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s.", "This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.", "One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a \"dictionary\" lookup procedure.", "The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can \"sound out\" a written word.", "This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.", "The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers)." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.", "Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (''phonological processing''); and verbal working memory deficits.Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a ''learning disorder with impairment in reading'' (ICD-11 prefixes \"developmental\" to \"learning disorder\"; DSM-5 uses \"specific\").", "Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence.", "Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties.", "The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as \"difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding\".The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as \"a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling\" and is characterized by \"difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed\".", "''Phonological awareness'' enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words.===Assessment===The following can be done to assess for dyslexia:Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words).Do not rely on tests exclusively.", "Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests.Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach, which \"... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills.", "Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach.", "\"====Assessment tests====There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia.", "If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.", "Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.", "Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.", "Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities.", "These tests and observations can include:* General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales.", "Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult.", "Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.", "There are different versions of these tests for different age groups.", "Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists.", "According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.", "* Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people.", "Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete.", "Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.", "All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex.", "Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED).", "Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder.", "Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result.", "Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.", "* Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal.", "In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress.", "These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time.", "They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests).", "The individually administered tests again require more specialized training." ], [ "Screening", "Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia.", "In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.", "In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.", "When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the ''Phonics screening check'' used by United Kingdom schools during Year one.In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that \"given the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s.\"", "Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning." ], [ "Management", "Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.", "There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.", "Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.", "For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words.", "Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.", "Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading.", "Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts.", "Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial.There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia.There is some evidence from an RCT that atomoxetine might be helpful for dyslexic with or without ADHD." ], [ "Prognosis", "Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.", "The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.", "The New York educational system (NYED) indicates \"a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading\" and \"instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency\" so as to improve the individual's reading ability." ], [ "Epidemiology", "The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.", "Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males.There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world.", "Further, differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes.", "Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings.", "The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages.", "Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography." ], [ "History", "Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881, but the term ''dyslexia'' was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.", "He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.", "In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the ''British Medical Journal'' titled \"Congenital Word Blindness\".", "The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms.", "However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.", "Over time, we have changed from the intelligence-based model to the age-based model, in terms of those with Dyslexia." ], [ "Society and culture", "As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information.", "Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability.", "As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.", "There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.", "If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families.", "Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia.", "Access to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia.", "As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged status.===Stigma and success===Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability, individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self-stigma and perfectionistic self-presentation in order to cope with their disability.", "The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections.", "This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability." ], [ "Research", "Writing systemsMost dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems, and especially to European languages.", "However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.", "The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects." ], [ "See also", "* Dyscalculia, difficulty comprehending numbers and math* Learning to read* Orton-Gillingham* List of people with dyslexia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delft" ], [ "Introduction", "A 2018 map of the Delft municipality with the epicenter of the 1654 explosion superimposed on the Paardenmarkt, the site's present occupant.", "'''Delft''' () is a city and municipality in the province of South Holland, Netherlands.", "It is located between Rotterdam, to the southeast, and The Hague, to the northwest.", "Together with them, it is a part of both the Rotterdam–The Hague metropolitan area and the Randstad.Delft is a popular tourist destination in the Netherlands, famous for its historical connections with the reigning House of Orange-Nassau, for its blue pottery, for being home to the painter Jan Vermeer, and for hosting Delft University of Technology (TU Delft).", "Historically, Delft played a highly influential role in the Dutch Golden Age.", "In terms of science and technology, thanks to the pioneering contributions of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek and Martinus Beijerinck, Delft can be considered to be the birthplace of microbiology." ], [ "History", "===Early history===The Gemeenlandshuis and the Old Church, Delft, Summer by Cornelis Springer, 1877A map of Delft in 1649, by Joan BlaeuThe city of Delft came into being beside a canal, the 'Delf', which comes from the word ''delven'', meaning to delve or dig, and this led to the name Delft.", "At the elevated place where this 'Delf' crossed the creek wall of the silted up river Gantel, a Count established his manor, probably around 1075.Partly because of this, Delft became an important market town, the evidence for which can be seen in the size of its central market square.Having been a rural village in the early Middle Ages, Delft developed into a city, and on 15 April 1246, Count Willem II granted Delft its city charter.", "Trade and industry flourished.", "In 1389 the Delfshavensche Schie canal was dug through to the river Maas, where the port of Delfshaven was built, connecting Delft to the sea.Until the 17th century, Delft was one of the major cities of the then county (and later province) of Holland.", "In 1400, for example, the city had 6,500 inhabitants, making it the third largest city after Dordrecht (8,000) and Haarlem (7,000).", "In 1560, Amsterdam, with 28,000 inhabitants, had become the largest city, followed by Delft, Leiden and Haarlem, which each had around 14,000 inhabitants.In 1536, a large part of the city was destroyed by the great fire of Delft.The town's association with the House of Orange started when William of Orange (Willem van Oranje), nicknamed William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger), took up residence in 1572 in the former Saint-Agatha convent (subsequently called the Prinsenhof).", "At the time he was the leader of growing national Dutch resistance against Spanish occupation, known as the Eighty Years' War.", "By then Delft was one of the leading cities of Holland and was equipped with the necessary city walls to serve as a headquarters.", "In October 1573, an attack by Spanish forces was repelled in the Battle of Delft.After the Act of Abjuration was proclaimed in 1581, Delft became the ''de facto'' capital of the newly independent Netherlands, as the seat of the Prince of Orange.When William was shot dead on 10 July 1584 by Balthazar Gerards in the hall of the Prinsenhof (now the Prinsenhof Museum), the family's traditional burial place in Breda was still in the hands of the Spanish.", "Therefore, he was buried in the Delft Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day.Around this time, Delft also occupied a prominent position in the field of printing.A number of Italian glazed earthenware makers settled in the city and introduced a new style.", "The tapestry industry also flourished when famous manufacturer François Spierincx moved to the city.", "In the 17th century, Delft experienced a new heyday, thanks to the presence of an office of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) (opened in 1602) and the manufacture of Delft Blue china.A number of notable artists based themselves in the city, including Leonard Bramer, Carel Fabritius, Pieter de Hoogh, Gerard Houckgeest, Emanuel de Witte, Jan Steen, and Johannes Vermeer.Reinier de Graaf and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek received international attention for their scientific research.===Explosion===Egbert van der Poel: ''A View of Delft after the Explosion of 1654''The \"new\" gunpowder store \"Kruithuis\", built in 1660 on the water of the Delftse Schie for public safety, today in use as a clubhouseThe Delft Explosion, also known in history as the Delft Thunderclap, occurred on 12 October 1654 when a gunpowder store exploded, destroying much of the city.", "Over a hundred people were killed and thousands were injured.About of gunpowder were stored in barrels in a magazine in a former Clarist convent in the Doelenkwartier district, where the Paardenmarkt is now located.", "Cornelis Soetens, the keeper of the magazine, opened the store to check a sample of the powder and a huge explosion followed.", "Luckily, many citizens were away, visiting a market in Schiedam or a fair in The Hague.Today, the explosion is primarily remembered for killing Rembrandt's most promising pupil, Carel Fabritius, and destroying almost all of his works.Delft artist Egbert van der Poel painted several pictures of Delft showing the devastation.The gunpowder store (Dutch: Kruithuis) was subsequently re-housed, a 'cannonball's distance away', outside the city, in a new building designed by architect Pieter Post." ], [ "Sights", "''View of Delft'' by Johannes Vermeer, 1660–1661''View of the horse market in Delft'' by Pieter Wouwerman, 1665The city centre retains a large number of monumental buildings, while in many streets there are canals of which the banks are connected by typical bridges, altogether making this city a notable tourist destination.Historical buildings and other sights of interest include:Oude Kerk (Old Church), constructed between 1246 and 1350.Buried here: Piet Hein, Johannes Vermeer, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.", "Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), constructed between 1381 and 1496.It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault which, between funerals, is sealed with a cover stone.", "A statue of Hugo Grotius created by in 1886, located on the Markt near the Nieuwe Kerk.", "The Prinsenhof (Princes' Court), now a museum.", "City Hall on the Markt.", "The Oostpoort (Eastern gate), built around 1400.This is the only remaining gate of the old city walls.", "The Gemeenlandshuis Delfland, or Huyterhuis, built in 1505, which has housed the Delfland regional water authority since 1645.", "The Vermeer Centre in the re-built Guild house of St.", "Luke.", "The historical \"Waag\" building (Weigh house).", "Windmill De Roos, a tower mill built .", "Restored to working order in 2013.Another windmill that formerly stood in Delft, Het Fortuyn, was dismantled in 1917 and re-erected at the Netherlands Open Air Museum, Arnhem, Gelderland in 1920.", "Royal Delft also known as De Porceleyne Fles, is a great place which showcases Delft ware.", "Science Center attracts kids as well as adults.File:Delft stadhuis.jpg\|Delft City HallFile:Delft poorte.jpg\|Eastern Gate (''Oostpoort'')File:Delft Oude Kerk 002.jpg\|The Old Church towerFile:Oude Langendijk Delft.jpg\|Oude Langendijk" ], [ "Culture", "Delft blue is most famous but there are other kinds of Delftware, like this plate faience in roseDelft is well known for the Delft pottery ceramic products which were styled on the imported Chinese porcelain of the 17th century.", "The city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the Dutch East India Company.", "It can still be seen at the pottery factories De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles (or Royal Delft) and De Delftse Pauw, while new ceramics and ceramic art can be found at the Gallery Terra Delft.The painter Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675) was born in Delft.", "Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background in his paintings.Several other famous painters lived and worked in Delft at that time, such as Pieter de Hoogh, Carel Fabritius, Nicolaes Maes, Gerard Houckgeest and Hendrick Cornelisz.", "van Vliet.", "They were all members of the Delft School.", "The Delft School is known for its images of domestic life and views of households, church interiors, courtyards, squares and the streets of Delft.", "The painters also produced pictures showing historic events, flowers, portraits for patrons and the court as well as decorative pieces of art.Delft supports creative arts' companies.", "From 2001 the , a building that had been disused since 1951, began to house small companies in the creative arts sector.", "Its demolition started in December 2009, making way for the new railway tunnel in Delft.", "The occupants of the building, as well as the name 'Bacinol', moved to another building in the city.", "The name Bacinol relates to Dutch penicillin research during WWII." ], [ "Education", "TU Delft buildingsDelft University of Technology (TU Delft) is one of four universities of technology in the Netherlands.", "It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in 1842 by King William II.", "Today, well over 21,000 students are enrolled.The UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, providing postgraduate education for people from developing countries, draws on the strong tradition in water management and hydraulic engineering of the Delft university.The Hague University of Applied Sciences has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus.", "It opened in 2009 and offers several bachelor degrees for the Faculty of Technology, Innovation & Society.Inholland University of Applied Sciences also has a building on the Delft University of Technology campus.", "Several bachelor degrees for the Agri, Food & Life Sciences faculty and the Engineering, Design and Computing faculty are being taught at the Delft campus." ], [ "Economy", "In the local economic field, essential elements are:education; (amongst others Delft University of Technology) ( 21.651 students and 4.939 full-time employees),scientific research; (amongst others \"TNO\" Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research), Stichting Deltares, Nederlands Normalisatie-Instituut, UNESCO-IHE Institute for water education, Technopolis Innovation Park;tourism; (about one million registered visitors a year),industry; (DSM Gist Services BV, (Delftware) earthenware production by De Koninklijke Porceleyne Fles, Exact Software Nederland BV, TOPdesk, Ampelmann)retail; (IKEA (Inter IKEA Systems B.V., owner and worldwide franchisor of the IKEA Concept, is based in Delft), Makro, Eneco Energy NV)." ], [ "Nature and recreation", "The ''Plantagegeer'', one of Delft's several smaller city parksEast of Delft lies a relatively large nature and recreation area called the \"Delftse Hout\" (\"Delft Wood\").", "Through the forest lie bike, horse-riding and footpaths.", "It also includes a vast lake (suitable for swimming and windsurfing), narrow beaches, a restaurant, and community gardens, plus camping ground and other recreational and sports facilities.", "(There is also a facility for renting bikes from the station.", ")Inside the city, apart from a central park, there are several smaller town parks, including \"Nieuwe Plantage\", \"Agnetapark\", \"Kalverbos\".There is also the Botanical Garden of the TU and an arboretum in Delftse Hout." ], [ "Notable people", "Self portrait of Jacob Willemsz Delff and his family, ca.", "1590Jan Vermeer van Delft, 1656portrait of Hugo Grotius, 1631Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, ca.", "1635Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek, ca.", "1680Martinus Beijerinck, 1931Betsy PerkStien Kaiser, 1968Ria Stalman, 1982Delft is the birthplace of:=== Dutch Golden Age ===Jacob Willemsz Delff the Elder, (ca.", "1550–1601), portrait painterMichiel Jansz.", "van Mierevelt (1567–1641), painterWillem van der Vliet (c. 1584–1642), painterAdriaen van de Venne (1589–1662), painterAdriaen Cornelisz van Linschoten (1590–1677), painterDaniël Mijtens (ca.", "1590–1647/48), portrait painterLeonaert Bramer (1596–1674), painter of genre, religious, and history paintingsPieter Jansz van Asch (1603–ca.", "1678), painterEvert van Aelst (1602–1657), still life painterHendrick Cornelisz.", "van Vliet (ca.", "1611–1675), painter of church interiorsHarmen Steenwijck (ca.", "1612–ca.", "1656), painter of still lifes and fruitJacob Willemsz Delff the Younger (1619–1661), portrait painterDavid Beck (1621–1656), portrait painterEgbert van der Poel (1621–1664), genre and landscape painterDaniel Vosmaer (1622–1666), painterWillem van Aelst (1627–1683), artist of still-lifesHendrick van der Burgh (1627–after 1664), genre painterJohannes Vermeer (1632–1675), painter of domestic interior scenesAry de Milde (1634–1708), ceramist=== Public thinking and service ===Christian van Adrichem (1533—1585), Catholic priest and theological writerJan Joosten van Lodensteijn (1556–1623), one of the first Dutchmen in JapanHugo Grotius (1583–1645), humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian and jurist who laid the foundations for international lawFrederick Henry, Prince of Orange (1584–1647), sovereign prince of Orange and stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Guelders & Overijssel from 1625 to 1647Philippus Baldaeus (1632–1671), minister in JaffnaDiederik Durven (1676–1740), Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1729 to 1732Abraham van der Weijden (1743–1773), ship's captain, initiated of Freemasonry in South AfricaGerrit Paape (1752–1803), painter of earthenware and stoneware, poet, journalist, novelist, judge, columnist and finally a ministerial civil servantAegidius van Braam (1758–1822), naval vice-admiralAgneta Matthes (1847–1909), entrepreneur, manufactured yeast using the cooperative movement and housed workers at AgnetaparkHenk Zeevalking (1922–2005), politician and juristPiet Bukman (born 1934), politician and diplomatKlaas de Vries (born 1943), politician and juristAtzo Nicolaï (born 1960), politicianMarja van Bijsterveldt (born 1961), politician, Mayor of Delft since 2016Alexander Pechtold (born 1965), politician and art historian=== Science and business ===Adolphus Vorstius (1597–1663), physician and botanistMartin van den Hove (1605–1639), astronomer and mathematicianAntonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), father of microbiology and developer of the microscopeNicolaas Kruik (1678–1754), land surveyor, cartographer, astronomer, weatherman and eponym of the Museum De CruquiusMartin van Marum (1750–1837), physician, inventor, scientist and teacherJacob Gijsbertus Samuël van Breda (1788–1867), biologist and geologistPhilippe-Charles Schmerling (1791–1836), prehistorian, geologist and pioneer in paleontologyMartinus Beijerinck (1851–1931), microbiologist, discovered viruses, lived and worked in DelftGuillaume Daniel Delprat CBE (1856–1937), metallurgist, mining engineer and businessmanFrederik H. Kreuger (1928–2015), high-voltage scientist, academic and inventorMarjo van der Knaap (born 1958), professor of pediatric neurology, white matter researcherAntoni Folkers (born 1960), architect, humanistPeter Schrijver (born 1963), historical linguistIonica Smeets (born 1979), mathematician, science journalist, TV presenter and academicBoyan Slat (born 1994), inventor and entrepreneur, CEO of The Ocean Cleanup=== Art ===Suzanne Manet (1829–1906), pianist, wife and model of painter Édouard ManetBetsy Perk (1833–1906), author of novels and plays, pioneer of the Dutch women's movementTon Lutz (1919–2009) and Pieter Lutz (1927–2009), brothers and actorsBram Bogart (1921–2012), expressionist painter of the COBRA groupCor Dam (born 1935), sculptor, painter, illustrator and ceramistKader Abdolah (born 1954), poet and columnistMichèle Van de Roer (born 1956), artist, designer, photographer and engraverMariska Hulscher (born 1964), TV presenterEmma Kirchner (1830 - 1909), first woman photographer in Delft areaWessel van Diepen (born 1966), radio host, music producer and former TV presenterRob Das (born 1969), film and TV actor, director and writerJan-Willem van Ewijk (born 1970), film director, actor and screenwriterRicky Koole (born 1972) a Dutch singer and film actressVincent de Moor (born 1973), trance musician and remixerRoel van Velzen (born 1978), singerMarly van der Velden (born 1988), actress and fashion designerRose Schmits (born c. 1988), potter and trans activist=== Sport ===Jan Thomée (1886–1954), footballer, team bronze medallist at the 1908 Summer OlympicsHenri van Schaik (1899–1991), horse rider, team silver medallist in the 1936 Summer OlympicsTinus Osendarp (1916–2002), sprint runner, twice bronze medallist at the 1936 Summer OlympicsStien Kaiser (born 1938), speed skater, twice bronze medallist at the 1968 Winter Olympics and gold and silver medallist in the 1972 Winter OlympicsPieter van der Kruk (born 1941), heavyweight weightlifter and shot putter, competed at the 1968 Summer OlympicsJan Timman (born 1951), chess grandmaster, raised in DelftRia Stalman (born 1951), discus thrower and shot putter, gold medallist in the discus at the 1984 Summer OlympicsFrank Leistra (born 1960), field hockey goalkeeper, team bronze medallist at the 1988 Summer OlympicsKen Monkou (born 1964), football player with 356 club capsEeke van Nes (born 1969), rower, team bronze medallist at the 1996 Summer Olympics and team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer OlympicsThamar Henneken (born 1979), freestyle swimmer, team silver medallist at the 2000 Summer OlympicsArd van Peppen (born 1985), footballer with over 350 club capsSytske de Groot (born 1986), rower, team bronze medallist at the 2012 Summer OlympicsAaron Meijers (born 1987), footballer with almost 400 club capsMichaëlla Krajicek (born 1989), tennis playerArantxa Rus (born 1990), tennis playerKelly Vollebregt (born 1995), handball playerVictoria Pelova (born 1999), football playerTijmen van der Helm (born 2004), racing driver" ], [ "Miscellaneous", "One of the 8 different Nuna carsNuna is a series of crewed solar-powered vehicles, built by students at the Delft University of Technology, that won the World solar challenge in Australia seven times in the last nine competitions (in 2001, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2013, 2015 and 2017).", "The so-called \"Superbus\" project aims to develop high-speed coaches capable of speeds of up to together with the supporting infrastructure including special highway lanes constructed separately next to the nation's highways; this project was led by Dutch astronaut professor Wubbo Ockels of the Delft University of Technology.", "Members of both Delft Student Rowing Clubs Proteus-Eretes and Laga have won many international trophies, including Olympic medals, in the past.", "Formula Student Team Delft is a student racing team that has won the Formula Student competition format in Germany three times in a row, their workplace is located along the shie.", "The Human Power Team Delft & Amsterdam, a team consisting mainly of students from the Delft University of Technology, has won The World Human Powered Speed Challenge (WHPSC) four times.", "This is an international contest for recumbents in the US state of Nevada, the aim of which is to break speed records.", "They set the world record of 133.78 kilometres an hour (83.13 mph) in 2013." ], [ "International relations", "===Twin towns ===Delft is twinned with:* Aarau, Switzerland* Adapazarı, Turkey* Castrop-Rauxel, Germany* Estelí, Nicaragua* Freiberg, Germany* Jingdezhen, China* Kingston upon Thames, United Kingdom* Pretoria, South Africa* Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina" ], [ "Transport", "Delft railway station; (As of February 2015, located in a new building.", ")Delft Campus railway stationTrains stopping at these stations connect Delft with, among others, the nearby cities of Rotterdam and The Hague, as often as every five minutes, for most of the day.There are several bus routes from Delft to similar destinations.", "Trams frequently travel between Delft and The Hague via special double tracks crossing the city.The whole city center and adjacent areas are a paid on-street parking area.", "In 2018, with the day parking fee of 29.5 Euro, it was the most expensive on-street parking area in the Netherlands, with the city centers of Deventer and Dordrecht being second and third, respectively." ], [ "See also", "DelftwareDelft School (Dutch Golden Age painting)Dutch Golden AgeList of films set in DelftRandstadRailTanthofBicycle-friendly" ], [ "Gallery", " Delft city view \"Gemeenlandshuis\" Nieuwe Kerk (New Church) Legermuseum (Army museum) Central Market Square City sight (\"Vrouw Juttenland\") Huybrechtstower \"Koornbeurs\" Observatory Former station building New station building \"Delftse Schie\" at sundown thumb thumb thumbthumb" ], [ "Notes", "===References===" ], [ "Further reading", "*Vermeer: A View of Delft, Anthony Bailey, Henry Holt & Company, 2001," ], [ "External links", " Municipal Website of DelftRadio Netherlands: The day the world came to an endNational Gallery, London: A View of Delft after the Explosion of 1654* TU Delft Develop Ambulance Drone" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Duesberg hypothesis" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Duesberg hypothesis''' is the claim that AIDS is not caused by HIV, but instead that AIDS is caused by noninfectious factors such as recreational and pharmaceutical drug use and that HIV is merely a harmless passenger virus.", "The hypothesis was popularized by Peter Duesberg, a professor of biology at University of California, Berkeley, from whom the hypothesis gets its name.", "The scientific consensus is that the Duesberg hypothesis is incorrect and that HIV is the cause of AIDS.", "The most prominent supporters of the hypothesis are Duesberg himself, biochemist and vitamin proponent David Rasnick, and journalist Celia Farber.", "The scientific community generally contends that Duesberg's arguments in favor of the hypothesis are the result of cherry-picking predominantly outdated scientific data and selectively ignoring evidence that demonstrates HIV's role in causing AIDS." ], [ "Role of legal and illegal drug use", "Duesberg argues that there is a statistical correlation between trends in recreational drug use and trends in AIDS cases.", "He argues that the epidemic of AIDS cases in the 1980s corresponds to a supposed epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe during the same time frame.These claims are not supported by epidemiologic data.", "The average yearly increase in opioid-related deaths from 1990 to 2002 was nearly three times the yearly increase from 1979 to 1990, with the greatest increase in 2000–2002, yet AIDS cases and deaths fell dramatically during the mid-to-late-1990s.", "Duesberg's claim that recreational drug use, rather than HIV, was the cause of AIDS has been specifically examined and found to be false.", "Cohort studies have found that only HIV-positive drug users develop opportunistic infections; HIV-negative drug users do not develop such infections, indicating that HIV rather than drug use is the cause of AIDS.Duesberg has also argued that nitrite inhalants were the cause of the epidemic of Kaposi sarcoma (KS) in gay men.", "However, this argument has been described as an example of the fallacy of a statistical confounding effect; it is now known that a herpesvirus, potentiated by HIV, is responsible for AIDS-associated KS.Moreover, in addition to recreational drugs, Duesberg argues that anti-HIV drugs such as zidovudine (AZT) can cause AIDS.", "Duesberg's claim that antiviral medication causes AIDS is regarded as disproven within the scientific community.", "Placebo-controlled studies have found that AZT as a single agent produces modest and short-lived improvements in survival and delays the development of opportunistic infections; it certainly did not cause AIDS, which develops in both treated and untreated study patients.", "With the subsequent development of protease inhibitors and highly active antiretroviral therapy, numerous studies have documented the fact that anti-HIV drugs prevent the development of AIDS and substantially prolong survival, further disproving the claim that these drugs \"cause\" AIDS.===Scientific study and rejection of Duesberg's risk-AIDS hypothesis===Several studies have specifically addressed Duesberg's claim that recreational drug abuse or sexual promiscuity were responsible for the manifestations of AIDS.", "An early study of his claims, published in ''Nature'' in 1993, found Duesberg's drug abuse-AIDS hypothesis to have \"no basis in fact.", "\"A large prospective study followed a group of 715 homosexual men in the Vancouver, Canada, area; approximately half were HIV-seropositive or became so during the follow-up period, and the remainder were HIV-seronegative.", "After more than eight years of follow-up, despite similar rates of drug use, sexual contact, and other supposed risk factors in both groups, only the HIV-positive group suffered from opportunistic infections.", "Similarly, CD4 counts dropped in the patients who were HIV-infected, but remained stable in the HIV-negative patients, despite similar rates of risk behavior.", "The authors concluded that \"the risk-AIDS hypothesis ... is clearly rejected by our data,\" and that \"the evidence supports the hypothesis that HIV-1 has an integral role in the CD4 depletion and progressive immune dysfunction that characterise AIDS.", "\"Similarly, the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) and the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)—which between them observed more than 8,000 Americans—demonstrated that \"the presence of HIV infection is the only factor that is strongly and consistently associated with the conditions that define AIDS.\"", "A 2008 study found that recreational drug use (including cannabis, cocaine, poppers, and amphetamines) had no effect on CD4 or CD8 T-cell counts, providing further evidence against a role of recreational drugs as a cause of AIDS." ], [ "Current AIDS definitions", "Duesberg argued in 1989 that a significant number of AIDS victims had died without proof of HIV infection.", "However, with the use of modern culture techniques and polymerase chain reaction testing, HIV can be demonstrated in virtually all patients with AIDS.", "Since AIDS is now defined partially by the presence of HIV, Duesberg claims it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS does not require HIV.", "However, the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause and the first AIDS diagnoses were made before HIV was discovered.", "The addition of HIV positivity to surveillance criteria as an absolutely necessary condition for case reporting occurred only in 1993, after a scientific consensus was established that HIV caused AIDS." ], [ "AIDS in Africa", "According to the Duesberg hypothesis, AIDS is not found in Africa.", "What Duesberg calls \"the myth of an African AIDS epidemic,\" among people\" exists for several reasons, including:The need, according to Duesberg, of the CDC, the WHO, and other health organizations to justify their existences, resulting in their \"manufacturing contagious plagues out of noninfectious medical conditions.", "\"Media sensationalism, with stories that \"helped shape the Western impression of an AIDS problem out of control,\" resulting in high levels of funding.", "Willing participation in deception by local doctors who wish to take advantage of this aid money: \"African doctors themselves participate in building the myth of the AIDS pandemic.", "\"Confusion or incompetence on the part of African doctors: \"Many common Third World diseases are confused with AIDS even if they are not part of its official definition.", "\"Duesberg states that African AIDS cases are \"a collection of long-established, indigenous diseases, such as chronic fevers, weight loss, alias \"slim disease,\" diarrhea, and tuberculosis\" that result from malnutrition and poor sanitation.", "African AIDS cases, though, have increased in the last three decades as HIV's prevalence has increased but as malnutrition percentages and poor sanitation have declined in many African regions.", "In addition, while HIV and AIDS are more prevalent in urban than in rural settings in Africa, malnutrition and poor sanitation are found more commonly in rural than in urban settings.According to Duesberg, common diseases are easily misdiagnosed as AIDS in Africa because \"the diagnosis of African AIDS is arbitrary\" and does not include HIV testing.", "A definition of AIDS agreed upon in 1985 by the World Health Organization in Bangui did not require a positive HIV test, but since 1985, many African countries have added positive HIV tests to the Bangui criteria for AIDS or changed their definitions to match those of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control.", "One of the reasons for using more HIV tests despite their expense is that, rather than overestimating AIDS as Duesberg suggests, the Bangui definition alone excluded nearly half of African AIDS patients.", "\"Duesberg notes that diseases associated with AIDS differ between African and Western populations, concluding that the causes of immunodeficiency must be different.", "Tuberculosis is much more commonly diagnosed among AIDS patients in Africa than in Western countries, while PCP conforms to the opposite pattern.", "Tuberculosis, though, had higher prevalence in Africa than in the West before the spread of HIV.", "In Africa and the United States, HIV has spurred a similar percentage increase in tuberculosis cases.", "PCP may be underestimated in Africa: since machinery \"required for accurate testing is relatively rare in many resource-poor areas, including large parts of Africa, PCP is likely to be underdiagnosed in Africa.", "Consistent with this hypothesis, studies that report the highest rates of PCP in Africa are those that use the most advanced diagnostic methods\" Duesberg also claims that Kaposi's sarcoma is \"exclusively diagnosed in male homosexual risk groups using nitrite inhalants and other psychoactive drugs as aphrodisiacs\", but the cancer is fairly common among heterosexuals in some parts of Africa, and is found in heterosexuals in the United States as well.Because reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world include a larger proportion of people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, Duesberg writes on his website that \"There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals.\"", "However, many studies have addressed the issue of risk groups in Africa and concluded that the risk of AIDS is not equally distributed.", "In addition, AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.South African president Thabo Mbeki accepted Duesberg's hypothesis and, through the mid-2000s, rejected offers of medical assistance to fight HIV infection, a policy of inaction that cost over 300,000 lives." ], [ "Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive", "Duesberg argues that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive: they do not kill cells and they do not cause cancer, he maintains.", "Duesberg writes, \"retroviruses do not kill cells because they depend on viable cells for the replication of their RNA from viral DNA integrated into cellular DNA.\"", "Duesberg elsewhere states that \"the typical virus reproduces by entering a living cell and commandeering the cell's resources in order to make new virus particles, a process that ends with the disintegration of the dead cell.", "\"Duesberg also rejects the involvement of retroviruses and other viruses in cancer.", "To him, virus-associated cancers are \"freak accidents of nature\" that do not warrant research programs such as the war on cancer.", "Duesberg rejects a role in cancer for numerous viruses, including leukemia viruses, Epstein–Barr virus, human papilloma virus, hepatitis B, feline leukemia virus, and human T-lymphotropic virus.Duesberg claims that the supposedly innocuous nature of all retroviruses is supported by what he considers to be their normal mode of proliferation: infection from mother to child ''in utero''.", "Duesberg does not suggest that HIV is an endogenous retrovirus, a virus integrated into the germline and genetically heritable:" ], [ "Scientific response to the Duesberg hypothesis", "The consensus in the scientific community is that the Duesberg hypothesis has been refuted by a large and growing mass of evidence showing that HIV causes AIDS, that the amount of virus in the blood correlates with disease progression, that a plausible mechanism for HIV's action has been proposed, and that anti-HIV medication decreases mortality and opportunistic infection in people with AIDS.In issue of ''Science'' (Vol.", "266, No.", "5191), Duesberg's methods and claims were evaluated in a group of articles.", "The authors concluded that* It is abundantly evident that HIV causes disease and death in hemophiliacs, a group generally lacking Duesberg's proposed risk factors.", "* HIV fulfills Koch's postulates, which are one set of criteria for demonstrating a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease.", "(Subsequently, additional data further demonstrated the fulfillment of Koch's postulates.", ")* the AIDS epidemic in Thailand cited by Duesberg as confirmation of his hypothesis is in fact evidence of the role of HIV in AIDS.", "* According to researchers who conducted large-scale studies of AZT, the drug does not cause AIDS.", "Furthermore, researchers acknowledged that recreational drugs do cause immune abnormalities, though not the type of immunodeficiency seen in AIDS.===Effectiveness of antiretroviral medication===The vast majority of people with AIDS have never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of AZT (zidovudine) in 1987, and people in developing countries today where very few individuals have access to these medications.The NIAID reports that ===Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDS===Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV-positive people have not yet developed AIDS; HIV/AIDS scientists note that many drug-free HIV-positive people have developed AIDS, and that, in the absence of medical treatment or rare genetic factors postulated to delay disease progression, it is very likely that nearly all HIV-positive people will eventually develop AIDS.", "Scientists also note that HIV-negative drug users do not suffer from immune system collapse." ], [ "See also", "* HIV/AIDS denialism* ''Inventing the AIDS Virus''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Peter Duesberg's website* The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS : from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases* How HIV Causes AIDS: National Institutes of Health fact sheet.", "* Koch's Postulates and the Etiology of AIDS: An Historical Perspective." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dinosaur" ], [ "Introduction", "Birds are avian dinosaurs, and in phylogenetic taxonomy are included in the group Dinosauria.", "'''Dinosaurs''' are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade '''Dinosauria'''.", "They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is a subject of active research.", "They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 mya and their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.", "The fossil record shows that birds are feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 mya.", "Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into '''avian dinosaurs'''—birds—and the extinct '''non-avian dinosaurs''', which are all dinosaurs other than birds.Dinosaurs are varied from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints.", "Birds, at over 11,000 living species, are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates.", "Using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 900 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs.", "Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species (birds) and fossil remains.", "Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized as dinosaurs, most of the scientific community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish and cold-blooded.", "Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction.", "Some were herbivorous, others carnivorous.", "Evidence suggests that all dinosaurs were egg-laying, and that nest-building was a trait shared by many dinosaurs, both avian and non-avian.While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances.", "Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, and some extinct groups developed skeletal modifications such as bony armor and spines.", "While the dinosaurs' modern-day surviving avian lineage (birds) are generally small due to the constraints of flight, many prehistoric dinosaurs (non-avian and avian) were large-bodied—the largest sauropod dinosaurs are estimated to have reached lengths of and heights of and were the largest land animals of all time.", "The misconception that non-avian dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is based in part on preservation bias, as large, sturdy bones are more likely to last until they are fossilized.", "Many dinosaurs were quite small, some measuring about in length.The first dinosaur fossils were recognized in the early 19th century, with the name \"dinosaur\" (meaning \"terrible lizard\") being coined by Sir Richard Owen in 1842 to refer to these \"great fossil lizards\".", "Since then, mounted fossil dinosaur skeletons have been major attractions at museums worldwide, and dinosaurs have become an enduring part of popular culture.", "The large sizes of some dinosaurs, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured their regular appearance in best-selling books and films, such as ''Jurassic Park''.", "Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, and new discoveries are regularly covered by the media." ], [ "Definition", "Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of ''Triceratops'' and modern birds (Neornithes), and all its descendants.", "It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined with respect to the MRCA of ''Megalosaurus'' and ''Iguanodon'', because these were two of the three genera cited by Richard Owen when he recognized the Dinosauria.", "Both definitions cover the same known genera: Dinosauria = Ornithischia + Saurischia.", "This includes major groups such as ankylosaurians (armored herbivorous quadrupeds), stegosaurians (plated herbivorous quadrupeds), ceratopsians (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores with neck frills), pachycephalosaurians (bipedal herbivores with thick skulls), ornithopods (bipedal or quadrupedal herbivores including \"duck-bills\"), theropods (mostly bipedal carnivores and birds), and sauropodomorphs (mostly large herbivorous quadrupeds with long necks and tails).Birds are the sole surviving dinosaurs.", "In traditional taxonomy, birds were considered a separate class that had evolved from dinosaurs, a distinct superorder.", "However, most contemporary paleontologists reject the traditional style of classification based on anatomical similarity, in favor of phylogenetic taxonomy based on deduced ancestry, in which each group is defined as all descendants of a given founding genus.", "Birds belong to the dinosaur subgroup Maniraptora, which are coelurosaurs, which are theropods, which are saurischians.Research by Matthew G. Baron, David B. Norman, and Paul M. Barrett in 2017 suggested a radical revision of dinosaurian systematics.", "Phylogenetic analysis by Baron ''et al.''", "recovered the Ornithischia as being closer to the Theropoda than the Sauropodomorpha, as opposed to the traditional union of theropods with sauropodomorphs.", "This would cause sauropods and kin to fall outside traditional dinosaurs, so they re-defined Dinosauria as the last common ancestor of ''Triceratops horridus'', ''Passer domesticus'' and ''Diplodocus carnegii'', and all of its descendants, to ensure that sauropods and kin remain included as dinosaurs.", "They also resurrected the clade Ornithoscelida to refer to the group containing Ornithischia and Theropoda.===General description===''Triceratops'' skeleton, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles CountyUsing one of the above definitions, dinosaurs can be generally described as archosaurs with hind limbs held erect beneath the body.", "Other prehistoric animals, including pterosaurs, mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and ''Dimetrodon'', while often popularly conceived of as dinosaurs, are not taxonomically classified as dinosaurs.", "Pterosaurs are distantly related to dinosaurs, being members of the clade Ornithodira.", "The other groups mentioned are, like dinosaurs and pterosaurs, members of Sauropsida (the reptile and bird clade), except ''Dimetrodon'' (which is a synapsid).", "None of them had the erect hind limb posture characteristic of true dinosaurs.Dinosaurs were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates of the Mesozoic Era, especially the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.", "Other groups of animals were restricted in size and niches; mammals, for example, rarely exceeded the size of a domestic cat, and were generally rodent-sized carnivores of small prey.", "Dinosaurs have always been recognized as an extremely varied group: over 900 non-avian dinosaur genera have been confidently identified (2018) with 1124 species (2016).", "Estimates put the total number of dinosaur genera preserved in the fossil record at 1850, nearly 75% still undiscovered, and the number that ever existed (in or out of the fossil record) at 3,400.A 2016 estimate put the number of dinosaur species living in the Mesozoic at 1,543–2,468, compared to the number of modern-day birds (avian dinosaurs) at 10,806 species.", "Extinct dinosaurs, as well as modern birds, include genera which are herbivorous and others carnivorous, including seed-eaters, fish-eaters, insectivores, and omnivores.", "While dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal (as are all modern birds), some evolved into quadrupeds, and others, such as ''Anchisaurus'' and ''Iguanodon'', could walk as easily on two or four legs.", "Cranial modifications like horns and crests are common dinosaurian traits, and some extinct species had bony armor.", "Although the best-known genera are remarkable for their large size, many Mesozoic dinosaurs were human-sized or smaller, and modern birds are generally small in size.", "Dinosaurs today inhabit every continent, and fossils show that they had achieved global distribution by the Early Jurassic epoch at latest.", "Modern birds inhabit most available habitats, from terrestrial to marine, and there is evidence that some non-avian dinosaurs (such as ''Microraptor'') could fly or at least glide, and others, such as spinosaurids, had semiaquatic habits.===Distinguishing anatomical features===While recent discoveries have made it more difficult to present a universally agreed-upon list of their distinguishing features, nearly all dinosaurs discovered so far share certain modifications to the ancestral archosaurian skeleton, or are clearly descendants of older dinosaurs showing these modifications.", "Although some later groups of dinosaurs featured further modified versions of these traits, they are considered typical for Dinosauria; the earliest dinosaurs had them and passed them on to their descendants.", "Such modifications, originating in the most recent common ancestor of a certain taxonomic group, are called the synapomorphies of such a group.Labeled diagram of a typical archosaur skull, the skull of ''Dromaeosaurus''A detailed assessment of archosaur interrelations by Sterling Nesbitt confirmed or found the following twelve unambiguous synapomorphies, some previously known:* In the skull, a supratemporal fossa (excavation) is present in front of the supratemporal fenestra, the main opening in the rear skull roof* Epipophyses, obliquely backward-pointing processes on the rear top corners of the anterior (front) neck vertebrae behind the atlas and axis, the first two neck vertebrae* Apex of a deltopectoral crest (a projection on which the deltopectoral muscles attach) located at or more than 30% down the length of the humerus (upper arm bone)* Radius, a lower arm bone, shorter than 80% of humerus length* Fourth trochanter (projection where the caudofemoralis muscle attaches on the inner rear shaft) on the femur (thigh bone) is a sharp flange* Fourth trochanter asymmetrical, with distal, lower, margin forming a steeper angle to the shaft* On the astragalus and calcaneum, upper ankle bones, the proximal articular facet, the top connecting surface, for the fibula occupies less than 30% of the transverse width of the element* Exoccipitals (bones at the back of the skull) do not meet along the midline on the floor of the endocranial cavity, the inner space of the braincase* In the pelvis, the proximal articular surfaces of the ischium with the ilium and the pubis are separated by a large concave surface (on the upper side of the ischium a part of the open hip joint is located between the contacts with the pubic bone and the ilium)* Cnemial crest on the tibia (protruding part of the top surface of the shinbone) arcs anterolaterally (curves to the front and the outer side)* Distinct proximodistally oriented (vertical) ridge present on the posterior face of the distal end of the tibia (the rear surface of the lower end of the shinbone)* Concave articular surface for the fibula of the calcaneum (the top surface of the calcaneum, where it touches the fibula, has a hollow profile)Nesbitt found a number of further potential synapomorphies and discounted a number of synapomorphies previously suggested.", "Some of these are also present in silesaurids, which Nesbitt recovered as a sister group to Dinosauria, including a large anterior trochanter, metatarsals II and IV of subequal length, reduced contact between ischium and pubis, the presence of a cnemial crest on the tibia and of an ascending process on the astragalus, and many others.Hip joints and hindlimb postures of: (left to right) typical reptiles (sprawling), dinosaurs and mammals (erect), and rauisuchians (pillar-erect)A variety of other skeletal features are shared by dinosaurs.", "However, because they either are common to other groups of archosaurs or were not present in all early dinosaurs, these features are not considered to be synapomorphies.", "For example, as diapsids, dinosaurs ancestrally had two pairs of Infratemporal fenestrae (openings in the skull behind the eyes), and as members of the diapsid group Archosauria, had additional openings in the snout and lower jaw.", "Additionally, several characteristics once thought to be synapomorphies are now known to have appeared before dinosaurs, or were absent in the earliest dinosaurs and independently evolved by different dinosaur groups.", "These include an elongated scapula, or shoulder blade; a sacrum composed of three or more fused vertebrae (three are found in some other archosaurs, but only two are found in ''Herrerasaurus''); and a perforate acetabulum, or hip socket, with a hole at the center of its inside surface (closed in ''Saturnalia tupiniquim'', for example).", "Another difficulty of determining distinctly dinosaurian features is that early dinosaurs and other archosaurs from the Late Triassic epoch are often poorly known and were similar in many ways; these animals have sometimes been misidentified in the literature.Dinosaurs stand with their hind limbs erect in a manner similar to most modern mammals, but distinct from most other reptiles, whose limbs sprawl out to either side.", "This posture is due to the development of a laterally facing recess in the pelvis (usually an open socket) and a corresponding inwardly facing distinct head on the femur.", "Their erect posture enabled early dinosaurs to breathe easily while moving, which likely permitted stamina and activity levels that surpassed those of \"sprawling\" reptiles.", "Erect limbs probably also helped support the evolution of large size by reducing bending stresses on limbs.", "Some non-dinosaurian archosaurs, including rauisuchians, also had erect limbs but achieved this by a \"pillar-erect\" configuration of the hip joint, where instead of having a projection from the femur insert on a socket on the hip, the upper pelvic bone was rotated to form an overhanging shelf." ], [ "History of study", "===Pre-scientific history===Dinosaur fossils have been known for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized.", "The Chinese considered them to be dragon bones and documented them as such.", "For example, ''Huayang Guo Zhi'' (), a gazetteer compiled by Chang Qu () during the Western Jin Dynasty (265–316), reported the discovery of dragon bones at Wucheng in Sichuan Province.", "Villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized \"dragon bones\" for use in traditional medicines.", "In Europe, dinosaur fossils were generally believed to be the remains of giants and other biblical creatures.===Early dinosaur research===William BucklandScholarly descriptions of what would now be recognized as dinosaur bones first appeared in the late 17th century in England.", "Part of a bone, now known to have been the femur of a ''Megalosaurus'', was recovered from a limestone quarry at Cornwell near Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, in 1676.The fragment was sent to Robert Plot, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and first curator of the Ashmolean Museum, who published a description in his ''The Natural History of Oxford-shire'' (1677).", "He correctly identified the bone as the lower extremity of the femur of a large animal, and recognized that it was too large to belong to any known species.", "He, therefore, concluded it to be the femur of a huge human, perhaps a Titan or another type of giant featured in legends.", "Edward Lhuyd, a friend of Sir Isaac Newton, published ''Lithophylacii Britannici ichnographia'' (1699), the first scientific treatment of what would now be recognized as a dinosaur when he described and named a sauropod tooth, \"Rutellum impicatum\", that had been found in Caswell, near Witney, Oxfordshire.Sir Richard Owen's coining of the word ''dinosaur'', in the 1842 revised version of his talk at an 1841 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.Between 1815 and 1824, the Rev William Buckland, the first Reader of Geology at the University of Oxford, collected more fossilized bones of ''Megalosaurus'' and became the first person to describe a non-avian dinosaur in a scientific journal.", "The second non-avian dinosaur genus to be identified, ''Iguanodon'', was according to legend discovered in 1822 by Mary Ann Mantell – the wife of English geologist Gideon Mantell who in fact had required remains years earlier.", "Gideon Mantell recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern iguanas.", "He published his findings in 1825.The study of these \"great fossil lizards\" soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist Sir Richard Owen coined the term \"dinosaur\", using it to refer to the \"distinct tribe or sub-order of Saurian Reptiles\" that were then being recognized in England and around the world.", "The term is derived .", "Though the taxonomic name has often been interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs' teeth, claws, and other fearsome characteristics, Owen intended it also to evoke their size and majesty.", "Owen recognized that the remains that had been found so far, ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'' and ''Hylaeosaurus'', shared distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group.", "As clarified by British geologist and historian Hugh Torrens, Owen had given a presentation about fossil reptiles to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1841, but reports of the time show that Owen did not mention the word \"dinosaur\", nor recognize dinosaurs as a distinct group of reptiles in his address.", "He introduced the Dinosauria only in the revised text version of his talk published in April 1842.With the backing of Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, Owen established the Natural History Museum, London, to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.===Discoveries in North America===In 1858, William Parker Foulke discovered the first known American dinosaur, in marl pits in the small town of Haddonfield, New Jersey.", "(Although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned.)", "The creature was named ''Hadrosaurus foulkii''.", "It was an extremely important find: ''Hadrosaurus'' was one of the first nearly complete dinosaur skeletons found (the first was in 1834, in Maidstone, England), and it was clearly a bipedal creature.", "This was a revolutionary discovery as, until that point, most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet, like other lizards.", "Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of interests in dinosaurs in the United States, known as dinosaur mania.Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between Edward Drinker Cope and Othniel Charles Marsh, both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the Bone Wars.", "This fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt.", "Many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods: for example, their diggers often used dynamite to unearth bones.", "Modern paleontologists would find such methods crude and unacceptable, since blasting easily destroys fossil and stratigraphic evidence.", "Despite their unrefined methods, the contributions of Cope and Marsh to paleontology were vast: Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, a total of 142 new species.", "Cope's collection is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, while Marsh's is at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University.===\"Dinosaur renaissance\" and beyond===John Ostrom's original restoration of ''Deinonychus'', published in 1969World War II caused a pause in palaeontological research; after the war, research attention was also diverted increasingly to fossil mammals rather than dinosaurs, which were seen as sluggish and cold-blooded.", "At the end of the 1960s, however, the field of dinosaur research experienced a surge in activity that remains ongoing.", "Several seminal studies led to this activity.", "First, John Ostrom discovered the bird-like dromaeosaurid theropod ''Deinonychus'' and described it in 1969.Its anatomy indicated that it was an active predator that was likely warm-blooded, in marked contrast to the then-prevailing image of dinosaurs.", "Concurrently, Robert T. Bakker published a series of studies that likewise argued for active lifestyles in dinosaurs based on anatomical and ecological evidence (see ), which were subsequently summarized in his 1986 book ''The Dinosaur Heresies''.Paleontologist Robert T. Bakker with a mounted skeleton of a tyrannosaurid (''Gorgosaurus libratus'')New revelations were supported by an increase in dinosaur discoveries.", "Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexplored regions, including India, South America, Madagascar, Antarctica, and most significantly China.", "Across theropods, sauropodomorphs, and ornithischians, the number of named genera began to increase exponentially in the 1990s.", "over 30 new species of dinosaurs were named each year.", "At least sauropodomorphs experienced a further increase in the number of named species in the 2010s, with an average of 9.3 new species having been named each year between 2009 and 2020.As a consequence, more sauropodomorphs were named between 1990 and 2020 than in all previous years combined.", "These new localities also led to improvements in overall specimen quality, with new species being increasingly named not on scrappy fossils but on more complete skeletons, sometimes from multiple individuals.", "Better specimens also led to new species being invalidated less frequently.", "Asian localities have produced the most complete theropod specimens, while North American localities have produced the most complete sauropodomorph specimens.Prior to the dinosaur renaissance, dinosaurs were mostly classified using the traditional rank-based system of Linnaean taxonomy.", "The renaissance was also accompanied by the increasingly widespread application of cladistics, a more objective method of classification based on ancestry and shared traits, which has proved tremendously useful in the study of dinosaur systematics and evolution.", "Cladistic analysis, among other techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary fossil record.", "Reference books summarizing the state of dinosaur research, such as David B. Weishampel and colleagues' ''The Dinosauria'', made knowledge more accessible and spurred further interest in dinosaur research.", "The release of the first and second editions of ''The Dinosauria'' in 1990 and 2004, and of a review paper by Paul Sereno in 1998, were accompanied by increases in the number of published phylogenetic trees for dinosaurs.===Soft tissue and molecular preservation===An ''Edmontosaurus'' specimen's skin impressions found in 1999Dinosaur fossils are not limited to bones, but also include imprints or mineralized remains of skin coverings, organs, and other tissues.", "Of these, skin coverings based on keratin proteins are most easily preserved because of their cross-linked, hydrophobic molecular structure.", "Fossils of keratin-based skin coverings or bony skin coverings are known from most major groups of dinosaurs.", "Dinosaur fossils with scaly skin impressions have been found since the 19th century.", "Samuel Beckles discovered a sauropod forelimb with preserved skin in 1852 that was incorrectly attributed to a crocodile; it was correctly attributed by Marsh in 1888 and subject to further study by Reginald Hooley in 1917.Among ornithischians, in 1884 Jacob Wortman found skin impressions on the first known specimen of ''Edmontosaurus annectens'', which were largely destroyed during the specimen's excavation.", "Owen and Hooley subsequently described skin impressions of ''Hypsilophodon'' and ''Iguanodon'' in 1885 and 1917.Since then, scale impressions have been most frequently found among hadrosaurids, where the impressions are known from nearly the entire body across multiple specimens.Starting from the 1990s, major discoveries of exceptionally preserved fossils in deposits known as conservation Lagerstätten contributed to research on dinosaur soft tissues.", "Chiefly among these were the rocks that produced the Jehol (Early Cretaceous) and Yanliao (Mid-to-Late Jurassic) biotas of northeastern China, from which hundreds of dinosaur specimens bearing impressions of feather-like structures (both closely related to birds and otherwise, see ) have been described by Xing Xu and colleagues.", "In living reptiles and mammals, pigment-storing cellular structures known as melanosomes are partially responsible for producing colouration.", "Both chemical traces of melanin and characteristically shaped melanosomes have been reported from feathers and scales of Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs, including both theropods and ornithischians.", "This has enabled multiple full-body reconstructions of dinosaur colouration, such as for ''Sinosauropteryx'' and ''Psittacosaurus'' by Jakob Vinther and colleagues, and similar techniques have also been extended to dinosaur fossils from other localities.", "(However, some researchers have also suggested that fossilized melanosomes represent bacterial remains.)", "Stomach contents in some Jehol and Yanliao dinosaurs closely related to birds have also provided indirect indications of diet and digestive system anatomy (e.g., crops).", "More concrete evidence of internal anatomy has been reported in ''Scipionyx'' from the Pietraroja Plattenkalk of Italy.", "It preserves portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe.", "''Scipionyx'' fossil with intestines, Natural History Museum of MilanConcurrently, a line of work led by Mary Higby Schweitzer, Jack Horner, and colleagues reported various occurrences of preserved soft tissues and proteins within dinosaur bone fossils.", "Various mineralized structures that likely represented red blood cells and collagen fibres had been found by Schweitzer and others in tyrannosaurid bones as early as 1991.However, in 2005, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a femur of ''Tyrannosaurus'' preserved soft, flexible tissue within, including blood vessels, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers) that had retained their microscopic structure.", "This discovery suggested that original soft tissues could be preserved over geological time, with multiple mechanisms having been proposed.", "Later, in 2009, Schweitzer and colleagues reported that a ''Brachylophosaurus'' femur preserved similar microstructures, and immunohistochemical techniques (based on antibody binding) demonstrated the presence of proteins such as collagen, elastin, and laminin.", "Both specimens yielded collagen protein sequences that were viable for molecular phylogenetic analyses, which grouped them with birds as would be expected.", "The extraction of fragmentary DNA has also been reported for both of these fossils, along with a specimen of ''Hypacrosaurus''.", "In 2015, Sergio Bertazzo and colleagues reported the preservation of collagen fibres and red blood cells in eight Cretaceous dinosaur specimens that did not show any signs of exceptional preservation, indicating that soft tissue may be preserved more commonly than previously thought.", "Suggestions that these structures represent bacterial biofilms have been rejected, but cross-contamination remains a possibility that is difficult to detect." ], [ "Evolutionary history", "===Origins and early evolution===The early dinosaurs ''Herrerasaurus'' (large), ''Eoraptor'' (small) and a ''Plateosaurus'' skull, from the TriassicDinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors during the Middle to Late Triassic epochs, roughly 20 million years after the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 96% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species approximately 252 million years ago.", "The oldest dinosaur fossils known from substantial remains date to the Carnian epoch of the Triassic period and have been found primarily in the Ischigualasto and Santa Maria Formations of Argentina and Brazil, and the Pebbly Arkose Formation of Zimbabwe.The Ischigualasto Formation (radiometrically dated at 231-230 million years old) has produced the early saurischian ''Eoraptor'', originally considered a member of the Herrerasauridae but now considered to be an early sauropodomorph, along with the herrerasaurids ''Herrerasaurus'' and ''Sanjuansaurus'', and the sauropodomorphs ''Chromogisaurus'', ''Eodromaeus'', and ''Panphagia''.", "''Eoraptor'' likely resemblance to the common ancestor of all dinosaurs suggests that the first dinosaurs would have been small, bipedal predators.", "The Santa Maria Formation (radiometrically dated to be older, at 233.23 million years old) has produced the herrerasaurids ''Gnathovorax'' and ''Staurikosaurus'', along with the sauropodomorphs ''Bagualosaurus'', ''Buriolestes'', ''Guaibasaurus'', ''Macrocollum'', ''Nhandumirim'', ''Pampadromaeus'', ''Saturnalia'', and ''Unaysaurus''.", "The Pebbly Arkose Formation, which is of uncertain age but was likely comparable to the other two, has produced the sauropodomorph ''Mbiresaurus'', along with an unnamed herrerasaurid.Less well-preserved remains of the sauropodomorphs ''Jaklapallisaurus'' and ''Nambalia'', along with the early saurischian ''Alwalkeria'', are known from the Upper Maleri and Lower Maleri Formations of India.", "The Carnian-aged Chañares Formation of Argentina preserves primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as ''Lagosuchus'' and ''Lagerpeton'' in Argentina, making it another important site for understanding dinosaur evolution.", "These ornithodirans support the model of early dinosaurs as small, bipedal predators.", "Dinosaurs may have appeared as early as the Anisian epoch of the Triassic, approximately 243 million years ago, which is the age of ''Nyasasaurus'' from the Manda Formation of Tanzania.", "However, its known fossils are too fragmentary to identify it as a dinosaur or only a close relative.", "The referral of the Manda Formation to the Anisian is also uncertain.", "Regardless, dinosaurs existed alongside non-dinosaurian ornithodirans for a period of time, with estimates ranging from 5–10 million years to 21 million years.When dinosaurs appeared, they were not the dominant terrestrial animals.", "The terrestrial habitats were occupied by various types of archosauromorphs and therapsids, like cynodonts and rhynchosaurs.", "Their main competitors were the pseudosuchians, such as aetosaurs, ornithosuchids and rauisuchians, which were more successful than the dinosaurs.", "Most of these other animals became extinct in the Triassic, in one of two events.", "First, at about 215 million years ago, a variety of basal archosauromorphs, including the protorosaurs, became extinct.", "This was followed by the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (about 201 million years ago), that saw the end of most of the other groups of early archosaurs, like aetosaurs, ornithosuchids, phytosaurs, and rauisuchians.", "Rhynchosaurs and dicynodonts survived (at least in some areas) at least as late as early –mid Norian and late Norian or earliest Rhaetian stages, respectively, and the exact date of their extinction is uncertain.", "These losses left behind a land fauna of crocodylomorphs, dinosaurs, mammals, pterosaurians, and turtles.", "The first few lines of early dinosaurs diversified through the Carnian and Norian stages of the Triassic, possibly by occupying the niches of the groups that became extinct.", "Also notably, there was a heightened rate of extinction during the Carnian pluvial event.===Evolution and paleobiogeography===The supercontinent Pangaea in the early Mesozoic (around 200 million years ago)Dinosaur evolution after the Triassic followed changes in vegetation and the location of continents.", "In the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic, the continents were connected as the single landmass Pangaea, and there was a worldwide dinosaur fauna mostly composed of coelophysoid carnivores and early sauropodomorph herbivores.", "Gymnosperm plants (particularly conifers), a potential food source, radiated in the Late Triassic.", "Early sauropodomorphs did not have sophisticated mechanisms for processing food in the mouth, and so must have employed other means of breaking down food farther along the digestive tract.", "The general homogeneity of dinosaurian faunas continued into the Middle and Late Jurassic, where most localities had predators consisting of ceratosaurians, megalosauroids, and allosauroids, and herbivores consisting of stegosaurian ornithischians and large sauropods.", "Examples of this include the Morrison Formation of North America and Tendaguru Beds of Tanzania.", "Dinosaurs in China show some differences, with specialized metriacanthosaurid theropods and unusual, long-necked sauropods like ''Mamenchisaurus''.", "Ankylosaurians and ornithopods were also becoming more common, but primitive sauropodomorphs had become extinct.", "Conifers and pteridophytes were the most common plants.", "Sauropods, like earlier sauropodomorphs, were not oral processors, but ornithischians were evolving various means of dealing with food in the mouth, including potential cheek-like organs to keep food in the mouth, and jaw motions to grind food.", "Another notable evolutionary event of the Jurassic was the appearance of true birds, descended from maniraptoran coelurosaurians.By the Early Cretaceous and the ongoing breakup of Pangaea, dinosaurs were becoming strongly differentiated by landmass.", "The earliest part of this time saw the spread of ankylosaurians, iguanodontians, and brachiosaurids through Europe, North America, and northern Africa.", "These were later supplemented or replaced in Africa by large spinosaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods, and rebbachisaurid and titanosaurian sauropods, also found in South America.", "In Asia, maniraptoran coelurosaurians like dromaeosaurids, troodontids, and oviraptorosaurians became the common theropods, and ankylosaurids and early ceratopsians like ''Psittacosaurus'' became important herbivores.", "Meanwhile, Australia was home to a fauna of basal ankylosaurians, hypsilophodonts, and iguanodontians.", "The stegosaurians appear to have gone extinct at some point in the late Early Cretaceous or early Late Cretaceous.", "A major change in the Early Cretaceous, which would be amplified in the Late Cretaceous, was the evolution of flowering plants.", "At the same time, several groups of dinosaurian herbivores evolved more sophisticated ways to orally process food.", "Ceratopsians developed a method of slicing with teeth stacked on each other in batteries, and iguanodontians refined a method of grinding with dental batteries, taken to its extreme in hadrosaurids.", "Some sauropods also evolved tooth batteries, best exemplified by the rebbachisaurid ''Nigersaurus''.There were three general dinosaur faunas in the Late Cretaceous.", "In the northern continents of North America and Asia, the major theropods were tyrannosaurids and various types of smaller maniraptoran theropods, with a predominantly ornithischian herbivore assemblage of hadrosaurids, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and pachycephalosaurians.", "In the southern continents that had made up the now-splitting supercontinent Gondwana, abelisaurids were the common theropods, and titanosaurian sauropods the common herbivores.", "Finally, in Europe, dromaeosaurids, rhabdodontid iguanodontians, nodosaurid ankylosaurians, and titanosaurian sauropods were prevalent.", "Flowering plants were greatly radiating, with the first grasses appearing by the end of the Cretaceous.", "Grinding hadrosaurids and shearing ceratopsians became very diverse across North America and Asia.", "Theropods were also radiating as herbivores or omnivores, with therizinosaurians and ornithomimosaurians becoming common.The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous, caused the extinction of all dinosaur groups except for the neornithine birds.", "Some other diapsid groups, including crocodilians, dyrosaurs, sebecosuchians, turtles, lizards, snakes, sphenodontians, and choristoderans, also survived the event.The surviving lineages of neornithine birds, including the ancestors of modern ratites, ducks and chickens, and a variety of waterbirds, diversified rapidly at the beginning of the Paleogene period, entering ecological niches left vacant by the extinction of Mesozoic dinosaur groups such as the arboreal enantiornithines, aquatic hesperornithines, and even the larger terrestrial theropods (in the form of ''Gastornis'', eogruiids, bathornithids, ratites, geranoidids, mihirungs, and \"terror birds\").", "It is often stated that mammals out-competed the neornithines for dominance of most terrestrial niches but many of these groups co-existed with rich mammalian faunas for most of the Cenozoic Era.", "Terror birds and bathornithids occupied carnivorous guilds alongside predatory mammals, and ratites are still fairly successful as mid-sized herbivores; eogruiids similarly lasted from the Eocene to Pliocene, becoming extinct only very recently after over 20 million years of co-existence with many mammal groups." ], [ "Classification", "Dinosaurs belong to a group known as archosaurs, which also includes modern crocodilians.", "Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait.", "Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodilians sprawl out to either side.Collectively, dinosaurs as a clade are divided into two primary branches, Saurischia and Ornithischia.", "Saurischia includes those taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia, while Ornithischia includes all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''Triceratops'' than with Saurischia.", "Anatomically, these two groups can be distinguished most noticeably by their pelvic structure.", "Early saurischians—\"lizard-hipped\", from the Greek '''' () meaning \"lizard\" and '''' () meaning \"hip joint\"—retained the hip structure of their ancestors, with a pubis bone directed cranially, or forward.", "This basic form was modified by rotating the pubis backward to varying degrees in several groups (''Herrerasaurus'', therizinosauroids, dromaeosaurids, and birds).", "Saurischia includes the theropods (exclusively bipedal and with a wide variety of diets) and sauropodomorphs (long-necked herbivores which include advanced, quadrupedal groups).By contrast, ornithischians—\"bird-hipped\", from the Greek ''ornitheios'' (ὀρνίθειος) meaning \"of a bird\" and ''ischion'' (ἰσχίον) meaning \"hip joint\"—had a pelvis that superficially resembled a bird's pelvis: the pubic bone was oriented caudally (rear-pointing).", "Unlike birds, the ornithischian pubis also usually had an additional forward-pointing process.", "Ornithischia includes a variety of species that were primarily herbivores.Despite the terms \"bird hip\" (Ornithischia) and \"lizard hip\" (Saurischia), birds are not part of Ornithischia.", "Birds instead belong to Saurischia, the \"lizard-hipped\" dinosaurs—birds evolved from earlier dinosaurs with \"lizard hips\".===Taxonomy===The following is a simplified classification of dinosaur groups based on their evolutionary relationships, and those of the main dinosaur groups Theropoda, Sauropodomorpha and Ornithischia, compiled by Justin Tweet.", "Further details and other hypotheses of classification may be found on individual articles.", "Dinosauriaornithopods; far left: ''Camptosaurus'', left: ''Iguanodon'', center background: ''Shantungosaurus'', center foreground: ''Dryosaurus'', right: ''Corythosaurus'', far right (large) ''Tenontosaurus''.", ":†Ornithischia (\"bird-hipped\"; diverse bipedal and quadrupedal herbivores)::†Heterodontosauridae (small herbivores/omnivores with prominent canine-like teeth):::†Genasauria (\"cheeked lizards\")::::†Thyreophora (armored dinosaurs; bipeds and quadrupeds):::::†Eurypoda (heavy, quadrupedal thyreophorans)::::::†Stegosauria (spikes and plates as primary armor):::::::†Huayangosauridae (small stegosaurs with flank osteoderms and tail clubs):::::::†Stegosauridae (large stegosaurs)::::::†Ankylosauria (scutes as primary armor):::::::†Parankylosauria (small, southern ankylosaurs with macuahuitl-like tails):::::::†Nodosauridae (mostly spiky, club-less ankylosaurs):::::::†Ankylosauridae (characterized by flat scutes)::::::::†Ankylosaurinae (club-tailed ankylosaurids)::::†Neornithischia (\"new ornithischians\"):::::†Cerapoda (\"horned feet\")::::::†Marginocephalia (characterized by a cranial growth)ceratopsids: top left – ''Triceratops'', top right – ''Styracosaurus'', bottom left – ''Anchiceratops'', bottom right – ''Chasmosaurus''.", ":::::::†Pachycephalosauria (bipeds with domed or knobby growth on skulls):::::::†Ceratopsia (bipeds and quadrupeds; many had neck frills and horns)::::::::†Chaoyangsauridae (small, frill-less basal ceratopsians)::::::::†Neoceratopsia (\"new ceratopsians\"):::::::::†Leptoceratopsidae (little to no frills, hornless, with robust jaws):::::::::†Protoceratopsidae (basal ceratopsians with small frills and stubby horns)::::::::::†Ceratopsoidea (large-horned ceratopsians):::::::::::†Ceratopsidae (large, elaborately ornamented ceratopsians)::::::::::::†Chasmosaurinae (ceratopsids with enlarged brow horns)::::::::::::†Centrosaurinae (ceratopsids mostly characterized by frill and nasal ornamentation):::::::::::::†Nasutoceratopsini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal cavities):::::::::::::†Centrosaurini (centrosaurines with enlarged nasal horns):::::::::::::†Pachyrhinosaurini (mostly had nasal bosses instead of horns)::::::†Ornithopoda (various sizes; bipeds and quadrupeds; evolved a method of chewing using skull flexibility and numerous teeth):::::::†Jeholosauridae (small Asian neornithischians):::::::†Thescelosauridae (\"wondrous lizards\")::::::::†Orodrominae (burrowers)::::::::†Thescelosaurinae (large thescelosaurids):::::::†Iguanodontia (\"iguana teeth\"; advanced ornithopods)::::::::†Elasmaria (mostly southern ornithopods with mineralized plates along the ribs; may be thescelosaurids)::::::::†Rhabdodontomorpha (with distinctive dentition):::::::::†Rhabdodontidae (European rhabdodontomorphs)::::::::†Dryosauridae (mid-sized, small headed):::::::::†Ankylopollexia (early members mid-sized, stocky)::::::::::†Styracosterna (\"spiked sterna\"):::::::::::†Hadrosauriformes (ancestrally had a thumb spike; large quadrupedal herbivores, with teeth merged into dental batteries)::::::::::::†Hadrosauromorpha (hadrosaurids and their closest relatives):::::::::::::†Hadrosauridae (\"duck-billed dinosaurs\"; often with crests)::::::::::::::†Saurolophinae (hadrosaurids with solid, small, no crests):::::::::::::::†Brachylophosaurini (short-crested):::::::::::::::†Kritosaurini (enlarged, solid nasal crests):::::::::::::::†Saurolophini (small, spike-like crests):::::::::::::::†Edmontosaurini (flat-headed saurolophines)::::::::::::::†Lambeosaurinae (hadrosaurids often with hollow crests):::::::::::::::†Aralosaurini (solid-crested):::::::::::::::†Tsintaosaurini (vertical, tube-like crests):::::::::::::::†Parasaurolophini (long, backwards-arcing crests):::::::::::::::†Lambeosaurini (usually rounded crests):Saurischia::†Herrerasauridae (early bipedal carnivores)Restoration of four macronarian sauropods: from left to right ''Camarasaurus'', ''Brachiosaurus'', ''Giraffatitan'', and ''Euhelopus''::†Sauropodomorpha (herbivores with small heads, long necks, and long tails):::†Unaysauridae (primitive, strictly bipedal \"prosauropods\"):::†Plateosauria (diverse; bipeds and quadrupeds)::::†Massospondylidae (long-necked, primitive sauropodomorphs)::::†Riojasauridae (large, primitive sauropodomorphs):::::†Sauropodiformes (heavy, bipeds and quadrupeds)::::::†Sauropoda (very large and heavy; quadrupedal):::::::†Lessemsauridae (gigantic yet lacking several weight-saving adaptations):::::::†Gravisauria (\"heavy lizards\")::::::::†Eusauropoda (\"true sauropods\"):::::::::†Turiasauria (often large, widespread sauropods):::::::::†Neosauropoda (\"new sauropods\"; columnar limbs)::::::::::†Diplodocoidea (skulls and tails elongated; teeth typically narrow and pencil-like):::::::::::†Rebbachisauridae (short-necked, low-browsing diplodocoids often with high backs):::::::::::†Flagellicaudata (whip-tailed)::::::::::::†Dicraeosauridae (small, short-necked diplodocoids with enlarged cervical and dorsal vertebrae)::::::::::::†Diplodocidae (extremely long-necked):::::::::::::†Apatosaurinae (robust cervical vertebrae):::::::::::::†Diplodocinae (long, thin necks)::::::::::†Macronaria (boxy skulls; spoon- or pencil-shaped teeth):::::::::::†Titanosauriformes (\"titan lizard forms\")::::::::::::†Brachiosauridae (long-necked, long-armed macronarians)::::::::::::†Somphospondyli (\"porous vertebrae\"):::::::::::::†Euhelopodidae (stocky, mostly Asian):::::::::::::†Titanosauria (diverse; stocky, with wide hips; most common in the Late Cretaceous of southern continents)::Theropoda (carnivorous):::Neotheropoda (\"new theropods\")::::†Coelophysoidea (early theropods; includes ''Coelophysis'' and close relatives)::::†\"Dilophosaur-grade neotheropods\" (larger kink-snouted dinosaurs)::::Averostra (\"bird snouts\"):::::†Ceratosauria (generally elaborately horned carnivores that existed from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods, originally included Coelophysoidea)::::::†Ceratosauridae (ceratosaurs with large teeth) ::::::†Abelisauroidea (ceratosaurs exemplified by reduced arms and hands):::::::†Abelisauridae (large abelisauroids with short arms and oftentimes elaborate facial ornamentation):::::::†Noasauridae (diverse, generally light theropods; may include several obscure taxa)::::::::†Elaphrosaurinae (bird-like; omnivorous as juveniles but herbivorous as adults)::::::::†Noasaurinae (small carnivores):::::Tetanurae (stiff-tailed dinosaurs)::::::†Megalosauroidea (early group of large carnivores):::::::†Piatnitzkysauridae (small basal megalosauroids endemic to the Americas):::::::†Megalosauridae (large megalosauroids with powerful arms and hands):::::::†Spinosauridae (crocodile-like, semiaquatic carnivores)::::::Avetheropoda (\"bird theropods\"):::::::†Megaraptora (theropods with large hand claws; either carnosaurs or coelurosaurs, potentially tyrannosauroids):::::::†Carnosauria (large meat-eating dinosaurs; megalosauroids sometimes included)::::::::†Metriacanthosauridae (primitive Asian allosauroids)::::::::†Allosauridae (''Allosaurus'' and its very closest relatives)::::::::†Carcharodontosauria (robust allosauroids):::::::::†Carcharodontosauridae (includes some of the largest purely terrestrial carnivores):::::::::†Neovenatoridae (\"new hunters\"; may include megaraptorans):::::::Coelurosauria (feathered theropods, with a range of body sizes and niches)::::::::†\"Nexus of basal coelurosaurs\" (used by Tweet to denote well-known taxa with unstable positions at the base of Coelurosauria)::::::::Tyrannoraptora (\"tyrant thieves\"):::::::::†Compsognathidae (small early coelurosaurs with short forelimbs):::::::::†Tyrannosauroidea (mostly large, primitive coelurosaurs)::::::::::†Proceratosauridae (tyrannosauroids with head crests)::::::::::†Tyrannosauridae (''Tyrannosaurus'' and close relatives):::::::::Maniraptoriformes (bird-like dinosaurs)::::::::::†Ornithomimosauria (small-headed, mostly toothless, omnivorous or possible herbivores):::::::::::†Ornithomimidae (very ostrich-like dinosaurs)::::::::::Maniraptora (dinosaurs with pennaceous feathers)Restoration of six dromaeosaurid theropods: from left to right ''Microraptor'', ''Velociraptor'', ''Austroraptor'', ''Dromaeosaurus'', ''Utahraptor'', and ''Deinonychus'':::::::::::†Alvarezsauroidea (small hunters with reduced forelimbs)::::::::::::†Alvarezsauridae (insectivores with only one enlarged digit):::::::::::†Therizinosauria (tall, long-necked theropods; omnivores and herbivores)::::::::::::†Therizinosauroidea (larger therizinosaurs):::::::::::::†Therizinosauridae (sloth-like herbivores, often with enlarged claws):::::::::::†Oviraptorosauria (omnivorous, beaked dinosaurs)::::::::::::†Caudipteridae (bird-like, basal oviraptorosaurs)::::::::::::†Caenagnathoidea (cassowary-like oviraptorosaurs):::::::::::::†Caenagnathidae (toothless oviraptorosaurs known from North America and Asia):::::::::::::†Oviraptoridae (characterized by two bony projections at the back of the mouth; exclusive to Asia):::::::::::Paraves (avialans and their closest relatives)::::::::::::†Scansoriopterygidae (small tree-climbing theropods with membranous wings)::::::::::::†Deinonychosauria (toe-clawed dinosaurs; may not form a natural group):::::::::::::†Archaeopterygidae (small, winged theropods or primitive birds):::::::::::::†Troodontidae (omnivores; enlarged brain cavities):::::::::::::†Dromaeosauridae (\"raptors\")::::::::::::::†Microraptoria (characterized by large wings on both the arms and legs; may have been capable of powered flight)::::::::::::::†Eudromaeosauria (hunters with greatly enlarged sickle claws):::::::::::::†Unenlagiidae (piscivores; may be dromaeosaurids)::::::::::::::†Halszkaraptorinae (duck-like; potentially semiaquatic)::::::::::::::†Unenlagiinae (long-snouted)::::::::::::Avialae (modern birds and extinct relatives)===Timeline of major groups===Timeline of major dinosaur groups per .ImageSize = width:1000px height:auto barincrement:15pxPlotArea = left:10px bottom:50px top:10px right:10pxPeriod = from:-251 till:0TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:-250ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:-251TimeAxis = orientation:horAlignBars = justifyLegend = orientation:vertical position:bottom columns:1Colors = #legends id:CAR\t value:claret id:ANK \t value:rgb(0.4,0.3,0.196) id:HER\t value:teal id:HAD\t value:green id:OMN\t value:blue id:black value:black id:white value:white id:mesozoic value:rgb(0.54,0.54,0.258) id:triassic value:rgb(0.51,0.17,0.57) id:earlytriassic value:rgb(0.6,0.22,0.61) id:middletriassic value:rgb(0.73,0.53,0.71) id:latetriassic value:rgb(0.78,0.65,0.8) id:jurassic value:rgb(0.2,0.7,0.79) id:earlyjurassic value:rgb(0,0.69,0.89) id:middlejurassic value:rgb(0.52,0.81,0.91) id:latejurassic value:rgb(0.74,0.89,0.97) id:cretaceous value:rgb(0.5,0.78,0.31) id:earlycretaceous value:rgb(0.63,0.78,0.65) id:latecretaceous value:rgb(0.74,0.82,0.37) id:cenozoic value:rgb(0.54,0.54,0.258) id:paleogene value:rgb(0.99,0.6,0.32) id:paleocene value:rgb(0.99,0.65,0.37) id:eocene value:rgb(0.99,0.71,0.42) id:oligocene value:rgb(0.99,0.75,0.48) id:neogene value:rgb(0.999999,0.9,0.1) id:miocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.999999,0) id:pliocene value:rgb(0.97,0.98,0.68) id:quaternary value:rgb(0.98,0.98,0.5) id:pleistocene value:rgb(0.999999,0.95,0.68) id:holocene value:rgb(0.999,0.95,0.88) id:her value:red Legend:Herrerasauria id:pur value:purple Legend:Sauropodomorpha id:ther value:orange Legend:Theropoda id:orn value:green Legend:OrnithischiaLegend = columns:1 left:100 top:20 columnwidth:100 BarData= bar:eratop bar:space bar:periodtop bar:space bar:NAM1 bar:NAM2 bar:NAM3 bar:NAM4 bar:NAM5 bar:NAM6 bar:NAM7 bar:NAM8 bar:NAM9 bar:NAM10 bar:NAM11 bar:NAM12 bar:NAM13 bar:NAM14 bar:NAM15 bar:NAM16 bar:NAM17 bar:NAM18 bar:NAM19 bar:NAM20 bar:NAM21 bar:NAM22 bar:NAM23 bar:NAM24 bar:NAM25 bar:NAM26 bar:NAM27 bar:NAM28 bar:NAM29 bar:NAM30 bar:space bar:period bar:space bar:eraPlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(2,-5) bar:periodtop from: -251 till: -245 color:earlytriassic text:Ear.", "from: -245 till: -228 color:middletriassic text:Middle from: -228 till: -199.6 color:latetriassic text:Late from: -199.6 till: -175.6 color:earlyjurassic text:Early from: -175.6 till: -161.2 color:middlejurassic text:Middle from: -161.2 till: -145.5 color:latejurassic text:Late from: -145.5 till: -99.6 color:earlycretaceous text:Early from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo.", "from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo.", "from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio.", "from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl.", "from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl.", "from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text:H. bar:eratop from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q.PlotData= align:left fontsize:M mark:(line,white) width:5 anchor:till shift:(5,-4) color:her bar:NAM1 from:-233.23 till:-210 text:Herrerasauridae color:pur bar:NAM2 from:-231.4 till:-208 text:Guaibasauridae color:pur bar:NAM3 from:-225 till:-190 text:Plateosauridae color:pur bar:NAM4 from:-228 till:-213 text:Riojasauridae color:pur bar:NAM5 from:-227 till:-176 text:Massospondylidae color:pur bar:NAM6 from:-183 till:-175 text:Vulcanodontidae color:pur bar:NAM7 from:-168 till:-125 text:Turiasauria color:pur bar:NAM8 from:-175 till:-150 text:Cetiosauridae color:pur bar:NAM9 from:-174 till:-93 text:Diplodocoidea color:pur bar:NAM10 from:-157 till:-93 text:Brachiosauridae color:pur bar:NAM11 from:-140 till:-66 text:Titanosauria color:ther bar:NAM12 from:-221 till:-183 text:Coelophysoidea color:ther bar:NAM13 from:-199.3 till:-66 text:Ceratosauria color:ther bar:NAM14 from:-170 till:-85 text:Megalosauroidea color:ther bar:NAM15 from:-175.6 till:-88 text:Carnosauria color:ther bar:NAM16 from:-130 till:-66 text:Megaraptora color:ther bar:NAM17 from:-166 till:-66 text:Tyrannosauroidea color:ther bar:NAM18 from:-151.5 till:-108 text:Compsognathidae color:ther bar:NAM19 from:-140 till:-66 text:Ornithomimosauria color:ther bar:NAM20 from:-160 till:-66 text:Alvarezsauria color:ther bar:NAM21 from:-139 till:-66 text:Therizinosauria color:ther bar:NAM22 from:-130 till:-66 text:Oviraptorosauria color:ther bar:NAM23 from:-167 till:-66 text:Deinonychosauria color:ther bar:NAM24 from:-155 till:0 shift:(-45,5) text:Avialae color:orn bar:NAM25 from:-200 till:-140 text:Heterodontosauridae color:orn bar:NAM26 from:-169 till:-100 text:Stegosauria color:orn bar:NAM27 from:-170.3 till:-66 text:Ankylosauria color:orn bar:NAM28 from:-92 till:-66 text:Pachycephalosauria color:orn bar:NAM29 from:-161 till:-66 text:Ceratopsia color:orn bar:NAM30 from:-164 till:-66 text:OrnithopodaPlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:M mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(2,-5) bar:period from: -251 till: -245 color:earlytriassic text:Ear.", "from: -245 till: -228 color:middletriassic text:Middle from: -228 till: -199.6 color:latetriassic text:Late from: -199.6 till: -175.6 color:earlyjurassic text:Early from: -175.6 till: -161.2 color:middlejurassic text:Middle from: -161.2 till: -145.5 color:latejurassic text:Late from: -145.5 till: -99.6 color:earlycretaceous text:Early from: -99.6 till: -65.5 color:latecretaceous text:Late from: -65.5 till: -55.8 color:paleocene text:Paleo.", "from: -55.8 till: -33.9 color:eocene text:Eocene from: -33.9 till: -23.03 color:oligocene text:Oligo.", "from: -23.03 till: -5.332 color:miocene text:Mio.", "from: -5.332 till: -2.588 color:pliocene text:Pl.", "from: -2.588 till: -0.0117 color:pleistocene text:Pl.", "from: -0.0117 till: 0 color:holocene text:H. bar:era from: -251 till: -199.6 color:triassic text:Triassic from: -199.6 till: -145.5 color:jurassic text:Jurassic from: -145.5 till: -65.5 color:cretaceous text:Cretaceous from: -65.5 till: -23.03 color:paleogene text:Paleogene from: -23.03 till: -2.588 color:neogene text:Neogene from: -2.588 till: 0 color:quaternary text:Q." ], [ "Paleobiology", "Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including fossilized bones, feces, trackways, gastroliths, feathers, impressions of skin, internal organs and other soft tissues.", "Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including physics (especially biomechanics), chemistry, biology, and the Earth sciences (of which paleontology is a sub-discipline).", "Two topics of particular interest and study have been dinosaur size and behavior.===Size===Scale diagram comparing the average human to the longest known dinosaurs in five major clades:Current evidence suggests that dinosaur average size varied through the Triassic, Early Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Cretaceous.", "Predatory theropod dinosaurs, which occupied most terrestrial carnivore niches during the Mesozoic, most often fall into the category when sorted by estimated weight into categories based on order of magnitude, whereas recent predatory carnivoran mammals peak in the category.", "The mode of Mesozoic dinosaur body masses is between .", "This contrasts sharply with the average size of Cenozoic mammals, estimated by the National Museum of Natural History as about .The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs.", "For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest was an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth.", "Giant prehistoric mammals such as ''Paraceratherium'' (the largest land mammal ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales approach or surpass them in size.", "There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary.", "Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems.", "This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals.", "Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.====Largest and smallest====Scientists will probably never be certain of the largest and smallest dinosaurs to have ever existed.", "This is because only a tiny percentage of animals were ever fossilized and most of these remain buried in the earth.", "Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare.", "Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.Comparative size of ''Argentinosaurus'' to the average humanThe tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from good skeletons is ''Giraffatitan brancai'' (previously classified as a species of ''Brachiosaurus'').", "Its remains were discovered in Tanzania between 1907 and 1912.Bones from several similar-sized individuals were incorporated into the skeleton now mounted and on display at the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin; this mount is tall and long, and would have belonged to an animal that weighed between and kilograms ( and lb).", "The longest complete dinosaur is the long ''Diplodocus'', which was discovered in Wyoming in the United States and displayed in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1907.The longest dinosaur known from good fossil material is ''Patagotitan'': the skeleton mount in the American Museum of Natural History in New York is long.", "The Museo Municipal Carmen Funes in Plaza Huincul, Argentina, has an ''Argentinosaurus'' reconstructed skeleton mount that is long.", "''Maraapunisaurus'', one of the largest animals to walk the earth.", "''Bruhathkayosaurus'', potentially the largest terrestrial animal to ever exist.There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of fragmentary fossils.", "Most of the largest herbivorous specimens on record were discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive ''Argentinosaurus'', which may have weighed and reached lengths of ; some of the longest were the long ''Diplodocus hallorum'' (formerly ''Seismosaurus''), the long ''Supersaurus'', and long ''Patagotitan''; and the tallest, the tall ''Sauroposeidon'', which could have reached a sixth-floor window.", "There were a few dinosaurs that was considered either the heaviest and longest.", "The most famous one include ''Amphicoelias fragillimus'', known only from a now lost partial vertebral neural arch described in 1878.Extrapolating from the illustration of this bone, the animal may have been long and weighed .", "However, recent research have placed ''Amphicoelias'' from the long, gracile diplodocid to the shorter but much stockier rebbachisaurid.", "Now renamed as ''Maraapunisaurus'', this sauropod now stands as much as long and weigh as much as .", "Another contender of this title includes ''Bruhathkayosaurus matleyi'', an incredibly controversial taxon that was recently confirmed to exist after archived photos were uncovered.", "''Bruhathkayosaurus'' was a titanosaur and would have most likely weighed more than even ''Marrapunisaurus''.", "Recent size estimates in 2023 have placed this sauropod reaching lengths of up to long and a colossal weight range of around , if these upper estimates up true, ''Bruhathkayosaurus'' would have rivaled the ''blue whale'' and ''Perucetus colossus'' as one of the largest animals to have ever existed.The largest carnivorous dinosaur was ''Spinosaurus'', reaching a length of , and weighing .", "Other large carnivorous theropods included ''Giganotosaurus'', ''Carcharodontosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus''.", "''Therizinosaurus'' and ''Deinocheirus'' were among the tallest of the theropods.", "The largest ornithischian dinosaur was probably the hadrosaurid ''Shantungosaurus giganteus'' which measured .", "The largest individuals may have weighed as much as .An adult bee hummingbird, the smallest known dinosaurThe smallest dinosaur known is the bee hummingbird, with a length of only and mass of around .", "The smallest known non-avialan dinosaurs were about the size of pigeons and were those theropods most closely related to birds.", "For example, ''Anchiornis huxleyi'' is currently the smallest non-avialan dinosaur described from an adult specimen, with an estimated weight of and a total skeletal length of .", "The smallest herbivorous non-avialan dinosaurs included ''Microceratus'' and ''Wannanosaurus'', at about long each.===Behavior===Maiasaura peeblesorum'' was discovered in 1978Many modern birds are highly social, often found living in flocks.", "There is general agreement that some behaviors that are common in birds, as well as in crocodiles (closest living relatives of birds), were also common among extinct dinosaur groups.", "Interpretations of behavior in fossil species are generally based on the pose of skeletons and their habitat, computer simulations of their biomechanics, and comparisons with modern animals in similar ecological niches.The first potential evidence for herding or flocking as a widespread behavior common to many dinosaur groups in addition to birds was the 1878 discovery of 31 ''Iguanodon'', ornithischians that were then thought to have perished together in Bernissart, Belgium, after they fell into a deep, flooded sinkhole and drowned.", "Other mass-death sites have been discovered subsequently.", "Those, along with multiple trackways, suggest that gregarious behavior was common in many early dinosaur species.", "Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that duck-billed (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the American bison or the African springbok.", "Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in Oxfordshire, England, although there is no evidence for specific herd structures.", "Congregating into herds may have evolved for defense, for migratory purposes, or to provide protection for young.", "There is evidence that many types of slow-growing dinosaurs, including various theropods, sauropods, ankylosaurians, ornithopods, and ceratopsians, formed aggregations of immature individuals.", "One example is a site in Inner Mongolia that has yielded remains of over 20 ''Sinornithomimus'', from one to seven years old.", "This assemblage is interpreted as a social group that was trapped in mud.", "The interpretation of dinosaurs as gregarious has also extended to depicting carnivorous theropods as pack hunters working together to bring down large prey.", "However, this lifestyle is uncommon among modern birds, crocodiles, and other reptiles, and the taphonomic evidence suggesting mammal-like pack hunting in such theropods as ''Deinonychus'' and ''Allosaurus'' can also be interpreted as the results of fatal disputes between feeding animals, as is seen in many modern diapsid predators.Centrosaurus apertus'' engaged in intra-specific combatThe crests and frills of some dinosaurs, like the marginocephalians, theropods and lambeosaurines, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, and so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and territorialism.", "Head wounds from bites suggest that theropods, at least, engaged in active aggressive confrontations.From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the Gobi Desert in 1971.It included a ''Velociraptor'' attacking a ''Protoceratops'', providing evidence that dinosaurs did indeed attack each other.", "Additional evidence for attacking live prey is the partially healed tail of an ''Edmontosaurus'', a hadrosaurid dinosaur; the tail is damaged in such a way that shows the animal was bitten by a tyrannosaur but survived.", "Cannibalism amongst some species of dinosaurs was confirmed by tooth marks found in Madagascar in 2003, involving the theropod ''Majungasaurus''.Comparisons between the scleral rings of dinosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of dinosaurs.", "Although it has been suggested that most dinosaurs were active during the day, these comparisons have shown that small predatory dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids, ''Juravenator'', and ''Megapnosaurus'' were likely nocturnal.", "Large and medium-sized herbivorous and omnivorous dinosaurs such as ceratopsians, sauropodomorphs, hadrosaurids, ornithomimosaurs may have been cathemeral, active during short intervals throughout the day, although the small ornithischian ''Agilisaurus'' was inferred to be diurnal.Based on fossil evidence from dinosaurs such as ''Oryctodromeus'', some ornithischian species seem to have led a partially fossorial (burrowing) lifestyle.", "Many modern birds are arboreal (tree climbing), and this was also true of many Mesozoic birds, especially the enantiornithines.", "While some early bird-like species may have already been arboreal as well (including dromaeosaurids) such as ''Microraptor'') most non-avialan dinosaurs seem to have relied on land-based locomotion.", "A good understanding of how dinosaurs moved on the ground is key to models of dinosaur behavior; the science of biomechanics, pioneered by Robert McNeill Alexander, has provided significant insight in this area.", "For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have investigated how fast dinosaurs could run, whether diplodocids could create sonic booms via whip-like tail snapping, and whether sauropods could float.===Communication===Modern birds are known to communicate using visual and auditory signals, and the wide diversity of visual display structures among fossil dinosaur groups, such as horns, frills, crests, sails, and feathers, suggests that visual communication has always been important in dinosaur biology.", "Reconstruction of the plumage color of ''Anchiornis'', suggest the importance of color in visual communication in non-avian dinosaurs.", "Vocalization in non-avian dinosaurs is less certain.", "In birds, the larynx plays no role in sound production.", "Instead they vocalize with a novel organ called the syrinx, located further down the trachea.", "The earliest remains of a syrinx was found in a specimen of the duck-like ''Vegavis iaai'' dated 69 –66 million years ago, and this organ is unlikely to have existed in non-avian dinosaurs.", "Lambeosaurus magnicristatus''.", "The crest could also have acted as a resonating chamber for soundsPaleontologist Phil Senter has suggested that since non-avian dinosaurs did not have a syrinx, and their next closest living relatives, crocodilians, use the larynx, they could not vocalize as the common ancestor would have been mute.", "He states that they mostly on visual displays and possibly non-vocal acoustic sounds like hissing, jaw grinding or clapping, splashing and wing beating (possible in winged maniraptoran dinosaurs).", "Other researchers have countered that vocalizations also exist in turtles, the closest relatives of archosaurs, suggesting that the trait is ancestral to their lineage.", "In addition, vocal communication in dinosaurs is indicated by the development of advanced hearing in nearly all major groups.", "Hence the syrinx may have supplemented and then replaced the larynx as a vocal organ rather than there being a \"silent period\" in bird evolution.In 2023, a fossilized larynx was described from a specimen of the ankylosaurid ''Pinacosaurus''.", "The structure was composed of cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, similar to those of non-avian reptiles.", "However, the mobile cricoid-arytenoid joint and long arytenoid cartilages would have allowed for air-flow control similar to that of birds, and thus could have made bird-like vocalizations.", "In addition, the cartilages were ossified, implying that laryngeal ossification is a feature of some non-avian dinosaurs.", "A 2016 study concludes that some dinosaurs may have produced closed mouth vocalizations like cooing, hooting and booming.", "These occur in both reptiles and birds and involve inflating the esophagus or tracheal pouches.", "Such vocalizations evolved independently in extant archosaurs numerous times, following increases in body size.", "The crests of some hadrosaurids and the nasal chambers of ankylosaurids have been suggested to have functioned in acoustic resonance.===Reproductive biology===Nest of a plover (''Charadrius'')All dinosaurs laid amniotic eggs.", "Dinosaur eggs were usually laid in a nest.", "Most species create somewhat elaborate nests which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows.", "Some species of modern bird have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet.", "Primitive birds and many non-avialan dinosaurs often lay eggs in communal nests, with males primarily incubating the eggs.", "While modern birds have only one functional oviduct and lay one egg at a time, more primitive birds and dinosaurs had two oviducts, like crocodiles.", "Some non-avialan dinosaurs, such as ''Troodon'', exhibited iterative laying, where the adult might lay a pair of eggs every one or two days, and then ensured simultaneous hatching by delaying brooding until all eggs were laid.When laying eggs, females grow a special type of bone between the hard outer bone and the marrow of their limbs.", "This medullary bone, which is rich in calcium, is used to make eggshells.", "A discovery of features in a ''Tyrannosaurus'' skeleton provided evidence of medullary bone in extinct dinosaurs and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a fossil dinosaur specimen.", "Further research has found medullary bone in the carnosaur ''Allosaurus'' and the ornithopod ''Tenontosaurus''.", "Because the line of dinosaurs that includes ''Allosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus'' diverged from the line that led to ''Tenontosaurus'' very early in the evolution of dinosaurs, this suggests that the production of medullary tissue is a general characteristic of all dinosaurs.oviraptorid ''Citipati'' at the American Museum of Natural History.", "Smaller fossil far right showing inside one of the eggs.Another widespread trait among modern birds (but see below in regards to fossil groups and extant megapodes) is parental care for young after hatching.", "Jack Horner's 1978 discovery of a ''Maiasaura'' (\"good mother lizard\") nesting ground in Montana demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among ornithopods.", "A specimen of the oviraptorid ''Citipati osmolskae'' was discovered in a chicken-like brooding position in 1993, which may indicate that they had begun using an insulating layer of feathers to keep the eggs warm.", "An embryo of the basal sauropodomorph ''Massospondylus'' was found without teeth, indicating that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaurs.", "Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among ornithopods from the Isle of Skye in northwestern Scotland.However, there is ample evidence of precociality or superprecociality among many dinosaur species, particularly theropods.", "For instance, non-ornithuromorph birds have been abundantly demonstrated to have had slow growth rates, megapode-like egg burying behavior and the ability to fly soon after birth.", "Both ''Tyrannosaurus'' and ''Troodon'' had juveniles with clear superprecociality and likely occupying different ecological niches than the adults.", "Superprecociality has been inferred for sauropods.Genital structures are unlikely to fossilize as they lack scales that may allow preservation via pigmentation or residual calcium phosphate salts.", "In 2021, the best preserved specimen of a dinosaur's cloacal vent exterior was described for ''Psittacosaurus'', demonstrating lateral swellings similar to crocodylian musk glands used in social displays by both sexes and pigmented regions which could also reflect a signalling function.", "However, this specimen on its own does not offer enough information to determine whether this dinosaur had sexual signalling functions; it only supports the possibility.", "Cloacal visual signalling can occur in either males or females in living birds, making it unlikely to be useful to determine sex for extinct dinosaurs.===Physiology===Because both modern crocodilians and birds have four-chambered hearts (albeit modified in crocodilians), it is likely that this is a trait shared by all archosaurs, including all dinosaurs.", "While all modern birds have high metabolisms and are endothermic (\"warm-blooded\"), a vigorous debate has been ongoing since the 1960s regarding how far back in the dinosaur lineage this trait extended.", "Various researchers have supported dinosaurs as being endothermic, ectothermic (\"cold-blooded\"), or somewhere in between.", "An emerging consensus among researchers is that, while different lineages of dinosaurs would have had different metabolisms, most of them had higher metabolic rates than other reptiles but lower than living birds and mammals, which is termed mesothermy by some.", "Evidence from crocodiles and their extinct relatives suggests that such elevated metabolisms could have developed in the earliest archosaurs, which were the common ancestors of dinosaurs and crocodiles.This 1897 restoration of ''Brontosaurus'' as an aquatic, tail-dragging animal, by Charles R. Knight, typified early views on dinosaur lifestyles.After non-avian dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were ectothermic.", "This was used to imply that the ancient dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, even though many modern reptiles are fast and light-footed despite relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature.", "The idea of dinosaurs as ectothermic remained a prevalent view until Robert T. Bakker, an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968.Bakker specifically used anatomical and ecological evidence to argue that sauropods, which had hitherto been depicted as sprawling aquatic animals with their tails dragging on the ground, were endotherms that lived vigorous, terrestrial lives.", "In 1972, Bakker expanded on his arguments based on energy requirements and predator-prey ratios.", "This was one of the seminal results that led to the dinosaur renaissance.One of the greatest contributions to the modern understanding of dinosaur physiology has been paleohistology, the study of microscopic tissue structure in dinosaurs.", "From the 1960s forward, Armand de Ricqlès suggested that the presence of fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—was indicative of consistently fast growth and therefore endothermy.", "Fibrolamellar bone was common in both dinosaurs and pterosaurs, though not universally present.", "This has led to a significant body of work in reconstructing growth curves and modeling the evolution of growth rates across various dinosaur lineages, which has suggested overall that dinosaurs grew faster than living reptiles.", "Other lines of evidence suggesting endothermy include the presence of feathers and other types of body coverings in many lineages (see ); more consistent ratios of the isotope oxygen-18 in bony tissue compared to ectotherms, particularly as latitude and thus air temperature varied, which suggests stable internal temperatures (although these ratios can be altered during fossilization); and the discovery of polar dinosaurs, which lived in Australia, Antarctica, and Alaska when these places would have had cool, temperate climates.Comparison between the air sacs of an abelisaur and a birdIn saurischian dinosaurs, higher metabolisms were supported by the evolution of the avian respiratory system, characterized by an extensive system of air sacs that extended the lungs and invaded many of the bones in the skeleton, making them hollow.", "Such respiratory systems, which may have appeared in the earliest saurischians, would have provided them with more oxygen compared to a mammal of similar size, while also having a larger resting tidal volume and requiring a lower breathing frequency, which would have allowed them to sustain higher activity levels.", "The rapid airflow would also have been an effective cooling mechanism, which in conjunction with a lower metabolic rate would have prevented large sauropods from overheating.", "These traits may have enabled sauropods to grow quickly to gigantic sizes.", "Sauropods may also have benefitted from their size—their small surface area to volume ratio meant that they would have been able to thermoregulate more easily, a phenomenon termed gigantothermy.Like other reptiles, dinosaurs are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous wastes from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia via the ureters into the intestine.", "This would have helped them to conserve water.", "In most living species, uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste.", "However, at least some modern birds (such as hummingbirds) can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia.", "This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the cloaca.", "In addition, many species regurgitate pellets, and fossil pellets are known as early as the Jurassic from ''Anchiornis''.The size and shape of the brain can be partly reconstructed based on the surrounding bones.", "In 1896, Marsh calculated ratios between brain weight and body weight of seven species of dinosaurs, showing that the brain of dinosaurs was proportionally smaller than in today's crocodiles, and that the brain of ''Stegosaurus'' was smaller than in any living land vertebrate.", "This contributed to the widespread public notion of dinosaurs as being sluggish and extraordinarily stupid.", "Harry Jerison, in 1973, showed that proportionally smaller brains are expected at larger body sizes, and that brain size in dinosaurs was not smaller than expected when compared to living reptiles.", "Later research showed that relative brain size progressively increased during the evolution of theropods, with the highest intelligence – comparable to that of modern birds – calculated for the troodontid ''Troodon''." ], [ "Origin of birds", "The possibility that dinosaurs were the ancestors of birds was first suggested in 1868 by Thomas Henry Huxley.", "After the work of Gerhard Heilmann in the early 20th century, the theory of birds as dinosaur descendants was abandoned in favor of the idea of them being descendants of generalized thecodonts, with the key piece of evidence being the supposed lack of clavicles in dinosaurs.", "However, as later discoveries showed, clavicles (or a single fused wishbone, which derived from separate clavicles) were not actually absent; they had been found as early as 1924 in ''Oviraptor'', but misidentified as an interclavicle.", "In the 1970s, Ostrom revived the dinosaur–bird theory, which gained momentum in the coming decades with the advent of cladistic analysis, and a great increase in the discovery of small theropods and early birds.", "Of particular note have been the fossils of the Jehol Biota, where a variety of theropods and early birds have been found, often with feathers of some type.", "Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with theropod dinosaurs, which are now generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.", "They are most closely allied with maniraptoran coelurosaurs.", "A minority of scientists, most notably Alan Feduccia and Larry Martin, have proposed other evolutionary paths, including revised versions of Heilmann's basal archosaur proposal, or that maniraptoran theropods are the ancestors of birds but themselves are not dinosaurs, only convergent with dinosaurs.===Feathers===Various feathered non-avian dinosaurs, including ''Archaeopteryx'', ''Anchiornis'', ''Microraptor'' and ''Zhenyuanlong''Feathers are one of the most recognizable characteristics of modern birds, and a trait that was also shared by several non-avian dinosaurs.", "Based on the current distribution of fossil evidence, it appears that feathers were an ancestral dinosaurian trait, though one that may have been selectively lost in some species.", "Direct fossil evidence of feathers or feather-like structures has been discovered in a diverse array of species in many non-avian dinosaur groups, both among saurischians and ornithischians.", "Simple, branched, feather-like structures are known from heterodontosaurids, primitive neornithischians, and theropods, and primitive ceratopsians.", "Evidence for true, vaned feathers similar to the flight feathers of modern birds has been found only in the theropod subgroup Maniraptora, which includes oviraptorosaurs, troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and birds.", "Feather-like structures known as pycnofibres have also been found in pterosaurs.However, researchers do not agree regarding whether these structures share a common origin between lineages (i.e., they are homologous), or if they were the result of widespread experimentation with skin coverings among ornithodirans.", "If the former is the case, filaments may have been common in the ornithodiran lineage and evolved before the appearance of dinosaurs themselves.", "Research into the genetics of American alligators has revealed that crocodylian scutes do possess feather-keratins during embryonic development, but these keratins are not expressed by the animals before hatching.", "The description of feathered dinosaurs has not been without controversy in general; perhaps the most vocal critics have been Alan Feduccia and Theagarten Lingham-Soliar, who have proposed that some purported feather-like fossils are the result of the decomposition of collagenous fiber that underlaid the dinosaurs' skin, and that maniraptoran dinosaurs with vaned feathers were not actually dinosaurs, but convergent with dinosaurs.", "However, their views have for the most part not been accepted by other researchers, to the point that the scientific nature of Feduccia's proposals has been questioned.", "''Archaeopteryx'' was the first fossil found that revealed a potential connection between dinosaurs and birds.", "It is considered a transitional fossil, in that it displays features of both groups.", "Brought to light just two years after Charles Darwin's seminal ''On the Origin of Species'' (1859), its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of evolutionary biology and creationism.", "This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, at least one specimen was mistaken for the small theropod ''Compsognathus''.", "Since the 1990s, a number of additional feathered dinosaurs have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds.", "Many of these specimens were unearthed in the lagerstätten of the Jehol Biota.", "If feather-like structures were indeed widely present among non-avian dinosaurs, the lack of abundant fossil evidence for them may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are seldom preserved by fossilization and thus often absent from the fossil record.===Skeleton===Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the missing link between birds and dinosaurs.", "However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent another important line of evidence for paleontologists.", "Areas of the skeleton with important similarities include the neck, pubis, wrist (semi-lunate carpal), arm and pectoral girdle, furcula (wishbone), and breast bone.", "Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons through cladistic analysis strengthens the case for the link.===Soft anatomy===ilium of ''Aerosteon riocoloradensis''Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to a 2005 investigation led by Patrick M. O'Connor.", "The lungs of theropod dinosaurs (carnivores that walked on two legs and had bird-like feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their skeletons, as is the case in birds.", "\"What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds\", O'Connor said.", "In 2008, scientists described ''Aerosteon riocoloradensis'', the skeleton of which supplies the strongest evidence to date of a dinosaur with a bird-like breathing system.", "CT scanning of ''Aerosteon'''s fossil bones revealed evidence for the existence of air sacs within the animal's body cavity.===Behavioral evidence===Fossils of the troodonts ''Mei'' and ''Sinornithoides'' demonstrate that some dinosaurs slept with their heads tucked under their arms.", "This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds.", "Several deinonychosaur and oviraptorosaur specimens have also been found preserved on top of their nests, likely brooding in a bird-like manner.", "The ratio between egg volume and body mass of adults among these dinosaurs suggest that the eggs were primarily brooded by the male, and that the young were highly precocial, similar to many modern ground-dwelling birds.Some dinosaurs are known to have used gizzard stones like modern birds.", "These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibers once they enter the stomach.", "When found in association with fossils, gizzard stones are called gastroliths." ], [ "Extinction of major groups", "All non-avian dinosaurs and most lineages of birds became extinct in a mass extinction event, called the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event, at the end of the Cretaceous period.", "Above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, which has been dated to 66.038 ± 0.025 million years ago, fossils of non-avian dinosaurs disappear abruptly; the absence of dinosaur fossils was historically used to assign rocks to the ensuing Cenozoic.", "The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s, leading to the development of two mechanisms that are thought to have played major roles: an extraterrestrial impact event in the Yucatán Peninsula, along with flood basalt volcanism in India.", "However, the specific mechanisms of the extinction event and the extent of its effects on dinosaurs are still areas of ongoing research.", "Alongside dinosaurs, many other groups of animals became extinct: pterosaurs, marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, several groups of mammals, ammonites (nautilus-like mollusks), rudists (reef-building bivalves), and various groups of marine plankton.", "In all, approximately 47% of genera and 76% of species on Earth became extinct during the K-Pg extinction event.", "The relatively large size of most dinosaurs and the low diversity of small-bodied dinosaur species at the end of the Cretaceous may have contributed to their extinction; the extinction of the bird lineages that did not survive may also have been caused by a dependence on forest habitats or a lack of adaptations to eating seeds for survival.===Pre-extinction diversity===Just before the K-Pg extinction event, the number of non-avian dinosaur species that existed globally has been estimated at between 628 and 1078.It remains uncertain whether the diversity of dinosaurs was in gradual decline before the K-Pg extinction event, or whether dinosaurs were actually thriving prior to the extinction.", "Rock formations from the Maastrichtian epoch, which directly preceded the extinction, have been found to have lower diversity than the preceding Campanian epoch, which led to the prevailing view of a long-term decline in diversity.", "However, these comparisons did not account either for varying preservation potential between rock units or for different extents of exploration and excavation.", "In 1984, Dale Russell carried out an analysis to account for these biases, and found no evidence of a decline; another analysis by David Fastovsky and colleagues in 2004 even showed that dinosaur diversity continually increased until the extinction, but this analysis has been rebutted.", "Since then, different approaches based on statistics and mathematical models have variously supported either a sudden extinction or a gradual decline.", "End-Cretaceous trends in diversity may have varied between dinosaur lineages: it has been suggested that sauropods were not in decline, while ornithischians and theropods were in decline.===Impact event===Luis (left) and his son Walter Alvarez (right) at the K-T Boundary in Gubbio, Italy, 1981The Chicxulub Crater at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula; the impactor that formed this crater may have caused the dinosaur extinction.The bolide impact hypothesis, first brought to wide attention in 1980 by Walter Alvarez, Luis Alvarez, and colleagues, attributes the K-Pg extinction event to a bolide (extraterrestrial projectile) impact.", "Alvarez and colleagues proposed that a sudden increase in iridium levels, recorded around the world in rock deposits at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, was direct evidence of the impact.", "Shocked quartz, indicative of a strong shockwave emanating from an impact, was also found worldwide.", "The actual impact site remained elusive until a crater measuring wide was discovered in the Yucatán Peninsula of southeastern Mexico, and was publicized in a 1991 paper by Alan Hildebrand and colleagues.", "Now, the bulk of the evidence suggests that a bolide wide impacted the Yucatán Peninsula 66 million years ago, forming this crater and creating a \"kill mechanism\" that triggered the extinction event.Within hours, the Chicxulub impact would have created immediate effects such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and a global firestorm that likely killed unsheltered animals and started wildfires.", "However, it would also have had longer-term consequences for the environment.", "Within days, sulfate aerosols released from rocks at the impact site would have contributed to acid rain and ocean acidification.", "Soot aerosols are thought to have spread around the world over the ensuing months and years; they would have cooled the surface of the Earth by reflecting thermal radiation, and greatly slowed photosynthesis by blocking out sunlight, thus creating an impact winter.", "(This role was ascribed to sulfate aerosols until experiments demonstrated otherwise.)", "The cessation of photosynthesis would have led to the collapse of food webs depending on leafy plants, which included all dinosaurs save for grain-eating birds.===Deccan Traps=== At the time of the K-Pg extinction, the Deccan Traps flood basalts of India were actively erupting.", "The eruptions can be separated into three phases around the K-Pg boundary, two prior to the boundary and one after.", "The second phase, which occurred very close to the boundary, would have extruded 70 to 80% of the volume of these eruptions in intermittent pulses that occurred around 100,000 years apart.", "Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide would have been released by this volcanic activity, resulting in climate change through temperature perturbations of roughly but possibly as high as .", "Like the Chicxulub impact, the eruptions may also have released sulfate aerosols, which would have caused acid rain and global cooling.", "However, due to large error margins in the dating of the eruptions, the role of the Deccan Traps in the K-Pg extinction remains unclear.Before 2000, arguments that the Deccan Traps eruptions—as opposed to the Chicxulub impact—caused the extinction were usually linked to the view that the extinction was gradual.", "Prior to the discovery of the Chicxulub crater, the Deccan Traps were used to explain the global iridium layer; even after the crater's discovery, the impact was still thought to only have had a regional, not global, effect on the extinction event.", "In response, Luis Alvarez rejected volcanic activity as an explanation for the iridium layer and the extinction as a whole.", "Since then, however, most researchers have adopted a more moderate position, which identifies the Chicxulub impact as the primary progenitor of the extinction while also recognizing that the Deccan Traps may also have played a role.", "Walter Alvarez himself has acknowledged that the Deccan Traps and other ecological factors may have contributed to the extinctions in addition to the Chicxulub impact.", "Some estimates have placed the start of the second phase in the Deccan Traps eruptions within 50,000 years after the Chicxulub impact.", "Combined with mathematical modelling of the seismic waves that would have been generated by the impact, this has led to the suggestion that the Chicxulub impact may have triggered these eruptions by increasing the permeability of the mantle plume underlying the Deccan Traps.Whether the Deccan Traps were a major cause of the extinction, on par with the Chicxulub impact, remains uncertain.", "Proponents consider the climatic impact of the sulfur dioxide released to have been on par with the Chicxulub impact, and also note the role of flood basalt volcanism in other mass extinctions like the Permian-Triassic extinction event.", "They consider the Chicxulub impact to have worsened the ongoing climate change caused by the eruptions.", "Meanwhile, detractors point out the sudden nature of the extinction and that other pulses in Deccan Traps activity of comparable magnitude did not appear to have caused extinctions.", "They also contend that the causes of different mass extinctions should be assessed separately.", "In 2020, Alfio Chiarenza and colleagues suggested that the Deccan Traps may even have had the opposite effect: they suggested that the long-term warming caused by its carbon dioxide emissions may have dampened the impact winter from the Chicxulub impact.===Possible Paleocene survivors===Non-avian dinosaur remains have occasionally been found above the K-Pg boundary.", "In 2000, Spencer Lucas and colleagues reported the discovery of a single hadrosaur right femur in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico, and described it as evidence of Paleocene dinosaurs.", "The rock unit in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early Paleocene epoch, approximately 64.8 million years ago.", "If the bone was not re-deposited by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations survived at least half a million years into the Cenozoic.", "Other evidence includes the presence of dinosaur remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to above the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, representing 40,000 years of elapsed time.", "This has been used to support the view that the K-Pg extinction was gradual.", "However, these supposed Paleocene dinosaurs are considered by many other researchers to be reworked, that is, washed out of their original locations and then re-buried in younger sediments.", "The age estimates have also been considered unreliable." ], [ "Cultural depictions", "Outdated ''Iguanodon'' statues created by Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins for the Crystal Palace Park in 1853''Gertie the Dinosaur'' (1914) by Winsor McCay, featuring the first animated dinosaurBy human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size.", "As such, they have captured the popular imagination and become an enduring part of human culture.", "The entry of the word \"dinosaur\" into the common vernacular reflects the animals' cultural importance: in English, \"dinosaur\" is commonly used to describe anything that is impractically large, obsolete, or bound for extinction.Public enthusiasm for dinosaurs first developed in Victorian England, where in 1854, three decades after the first scientific descriptions of dinosaur remains, a menagerie of lifelike dinosaur sculptures was unveiled in London's Crystal Palace Park.", "The Crystal Palace dinosaurs proved so popular that a strong market in smaller replicas soon developed.", "In subsequent decades, dinosaur exhibits opened at parks and museums around the world, ensuring that successive generations would be introduced to the animals in an immersive and exciting way.", "The enduring popularity of dinosaurs, in its turn, has resulted in significant public funding for dinosaur science, and has frequently spurred new discoveries.", "In the United States, for example, the competition between museums for public attention led directly to the Bone Wars of the 1880s and 1890s, during which a pair of feuding paleontologists made enormous scientific contributions.The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs has ensured their appearance in literature, film, and other media.", "Beginning in 1852 with a passing mention in Charles Dickens ''Bleak House'', dinosaurs have been featured in large numbers of fictional works.", "Jules Verne's 1864 novel ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'', Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 book ''The Lost World'', the 1914 animated film ''Gertie the Dinosaur'' (featuring the first animated dinosaur), the iconic 1933 film ''King Kong'', the 1954 ''Godzilla'' and its many sequels, the best-selling 1990 novel ''Jurassic Park'' by Michael Crichton and its 1993 film adaptation are just a few notable examples of dinosaur appearances in fiction.", "Authors of general-interest non-fiction works about dinosaurs, including some prominent paleontologists, have often sought to use the animals as a way to educate readers about science in general.", "Dinosaurs are ubiquitous in advertising; numerous companies have referenced dinosaurs in printed or televised advertisements, either in order to sell their own products or in order to characterize their rivals as slow-moving, dim-witted, or obsolete." ], [ "See also", "* Dinosaur diet and feeding* Evolutionary history of life* Lists of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units* List of dinosaur genera* List of bird genera* List of birds* List of informally named dinosaurs* List of films featuring dinosaurs" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * .", "* " ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Bibliography", " * * * * * * The 5th edition of the book is available from the Internet Archive.", "Retrieved 2019-10-19.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \"Reprint of papers published in a special volume of Modern geology v. 18 (Halstead memorial volume), 1993, with five additional contributions.--Pref.", "\"* *" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diamagnetism" ], [ "Introduction", "Pyrolytic carbon has one of the largest diamagnetic constants of any room temperature material.", "Here a pyrolytic carbon sheet is levitated by its repulsion from the strong magnetic field of neodymium magnets'''Diamagnetism''' is the property of materials that are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force.", "In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field.", "Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic.", "In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material.", "The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of vacuum, ''μ''0.In most materials, diamagnetism is a weak effect which can be detected only by sensitive laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it entirely expels any magnetic field from its interior (the Meissner effect).Diamagnetism was first discovered when Anton Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth was repelled by magnetic fields.", "In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and concluded that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field.", "On a suggestion by William Whewell, Faraday first referred to the phenomenon as ''diamagnetic'' (the prefix ''dia-'' meaning ''through'' or ''across''), then later changed it to ''diamagnetism''.A simple rule of thumb is used in chemistry to determine whether a particle (atom, ion, or molecule) is paramagnetic or diamagnetic: If all electrons in the particle are paired, then the substance made of this particle is diamagnetic; If it has unpaired electrons, then the substance is paramagnetic." ], [ "Materials", "Diamagnetic material interaction in magnetic field.", "On keeping diamagnetic materials in a magnetic field, the electron orbital motion changes in such a way that magnetic dipole moments are induced on the atoms / molecules in the direction opposite to the external magnetic fieldDiamagnetism is a property of all materials, and always makes a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field.", "However, other forms of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism) are so much stronger such that, when different forms of magnetism are present in a material, the diamagnetic contribution is usually negligible.", "Substances where the diamagnetic behaviour is the strongest effect are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets.", "Diamagnetic materials are those that some people generally think of as ''non-magnetic'', and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth.", "The magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants (named after ).Diamagnetic materials, like water, or water-based materials, have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility less than or equal to 0, since susceptibility is defined as .", "This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields.", "However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life.", "For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is .", "The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, , although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of in one plane.", "Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets.", "Because ''χ''v is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value.In rare cases, the diamagnetic contribution can be stronger than paramagnetic contribution.", "This is the case for gold, which has a magnetic susceptibility less than 0 (and is thus by definition a diamagnetic material), but when measured carefully with X-ray magnetic circular dichroism, has an extremely weak paramagnetic contribution that is overcome by a stronger diamagnetic contribution.+Notable diamagnetic materialsMaterial ''χ''v × 10−5 (SI units)Superconductor −105Pyrolytic carbon −40.9Bismuth −16.6Neon −6.74Mercury −2.9Silver −2.6Carbon (diamond) −2.1Lead −1.8Carbon (graphite) −1.6Copper −1.0Water −0.91=== Superconductors ===conductivity (left) to superconductivity (right).", "At the transition, the superconductor expels the magnetic field and then acts as a perfect diamagnet.Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets (), because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect." ], [ "Demonstrations", "=== Curving water surfaces ===If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water.", "This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by a reflection in its surface.=== Levitation ===A live frog levitates inside a diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16 teslas at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory.", "Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption.", "Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation.", "However, Earnshaw's theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment).", "These are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space.", "Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space.A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets.", "This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective and relatively convenient demonstration of diamagnetism.The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated.", "Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated.In September 2009, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California announced it had successfully levitated mice using a superconducting magnet, an important step forward since mice are closer biologically to humans than frogs.", "JPL said it hopes to perform experiments regarding the effects of microgravity on bone and muscle mass.Recent experiments studying the growth of protein crystals have led to a technique using powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity.A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that levitate a permanent magnet." ], [ "Theory", "The electrons in a material generally settle in orbitals, with effectively zero resistance and act like current loops.", "Thus it might be imagined that diamagnetism effects in general would be common, since any applied magnetic field would generate currents in these loops that would oppose the change, in a similar way to superconductors, which are essentially perfect diamagnets.", "However, since the electrons are rigidly held in orbitals by the charge of the protons and are further constrained by the Pauli exclusion principle, many materials exhibit diamagnetism, but typically respond very little to the applied field.The Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely classical system.", "However, the classical theory of Langevin for diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum theory.", "The classical theory is given below.=== Langevin diamagnetism ===Paul Langevin's theory of diamagnetism (1905) applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics).", "A field with intensity , applied to an electron with charge and mass , gives rise to Larmor precession with frequency .", "The number of revolutions per unit time is , so the current for an atom with electrons is (in SI units):The magnetic moment of a current loop is equal to the current times the area of the loop.", "Suppose the field is aligned with the axis.", "The average loop area can be given as , where is the mean square distance of the electrons perpendicular to the axis.", "The magnetic moment is therefore:If the distribution of charge is spherically symmetric, we can suppose that the distribution of coordinates are independent and identically distributed.", "Then , where is the mean square distance of the electrons from the nucleus.", "Therefore, .", "If is the number of atoms per unit volume, the volume diamagnetic susceptibility in SI units is:In atoms, Langevin susceptibility is of the same order of magnitude as Van Vleck paramagnetic susceptibility.=== In metals ===The Langevin theory is not the full picture for metals because there are also non-localized electrons.", "The theory that describes diamagnetism in a free electron gas is called '''Landau diamagnetism''', named after Lev Landau, and instead considers the weak counteracting field that forms when the electrons' trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force.", "Landau diamagnetism, however, should be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins.", "For the bulk case of a 3D system and low magnetic fields, the (volume) diamagnetic susceptibility can be calculated using Landau quantization, which in SI units is:where is the Fermi energy.", "This is equivalent to , exactly times Pauli paramagnetic susceptibility, where is the Bohr magneton and is the density of states (number of states per energy per volume).", "This formula takes into account the spin degeneracy of the carriers (spin ½ electrons).In doped semiconductors the ratio between Landau and Pauli susceptibilities may change due to the effective mass of the charge carriers differing from the electron mass in vacuum, increasing the diamagnetic contribution.", "The formula presented here only applies for the bulk; in confined systems like quantum dots, the description is altered due to quantum confinement.", "Additionally, for strong magnetic fields, the susceptibility of delocalized electrons oscillates as a function of the field strength, a phenomenon known as the De Haas–Van Alphen effect, also first described theoretically by Landau." ], [ "See also", "AntiferromagnetismMagnetochemistryMoses effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol.", "II Ch.", "34: The Magnetism of Matter" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Duke of Marlborough (title)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Duke of Marlborough''' (pronounced ) is a title in the Peerage of England.", "It was created by Queen Anne in 1702 for John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), the noted military leader.", "In historical texts, unqualified use of the title typically refers to the 1st Duke.", "The name of the dukedom refers to Marlborough in Wiltshire.The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from its creation in 1626 until its extinction with the death of the 4th earl in 1679.The title was recreated 10 years later for John Churchill (in 1689)." ], [ "History of the dukedom", "Churchill had been made ''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' (1682) in the Peerage of Scotland, and ''Baron Churchill'' of Sandridge (1685) and ''Earl of Marlborough'' (1689) in the Peerage of England.", "Shortly after her accession to the throne in 1702, Queen Anne made Churchill the first ''Duke of Marlborough'' and granted him the subsidiary title ''Marquess of Blandford''.In 1678, Churchill married Sarah Jennings (1660–1744), a courtier and influential favourite of the queen.", "They had seven children, of whom four daughters married into some of the most important families in Great Britain; one daughter and one son died in infancy.", "He was pre-deceased by his son, John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford, in 1703; so, to prevent the extinction of the titles, a special Act of Parliament was passed.", "When the 1st Duke of Marlborough died in 1722 his title as ''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' in the Peerage of Scotland became extinct and the Marlborough titles passed, according to the Act, to his eldest daughter Henrietta (1681–1733), the 2nd Duchess of Marlborough.", "She was married to Francis Godolphin, 2nd Earl of Godolphin and had a son who predeceased her.When Henrietta died in 1733, the Marlborough titles passed to her nephew Charles Spencer (1706–1758), the third son of her late sister Anne (1683–1716), who had married the 3rd Earl of Sunderland in 1699.After his older brother's death in 1729, Charles Spencer had already inherited the Spencer family estates and the titles of ''Earl of Sunderland'' (1643) and ''Baron Spencer'' of Wormleighton (1603), all in the Peerage of England.", "Upon his maternal aunt Henrietta's death in 1733, Charles Spencer succeeded to the Marlborough family estates and titles and became the 3rd Duke.", "When he died in 1758, his titles passed to his eldest son George (1739–1817), who was succeeded by his eldest son George, the 5th Duke (1766–1840).", "In 1815, Francis Spencer (the younger son of the 4th Duke) was created ''Baron Churchill'' in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.", "In 1902, his grandson, the 3rd Baron Churchill, was created '''Viscount Churchill'''.In 1817, the 5th Duke obtained permission to assume and bear the surname of Churchill in addition to his surname of Spencer, to perpetuate the name of his illustrious great-great-grandfather.", "At the same time he received Royal Licence to quarter the coat of arms of Churchill with his paternal arms of Spencer.", "The modern Dukes thus originally bore the surname \"Spencer\": the double-barrelled surname of \"Spencer-Churchill\" as used since 1817 remains in the family, although many members have preferred to style themselves simply as \"Churchill\".The 7th Duke was the paternal grandfather of the British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, born at Blenheim Palace on 30 November 1874.The 11th Duke, John Spencer-Churchill died in 2014, having assumed the title in 1972.The 12th and present Duke is Charles James Spencer-Churchill." ], [ "Family seat", "Burial place of most Dukes and Duchesses of Marlborough in the chapel at Blenheim Palace.The family seat is Blenheim Palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire.After his leadership in the victory against the French in the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704, the 1st Duke was honoured by Queen Anne granting him the royal manor of Woodstock, and building him a house at her expense to be called Blenheim.", "Construction started in 1705 and the house was completed in 1722, the year of the 1st Duke's death.", "Blenheim Palace has since remained in the Churchill and Spencer-Churchill family.With the exception of the 10th Duke and his first wife, the dukes and duchesses of Marlborough are buried in Blenheim Palace's chapel.", "Most other members of the Spencer-Churchill family are interred in St. Martin's parish churchyard at Bladon, a short distance from the palace." ], [ "Succession to the title", "The dukedom can theoretically pass through a female line.", "However, unlike the remainder to heirs general found in most other peerages that allow male-preference primogeniture, the grant does not allow for abeyance and follows a more restrictive Semi-Salic formula designed to keep succession wherever possible in the male line.Succession to the title under the first and second contingencies has lapsed; holders of the title from the 3rd Duke trace their status from the third contingency.It is now very unlikely that the dukedom will be passed to a woman or through a woman, since all the male-line descendants of the 1st Duke's second daughter Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland—including the lines of the Viscounts Churchill and Barons Churchill of Wychwood and of the Earl Spencer and of the entire Spencer-Churchill and Spencer family—would have to become extinct.If that were to happen, the Churchill titles would pass to the Earl of Jersey, the heir-male of the 1st Duke's granddaughter Anne Villiers (born Egerton), Countess of Jersey, daughter of Elizabeth Egerton, Duchess of Bridgewater, the third daughter of the first Duke." ], [ "Line of succession", "* 15px ''John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722)'' 15px ''Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733)'' ''Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (1683–1716)''* 15px ''Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758)'' 15px ''George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817)''* 15px ''George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840)''** 15px ''George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857)''*** 15px ''John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (1822–1883)''**** 15px ''George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough (1844–1892)''***** 15px ''Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934)''****** 15px ''John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough (1897–1972)''******* 15px ''John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough (1926–2014)''******** 15px '''James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough''' (born 1955) ********* '''(1)''' George Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford ()********* '''(2)''' Lord Caspar Spencer-Churchill () ******** '''(3)''' Lord Edward Spencer-Churchill () ******* ''Lord Charles Spencer-Churchill (1940–2016)''******** '''(4)''' Rupert Spencer-Churchill () ******** '''(5)''' Dominic Spencer-Churchill () ********* '''(6)''' Ivor Spencer-Churchill ()******** '''(7)''' Alexander Spencer-Churchill () ****** ''Lord Ivor Spencer-Churchill (1898–1956)''******* '''(8)''' Robert Spencer-Churchill ()******** '''(9)''' John Spencer-Churchill ()******** '''(10)''' Ivor Spencer-Churchill ()**** ''Lord Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1849–1895)''***** ''Sir Winston Churchill (1874–1965)''****** ''Randolph Spencer-Churchill (1911–1968)''******* ''Winston Spencer-Churchill (1940–2010)''******** '''(11)''' Randolph Spencer-Churchill ()********* '''(12)''' John Spencer-Churchill ()******** '''(13)''' John Spencer-Churchill ()********* '''(14)''' Edward Spencer-Churchill ()********* '''(15)''' Alexander Spencer-Churchill ()* 15px ''Francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill (1779–1845)''** ''Augustus Spencer (1807–1893)''*** ''Augustus Spencer (1851–1912)''**** ''Richard Spencer (1888–1956)''***** ''15px Richard Spencer, 6th Baron Churchill (1926–2020)''****** '''(16)''' 15px Michael Spencer, 7th Baron Churchill ()****** '''(17)''' David Spencer ()******* '''(18)''' Thomas Ellison-Spencer ()** ''William Spencer (1810–1900)''*** ''William Spencer (1838–1923)''**** ''John Spencer (1881–1952)''***** ''John Spencer (1917–1967)''****** '''(19)''' John Spencer ()******* '''(20)''' Charles Spencer ()** ''Charles Spencer (1824–1895)''*** ''Charles Spencer (1848–1922)''**** ''Francis Spencer (1881–1972)''***** ''Francis Spencer (1917–1989)''****** '''(21)''' Philip Spencer () ''Lord Charles Spencer (1740–1820)''* ''John Spencer (1767–1831)''** ''Frederick Spencer (1796–1831)''*** ''Charles Spencer (1827–1898)''**** ''Sir Charles Spencer (1869–1934)''***** ''John Spencer (1907–1977)''****** '''(22)''' Robert Spencer ()******* '''(23)''' Edmund Spencer ()***** ''Charles Spencer (1909–1963)''****** '''(24)''' Piers Spencer ()* ''John Spencer (1708–1746)''** 15px ''John Spencer, 1st Earl Spencer (1734–1783)''* 15px ''George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer (1758–1834)''** 15px ''Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer (1798–1857)''*** 15px ''Charles Spencer, 6th Earl Spencer (1857–1922)''**** 15px ''Albert Spencer, 7th Earl Spencer (1892–1975)''***** 15px ''John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer (1924–1992)''****** '''(25)''' 15px Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer ()******* '''(26)''' Louis Spencer, Viscount Althorp () ******* '''(27)''' Edmund Spencer ()**** ''George Spencer (1903–1982)''***** '''(28)''' George Spencer () ''Lady Elizabeth Churchill (1687–1714)''* ''Lady Anne Egerton (1705–1762)'' 15px ''George Villiers, 4th Earl of Jersey (1735–1805)''* 15px ''George Child Villiers, 5th Earl of Jersey (1773–1859)''** 15px ''George Child Villiers, 6th Earl of Jersey (1808–1859)''*** 15px ''Victor Child Villiers, 7th Earl of Jersey (1845–1915)''**** 15px ''George Child Villiers, 8th Earl of Jersey (1873–1923)''***** 15px ''George Child Villiers, 9th Earl of Jersey (1910–1998)''****** ''George Child-Villiers, Viscount Villiers (1948–1998)''******* 15px '''(29)''' William Child-Villiers, 10th Earl of Jersey ()******** '''(30)''' George Child-Villiers, Viscount Villiers ()******* '''(31)''' Jamie Child-Villiers ()***** ''Edward Child-Villiers (1913–1980)''****** '''(32)''' Edward Child-Villiers ()******* '''(33)''' Alexander Child-Villiers ()******** '''(34)''' Frederick Child-Villiers ()******** '''(35)''' William Child-Villiers ()******** '''(36)''' George Child-Villiers ()+ Notes and sources Mark Note '''2''' Issue from second marriage '''3''' Issue from third marriage" ], [ "Other titles of the Dukes", "===Subsidiary titles===The Duke holds subsidiary titles: ''Marquess of Blandford'' (created in 1702 for John Churchill), ''Earl of Sunderland'' (created in 1643 for the Spencer family), ''Earl of Marlborough'' (created in 1689 for John Churchill), ''Baron Spencer'' of Wormleighton (created in 1603 for the Spencer family), and ''Baron Churchill'' of Sandridge (created in 1685 for John Churchill), all in the Peerage of England.The title ''Marquess of Blandford'' is used as the courtesy title for the Duke's eldest son and heir.", "The Duke's eldest son's eldest son can use the courtesy title ''Earl of Sunderland'', and the duke's eldest son's eldest son's eldest son (not necessarily the eldest great-grandson) the title ''Lord Spencer of Wormleighton'' (not to be confused with Earl Spencer).The title of ''Earl of Marlborough'', created for John Churchill in 1689, had previously been created for James Ley, in 1626, becoming extinct in 1679.===Foreign titles===The 1st Duke was honoured with land and titles in the Holy Roman Empire: Emperor Leopold I created him a Prince in 1704, and in 1705, his successor Emperor Joseph I gave him the principality of Mindelheim (once the lordship of the noted soldier Georg von Frundsberg).", "He was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in 1714 by the Treaty of Utrecht, which returned it to Bavaria.", "He tried to obtain Nellenburg in Austria in exchange, which at that time was only a county ('Landgrafschaft'), but this failed, partially because Austrian law did not allow for Nellenburg to be converted into a sovereign principality.", "The 1st Duke's princely title of Mindelheim became extinct either on the return of the land to Bavaria or on his death, as the Empire operated Salic Law, which prevented female succession." ], [ "Coats of arms", "===Original arms of the Churchill family===The original arms of Sir Winston Churchill (1620–1688), father of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, were simple and in use by his own father in 1619.The shield was Sable a lion rampant Argent, debruised by a bendlet Gules.", "The addition of a canton of Saint George (see below) rendered the distinguishing mark of the bendlet unnecessary.The Churchill crest is blazoned as a lion couchant guardant Argent, supporting with its dexter forepaw a banner Gules, charged with a dexter hand appaumée of the first, staff Or.In recognition of Sir Winston's services to King Charles I as Captain of the Horse, and his loyalty to King Charles II as a Member of Parliament, he was awarded an augmentation of honour to his arms around 1662.This rare mark of royal favour took the form of a canton of Saint George.", "At the same time, he was authorised to omit the bendlet, which had served the purpose of distinguishing this branch of the Churchill family from others which bore an undifferenced lion.===Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough===Sir Winston's shield and crest were inherited by his son John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough.", "Minor modifications reflected the bearer's social rise: the helm was now shown in profile and had a closed grille to signify the bearer's rank as a peer, and there were now supporters placed on either side of the shield.", "They were the mythical Griffin (part lion, part eagle) and Wyvern (a dragon without hind legs).", "The supporters were derived from the arms of the family of the 1st Duke's mother, Drake of Ash (Argent, a wyvern gules; these arms can be seen on the monument in Musbury Church to Sir Bernard Drake, d.1586).The motto was ''Fiel pero desdichado'' (Spanish for \"Faithful but unfortunate\").", "The 1st Duke was also entitled to a coronet indicating his rank.When the 1st Duke was made a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire in 1705, two unusual features were added: the Imperial Eagle and a Princely Coronet.", "His estates in Germany, such as Mindelheim, were represented in his arms by additional quarterings.===Arms of the Spencer-Churchill family===In 1817, the 5th Duke received Royal Licence to place the quarter of Churchill ahead of his paternal arms of Spencer.", "The shield of the Spencer family arms is: quarterly Argent and Gules, in the second and third quarters a fret Or, over all on a bend Sable three escallops of the first.", "The Spencer crest is: out of a ducal coronet Or, a griffin's head between two wings expanded Argent, gorged with a collar gemel and armed Gules.", "Paul Courtenay observes that \"It would be normal in these circumstances for the paternal arms (Spencer) to take precedence over the maternal (Churchill), but because the Marlborough dukedom was senior to the Sunderland earldom, the procedure was reversed in this case.", "\"Also in 1817, a further augmentation of honour was added to his armorial achievement.", "This incorporated the bearings from the standard of the Manor of Woodstock and was borne on an escutcheon, displayed over all in the centre chief point, as follows: Argent a cross of Saint George surmounted by an inescutcheon Azure, charged with three fleurs-de-lys Or, two over one.", "This inescutcheon represents the royal arms of France.These quartered arms, incorporating the two augmentations of honour, have been the arms of all subsequent Dukes of Marlborough.===Motto===The motto ''Fiel pero desdichado'' is Spanish for 'Faithful but unfortunate'.", "''Desdichado'' means without happiness or without joy, alluding to the first Duke's father, Winston, who was a royalist and faithful supporter of the king during the English Civil War but was not compensated for his losses after the restoration.", "Charles II knighted Winston Churchill and other Civil War royalists but did not compensate them for their wartime losses, thereby inducing Winston to adopt the motto.", "It is unusual for the motto of an Englishman of the era to be in Spanish rather than Latin, and it is not known why this is the case.===Gallery of arms===File:Churchill Original.svg\|Original arms of the Churchill familyFile:Coat of arms of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg\|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill, the father of the 1st Duke of MarlboroughFile:1st Duke of Marlborough arms.png\|Arms of the 1st Duke of Marlborough, with quarterings representing his estates in GermanyMarlboroughCoatOfArms.jpg\|Simple arms of the Spencer Dukes of Marlborough before they changed their name to \"Spencer-Churchill\" and took the modern armsGeorge Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough Color.jpg\|Arms of George Spencer, 4th Duke of MarlboroughArms of Spencer-Churchill, Duke of Marlborough.svg\|Shield of the Spencer-Churchill Dukes of Marlborough since 1817File:Coat of Arms of Winston Churchill as a Gentleman.svg\|Arms of Winston Churchill (or any Spencer-Churchill) as a gentlemanCoat of Arms of Winston Churchill.svg\|Arms of Sir Winston Churchill as a Knight of the Garter===Achievement===" ], [ "List of title holders", "=== Earls of Marlborough, first creation (1626–1679) ===The earldom of Marlborough was held by the family of Ley from 1626 to 1679.James Ley, the 1st Earl (c. 1550 – 1629), was lord chief justice of the King’s Bench in Ireland and then in England; he was an English member of parliament and was lord high treasurer from 1624 to 1628.In 1624 he was created Baron Ley and in 1626 Earl of Marlborough.", "The 3rd earl was his grandson James (1618–1665), a naval officer who was killed in action with the Dutch.", "James was succeeded by his uncle William, a younger son of the 1st earl, on whose death in 1679 the earldom became extinct.===Earls of Marlborough, second creation (1689)===:''Other titles: Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685)''* John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough (1650–1722), became Duke of Marlborough in 1702===Dukes of Marlborough (1702)===John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (1686–1703):''Other titles: Marquess of Blandford (England 1702), Earl of Marlborough, in the county of Wiltshire (En 1689) and Baron Churchill of Sandridge, in the county of Hertford (England 1685)'':''Other titles (1st Duke): Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, in the county of Berwick (Scotland 1682)''* John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722), soldier and statesman** John Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (1686–1703), elder son of the 1st Duke, died unmarried* Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough (1681–1733), eldest daughter of the 1st Duke, succeeded her father by Act of Parliament (1706)** William Godolphin, Marquess of Blandford (1700–1731), elder son of the 2nd Duchess, predeceased his mother without issue* Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland (''née'' Lady Anne Churchill; 1683–1716), second daughter of the 1st Duke, married Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland, predeceased her elder sister, leaving male issue:''Other titles (3rd Duke onwards): Earl of Sunderland (England 1643) and Baron Spencer of Wormleighton (England 1729)''* Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough (1706–1758), 5th Earl of Sunderland, second son of Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland* George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough (1739–1817), elder son of the 3rd Duke* George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough (1766–1840), elder son of the 4th Duke* George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough (1793–1857), eldest son of the 5th Duke* John Winston Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (1822–1883), eldest son of the 6th Duke and paternal grandfather of Winston Churchill* George Charles Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough (1844–1892), eldest son of the 7th Duke* Charles Richard John Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934), only son of the 8th Duke* John Albert William Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough (1897–1972), elder son of the 9th Duke* John George Vanderbilt Henry Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough (1926–2014), elder son of the 10th Duke* Charles James Spencer-Churchill, 12th Duke of Marlborough (b.", "1955), eldest surviving son of the 11th DukeThe heir apparent to the dukedom is George John Godolphin Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford (b.", "1992), eldest son of the 12th Duke." ], [ "Family trees", "The 1st Duke of Marlborough's genealogy" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Blenheim Palace website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 17" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===497 BC – The first Saturnalia festival was celebrated in ancient Rome.", " 546 – Siege of Rome: The Ostrogoths under king Totila plunder the city, by bribing the Byzantine garrison.", "* 920 – Romanos I Lekapenos is crowned co-emperor of the underage Constantine VII.", "* 942 – Assassination of William I of Normandy.", "* 1297 – King Kyawswa of Pagan is overthrown by the three Myinsaing brothers, marking the de facto end of the Pagan Kingdom.", "1398 – Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud's armies in Delhi are defeated by Timur.", "1538 – Pope Paul III excommunicates Henry VIII of England.", "1583 – Cologne War: Forces under Ernest of Bavaria defeat troops under Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg at the Siege of Godesberg.", "1586 – Go-Yōzei becomes Emperor of Japan.===1601–1900===1718 – War of the Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain declares war on Spain.", "1777 – American Revolution: France formally recognizes the United States.", "1790 – The Aztec calendar stone is discovered at El Zócalo, Mexico City.", "1807 – Napoleonic Wars: France issues the Milan Decree, which confirms the Continental System.", "1812 – War of 1812: U.S. forces attack a Lenape village in the Battle of the Mississinewa.", "1819 – Simón Bolívar declares the independence of Gran Colombia in Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar in Venezuela).", "1835 – The second Great Fire of New York destroys of New York City's Financial District.", "1837 – A fire in the Winter Palace of Saint Petersburg kills 30 guards.", "1862 – American Civil War: General Ulysses S. Grant issues ''General Order No.", "11'', expelling Jews from parts of Tennessee, Mississippi, and Kentucky.", "1865 – First performance of the Unfinished Symphony by Franz Schubert.", "1892 – First issue of ''Vogue'' is published.", "1896 – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Schenley Park Casino, which was the first multi-purpose arena with the technology to create an artificial ice surface in North America, is destroyed in a fire.===1901–present===1903 – The Wright brothers make the first controlled powered, heavier-than-air flight in the ''Wright Flyer'' at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.", "1907 – Ugyen Wangchuck is crowned first King of Bhutan.", "1918 – Darwin Rebellion: Up to 1,000 demonstrators march on Government House in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.", "1926 – Antanas Smetona assumes power in Lithuania as the 1926 coup d'état is successful.", "1927 – Indian revolutionary Rajendra Lahiri is hanged in Gonda jail, Uttar Pradesh, India, two days before the scheduled date.", "1928 – Indian revolutionaries Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru assassinate British police officer James Saunders in Lahore, Punjab, to avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai at the hands of the police.", "The three were executed in 1931.", "1933 – The first NFL Championship Game is played at Wrigley Field in Chicago between the New York Giants and Chicago Bears.", "The Bears won 23–21.", "1935 – First flight of the Douglas DC-3.", "1938 – Otto Hahn discovers the nuclear fission of the heavy element uranium, the scientific and technological basis of nuclear energy.", "1939 – World War II: Battle of the River Plate: The ''Admiral Graf Spee'' is scuttled by Captain Hans Langsdorff outside Montevideo.", "1943 – All Chinese are again permitted to become citizens of the United States upon the repeal of the Act of 1882 and the introduction of the Magnuson Act.", "1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: Malmedy massacre: American 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion POWs are shot by Waffen-SS Kampfgruppe Joachim Peiper.", "1945 – Kurdistan flag day, the flag of Kurdistan was raised for the first time in Mahabad in eastern Kurdistan (Iran).", "1947 – First flight of the Boeing B-47 Stratojet strategic bomber.", "1948 – The Finnish Security Police is established to remove communist leadership from its predecessor, the State Police.", "1950 – The F-86 Sabre's first mission over Korea.", "1951 – The American Civil Rights Congress delivers \"We Charge Genocide\" to the United Nations.", "1957 – The United States successfully launches the first Atlas intercontinental ballistic missile at Cape Canaveral, Florida.", "1960 – Troops loyal to Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia crush the coup that began December 13, returning power to their leader upon his return from Brazil.", "Haile Selassie absolves his son of any guilt.", " 1960 – Munich C-131 crash: Twenty passengers and crew on board as well as 32 people on the ground are killed.", "1961 – Niterói circus fire: Fire breaks out during a performance by the Gran Circus Norte-Americano in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, killing more than 500.", "1967 – Harold Holt, Prime Minister of Australia, disappears while swimming near Portsea, Victoria, and is presumed drowned.", "1969 – Project Blue Book: The United States Air Force closes its study of UFOs.", "1970 – Polish protests: In Gdynia, soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing dozens.", "1973 – Thirty passengers are killed in an attack by Palestinian terrorists on Rome's Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport.", "1981 – American Brigadier General James L. Dozier is abducted by the Red Brigades in Verona, Italy.", "1983 – Provisional IRA members detonate a car bomb at Harrods Department Store in London.", "Three police officers and three civilians are killed.", "1989 – Romanian Revolution: Protests continue in Timișoara, Romania, with rioters breaking into the Romanian Communist Party's District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire.", "* 1989 – Fernando Collor de Mello defeats Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in the second round of the Brazilian presidential election, becoming the first democratically elected President in almost 30 years.", "* 1989 – ''The Simpsons'' premieres on television with the episode \"Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire\".", "1997 – Peruvian internal conflict: 14 members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement provoke a hostage crisis by taking over the Japanese embassy in Lima.", " 1997 – Aerosvit Flight 241: A Yakovlev Yak-42 crashes into the Pierian Mountains near Thessaloniki Airport in Thessaloniki, Greece, killing all 70 people on board.", "2002 – Second Congo War: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and presidential elections within two years.", "2003 – The Soham murder trial ends at the Old Bailey in London, with Ian Huntley found guilty of two counts of murder.", "His girlfriend, Maxine Carr, is found guilty of perverting the course of justice.", "* 2003 – SpaceShipOne, piloted by Brian Binnie, makes its first powered and first supersonic flight.", "* 2003 – Sex work rights activists establish December 17 (or \"D17\") as International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers to memorialize victims of a serial killer who targeted prostitutes, and highlight State violence against sex workers by police and others.", "2005 – Anti-World Trade Organization protesters riot in Wan Chai, Hong Kong.", " 2005 – Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates the throne as King of Bhutan.", "2009 – sinks off the coast of Lebanon, resulting in the deaths of 44 people and over 28,000 animals.", "2010 – Mohamed Bouazizi sets himself on fire.", "This act became the catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring.", "2014 – The United States and Cuba re-establish diplomatic relations after severing them in 1961." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1239 – Kujō Yoritsugu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1256)1267 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)1554 – Ernest of Bavaria, Roman Catholic bishop (d. 1612)1556 – Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, poet in Mughal Empire (d. 1627)1574 – Pedro Téllez-Girón, 3rd Duke of Osuna, Spanish nobleman and politician (d. 1624)===1601–1900===1616 – Roger L'Estrange, English pamphleteer and author (d. 1704)1619 – Prince Rupert of the Rhine (d. 1682)1632 – Anthony Wood, English historian and author (d. 1695)1685 – Thomas Tickell, English poet (d. 1740)1699 – Charles-Louis Mion, French composer and educator (d. 1775)1706 – Émilie du Châtelet, French mathematician and physicist (d. 1749)1734 – Maria I of Portugal (d. 1816)1749 – Domenico Cimarosa, Italian composer and educator (d. 1801)1778 – Humphry Davy, English chemist and physicist (d. 1829)1796 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (d. 1865)1797 – Joseph Henry, American physicist and engineer (d. 1878)1807 – John Greenleaf Whittier, American poet and activist (d. 1892)1812 – Vilhelm Petersen, Danish painter (d. 1880)1827 – Alexander Wassilko von Serecki, Austrian lawyer and politician (d. 1893) 1830 – Jules de Goncourt, French author and critic (d. 1870)1835 – Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, Swiss-American ichthyologist and engineer (d. 1910)1840 – Nozu Michitsura, Japanese field marshal (d. 1908)1842 – Sophus Lie, Norwegian mathematician and academic (d. 1899)1847 – Émile Faguet, French author and critic (d. 1916)1853 – Pierre Paul Émile Roux, French physician and immunologist, co-founded the Pasteur Institute (d. 1933)1859 – Paul César Helleu, French painter and illustrator (d. 1927)1866 – Kazys Grinius, Lithuanian physician and politician, third President of Lithuania (d. 1950)1873 – Ford Madox Ford, English novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1939)1874 – William Lyon Mackenzie King, Canadian economist and politician, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1950)1881 – Aubrey Faulkner, South African-English cricketer and coach (d. 1930)1884 – Alison Uttley, English children's book writer (d. 1976)1887 – Josef Lada, Czech painter and illustrator (d. 1957)1890 – Prince Joachim of Prussia (d. 1920)1892 – Sam Barry, American basketball player and coach (d. 1950)1893 – Charles C. Banks, English captain and pilot (d. 1971)* 1893 – Erwin Piscator, German director and producer (d. 1966)1894 – Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (d. 1979) 1894 – Patrick Flynn, Irish-American runner and soldier (d. 1969)* 1894 – Wim Schermerhorn, Dutch cartographer, engineer, and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977)1895 – Gerald Patterson, Australian tennis player (d. 1967)1898 – Loren Murchison, American sprinter (d. 1979)1900 – Mary Cartwright, English mathematician and academic, one of the first people to analyze a dynamical system with chaos (d. 1998)===1901–present===1903 – Erskine Caldwell, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1987)* 1903 – Ray Noble, English bandleader, composer, and actor (d. 1978)1904 – Paul Cadmus, American painter and illustrator (d. 1999)1905 – Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (d. 2002)* 1905 – Mohammad Hidayatullah, 11th Chief Justice of India, and politician, sixth Vice President of India (d. 1992)* 1905 – Erico Verissimo, Brazilian author and translator (d. 1975)1906 – Fernando Lopes-Graça, Portuguese composer and conductor (d. 1994) 1906 – Russell C. Newhouse, American pilot and engineer (d. 1998)1908 – Willard Libby, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1980)1910 – Eknath Easwaran, Indian-American educator and author (d. 1999)* 1910 – Sy Oliver, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1988)1912 – Edward Short, Baron Glenamara, English captain and politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 2012)1913 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 1967)1914 – Mushtaq Ali, Indian cricketer (d. 2005) 1914 – Fernando Alonso, Cuban ballet dancer, co-founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2013)1916 – Penelope Fitzgerald, English author and poet (d. 2000)1917 – Kenneth Dike, Nigerian historian, author, and academic (d. 1983)1920 – Kenneth E. Iverson, Canadian computer scientist, developed the APL programming language (d. 2004)1921 – Lore Berger, German-Swiss author and translator (d. 1943)1922 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and academic (d. 2005)1923 – Jaroslav Pelikan, American historian and scholar (d. 2006)1926 – Ray Jablonski, American baseball player (d. 1985) 1926 – John Hans Krebs, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)* 1926 – Stephen Lewis, English actor, director, screenwriter, and playwright (d. 2015)1927 – Richard Long, American actor and director (d. 1974) 1927 – Edward Meneeley, American painter and sculptor (d. 2012)1928 – Marilyn Beck, American journalist (d. 2014) 1928 – Eli Beeding, American captain and pilot (d. 2013)* 1928 – Doyle Conner, American farmer and politician, seventh Florida Commissioner of Agriculture (d. 2012)1929 – William Safire, American journalist and author (d. 2009)1930 – Bob Guccione, American photographer and publisher, founded ''Penthouse'' (d. 2010)* 1930 – Armin Mueller-Stahl, German actor and painter* 1930 – Dorothy Rowe, Australian psychologist and author (d. 2019)1931 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (d. 2011) 1931 – Dave Madden, Canadian-American actor (d. 2014)* 1931 – James McGaugh, American neurobiologist and psychologist1932 – John Bond, English footballer and manager (d. 2012)1934 – Irving Petlin, American painter and academic (d. 2018)* 1934 – Ray Wilson, English footballer and manager (d. 2018)1935 – Brian Langford, English cricketer (d. 2013) 1935 – Cal Ripken Sr., American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1999)1936 – Pope Francis 1936 – Tommy Steele, English singer, guitarist, and actor1937 – Brian Hayes, Australian-English radio host 1937 – Art Neville, American singer and keyboard player (d. 2019)* 1937 – Kerry Packer, Australian businessman, founded World Series Cricket (d. 2005)* 1937 – John Kennedy Toole, American novelist (d. 1969)* 1937 – Calvin Waller, American general (d. 1996)1938 – Peter Snell, New Zealand runner (d. 2019)1939 – James Booker, American pianist (d. 1983)* 1939 – Eddie Kendricks, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1992)1940 – Kåre Valebrokk, Norwegian journalist (d. 2013) 1940 – María Elena Velasco, Mexican actress, singer, director, and screenwriter (d. 2015)1941 – Dave Dee, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2009) 1941 – Stan Mudenge, Zimbabwean historian and politician, Zimbabwean Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2012)1942 – Muhammadu Buhari, Nigerian general and politician, 7th Head of State of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1942 – Paul Butterfield, American singer and harmonica player (d. 1987)1943 – Ron Geesin, Scottish pianist and composer1944 – Jack L. Chalker, American author and educator (d. 2005)* 1944 – Carlo M. Croce, Italian-American oncologist and academic* 1944 – Bernard Hill, English actor1945 – Ernie Hudson, American actor 1945 – David Mallet, English director* 1945 – Chris Matthews, American journalist and author* 1945 – Jüri Talvet, Estonian poet and critic* 1945 – Jacqueline Wilson, English author and academic1946 – Simon Bates, English radio host 1946 – Eugene Levy, Canadian actor, director, and screenwriter1947 – Wes Studi, American actor and producer1948 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)* 1948 – Jim Bonfanti, American rock drummer* 1948 – Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu, Turkish economist and politician1949 – Joel Brooks, American actor 1949 – Sotiris Kaiafas, Cypriot footballer* 1949 – Paul Rodgers, English singer-songwriter and producer1950 – Laurence F. Johnson, American educator and author 1950 – Maurice Peoples, American sprinter and coach1951 – Pat Hill, American football player and coach 1951 – Ken Hitchcock, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1951 – Tatyana Kazankina, Russian runner1953 – Bill Pullman, American actor1954 – Sergejus Jovaiša, Lithuanian basketball player1955 – Brad Davis, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster1956 – Peter Farrelly, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1956 – Dominic Lawson, English journalist and author* 1956 – Totka Petrova, Bulgarian runner1957 – Wendy Hoyte, English sprinter 1957 – Bob Ojeda, American baseball player and coach1958 – Mike Mills, American bass player, songwriter, and producer 1959 – Bob Stinson, American songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)1961 – Mansoor al-Jamri, Bahraini journalist and author 1961 – Sara Dallin, English singer1962 – Paul Dobson, English footballer 1962 – Galina Malchugina, Russian sprinter* 1962 – Rocco Mediate, American golfer and journalist1964 – Frank Musil, Czech ice hockey player and coach 1964 – Joe Wolf, American basketball player and coach1965 – Craig Berube, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1965 – Jeff Grayer, American basketball player and coach1966 – Tracy Byrd, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Kristiina Ojuland, Estonian politician, 23rd Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs1967 – Vincent Damphousse, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1967 – Gigi D'Agostino, Italian muscisian, singer and DJ.", "* 1967 – Karsten Neitzel, German footballer and manager1968 – Claudio Suárez, Mexican footballer 1968 – Paul Tracy, Canadian race car driver and sportscaster1969 – Laurie Holden, American actress and model 1969 – Inna Lasovskaya, Russian triple jumper* 1969 – Chuck Liddell, American mixed martial artist and kick-boxer* 1969 – Mick Quinn, English singer-songwriter, guitarist and producer1970 – Sean Patrick Thomas, American actor1971 – Claire Forlani, English actress* 1971 – Alan Khan, South African radio and TV presenter* 1971 – Nikki McCray-Penson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2023)* 1971 – Antoine Rigaudeau, French basketball player1972 – John Abraham, Indian actor and producer 1972 – Iván Pedroso, Cuban long jumper and coach1973 – Eddie Fisher, American drummer 1973 – Konstadinos Gatsioudis, Greek javelin thrower* 1973 – Rian Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1973 – Paula Radcliffe, English runner* 1973 – Hasan Vural, German-Turkish footballer1974 – Charl Langeveldt, South African cricketer 1974 – Sarah Paulson, American actress* 1974 – Giovanni Ribisi, American actor* 1974 – Marissa Ribisi, American actress1975 – Nick Dinsmore, American wrestler and trainer 1975 – Susanthika Jayasinghe, Sri Lankan sprinter* 1975 – Milla Jovovich, Ukrainian-American actress 1976 – Éric Bédard, Canadian speed skater and coach 1976 – Nir Davidovich, Israeli footballer and manager* 1976 – Patrick Müller, Swiss footballer* 1976 – Andrew Simpson, English sailor (d. 2013)* 1976 – Takeo Spikes, American football player and sportscaster1977 – Arnaud Clément, French tennis player 1977 – Samuel Påhlsson, Swedish ice hockey player* 1977 – Katheryn Winnick, Canadian actress1978 – Alex Cintrón, Puerto Rican baseball player and sportscaster 1978 – Riteish Deshmukh, Indian film actor, producer and architect* 1978 – Manny Pacquiao, Filipino boxer and politician* 1978 – Neil Sanderson, Canadian drummer and songwriter * 1978 – Chase Utley, American baseball player1979 – Matt Murley, American ice hockey player 1979 – Paul Smith, English footballer1980 – Suzy Batkovic, Australian basketball player 1980 – Ryan Hunter-Reay, American race car driver* 1980 – Alexandra Papageorgiou, Greek hammer thrower* 1980 – Eli Pariser, American activist and author1981 – Jerry Hsu, American skateboarder and photographer 1981 – Tim Wiese, German footballer1982 – Josh Barfield, American baseball player 1982 – Lorenzo Cittadini, Italian rugby player* 1982 – Craig Kielburger, Canadian activist and author* 1982 – Stéphane Lasme, Gabonese basketball player1983 – Gregory Campbell, Canadian ice hockey player and executive 1983 – Erik Christensen, Canadian ice hockey player* 1983 – Mikky Ekko, American singer and songwriter* 1983 – Haron Keitany, Kenyan runner * 1983 – Sébastien Ogier, French race car driver1984 – Luis Alfageme, Argentinian footballer 1984 – Julian Bennett, English footballer* 1984 – Andrew Davies, English footballer* 1984 – Shannon Woodward, American actress1985 – Fernando Abad, Dominican baseball player 1985 – Łukasz Broź, Polish footballer* 1985 – Craig Reid, English footballer1986 – Emma Bell, American actress 1986 – Frank Winterstein, Australian-Samoan rugby league player* 1986 – Vanessa Zima, American actress1987 – Maryna Arzamasova, Belarusian middle-distance runner 1987 – Bo Guagua, Chinese businessman* 1987 – Chelsea Manning, American soldier and intelligence analyst* 1987 – Donovan Solano, Colombian baseball player1988 – Liisa Ehrberg, Estonian cyclist 1988 – Grethe Grünberg, Estonian ice dancer* 1988 – Kris Joseph, Canadian basketball player* 1988 – David Rudisha, Kenyan runner* 1988 – Craig Sutherland, Scottish footballer1989 – Taylor York, American musician1990 – Graham Rogers, American actor1991 – Jordan Rankin, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Atsedu Tsegay, Ethiopian runner1992 – Quinton de Kock, South African cricketer 1992 – Buddy Hield, Bahamian basketball player* 1992 – Joshua Ingram, Canadian drummer and percussionist1993 – Kiersey Clemons, American actress 1993 – Patricia Kú Flores, Peruvian tennis player1994 – Lloyd Perrett, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Nat Wolff, American singer-songwriter, keyboard player and actor 1995 – Guerschon Yabusele, French basketball player1996 – Elizaveta Tuktamysheva, Russian figure skater1997 – Naiktha Bains, British-Australian tennis player 1997 – Shoma Uno, Japanese figure skater1998 – Jasmine Armfield, English actress 1998 – Martin Ødegaard, Norwegian footballer 1999 – Mirei Sasaki, Japanese singer, model, and actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 779 – Sturm, abbot of Fulda* 908 – al-Abbas ibn al-Hasan al-Jarjara'i, Abbasid vizier* 908 – Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz, Abbasid prince and poet, anti-caliph for one day* 942 – William I, duke of Normandy1187 – Pope Gregory VIII (b.", "1100)1195 – Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut (b.", "1150)1273 – Rumi, Persian jurist, theologian, and poet (b.", "1207)1316 – Juan Fernández, bishop-elect of León1419 – William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of England1471 – Infanta Isabel, Duchess of Burgundy (b.", "1397)1559 – Irene di Spilimbergo, Italian Renaissance poet and painter (b.", "1538)1562 – Eleonora di Toledo, Grand Duchess of Tuscany (b.", "1522)===1601–1900===1663 – Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (b.", "1583)1721 – Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b.", "1640)1830 – Simón Bolívar, Venezuelan general and politician, second President of Venezuela (b.", "1783)1833 – Kaspar Hauser, German feral child (b.", "1812?", ")1847 – Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma (b.", "1791) 1857 – Francis Beaufort, Irish hydrographer and officer in the Royal Navy (b.", "1774)1891 – José María Iglesias, Mexican politician and interim President (1876-1877) (b.", "1823)===1901–present===1904 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (b.", "1848)1907 – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, Irish-Scottish physicist and engineer (b.", "1824)1909 – Leopold II of Belgium (b.", "1835)1917 – Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, English physician and activist (b.", "1836)1927 – Rajendra Lahiri, Indian activist (b.", "1892)1928 – Frank Rinehart, American photographer (b.", "1861)1929 – Manuel de Oliveira Gomes da Costa, Portuguese general and politician, tenth President of Portugal (b.", "1863)1930 – Peter Warlock, Welsh composer and critic (b.", "1894)1932 – Charles Winckler, Danish discus thrower, shot putter, and tug of war competitor (b.", "1867)1933 – 13th Dalai Lama (b.", "1876)1935 – Lizette Woodworth Reese, American poet (b.", "1856)1940 – Alicia Boole Stott, Anglo-Irish mathematician and academic (b.", "1860)1942 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English lieutenant and politician (b.", "1895)1947 – Christos Tsigiridis, Greek engineer (b.", "1877)1956 – Eddie Acuff, American actor (b.", "1903)1957 – Dorothy L. Sayers, English author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1893)1962 – Thomas Mitchell, American actor (b.", "1892)1964 – Victor Francis Hess, Austrian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1883)1967 – Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1908)1970 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian, author, and educator (b.", "1896)1978 – Don Ellis, American trumpet player, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1934)1981 – Antiochos Evangelatos, Greek composer and conductor (b.", "1903)1982 – Homer S. Ferguson, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1889)1986 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (b.", "1925)1987 – Bernardus Johannes Alfrink, Dutch cardinal (b.", "1900)* 1987 – Linda Wong, American porn actress (b.", "1951)* 1987 – Marguerite Yourcenar, Belgian-American author and poet (b.", "1903)1992 – Günther Anders, German journalist and philosopher (b.", "1902) 1992 – Dana Andrews, American actor (b.", "1909)1999 – Rex Allen, American singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1920) 1999 – Grover Washington Jr., American singer-songwriter and saxophonist (b.", "1943)* 1999 – C. Vann Woodward, American historian and academic (b.", "1908)2002 – K. W. Devanayagam, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, tenth Sri Lankan Minister of Justice (b.", "1910)2003 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (b.", "1921)2004 – Tom Wesselmann, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1931)2005 – Jack Anderson, American journalist and author (b.", "1922)* 2005 – Marc Favreau, Canadian actor and poet (b.", "1929)* 2005 – Haljand Udam, Estonian orientalist and academic (d. 1936)2006 – Larry Sherry, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1935)2008 – Sammy Baugh, American football player and coach (b.", "1914)* 2008 – Freddy Breck, German singer-songwriter, producer, and journalist (b.", "1942)* 2008 – Dave Smith, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1955)* 2008 – Gregoire, Congolese chimpanzee, oldest recorded (b.", "1942)2009 – Chris Henry, American football player (b.", "1983) 2009 – Jennifer Jones, American actress (b.", "1919)* 2009 – Alaina Reed Hall, American actress (b.", "1946)2010 – Captain Beefheart, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1941) 2010 – Walt Dropo, American basketball and baseball player (b.", "1923)* 2010 – Ralph Coates, English footballer (b.", "1946)2011 – Eva Ekvall, Venezuelan journalist and author, Miss Venezuela 2000 (b.", "1983) 2011 – Kim Jong-il, North Korean commander and politician, second Supreme Leader of North Korea (b.", "1941)2012 – Richard Adams, Filipino-American activist (b.", "1947) 2012 – James Gower, American priest and activist, co-founded the College of the Atlantic (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Daniel Inouye, American captain and politician (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Laurier LaPierre, Canadian historian, journalist, and politician (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (b.", "1957)2013 – Fred Bruemmer, Latvian-Canadian photographer (b.", "1929) 2013 – Ricardo María Carles Gordó, Spanish cardinal (b.", "1926)* 2013 – Richard Heffner, American historian and television host (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Tetsurō Kashibuchi, Japanese drummer, songwriter, and producer (b.", "1950)* 2013 – Janet Rowley, American geneticist and biologist (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Conny van Rietschoten, Dutch sailor (b.", "1926)2014 – Dieter Grau, German-American scientist and engineer (b.", "1913) 2014 – Richard C. Hottelet, American journalist (b.", "1917)* 2014 – Oleh Lysheha, Ukrainian poet and playwright (b.", "1949)* 2014 – Lowell Steward, American captain (b.", "1919)* 2014 – Ivan Vekić, Croatian colonel, lawyer, and politician, Croatian Minister of the Interior (b.", "1938)2015 – Hal Brown, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1924) 2015 – Osamu Hayaishi, American-Japanese biochemist and academic (b.", "1920)* 2015 – Michael Wyschogrod, German-American philosopher and theologian (b.", "1928)2016 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (b.", "1922) 2016 – Henry Heimlich, American doctor (b.", "1920)* 2016 – Gordon Hunt, American voice director (b.", "1929)2020 – Jeremy Bullock, English actor (b.", "1945) 2020 – Allen Dines, American politician (b.", "1921)* 2023 – Ronaldo Valdez, Filipino actor (b.", "1947)* 2023 – James McCaffrey, American actor (b.", "1958)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Daniel the Prophet Josep Manyanet i Vives Lazarus of Bethany (local commemoration in Cuba) O Sapientia Olympias the Deaconess Wivina Sturm December 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Accession Day (Bahrain)* International Day to End Violence Against Sex Workers * Kurdish Flag Day (Global Kurdish population)* National Day (Bhutan)* Pan American Aviation Day (United States)* Wright Brothers Day, a United States federal observance by Presidential proclamation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 17" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Difference engine" ], [ "Introduction", "Science Museum's difference engine, the first one actually built from Babbage's design.", "The design has the same precision on all columns, but in calculating polynomials, the precision on the higher-order columns could be lower.A '''difference engine''' is an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions.", "It was designed in the 1820s, and was first created by Charles Babbage.", "The name ''difference engine'' is derived from the method of divided differences, a way to interpolate or tabulate functions by using a small set of polynomial co-efficients.", "Some of the most common mathematical functions used in engineering, science and navigation are built from logarithmic and trigonometric functions, which can be approximated by polynomials, so a difference engine can compute many useful tables." ], [ "History", "Close-up of the London Science Museum's difference engine showing some of the number wheels and the sector gears between columns.", "The sector gears on the left show the double-high teeth very clearly.", "The sector gears on the middle-right are facing the back side of the engine, but the single-high teeth are clearly visible.", "Notice how the wheels are mirrored, with counting up from left-to-right, or counting down from left-to-right.", "Also notice the metal tab between \"6\" and \"7\".", "That tab trips the carry lever in the back when \"9\" passes to \"0\" in the front during the add steps (Step 1 and Step 3).The notion of a mechanical calculator for mathematical functions can be traced back to the Antikythera mechanism of the 2nd century BC, while early modern examples are attributed to Pascal and Leibniz in the 17th century.In 1784 J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army, devised and built an adding machine and described the basic principles of a difference machine in a book published in 1786 (the first written reference to a difference machine is dated to 1784), but he was unable to obtain funding to progress with the idea.===Charles Babbage's difference engines===Charles Babbage began to construct a small difference engine in c. 1819 and had completed it by 1822 (Difference Engine 0).", "He announced his invention on 14 June 1822, in a paper to the Royal Astronomical Society, entitled \"Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables\".", "This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle.", "The British government was interested, since producing tables was time-consuming and expensive and they hoped the difference engine would make the task more economical.In 1823, the British government gave Babbage £1700 to start work on the project.", "Although Babbage's design was feasible, the metalworking techniques of the era could not economically make parts in the precision and quantity required.", "Thus the implementation proved to be much more expensive and doubtful of success than the government's initial estimate.", "According to the 1830 design for Difference Engine No.", "1, it would have about 25,000 parts, weigh 4 tons, and operate on 20-digit numbers by sixth-order differences.", "In 1832, Babbage and Joseph Clement produced a small working model (one-seventh of the plan), which operated on 6-digit numbers by second-order differences.", "Lady Byron described seeing the working prototype in 1833: \"We both went to see the thinking machine (or so it seems) last Monday.", "It raised several Nos.", "to the 2nd and 3rd powers, and extracted the root of a Quadratic equation.\"", "Work on the larger engine was suspended in 1833.By the time the government abandoned the project in 1842, Babbage had received and spent over £17,000 on development, which still fell short of achieving a working engine.", "The government valued only the machine's output (economically produced tables), not the development (at unpredictable cost) of the machine itself.", "Babbage refused to recognize that predicament.", "Meanwhile, Babbage's attention had moved on to developing an analytical engine, further undermining the government's confidence in the eventual success of the difference engine.", "By improving the concept as an analytical engine, Babbage had made the difference engine concept obsolete, and the project to implement it an utter failure in the view of the government.The incomplete Difference Engine No.", "1 was put on display to the public at the 1862 International Exhibition in South Kensington, London.Babbage went on to design his much more general analytical engine, but later produced an improved \"Difference Engine No.", "2\" design (31-digit numbers and seventh-order differences), between 1846 and 1849.Babbage was able to take advantage of ideas developed for the analytical engine to make the new difference engine calculate more quickly while using fewer parts.=== Scheutzian calculation engine ===Per Georg Scheutz's third difference engineInspired by Babbage's difference engine in 1834, Per Georg Scheutz built several experimental models.", "In 1837 his son Edward proposed to construct a working model in metal, and in 1840 finished the calculating part, capable of calculating series with 5-digit numbers and first-order differences, which was later extended to third-order (1842).", "In 1843, after adding the printing part, the model was completed.In 1851, funded by the government, construction of the larger and improved (15-digit numbers and fourth-order differences) machine began, and finished in 1853.The machine was demonstrated at the World's Fair in Paris, 1855 and then sold in 1856 to the Dudley Observatory in Albany, New York.", "Delivered in 1857, it was the first printing calculator sold.", "In 1857 the British government ordered the next Scheutz's difference machine, which was built in 1859.It had the same basic construction as the previous one, weighing about .=== Others ===Martin Wiberg improved Scheutz's construction (c. 1859, his machine has the same capacity as Scheutz's: 15-digit and fourth-order) but used his device only for producing and publishing printed tables (interest tables in 1860, and logarithmic tables in 1875).Alfred Deacon of London in c. 1862 produced a small difference engine (20-digit numbers and third-order differences).American George B.", "Grant started working on his calculating machine in 1869, unaware of the works of Babbage and Scheutz (Schentz).", "One year later (1870) he learned about difference engines and proceeded to design one himself, describing his construction in 1871.In 1874 the Boston Thursday Club raised a subscription for the construction of a large-scale model, which was built in 1876.It could be expanded to enhance precision and weighed about .Christel Hamann built one machine (16-digit numbers and second-order differences) in 1909 for the \"Tables of Bauschinger and Peters\" (\"Logarithmic-Trigonometrical Tables with eight decimal places\"), which was first published in Leipzig in 1910.It weighed about .Burroughs Corporation in about 1912 built a machine for the Nautical Almanac Office which was used as a difference engine of second-order.", "It was later replaced in 1929 by a Burroughs Class 11 (13-digit numbers and second-order differences, or 11-digit numbers and fifth-order differences).Alexander John Thompson about 1927 built ''integrating and differencing machine'' (13-digit numbers and fifth-order differences) for his table of logarithms \"Logarithmetica britannica\".", "This machine was composed of four modified Triumphator calculators.Leslie Comrie in 1928 described how to use the Brunsviga-Dupla calculating machine as a difference engine of second-order (15-digit numbers).", "He also noted in 1931 that National Accounting Machine Class 3000 could be used as a difference engine of sixth-order.===Construction of two working No.", "2 difference engines===During the 1980s, Allan G. Bromley, an associate professor at the University of Sydney, Australia, studied Babbage's original drawings for the Difference and Analytical Engines at the Science Museum library in London.", "This work led the Science Museum to construct a working calculating section of difference engine No.", "2 from 1985 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing.", "This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth in 1991.In 2002, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed.", "The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (possibly introduced as a protection in case the plans were stolen), which had to be corrected.", "The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th-century technology, resolving a long-standing debate as to whether Babbage's design could have worked using Georgian-era engineering methods.", "The machine contains 8,000 parts and weighs about 5 tons.The printer's primary purpose is to produce stereotype plates for use in printing presses, which it does by pressing type into soft plaster to create a flong.", "Babbage intended that the Engine's results be conveyed directly to mass printing, having recognized that many errors in previous tables were not the result of human calculating mistakes but from slips in the manual typesetting process.", "The printer's paper output is mainly a means of checking the engine's performance.In addition to funding the construction of the output mechanism for the Science Museum's difference engine, Nathan Myhrvold commissioned the construction of a second complete Difference Engine No.", "2, which was on exhibit at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California from May 2008 to January 2016.It has since been transferred to Intellectual Ventures in Seattle where it is on display just outside the main lobby." ], [ "Operation", "Fully operational difference engine at the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, CaliforniaThe Mountain View machine in actionThe difference engine consists of a number of columns, numbered from '''1''' to '''''N'''''.", "The machine is able to store one decimal number in each column.", "The machine can only add the value of a column ''n'' + 1 to column ''n'' to produce the new value of ''n''.", "Column ''N'' can only store a constant, column 1 displays (and possibly prints) the value of the calculation on the current iteration.The engine is programmed by setting initial values to the columns.", "Column 1 is set to the value of the polynomial at the start of computation.", "Column 2 is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial at the same value of '''''X'''''.", "Each of the columns from 3 to ''N'' is set to a value derived from the first and higher derivatives of the polynomial.", "=== Timing ===In the Babbage design, one iteration (i.e.", "one full set of addition and carry operations) happens for each rotation of the main shaft.", "Odd and even columns alternately perform an addition in one cycle.", "The sequence of operations for column is thus:# Count up, receiving the value from column (Addition step)# Perform carry propagation on the counted up value# Count down to zero, adding to column # Reset the counted-down value to its original valueSteps 1,2,3,4 occur for every odd column, while steps 3,4,1,2 occur for every even column.While Babbage's original design placed the crank directly on the main shaft, it was later realized that the force required to crank the machine would have been too great for a human to handle comfortably.", "Therefore, the two models that were built incorporate a 4:1 reduction gear at the crank, and four revolutions of the crank are required to perform one full cycle.=== Steps ===Each iteration creates a new result, and is accomplished in four steps corresponding to four complete turns of the handle shown at the far right in the picture below.", "The four steps are:# All even numbered columns (2,4,6,8) are added to all odd numbered columns (1,3,5,7) simultaneously.", "An interior sweep arm turns each even column to cause whatever number is on each wheel to count down to zero.", "As a wheel turns to zero, it transfers its value to a sector gear located between the odd/even columns.", "These values are transferred to the odd column causing them to count up.", "Any odd column value that passes from \"9\" to \"0\" activates a carry lever.# This is like Step 1, except it is odd columns (3,5,7) added to even columns (2,4,6), and column one has its values transferred by a sector gear to the print mechanism on the left end of the engine.", "Any even column value that passes from \"9\" to \"0\" activates a carry lever.", "The column 1 value, the result for the polynomial, is sent to the attached printer mechanism.# This is like Step 2, but for doing carries on even columns, and returning odd columns to their original values.=== Subtraction ===The engine represents negative numbers as ten's complements.", "Subtraction amounts to addition of a negative number.", "This works in the same manner that modern computers perform subtraction, known as two's complement." ], [ "Method of differences", "The principle of a difference engine is Newton's method of divided differences.", "If the initial value of a polynomial (and of its finite differences) is calculated by some means for some value of '''''X''''', the difference engine can calculate any number of nearby values, using the method generally known as the '''method of finite differences'''.", "For example, consider the quadratic polynomial: with the goal of tabulating the values ''p''(0), ''p''(1), ''p''(2), ''p''(3), ''p''(4), and so forth.", "The table below is constructed as follows: the second column contains the values of the polynomial, the third column contains the differences of the two left neighbors in the second column, and the fourth column contains the differences of the two neighbors in the third column: x ''p''(''x'') = 2''x''2 − 3''x'' + 2 diff1(''x'') = ( ''p''(''x'' + 1) − p(''x'') ) diff2(''x'') = ( diff1(''x'' + 1) − diff1(''x'') ) 0 2 −1 4 1 1 3 4 2 4 7 4 3 11 11 4 22 The numbers in the third values-column are constant.", "In fact, by starting with any polynomial of degree ''n'', the column number ''n'' + 1 will always be constant.", "This is the crucial fact behind the success of the method.This table was built from left to right, but it is possible to continue building it from right to left down a diagonal in order to compute more values.", "To calculate ''p''(5) use the values from the lowest diagonal.", "Start with the fourth column constant value of 4 and copy it down the column.", "Then continue the third column by adding 4 to 11 to get 15.Next continue the second column by taking its previous value, 22 and adding the 15 from the third column.", "Thus ''p''(5) is 22 + 15 = 37.In order to compute ''p''(6), we iterate the same algorithm on the ''p''(5) values: take 4 from the fourth column, add that to the third column's value 15 to get 19, then add that to the second column's value 37 to get 56, which is ''p''(6).", "This process may be continued ''ad infinitum''.", "The values of the polynomial are produced without ever having to multiply.", "A difference engine only needs to be able to add.", "From one loop to the next, it needs to store 2 numbers—in this example (the last elements in the first and second columns).", "To tabulate polynomials of degree ''n'', one needs sufficient storage to hold ''n'' numbers.Babbage's difference engine No.", "2, finally built in 1991, can hold 8 numbers of 31 decimal digits each and can thus tabulate 7th degree polynomials to that precision.", "The best machines from Scheutz could store 4 numbers with 15 digits each." ], [ "Initial values", "The initial values of columns can be calculated by first manually calculating N consecutive values of the function and by backtracking (i.e.", "calculating the required differences).Col gets the value of the function at the start of computation .", "Col is the difference between and ...If the function to be calculated is a polynomial function, expressed as: the initial values can be calculated directly from the constant coefficients ''a''0, ''a''1,''a''2, ..., ''an'' without calculating any data points.", "The initial values are thus:* Col = ''a''0* Col = ''a''1 + ''a''2 + ''a''3 + ''a''4 + ... + ''an''* Col = 2''a''2 + 6''a''3 + 14''a''4 + 30''a''5 + ...* Col = 6''a''3 + 36''a''4 + 150''a''5 + ...* Col = 24''a''4 + 240''a''5 + ...* Col = 120''a''5 + ...* === Use of derivatives ===Many commonly used functions are analytic functions, which can be expressed as power series, for example as a Taylor series.", "The initial values can be calculated to any degree of accuracy; if done correctly the engine will give exact results for first N steps.", "After that, the engine will only give an approximation of the function.The Taylor series expresses the function as a sum obtained from its derivatives at one point.", "For many functions the higher derivatives are trivial to obtain; for instance, the sine function at 0 has values of 0 or for all derivatives.", "Setting 0 as the start of computation we get the simplified Maclaurin series:The same method of calculating the initial values from the coefficients can be used as for polynomial functions.", "The polynomial constant coefficients will now have the value:=== Curve fitting ===The problem with the methods described above is that errors will accumulate and the series will tend to diverge from the true function.", "A solution which guarantees a constant maximum error is to use curve fitting.", "A minimum of ''N'' values are calculated evenly spaced along the range of the desired calculations.", "Using a curve fitting technique like Gaussian reduction an ''N''−1th degree polynomial interpolation of the function is found.", "With the optimized polynomial, the initial values can be calculated as above." ], [ "See also", "* Allan G. Bromley* Johann Helfrich von Müller* Martin Wiberg* Pinwheel calculator" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " The Computer History Museum exhibition on Babbage and the difference engine* Meccano Difference Engine #1* Meccano Difference Engine #2* Babbage's First Difference Engine – How it was intended to work* Analysis of Expenditure on Babbage's Difference Engine No.", "1* Difference engine workings with animations* Difference Engine No1 specimen piece at the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney* Gigapixel Image of the Difference Engine No2* Scheutz Difference Engine in action video.", "Purchased by the Dudley Observatory's first director, Benjamin Apthorp Gould, in 1856.Gould was an acquaintance of Babbage.", "The Difference Engine performed astronomical calculations for the Observatory for many years, and is now part of the national collection at the Smithsonian.", "* Links to videos about Babbage DE 2 and its construction:" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Draupnir" ], [ "Introduction", "''The third gift — an enormous hammer'' (1902) by Elmer Boyd Smith.", "The ring Draupnir is visible among other creations by the Sons of Ivaldi.In Norse mythology, '''Draupnir''' (Old Norse: , \"the dripper\") is a gold ring possessed by the god Odin with the ability to multiply itself: Every ninth night, eight new rings 'drip' from Draupnir, each one of the same size and weight as the original.Draupnir was forged by the dwarven brothers Brokkr and Eitri (or Sindri).", "Brokkr and Eitri made this ring as one of a set of three gifts which included Mjöllnir and Gullinbursti.", "They made these gifts in accordance with a bet Loki made saying that Brokkr and Eitri could not make better gifts than the three made by the Sons of Ivaldi.", "In the end, Mjöllnir, Thor's hammer, won the contest for Brokkr and Eitri.", "Loki used a loophole to get out of the wager for his head (the wager was for Loki's head only, but he argued that, to remove his head, they would have to injure his neck, which was not in the bargain) and Brokkr punished him by sealing his lips shut with wire.The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son Baldr:Odin laid upon the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir; this quality attended it: that every ninth night there fell from it eight gold rings of equal weight.", "(from the ''Gylfaginning'').The ring was subsequently retrieved by Hermóðr.", "It was offered as a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerðr, which is described in the poem ''Skírnismál''." ], [ "In popular culture", "The ring appears in the 2022 video game ''God of War Ragnarök'', where it is used as a base for creating the new weapon of Kratos.", "The ability of replicating itself is instead used to create spears that can be thrown and explode on command." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Orchard, Andy (1997).", "''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend''.", "Cassell." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Divergence" ], [ "Introduction", "The divergence of different vector fields.", "The divergence of vectors from point (''x'',''y'') equals the sum of the partial derivative-with-respect-to-''x'' of the ''x''-component and the partial derivative-with-respect-to-''y'' of the ''y''-component at that point:In vector calculus, '''divergence''' is a vector operator that operates on a vector field, producing a scalar field giving the quantity of the vector field's source at each point.", "More technically, the divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field from an infinitesimal volume around a given point.As an example, consider air as it is heated or cooled.", "The velocity of the air at each point defines a vector field.", "While air is heated in a region, it expands in all directions, and thus the velocity field points outward from that region.", "The divergence of the velocity field in that region would thus have a positive value.", "While the air is cooled and thus contracting, the divergence of the velocity has a negative value." ], [ "Physical interpretation of divergence", "In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flux behaves like a source at a given point.", "It is a local measure of its \"outgoingness\" – the extent to which there are more of the field vectors exiting from an infinitesimal region of space than entering it.", "A point at which the flux is outgoing has positive divergence, and is often called a \"source\" of the field.", "A point at which the flux is directed inward has negative divergence, and is often called a \"sink\" of the field.", "The greater the flux of field through a small surface enclosing a given point, the greater the value of divergence at that point.", "A point at which there is zero flux through an enclosing surface has zero divergence.The divergence of a vector field is often illustrated using the simple example of the velocity field of a fluid, a liquid or gas.", "A moving gas has a velocity, a speed and direction at each point, which can be represented by a vector, so the velocity of the gas forms a vector field.", "If a gas is heated, it will expand.", "This will cause a net motion of gas particles outward in all directions.", "Any closed surface in the gas will enclose gas which is expanding, so there will be an outward flux of gas through the surface.", "So the velocity field will have positive divergence everywhere.", "Similarly, if the gas is cooled, it will contract.", "There will be more room for gas particles in any volume, so the external pressure of the fluid will cause a net flow of gas volume inward through any closed surface.", "Therefore the velocity field has negative divergence everywhere.", "In contrast, in a gas at a constant temperature and pressure, the net flux of gas out of any closed surface is zero.", "The gas may be moving, but the volume rate of gas flowing into any closed surface must equal the volume rate flowing out, so the ''net'' flux is zero.", "Thus the gas velocity has zero divergence everywhere.", "A field which has zero divergence everywhere is called solenoidal.If the gas is heated only at one point or small region, or a small tube is introduced which supplies a source of additional gas at one point, the gas there will expand, pushing fluid particles around it outward in all directions.", "This will cause an outward velocity field throughout the gas, centered on the heated point.", "Any closed surface enclosing the heated point will have a flux of gas particles passing out of it, so there is positive divergence at that point.", "However any closed surface ''not'' enclosing the point will have a constant density of gas inside, so just as many fluid particles are entering as leaving the volume, thus the net flux out of the volume is zero.", "Therefore the divergence at any other point is zero." ], [ "Definition", "}The divergence of a vector field at a point is defined as the limit of the ratio of the surface integral of out of the closed surface of a volume enclosing to the volume of , as shrinks to zero:where is the volume of , is the boundary of , and is the outward unit normal to that surface.", "It can be shown that the above limit always converges to the same value for any sequence of volumes that contain and approach zero volume.", "The result, , is a scalar function of .Since this definition is coordinate-free, it shows that the divergence is the same in any coordinate system.", "However it is not often used practically to calculate divergence; when the vector field is given in a coordinate system the coordinate definitions below are much simpler to use.A vector field with zero divergence everywhere is called ''solenoidal'' – in which case any closed surface has no net flux across it." ], [ "Definition in coordinates", "===Cartesian coordinates===In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field is defined as the scalar-valued function::Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under rotations, as the physical interpretation suggests.", "This is because the trace of the Jacobian matrix of an -dimensional vector field in -dimensional space is invariant under any invertible linear transformation.The common notation for the divergence is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes an operation reminiscent of the dot product: take the components of the operator (see del), apply them to the corresponding components of , and sum the results.", "Because applying an operator is different from multiplying the components, this is considered an abuse of notation.=== Cylindrical coordinates ===For a vector expressed in '''local''' unit cylindrical coordinates as:where is the unit vector in direction , the divergence is:The use of local coordinates is vital for the validity of the expression.", "If we consider the position vector and the functions , , and , which assign the corresponding '''global''' cylindrical coordinate to a vector, in general , , and .", "In particular, if we consider the identity function , we find that::.=== Spherical coordinates ===In spherical coordinates, with the angle with the axis and the rotation around the axis, and again written in local unit coordinates, the divergence is:=== Tensor field ===Let be continuously differentiable second-order tensor field defined as follows::the divergence in cartesian coordinate system is a first-order tensor field and can be defined in two ways::and:We have:If tensor is symmetric then .", "Because of this, often in the literature the two definitions (and symbols and ) are used interchangeably (especially in mechanics equations where tensor symmetry is assumed).Expressions of in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given in the article del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates.=== General coordinates ===Using Einstein notation we can consider the divergence in general coordinates, which we write as , where is the number of dimensions of the domain.", "Here, the upper index refers to the number of the coordinate or component, so refers to the second component, and not the quantity squared.", "The index variable is used to refer to an arbitrary component, such as .", "The divergence can then be written via the Voss-Weyl formula, as::where is the local coefficient of the volume element and are the components of with respect to the local '''unnormalized''' covariant basis (sometimes written as .", "The Einstein notation implies summation over , since it appears as both an upper and lower index.The volume coefficient is a function of position which depends on the coordinate system.", "In Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates, using the same conventions as before, we have , and , respectively.", "The volume can also be expressed as , where is the metric tensor.", "The determinant appears because it provides the appropriate invariant definition of the volume, given a set of vectors.", "Since the determinant is a scalar quantity which doesn't depend on the indices, these can be suppressed, writing .", "The absolute value is taken in order to handle the general case where the determinant might be negative, such as in pseudo-Riemannian spaces.", "The reason for the square-root is a bit subtle: it effectively avoids double-counting as one goes from curved to Cartesian coordinates, and back.", "The volume (the determinant) can also be understood as the Jacobian of the transformation from Cartesian to curvilinear coordinates, which for gives Some conventions expect all local basis elements to be normalized to unit length, as was done in the previous sections.", "If we write for the normalized basis, and for the components of with respect to it, we have that :using one of the properties of the metric tensor.", "By dotting both sides of the last equality with the contravariant element , we can conclude that .", "After substituting, the formula becomes::See '''' for further discussion." ], [ "Properties", "The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of calculus.", "Most importantly, the divergence is a linear operator, i.e.,:for all vector fields and and all real numbers and .There is a product rule of the following type: if is a scalar-valued function and is a vector field, then:or in more suggestive notation:Another product rule for the cross product of two vector fields and in three dimensions involves the curl and reads as follows::or:The Laplacian of a scalar field is the divergence of the field's gradient::The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is equal to zero: :If a vector field with zero divergence is defined on a ball in , then there exists some vector field on the ball with .", "For regions in more topologically complicated than this, the latter statement might be false (see Poincaré lemma).", "The degree of ''failure'' of the truth of the statement, measured by the homology of the chain complex:serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region .", "These are the beginnings and main motivations of de Rham cohomology." ], [ "Decomposition theorem", "It can be shown that any stationary flux that is twice continuously differentiable in and vanishes sufficiently fast for can be decomposed uniquely into an ''irrotational part'' and a ''source-free part'' .", "Moreover, these parts are explicitly determined by the respective ''source densities'' (see above) and ''circulation densities'' (see the article Curl):For the irrotational part one has:with:The source-free part, , can be similarly written: one only has to replace the ''scalar potential'' by a ''vector potential'' and the terms by , and the source density by the circulation density .This \"decomposition theorem\" is a by-product of the stationary case of electrodynamics.", "It is a special case of the more general Helmholtz decomposition, which works in dimensions greater than three as well." ], [ "In arbitrary finite dimensions", "The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any finite number of dimensions.", "If :in a Euclidean coordinate system with coordinates , define:In the 1D case, reduces to a regular function, and the divergence reduces to the derivative.For any , the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the \"product rule\":for any scalar-valued function ." ], [ "Relation to the exterior derivative", "One can express the divergence as a particular case of the exterior derivative, which takes a 2-form to a 3-form in .", "Define the current two-form as:It measures the amount of \"stuff\" flowing through a surface per unit time in a \"stuff fluid\" of density moving with local velocity .", "Its exterior derivative is then given by:where is the wedge product.Thus, the divergence of the vector field can be expressed as::Here the superscript is one of the two musical isomorphisms, and is the Hodge star operator.", "When the divergence is written in this way, the operator is referred to as the codifferential.", "Working with the current two-form and the exterior derivative is usually easier than working with the vector field and divergence, because unlike the divergence, the exterior derivative commutes with a change of (curvilinear) coordinate system." ], [ "In curvilinear coordinates", "The appropriate expression is more complicated in curvilinear coordinates.", "The divergence of a vector field extends naturally to any differentiable manifold of dimension that has a volume form (or density) , e.g.", "a Riemannian or Lorentzian manifold.", "Generalising the construction of a two-form for a vector field on , on such a manifold a vector field defines an -form obtained by contracting with .", "The divergence is then the function defined by:The divergence can be defined in terms of the Lie derivative as:This means that the divergence measures the rate of expansion of a unit of volume (a volume element) as it flows with the vector field.On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the divergence with respect to the volume can be expressed in terms of the Levi-Civita connection ::where the second expression is the contraction of the vector field valued 1-form with itself and the last expression is the traditional coordinate expression from Ricci calculus.An equivalent expression without using a connection is:where is the metric and denotes the partial derivative with respect to coordinate .", "The square-root of the (absolute value of the determinant of the) metric appears because the divergence must be written with the correct conception of the volume.", "In curvilinear coordinates, the basis vectors are no longer orthonormal; the determinant encodes the correct idea of volume in this case.", "It appears twice, here, once, so that the can be transformed into \"flat space\" (where coordinates are actually orthonormal), and once again so that is also transformed into \"flat space\", so that finally, the \"ordinary\" divergence can be written with the \"ordinary\" concept of volume in flat space (''i.e.''", "unit volume, ''i.e.''", "one, ''i.e.''", "not written down).", "The square-root appears in the denominator, because the derivative transforms in the opposite way (contravariantly) to the vector (which is covariant).", "This idea of getting to a \"flat coordinate system\" where local computations can be done in a conventional way is called a vielbein.", "A different way to see this is to note that the divergence is the codifferential in disguise.", "That is, the divergence corresponds to the expression with the differential and the Hodge star.", "The Hodge star, by its construction, causes the volume form to appear in all of the right places." ], [ "The divergence of tensors", "Divergence can also be generalised to tensors.", "In Einstein notation, the divergence of a contravariant vector is given by:where denotes the covariant derivative.", "In this general setting, the correct formulation of the divergence is to recognize that it is a codifferential; the appropriate properties follow from there.Equivalently, some authors define the divergence of a mixed tensor by using the musical isomorphism : if is a -tensor ( for the contravariant vector and for the covariant one), then we define the ''divergence of '' to be the -tensor:that is, we take the trace over the ''first two'' covariant indices of the covariant derivative.The symbol refers to the musical isomorphism." ], [ "See also", "CurlDel in cylindrical and spherical coordinatesDivergence theoremGradient" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * * * " ], [ "External links", " * The idea of divergence of a vector field* Khan Academy: Divergence video lesson*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 18" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1118 – The city of Zaragoza is conquered by king Alfonso I of Aragon from the Almoravid.", "1271 – Kublai Khan renames his empire \"Yuan\" (元 yuán), officially marking the start of the Yuan dynasty of Mongolia and China.", "1499 – A rebellion breaks out in Alpujarras in response to the forced conversions of Muslims in Spain.===1601–1900===1622 – Portuguese forces score a military victory over the Kingdom of Kongo at the Battle of Mbumbi in present-day Angola.", "1655 – The Whitehall Conference ends with the determination that there was no law preventing Jews from re-entering England after the Edict of Expulsion of 1290.", "1777 – The United States celebrates its first Thanksgiving, marking the recent victory by the American rebels over British General John Burgoyne at Saratoga in October.", "1787 – New Jersey becomes the third state to ratify the U.S.", "Constitution.", "1793 – Surrender of the frigate ''La Lutine'' by French Royalists to Lord Samuel Hood; renamed , she later becomes a famous treasure wreck.", "1833 – The national anthem of the Russian Empire, \"God Save the Tsar!", "\", is first performed.", "1854 – The Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada abolishes the seigneurial system.", "1865 – US Secretary of State William Seward proclaims the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slavery throughout the United States.", "1867 – A magnitude 7.0 earthquakes strikes off the coast of Taiwan, triggering a tsunami and killing at least 580 people.", "1878 – The Al-Thani family become the rulers of the state of Qatar.", "1892 – Premiere performance of ''The Nutcracker'' by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky in Saint Petersburg, Russia.", "1898 – Gaston de Chasseloup-Laubat sets the first officially recognized land speed record of in a Jeantaud electric car.===1901–present===1916 – World War I: The Battle of Verdun ends when the second French offensive pushes the Germans back two or three kilometres, causing them to cease their attacks.", "1917 – The resolution containing the language of the Eighteenth Amendment to enact Prohibition is passed by the United States Congress.", "1932 – The Chicago Bears defeat the Portsmouth Spartans in the first NFL playoff game to win the NFL Championship.", "1935 – The Lanka Sama Samaja Party is founded in Ceylon.", "1939 – World War II: The Battle of the Heligoland Bight, the first major air battle of the war, takes place.", "1944 – World War II: XX Bomber Command responds to the Japanese Operation Ichi-Go offensive by dropping five hundred tons of incendiary bombs on a supply base in Hankow, China.", " 1944 – The Supreme Court of the United States issued its decision in Korematsu v. United States supporting Franklin D. Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 which cleared the way for the incarceration of nearly all 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, born and raised in the United States.", "1957 – A violent F5 tornado wipes out the entire community of Sunfield, Illinois.", "1958 – Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite, is launched.", "1966 – Saturn's moon Epimetheus is discovered by astronomer Richard Walker.", "1972 – Vietnam War: President Richard Nixon announces that the United States will engage North Vietnam in Operation Linebacker II, a series of Christmas bombings, after peace talks collapsed with North Vietnam on the 13th.", "1973 – Soviet Soyuz Programme: ''Soyuz 13'', crewed by cosmonauts Valentin Lebedev and Pyotr Klimuk, is launched from Baikonur in the Soviet Union.", "1977 – United Airlines Flight 2860 crashes near Kaysville, Utah, killing all three crew members on board.", "* 1977 – SA de Transport Aérien Flight 730 crashes near Madeira Airport in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal, killing 36.", "1981 – First flight of the Russian heavy strategic bomber Tu-160, the world's largest combat aircraft, largest supersonic aircraft and largest variable-sweep wing aircraft built.", "1995 – A Lockheed L-188 Electra crashes in Jamba, Cuando Cubango, Angola, killing 141 people.", "1999 – NASA launches into orbit the Terra platform carrying five Earth Observation instruments, including ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITT.", "2002 – California gubernatorial recall: Then Governor of California Gray Davis announces that the state would face a record budget deficit of $35 billion, roughly double the figure reported during his reelection campaign one month earlier.", "2005 – The Chadian Civil War begins when rebel groups, allegedly backed by neighbouring Sudan, launch an attack in Adré.", "2006 – The first of a series of floods strikes Malaysia.", "The death toll of all flooding is at least 118, with over 400,000 people displaced.", "* 2006 – United Arab Emirates holds its first-ever elections.", "2015 – Kellingley Colliery, the last deep coal mine in Great Britain, closes.", "2017 – Amtrak Cascades passenger train 501, derailed near DuPont, Washington, a city in United States near Olympia, Washington killing six people, and injuring 70 others.", "2018 – List of bolides: A meteor exploded over the Bering Sea with a force over 10 times greater than the atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima in 1945.", "2019 – The United States House of Representatives impeaches Donald Trump for the first time.", "2022 – Argentina win the 2022 FIFA World Cup final, defeating title holders France 4–2 on penalties following a 3–3 draw after extra time." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1406 – Richard Olivier de Longueil, French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal (d. 1470)1481 – Sophie of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Mecklenburg, Duchess of Saxony (d. 1503)1499 – Sebald Heyden, German musicologist and theologian (d. 1561)1505 – Philipp von Hutten, German explorer (d. 1546)1507 – Ōuchi Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1551)1552 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (d. 1616)1590 – William Louis, Count of Nassau-Saarbrücken (d. 1640)===1601–1900===1602 – Simonds d'Ewes, English historian and politician (d. 1650)1610 – Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange, French philologist and historian (d. 1688)1620 – Heinrich Roth, German missionary and scholar (d. 1668)1624 – John Hull, colonial American merchant and politician (d. 1683)1626 – Christina, Queen of Sweden (d. 1689)1660 – Countess Johanna Magdalene of Hanau-Lichtenberg (d. 1715)1661 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish physicist and inventor (d. 1751)1662 – James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, Scottish colonel and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland (d. 1711)1707 – Charles Wesley, English missionary and composer (d. 1788)1725 – Johann Salomo Semler, German historian and theologian (d. 1791)1734 – Jean-Baptiste Rey, French conductor and composer (d. 1810)1800 – James Watney, English brewer and businessman (d. 1884)1824 – John Hall, English-New Zealand politician, 12th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1907)1825 – Charles Griffin, American general (d. 1876)* 1825 – John S. Harris, American surveyor and politician (d. 1906)* 1825 – Mariano Ignacio Prado, Peruvian general, twice President of Peru (d. 1901)1835 – Lyman Abbott, American minister, theologian, and author (d. 1922)1847 – Augusta Holmès, French pianist and composer (d. 1903)1849 – Henrietta Edwards, Canadian activist and author (d. 1931)1856 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)1860 – Edward MacDowell, American pianist and composer (d. 1908)1861 – Lionel Monckton, English composer and critic (d. 1924)1863 – Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria (d. 1914)1867 – Foxhall P. Keene, American polo player and horse breeder (d. 1941)1869 – Edward Willis Redfield, American painter and educator (d. 1965)1870 – Saki, British short story writer (d. 1916)1873 – Francis Burton Harrison, American general and politician, 6th Governor-General of the Philippines (d. 1957)1875 – Matt McGrath, Irish-American hammer thrower (d. 1941)1878 – Joseph Stalin, Georgian-Russian marshal and politician, 4th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1953)1879 – Paul Klee, Swiss-German painter and educator (d. 1940)1882 – Richard Maury, American-Argentinian engineer, designed the Salta–Antofagasta railway (d. 1950)1884 – Emil Starkenstein, Czech pharmacologist, co-founded clinical pharmacology (d. 1942)1886 – Ty Cobb, American baseball player and manager (d. 1961)1887 – Bhikhari Thakur, Indian actor, singer, and playwright (d. 1971)1888 – Gladys Cooper, English actress and singer (d. 1971) 1888 – Robert Moses, American urban planner (d. 1981)1890 – Edwin Howard Armstrong, American engineer, invented FM radio (d. 1954)1896 – Gerald Barry, English colonel and cricketer (d. 1977)1897 – Fletcher Henderson, American pianist and composer (d. 1952)1899 – Peter Wessel Zapffe, Norwegian philosopher and author (d. 1990)===1901–present===1904 – George Stevens, American director, producer, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1975)1907 – Bill Holland, American race car driver (d. 1984)* 1907 – Lawrence Lucie, American guitarist and educator (d. 2009)1908 – Celia Johnson, English actress (d. 1982) 1908 – Paul Siple, American geographer and explorer (d. 1969)1910 – Abe Burrows, American author, playwright, and director (d. 1985) 1910 – Eric Tindill, New Zealand rugby player, cricketer, and umpire (d. 2010)1911 – Jules Dassin, American-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)1912 – Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., American general and pilot (d. 2002)1913 – Alfred Bester, American author and screenwriter (d. 1987) 1913 – Willy Brandt, German politician, 4th Chancellor of Germany, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1992)* 1913 – Ray Meyer, American basketball player and coach (d. 2006)1916 – Douglas Fraser, Scottish-American trade union leader and academic (d. 2008) 1916 – Betty Grable, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1973)1917 – Ossie Davis, American actor and activist (d. 2005)1920 – Robert Leckie, American soldier and author (d. 2001)1922 – Jack Brooks, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (d. 2012) 1922 – Esther Lederberg, American microbiologist (d. 2006)1923 – Edwin Bramall, Baron Bramall, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Greater London (d. 2019)1927 – Ramsey Clark, American lawyer and politician, 66th United States Attorney General (d. 2021)* 1927 – Roméo LeBlanc, Canadian journalist and politician, 25th Governor General of Canada (d. 2009)1928 – Mirza Tahir Ahmad, Indian-English caliph and author (d. 2003) 1928 – Harold Land, American tenor saxophonist (d. 2001)1929 – Gino Cimoli, American baseball player (d. 2011) 1929 – Józef Glemp, Polish cardinal (d. 2013)1930 – Moose Skowron, American baseball player (d. 2012)1931 – Allen Klein, American businessman and music publisher (d. 2009)* 1931 – Alison Plowden, English historian and author (d. 2007)* 1931 – Gene Shue, American basketball player, coach, and executive (d. 2022)* 1931 – Bill Thompson, American television host (d. 2014)1932 – Norm Provan, Australian rugby league player, coach, and businessman (d. 2021) 1932 – Roger Smith, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2017)1933 – Lonnie Brooks, American blues singer and guitarist (d. 2017)1934 – Marc Rich, Belgian-American businessman, founded Glencore (d. 2013)* 1934 – Boris Volynov, Russian colonel, engineer, and cosmonaut1935 – Rosemary Leach, English actress (d. 2017) 1935 – Jacques Pépin, French-American chef and author1936 – Malcolm Kirk, English rugby player and wrestler (d. 1987)1937 – Nancy Ryles, American politician (d. 1990)1938 – Chas Chandler, English bass player and producer (d. 1996) 1938 – Joel Hirschhorn, American songwriter and composer (d. 2005)1939 – Pedro Jirón, Nicaraguan footballer 1939 – Michael Moorcock, English author and songwriter* 1939 – Harold E. Varmus, American biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate1940 – Ilario Castagner, Italian football manager 1940 – John Cooper, English sprinter and hurdler (d. 1974)1941 – Sam Andrew, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015) 1941 – Wadada Leo Smith, American trumpet player and composer * 1941 – Joan Wallach Scott, American historian, author, and academic1942 – Lenore Blum, American mathematician and academic 1942 – Bobby Keyes, Australian rugby league player (d. 2022)1943 – Bobby Keys, American saxophone player (d. 2014) 1943 – Keith Richards, English musician* 1943 – Alan Rudolph, American director and screenwriter1944 – Crispian Steele-Perkins, English trumpet player and educator1945 – Jean Pronovost, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1946 – Steve Biko, South African activist, founded the Black Consciousness Movement (d. 1977) 1946 – Steven Spielberg, American director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded DreamWorks1947 – Leonid Yuzefovich, Russian author and screenwriter1948 – George T. Johnson, American basketball player* 1948 – Bill Nelson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1948 – Mimmo Paladino, Italian sculptor and painter* 1948 – Laurent Voulzy, French-English singer-songwriter and guitarist1949 – David A. Johnston, American volcanologist and geologist (d. 1980)1950 – Gillian Armstrong, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1950 – Randy Castillo, American drummer and songwriter (d. 2002)* 1950 – Sarath Fonseka, Sri Lankan general and politician* 1950 – Lizmark, Mexican wrestler (d. 2015)* 1950 – Leonard Maltin, American historian, author, and critic1951 – Bobby Jones, American basketball player1952 – John Leventhal, American songwriter and producer1953 – Kevin Beattie, English footballer (d. 2018) 1953 – Elliot Easton, American guitarist and singer1954 – John Booth, English race car driver 1954 – Ray Liotta, American actor (d. 2022)* 1954 – Willi Wülbeck, German runner1955 – Vijay Mallya, Indian businessman and politician 1955 – Bogusław Mamiński, Polish runner1956 – Ron White, American comedian1957 – Jonathan Cainer, English astrologer and author (d. 2016)1958 – Geordie Walker, English guitarist (d. 2023) 1958 – Julia Wolfe, American composer and educator1960 – Kazuhide Uekusa, Japanese economist and academic 1960 – Naoko Yamano, Japanese singer, guitarist and composer 1961 – Brian Orser, Canadian figure skater and coach 1961 – Lalchand Rajput, Indian cricketer* 1961 – Leila Steinberg, American singer, producer, author, and poet* 1961 – Angie Stone, American singer, songwriter, and actress1963 – Greg D'Angelo, American drummer 1963 – Karl Dorrell, American football player and coach* 1963 – Pierre Nkurunziza, Burundian soldier and politician, 9th President of Burundi (d. 2020)* 1963 – Charles Oakley, American basketball player and coach* 1963 – Brad Pitt, American actor and producer1964 – Stone Cold Steve Austin, American wrestler and producer 1964 – Don Beebe, American football player and coach1965 – Shawn Christian, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1965 – Manolo Peña, Spanish footballer (d. 2012)1966 – Gianluca Pagliuca, Italian footballer and sportscaster1967 – Mille Petrozza, German singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1967 – Toine van Peperstraten, Dutch journalist1968 – Mario Basler, German footballer and manager 1968 – Rachel Griffiths, Australian actress* 1968 – Alejandro Sanz, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1968 – Casper Van Dien, American actor and producer1969 – Santiago Cañizares, Spanish footballer 1969 – Justin Edinburgh, English footballer and manager (d. 2019)* 1969 – Akira Iida, Japanese race car driver1970 – Norman Brown, American singer and guitarist 1970 – DMX, American rapper and actor (d. 2021)* 1970 – Lucious Harris, American basketball player* 1970 – Giannis Ploutarhos, Greek singer-songwriter* 1970 – Rob Van Dam, American wrestler* 1970 – Jonathan Yeo, English painter1971 – Barkha Dutt, Indian journalist 1971 – Noriko Matsueda, Japanese pianist and composer* 1971 – Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Spanish tennis player and sportscaster1972 – Anzhela Balakhonova, Ukrainian pole vaulter 1972 – Raymond Herrera, American drummer and songwriter * 1972 – DJ Lethal, Latvian-American musician1973 – Fatuma Roba, Ethiopian runner1974 – Peter Boulware, American football player and politician* 1974 – Knut Schreiner, Norwegian singer, guitarist, and producer 1975 – Randy Houser, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1975 – Sia, Australian singer-songwriter * 1975 – Trish Stratus, Canadian wrestler and actress1977 – Axwell, Swedish DJ, record producer, member of Swedish House Mafia 1977 – Claudia Gesell, German runner1978 – Daniel Cleary, Canadian ice hockey player 1978 – Ali Curtis, American soccer player* 1978 – Josh Dallas, American actor* 1978 – Katie Holmes, American actress1980 – Christina Aguilera, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1980 – Neil Fingleton, English actor and basketball player, one of the tallest 25 men in the world (d. 2017)* 1980 – Benjamin Watson, American football player1983 – Andy Fantuz, Canadian football player1984 – Brian Boyle, American ice hockey player* 1984 – Paul Harrison, English footballer* 1984 – Giuliano Razzoli, Italian skier* 1984 – Derrick Tribbett, American bass player and singer 1986 – Chris Carter, American baseball player 1986 – François Hamelin, Canadian speed skater* 1986 – Usman Khawaja, Pakistani-Australian cricketer1987 – Miki Ando, Japanese figure skater1988 – Lizzie Deignan, English cyclist* 1988 – Seth Doege, American football player* 1988 – Brianne Theisen-Eaton, Canadian heptathlete* 1988 – Imad Wasim, Pakistani cricketer1989 – Ashley Benson, American actress and singer1990 – Victor Hedman, Swedish ice hockey player* 1990 – Sierra Kay, American singer-songwriter 1991 – Marcus Butler, English model and YouTuber 1992 – Ryan Crouser, American shot putter* 1992 – Bridgit Mendler, American singer, songwriter and actress1993 – Byron Buxton, American baseball player 1993 – Thomas Lam, Finnish footballer1994 – Gerard Gumbau, Spanish footballer 1994 – Natália Kelly, American-Austrian singer1995 – Barbora Krejčíková, Czech tennis player1997 – Ronald Acuña Jr., Venezuelan baseball player* 1997 – Alex DeBrincat, American ice hockey player2000 – Korapat Kirdpan, Thai actor and singer 2000 – Travon Walker, American football player2001 – Billie Eilish, American singer 2001 – Jalen Johnson, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 919 – Lady Wu, wife of Qian Liu (b.", "858)* 933 – Yaonian Yanmujin, Chinese empress dowager1075 – Edith of Wessex (b.", "1025)1133 – Hildebert, French poet and scholar (b.", "1055)1290 – Magnus III, king of Sweden (b.", "1240)1442 – Pierre Cauchon, French Catholic bishop (b.", "1371)1495 – Alfonso II of Naples (b.", "1448)1577 – Anna of Saxony, Princess consort of Orange (b.", "1544)===1601–1900===1645 – Nur Jahan, empress consort of the Mughal Empire (b.", "1577)1651 – William Brabazon, 1st Earl of Meath, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1580)1692 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (b.", "1626)1737 – Antonio Stradivari, Italian instrument maker (b.", "1644)1787 – Soame Jenyns, English poet and politician (b.", "1704)1799 – Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician and historian (b.", "1725)1803 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, theologian, and poet (b.", "1744)1829 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, French soldier, biologist, and academic (b.", "1744)1843 – Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lynedoch, Scottish-English general and politician (b.", "1748)1848 – Bernard Bolzano, Bohemian priest and mathematician (b.", "1781)1864 – José Justo Corro, Mexican politician, President of Mexico (1836-1837) (b.", "1794)1869 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American pianist and composer (b.", "1829)1880 – Michel Chasles, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1793)1892 – Richard Owen, English biologist, anatomist, and paleontologist (b.", "1804)===1901–present===1919 – John Alcock, English captain and pilot (b.", "1892)1922 – Sir Carl Meyer, 1st Baronet, German-English banker and businessman (b.", "1851)1925 – Hamo Thornycroft, English sculptor and academic (b.", "1850)1932 – Eduard Bernstein, German theorist and politician (b.", "1850)1936 – Andrija Mohorovičić, Croatian meteorologist and seismologist (b.", "1857)1939 – Ernest Lawson, Canadian-American painter (b.", "1873)1961 – Leo Reisman, American violinist and bandleader (b.", "1897)1969 – Charles Dvorak, American pole vaulter and coach (b.", "1878)1971 – Bobby Jones, American golfer and lawyer (b.", "1902) 1971 – Diana Lynn, American actress (b.", "1926)1972 – Neilia Hunter Biden, first wife of Joe Biden (b.", "1942)1973 – Allamah Rasheed Turabi, Indian-Pakistani religious leader and philosopher (b.", "1908)1974 – Harry Hooper, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1887)1975 – Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian geneticist and biologist (b.", "1900)1977 – Michio Nishizawa, Japanese baseball player and manager (b.", "1921) 1977 – Louis Untermeyer American poet, anthologist, critic (b.", "1885)1980 – Dobriša Cesarić, Croatian poet and translator (b.", "1902) 1980 – Alexei Kosygin, Russian soldier and politician, 8th Premier of the Soviet Union (b.", "1904)1982 – Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German colonel and pilot (b.", "1916)1985 – Xuân Diệu, Vietnamese poet and author (b.", "1916)1987 – Conny Plank, German keyboard player and producer (b.", "1940)1988 – Niyazi Berkes, Turkish Cypriot-English sociologist and academic (b.", "1908)1990 – Anne Revere, American actress (b.", "1903) 1990 – Paul Tortelier, French cellist and composer (b.", "1914)* 1990 – Joseph Zubin, Lithuanian-American psychologist and academic (b.", "1900)1991 – George Abecassis, English race car driver (b.", "1913)1992 – Mark Goodson, American game show producer, created ''Family Feud'' and ''The Price Is Right'' (b.", "1915)1993 – Helm Glöckler, German race car driver (b.", "1909) 1993 – Sam Wanamaker, American-English actor, director, and producer (b.", "1919)1994 – Roger Apéry, Greek-French mathematician and academic (b.", "1916) 1994 – Lilia Skala, Austrian-American actress (b.", "1896)1995 – Brian Brockless, English organist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1926) 1995 – Ross Thomas, American author (b.", "1926)* 1995 – Konrad Zuse, German engineer, designed the Z3 computer (b.", "1910)1996 – Yulii Borisovich Khariton, Russian physicist and academic (b.", "1904) 1996 – Irving Caesar, American composer (b.", "1895)1997 – Chris Farley, American comedian and actor (b.", "1964)1998 – Lev Dyomin, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b.", "1926)1999 – Robert Bresson, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1901)2000 – Stan Fox, American race car driver (b.", "1952)* 2000 – Randolph Apperson Hearst, American businessman (b.", "1915)* 2000 – Kirsty MacColl, British singer-songwriter (b.", "1959)2001 – Gilbert Bécaud, French singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b.", "1927) 2001 – Dimitris Dragatakis, Greek violinist and composer (b.", "1914)* 2001 – Marcel Mule, French saxophonist and educator (b.", "1901)2002 – Necip Hablemitoğlu, Turkish historian and academic (b.", "1954) 2002 – Ray Hnatyshyn, Canadian lawyer and politician, 24th Governor General of Canada (b.", "1934)* 2002 – Wayne Owens, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1937)* 2002 – Lucy Grealy, Irish-American author (b.", "1963)2004 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (b.", "1926)2005 – Alan Voorhees, American engineer and urban planner (b.", "1922)2006 – Joseph Barbera, American animator, director, and producer, co-founded Hanna-Barbera (b.", "1911) 2006 – Ruth Bernhard, German-American photographer (b.", "1905)* 2006 – Shaukat Siddiqui, Pakistani author and activist (b.", "1923)2007 – Hans Billian, Polish-German actor, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1918) 2007 – Gerald Le Dain, Canadian lawyer and judge (b.", "1924)* 2007 – William Strauss, American author and playwright (b.", "1947)* 2007 – Alan Wagner, American businessman and critic (b.", "1931)2008 – Majel Barrett, American actress and producer (b.", "1932) 2008 – Mark Felt, American FBI agent and informant (b.", "1913)2010 – Phil Cavarretta, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1916) 2010 – Jacqueline de Romilly, French philologist, author, and scholar (b.", "1913)* 2010 – Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa, Italian economist and politician, Italian Minister of Economy and Finances (b.", "1940)* 2010 – James Pickles, English judge and journalist (b.", "1925)2011 – Václav Havel, Czech poet, playwright, and politician, 1st President of the Czech Republic (b.", "1936)2012 – Frank Macchiarola, American lawyer and academic (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Mustafa Ould Salek, Mauritanian colonel and politician, President of Mauritania (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Jim Whalen, American football player (b.", "1943)* 2012 – Anatoliy Zayaev, Ukrainian footballer, coach, and manager (b.", "1931)2013 – Ken Hutcherson, American football player (b.", "1952) 2013 – Graham Mackay, South African-English businessman (b.", "1949)2014 – Donald J. Albosta, American soldier and politician (b.", "1925) 2014 – Gideon Ben-Yisrael, Israeli soldier and politician (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Larry Henley, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1937)* 2014 – Virna Lisi, Italian actress (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Mandy Rice-Davies, English model and actress (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Robert Simpson, American meteorologist and author (b.", "1912)2015 – Luc Brewaeys, Belgian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1959) 2015 – Helge Solum Larsen, Norwegian businessman and politician (b.", "1969)2016 – Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian-American actress and socialite (b.", "1917)2017 – Kim Jong-hyun, South Korean singer (b.", "1990)2020 – Jerry Relph, American politician and member of the Minnesota Senate (b.", "1944)2021 – Sayaka Kanda, Japanese actress and singer (b.", "1986)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Expectation of the Blessed Virgin Mary Flannán Gatianus of Tours O Adonai Sebastian (Eastern Orthodox Church) Winibald** December 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* International Migrants Day* National Day (Qatar)* Republic Day (Niger)* UN Arabic Language Day (United Nations)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 18" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decision problem" ], [ "Introduction", "A ''decision problem'' has only two possible outputs (''yes'' or ''no'') on any input.In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a '''decision problem''' is a computational problem that can be posed as a yes–no question of the input values.", "An example of a decision problem is deciding by means of an algorithm whether a given natural number is prime.", "Another is the problem \"given two numbers ''x'' and ''y'', does ''x'' evenly divide ''y''?\".", "The answer is either 'yes' or 'no' depending upon the values of ''x'' and ''y''.", "A method for solving a decision problem, given in the form of an algorithm, is called a '''decision procedure''' for that problem.", "A decision procedure for the decision problem \"given two numbers ''x'' and ''y'', does ''x'' evenly divide ''y''?\"", "would give the steps for determining whether ''x'' evenly divides ''y''.", "One such algorithm is long division.", "If the remainder is zero the answer is 'yes', otherwise it is 'no'.", "A decision problem which can be solved by an algorithm is called ''decidable''.Decision problems typically appear in mathematical questions of decidability, that is, the question of the existence of an effective method to determine the existence of some object or its membership in a set; some of the most important problems in mathematics are undecidable.The field of computational complexity categorizes ''decidable'' decision problems by how difficult they are to solve.", "\"Difficult\", in this sense, is described in terms of the computational resources needed by the most efficient algorithm for a certain problem.", "The field of recursion theory, meanwhile, categorizes ''undecidable'' decision problems by Turing degree, which is a measure of the noncomputability inherent in any solution." ], [ "Definition", "A ''decision problem'' is a yes-or-no question on an infinite set of inputs.", "It is traditional to define the decision problem as the set of possible inputs together with the set of inputs for which the answer is ''yes''.These inputs can be natural numbers, but can also be values of some other kind, like binary strings or strings over some other alphabet.", "The subset of strings for which the problem returns \"yes\" is a formal language, and often decision problems are defined as formal languages.Using an encoding such as Gödel numbering, any string can be encoded as a natural number, via which a decision problem can be defined as a subset of the natural numbers.", "Therefore, the algorithm of a decision problem is to compute the characteristic function of a subset of the natural numbers." ], [ "Examples", "A classic example of a decidable decision problem is the set of prime numbers.", "It is possible to effectively decide whether a given natural number is prime by testing every possible nontrivial factor.", "Although much more efficient methods of primality testing are known, the existence of any effective method is enough to establish decidability." ], [ "Decidability", "A decision problem is ''decidable'' or ''effectively solvable'' if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursive set.", "A problem is ''partially decidable'', ''semidecidable'', ''solvable'', or ''provable'' if the set of inputs (or natural numbers) for which the answer is yes is a recursively enumerable set.", "Problems that are not decidable are ''undecidable''.", "For those it is not possible to create an algorithm, efficient or otherwise, that solves them.The halting problem is an important undecidable decision problem; for more examples, see list of undecidable problems." ], [ "Complete problems", "Decision problems can be ordered according to many-one reducibility and related to feasible reductions such as polynomial-time reductions.", "A decision problem ''P'' is said to be ''complete'' for a set of decision problems ''S'' if ''P'' is a member of ''S'' and every problem in ''S'' can be reduced to ''P''.", "Complete decision problems are used in computational complexity theory to characterize complexity classes of decision problems.", "For example, the Boolean satisfiability problem is complete for the class NP of decision problems under polynomial-time reducibility." ], [ "Function problems", "Decision problems are closely related to function problems, which can have answers that are more complex than a simple 'yes' or 'no'.", "A corresponding function problem is \"given two numbers ''x'' and ''y'', what is ''x'' divided by ''y''?", "\".A function problem consists of a partial function ''f''; the informal \"problem\" is to compute the values of ''f'' on the inputs for which it is defined.Every function problem can be turned into a decision problem; the decision problem is just the graph of the associated function.", "(The graph of a function ''f'' is the set of pairs (''x'',''y'') such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.)", "If this decision problem were effectively solvable then the function problem would be as well.", "This reduction does not respect computational complexity, however.", "For example, it is possible for the graph of a function to be decidable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of the pair (''x'',''y'')) when the function is not computable in polynomial time (in which case running time is computed as a function of ''x'' alone).", "The function ''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' has this property.Every decision problem can be converted into the function problem of computing the characteristic function of the set associated to the decision problem.", "If this function is computable then the associated decision problem is decidable.", "However, this reduction is more liberal than the standard reduction used in computational complexity (sometimes called polynomial-time many-one reduction); for example, the complexity of the characteristic functions of an NP-complete problem and its co-NP-complete complement is exactly the same even though the underlying decision problems may not be considered equivalent in some typical models of computation." ], [ "Optimization problems", "Unlike decision problems, for which there is only one correct answer for each input, optimization problems are concerned with finding the ''best'' answer to a particular input.", "Optimization problems arise naturally in many applications, such as the traveling salesman problem and many questions in linear programming.Function and optimization problems are often transformed into decision problems by considering the question of whether the output is ''equal to'' or ''less than or equal to'' a given value.", "This allows the complexity of the corresponding decision problem to be studied; and in many cases the original function or optimization problem can be solved by solving its corresponding decision problem.", "For example, in the traveling salesman problem, the optimization problem is to produce a tour with minimal weight.", "The associated decision problem is: for each ''N'', to decide whether the graph has any tour with weight less than ''N''.", "By repeatedly answering the decision problem, it is possible to find the minimal weight of a tour.Because the theory of decision problems is very well developed, research in complexity theory has typically focused on decision problems.", "Optimization problems themselves are still of interest in computability theory, as well as in fields such as operations research." ], [ "See also", "* ALL (complexity)* Computational problem* Decidability (logic) – for the problem of deciding whether a formula is a consequence of a logical theory.", "* Search problem* Counting problem (complexity)* Word problem (mathematics)" ], [ "References", "******" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Domain Name System" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Domain Name System''' ('''DNS''') is a hierarchical and distributed naming system for computers, services, and other resources in the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP) networks.", "It associates various information with ''domain names'' (identification strings) assigned to each of the associated entities.", "Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols.", "The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative name servers for each domain.", "Network administrators may delegate authority over subdomains of their allocated name space to other name servers.", "This mechanism provides distributed and fault-tolerant service and was designed to avoid a single large central database.", "In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the database service that is at its core.", "It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the Internet protocol suite.The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the IP address spaces.", "The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces.", "Internet name servers and a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System.", "A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (SOA), IP addresses (A and AAAA), SMTP mail exchangers (MX), name servers (NS), pointers for reverse DNS lookups (PTR), and domain name aliases (CNAME).", "Although not intended to be a general purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as DNSSEC records, or for human queries such as ''responsible person'' (RP) records.", "As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating unsolicited email (spam) by storing a real-time blackhole list (RBL).", "The DNS database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the zone file, but other database systems are common.The Domain Name System originally used the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as transport over IP.", "Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments." ], [ "Function", "An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses.", "For example, the hostname www.example.com within the domain name example.com translates to the addresses (IPv4) and (IPv6).", "The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname.", "Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.An important and ubiquitous function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as cloud services and content delivery networks.", "When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user.", "The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can ''simultaneously'' receive different translations for the ''same'' domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS.", "This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet.", "Each subdomain is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager.", "For zones operated by a registry, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's RDAP and WHOIS services.", "That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet." ], [ "History", "Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the ARPANET era.", "The Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) maintained a text file named HOSTS.TXT that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.", "Elizabeth Feinler developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory.", "Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by Jon Postel at the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute (ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.Addresses were assigned manually.", "Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI Network Information Center (NIC), directed by Feinler, via telephone during business hours.", "Later, Feinler set up a WHOIS directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities.", "She and her team developed the concept of domains.", "Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer.", "Computers at educational institutions would have the domain ''edu'', for example.", "She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues.", "Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to Paul Mockapetris.", "Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the University of Southern California.The Internet Engineering Task Force published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983.These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.In 1984, four UC Berkeley students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first Unix name server implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as BIND.", "In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of DEC substantially revised the DNS implementation.", "Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and Paul Vixie then took over BIND maintenance.", "Internet Systems Consortium was founded in 1994 by Rick Adams, Paul Vixie, and Carl Malamud, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance.", "BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors.", "As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997.Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications.", "Several additional Request for Comments have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols." ], [ "Structure {{anchor\|The domain name space}}", "===Domain name space===The domain name space consists of a tree data structure.", "Each node or leaf in the tree has a ''label'' and zero or more ''resource records'' (RR), which hold information associated with the domain name.", "The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.The tree sub-divides into ''zones'' beginning at the root zone.", "A DNS zone may consist of as many domains and sub domains as the zone manager chooses.", "DNS can also be partitioned according to ''class'' where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.The hierarchical Domain Name System for class ''Internet'', organized into zones, each served by a name serverAdministrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones.", "Authority over the new zone is said to be ''delegated'' to a designated name server.", "The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.===Domain name syntax, internationalization===The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892.A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called ''labels'', that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain ''com''.The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right.", "For example, the label ''example'' specifies a subdomain of the ''com'' domain, and ''www'' is a subdomain of example.com.", "This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.A label may contain zero to 63 characters.", "The null label, of length zero, is reserved for the root zone.", "The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation.", "In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage, as it also stores the length of the name.Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels using any character which is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set.", "The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the ASCII character set, consisting of characters ''a'' through ''z'', ''A'' through ''Z'', digits ''0'' through ''9'', and hyphen.", "This rule is known as the ''LDH rule'' (letters, digits, hyphen).", "Domain names are interpreted in case-independent manner.", "Labels may not start or end with a hyphen.", "An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric.The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts.", "To make this possible, ICANN approved the Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map Unicode strings into the valid DNS character set using Punycode.", "In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name country code top-level domains (''ccTLD''s).", "In addition, many registries of the existing top-level domain names (''TLD''s) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893.===Name servers===The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the client–server model.", "The nodes of this database are the name servers.", "Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it.", "The top of the hierarchy is served by the root name servers, the servers to query when looking up (''resolving'') a TLD.====Authoritative name server====An ''authoritative'' name server is a name server that only gives answers to DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.An authoritative name server can either be a ''primary'' server or a ''secondary'' server.", "Historically the terms ''master/slave'' and ''primary/secondary'' were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form.", "A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records.", "A secondary server uses a special automatic updating mechanism in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers.", "This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed ''authoritative'', by setting a protocol flag, called the \"''Authoritative Answer''\" (''AA'') bit in its responses.", "This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as dig, to indicate ''that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.", "''When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a \"lame delegation\" or \"lame response\"." ], [ "Operation", "===Address resolution mechanism===Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.A DNS resolver that implements the iterative approach mandated by RFC 1034; in this case, the resolver consults three name servers to resolve the fully qualified domain name \"www.wikipedia.org\".For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (''hints'') of the known addresses of the root name servers.", "The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers.", "In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for \"www.wikipedia.org\" is referred to the ''org'' servers.", "The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer.", "The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the fully qualified domain name \"www.wikipedia.org\".This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root.", "In practice caching is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.====Recursive and caching name server====In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet.", "However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (''time-to-live'') of the domain name record in question.Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain.", "With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.Internet service providers typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers.", "In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.===DNS resolvers===The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver.", "A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address.", "DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods, such as ''recursive'', ''non-recursive'', and ''iterative''.", "A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.In a ''non-recursive query'', a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers.", "In case of a caching DNS resolver, the non-recursive query of its local DNS cache delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.In a ''recursive query'', a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester.", "For example, a simple stub resolver running on a home router typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's ISP.", "A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed.", "In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client.", "The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers.", "DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.The ''iterative query'' procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers.", "Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request.", "For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server, then a \"com\" server, and finally an \"example.com\" server.===Circular dependencies and glue records===Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address.", "This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred.", "If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is a circular dependency.In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the authoritative name server mentioned in the delegation.", "This information is called ''glue''.", "The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the ''additional section'' of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the ''authority section'' of the response.", "A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.For example, if the authoritative name server for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org.", "As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency.", "To break the dependency, the name server for the top level domain org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org.", "The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org.", "The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.===Record caching===A standard practice in implementing name resolution in applications is to reduce the load on the Domain Name System servers by caching results locally, or in intermediate resolver hosts.", "Results obtained from a DNS request are always associated with the time to live (TTL), an expiration time after which the results must be discarded or refreshed.", "The TTL is set by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server.", "The period of validity may vary from a few seconds to days or even weeks.As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL.", "RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all.", "Negative caching, i.e.", "the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists.", "The value of the ''minimum'' field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.===Reverse lookup===A reverse DNS lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known.", "Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address.", "The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa.", "For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa.", "For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa.", "The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query.", "For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa.", "When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone.", "ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.===Client lookup===DNS resolution sequenceUsers generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver.", "Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications.", "When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups.", "If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request.", "If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers.", "In the case of most home users, the Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed DHCP to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization.", "In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined above, until it either successfully finds a result or does not.", "It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.====Broken resolvers====Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network.", "This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data.", "These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.Internet Explorer represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default.", "Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.When Google Chrome detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.===Other applications===The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship.", "Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in virtual hosting, in which many web sites are served from a single host.", "Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate fault tolerance and load distribution to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses.", "For instance, mail transfer agents use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver e-mail: An MX record provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts.", "A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.For example:* The address is blacklisted.", "It points to , which resolves to .", "* The address is not blacklisted and points to .", "This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to .E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist.", "Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain.", "At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of root name servers exist, with additional \"copies\" of them distributed worldwide via anycast addressing.Dynamic DNS (DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile hot spots, or when the IP address changes administratively." ], [ "DNS message format", "The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format.", "Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space.", "A header field (''flags'') controls the content of these four sections.The header section consists of the following fields: ''Identification'', ''Flags'', ''Number of questions'', ''Number of answers'', ''Number of authority resource records'' (RRs), and ''Number of additional RRs''.", "Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given.", "The identification field is used to match responses with queries.", "The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows:+Header flags format Field Description Length (bits) QR Indicates if the message is a query (0) or a reply (1) 1 OPCODE The type can be QUERY (standard query, 0), IQUERY (inverse query, 1), or STATUS (server status request, 2) 4 AA Authoritative Answer, in a response, indicates if the DNS server is authoritative for the queried hostname 1 TC TrunCation, indicates that this message was truncated due to excessive length 1 RD Recursion Desired, indicates if the client means a recursive query 1 RA Recursion Available, in a response, indicates if the replying DNS server supports recursion 1 Z Zero, reserved for future use 3 RCODE Response code, can be NOERROR (0), FORMERR (1, Format error), SERVFAIL (2), NXDOMAIN (3, Nonexistent domain), etc.", "4After the flag, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.===Question section===The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections.", "Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:+ Resource record (RR) fields Field Description Length (octets) NAME Name of the requested resource Variable TYPE Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.)", "2 CLASS Class code 2The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label." ], [ "Resource records", "The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources.", "The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a list of DNS record types, the resource records (RRs).", "Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (time to live), a class, and type-specific data.", "Resource records of the same type are described as a ''resource record set'' (RRset), having no special ordering.", "DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement round-robin ordering to achieve load balancing.", "In contrast, the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.When sent over an Internet Protocol network, all records use the common format specified in RFC 1035:+ Resource record (RR) fields Field Description Length (octets) NAME Name of the node to which this record pertains Variable TYPE Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs) 2 CLASS Class code 2 TTL Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 231−1, which is about 68 years) 4 RDLENGTH Length of RDATA field (specified in octets) 2 RDATA Additional RR-specific data Variable, as per RDLENGTH''NAME'' is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree .", "On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.", "''TYPE'' is the record type.", "It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use.", "For example, the ''A'' record is used to translate from a domain name to an IPv4 address, the ''NS'' record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a DNS zone, and the ''MX'' record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.", "''RDATA'' is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records.", "Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but \"unknown\" record types must not (RFC 3597).The ''CLASS'' of a record is set to IN (for ''Internet'') for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses.", "In addition, the classes Chaos (CH) and Hesiod (HS) exist.", "Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.In addition to resource records defined in a zone file, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (''on the wire''), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for EDNS (OPT).===Wildcard records===The domain name system supports wildcard DNS records which specify names that start with the ''asterisk label'', '', e.g., .example.", "DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants.", "For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone ''x.example'' specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of ''x.example'' use the mail exchanger (MX) ''a.x.example''.", "The A record for ''a.x.example'' is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address.", "As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain ''a.x.example'', as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.x.example.", "MX 10 a.x.example..x.example.", "MX 10 a.x.example..a.x.example.", "MX 10 a.x.example.a.x.example.", "MX 10 a.x.example.a.x.example.", "AAAA 2001:db8::1The role of wildcard records was refined in , because the original definition in was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers." ], [ "Protocol extensions", "The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features.", "In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, called Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use.", "This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files.", "Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams." ], [ "Dynamic zone updates", "Dynamic DNS updates use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server.", "This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network.", "As a booting client may be assigned a different IP address each time from a DHCP server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients." ], [ "Transport protocols", "From the time of its origin in 1983 the DNS has used the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for transport over IP.", "Its limitations have motivated numerous protocol developments for reliability, security, privacy, and other criteria, in the following decades.===DNS over UDP/TCP/53 (Do53)===UDP reserves port number 53 for servers listening to queries.", "Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server.", "When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used.", "Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length.", "In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly, zone transfers.", "Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers.", "For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport.===DNS over TLS (DoT)===DNS over TLS emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload.", "DoT servers listen on TCP port 853.specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.===DNS over HTTPS (DoH)===DNS over HTTPS was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS.", "DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.===DNS over QUIC (DoQ)===RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the Internet Engineering Task Force, describes DNS over QUIC.", "It has \"privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) ..., and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP\".", "This method is not the same as DNS over HTTP/3.===Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)===Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at Princeton University and the University of Chicago as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed.", "Apple and Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH).", "ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer encryption in a single protocol.===DNS over Tor===DNS may be run over virtual private networks (VPNs) and tunneling protocols.", "A use which has become common since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS over Tor.", "The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.===DNSCrypt===The DNSCrypt protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the IETF standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC signatures.", "DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic.", "This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability.", "In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an \"anonymized\" mode, similar to the proposed \"Oblivious DNS\", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution.", "Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client.", "DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by OpenDNS in December 2011.There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH.", "It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and MS Windows." ], [ "Security issues", "Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public.", "However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protect data integrity and user authentication.Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users.", "One such issue is DNS cache poisoning, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live).", "Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.DNS responses traditionally do not have a cryptographic signature, leading to many attack possibilities; the Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses.", "DNSCurve has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC.", "Other extensions, such as TSIG, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects.", "For example, and are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen typeface.", "In many fonts the letter ''l'' and the numeral ''1'' look very similar or even identical.", "This problem, known as the IDN homograph attack, is acute in systems that support internationalized domain names, as many character codes in ISO 10646 may appear identical on typical computer screens.", "This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in phishing.Techniques such as forward-confirmed reverse DNS can also be used to help validate DNS results.DNS can also \"leak\" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and exfiltrate data, since it is often seen as innocuous." ], [ "Privacy and tracking issues", "Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls.", "User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables network packet sniffing, DNS hijacking, DNS cache poisoning and man-in-the-middle attacks.", "This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on captive portals and censorship.User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of Content Delivery Networks.The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:VPNs, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,Tor, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous .onion domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind onion routing counter-surveillance,Proxies and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level advertisement or pornography blocking.", "Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or DNS over HTTPS, DNS over TLS and DNSCrypt, which do provide such protectionSolutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and Internet censorship.", "They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet." ], [ "Domain name registration", "The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) or other organizations such as OpenNIC, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet.", "In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry.", "A ''registry'' is responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs.", "A ''registrant'' is a person or organization who asked for domain registration.", "The registry receives registration information from each domain name ''registrar'', which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using the WHOIS protocol.", "As of 2015, usage of RDAP is being considered.ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars.", "Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service.", "For most of the more than 290 country code top-level domains (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.)", "information.", "For instance, DENIC, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data.", "From about 2001, most Generic top-level domain (gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called ''thick'' registry approach, i.e.", "keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.For top-level domains on COM and NET, a ''thin'' registry model is used.", "The domain registry (e.g., GoDaddy, BigRock and PDR, VeriSign, etc., etc.)", "holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.).", "Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the Public Interest Registry exclusively.Some domain name registries, often called ''network information centers'' (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets.", "The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars.", "In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars.", "The ''registrants'' (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers." ], [ "RFC documents", "The Domain Name System is defined by Request for Comments (RFC) documents published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (Internet standards).", "The following is a list of RFCs that define the DNS protocol.===Standards track=== , ''Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities''* , ''Domain Names - Implementation and Specification''* , ''Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support''* , ''Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS''* , ''A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)''* , ''Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)''* , ''Clarifications to the DNS Specification''* , ''Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)''* , ''Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection''* , ''Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)''* , ''Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC''* , ''DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements''* , ''DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6''* , ''Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types''* , ''Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification''* , ''The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System''* , ''HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers''* , ''DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option''* , ''Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors''* , ''Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers''* , ''Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework''* , ''Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol''* , ''The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)''* , ''Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)''* , ''Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)''* , ''DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements''===Proposed security standards===* , ''DNS Security Introduction and Requirements''* , ''Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions''* , ''Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions''* , ''Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records''* , ''Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing''* , ''DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial of Existence''* , ''Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC''* , ''Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)''* , ''Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC''* , ''The EDNS(0) Padding Option''* , ''Specification for DNS over Transport Layer Security (TLS)''* , ''Usage Profiles for DNS over TLS and DNS over DTLS''* , ''DNS Queries over HTTPS (DoH)''===Experimental RFCs===* , ''New DNS RR Definitions''===Best Current Practices===* , ''Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers'' (BCP 16)* , ''Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation'' (BCP 20)* , ''DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines'' (BCP 152)* , ''Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations'' (BCP 42)* , ''DNS Root Name Service Protocol and Deployment Requirements'' (BCP 40)===Informational RFCs===These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP.", "(RFC 1796)* , ''Choosing a Name for Your Computer'' (FYI 5)* , ''Domain Name System Structure and Delegation''* , ''Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors''* , ''The Naming of Hosts''* , ''Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names''* .", "''Threat Analysis of the Domain Name System (DNS)''* , ''Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a Name Server Instance''* , ''Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale''* , ''Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008''* , ''DNS Privacy Considerations''* , ''Decreasing Access Time to Root Servers by Running One on Loopback''* , ''DNS Query Name Minimisation to Improve Privacy''* , ''DNS Terminology''===Unknown===These RFCs have an official status of Unknown, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such.", "* , ''Domain Requirements'' – Specified original top-level domains* , ''Domain Administrators Guide''* , ''Domain Administrators Operations Guide''* , ''DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types''" ], [ "See also", "* Alternative DNS root* Comparison of DNS server software* Domain hijacking* DNS hijacking* DNS management software* DNS over HTTPS* DNS over TLS* Hierarchical namespace* IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting* Multicast DNS* Public recursive name server* resolv.conf* Split-horizon DNS* List of DNS record types* List of managed DNS providers* Zone file* DNS leak" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===" ], [ "External links", " * Zytrax.com, Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists.", "* Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress Congressional Research Service* * Mess with DNS – site where you can do experiments with DNS." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Letterman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Michael Letterman''' (born April 12, 1947) is an American television host, comedian, writer and producer.", "He hosted late-night television talk shows for 33 years, beginning with the February 1, 1982, debut of ''Late Night with David Letterman'' on NBC and ending with the May 20, 2015, broadcast of ''Late Show with David Letterman'' on CBS.", "In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of ''Late Night'' and ''Late Show'', surpassing his friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in American television history.He is also a television and film producer.", "His company, Worldwide Pants, produced his shows as well as ''The Late Late Show'' and several primetime comedies, the most successful of which was the CBS sitcom ''Everybody Loves Raymond''.", "Several late-night hosts have cited Letterman's influence, including Conan O'Brien (his successor on ''Late Night''), Stephen Colbert (his successor on ''The Late Show''), Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Jon Stewart, and Seth Meyers.", "Since 2018 he has hosted the Netflix series ''My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman''." ], [ "Early life and career", "Letterman was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1947, and has two sisters, one older and one younger.", "His father, Harry Joseph Letterman (April 15, 1915 – February 13, 1973), was a florist.", "His mother, Dorothy Marie Letterman Mengering (née Hofert; July 18, 1921 – April 11, 2017), a church secretary for the Second Presbyterian Church of Indianapolis, was an occasional figure on Letterman's show, usually at holidays and birthdays.Letterman grew up on the north side of Indianapolis, in the Broad Ripple area, about from the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.", "He enjoyed collecting model cars, including racers.", "In 2000, he told an interviewer for ''Esquire'' that, while growing up, he admired his father's ability to tell jokes and be the life of the party.", "Harry Joseph Letterman survived a heart attack at the age of 36 when David was a young boy.", "The fear of losing his father was constantly with Letterman as he grew up.", "The elder Letterman died of a second heart attack in 1973 at the age of 57.Letterman attended his hometown's Broad Ripple High School and worked as a stock boy at the local Atlas Supermarket.", "According to the ''Ball State Daily News'', he originally wanted to attend Indiana University, but his grades were not good enough, so he instead attended Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana.", "He is a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity, and graduated in 1969 from what was then the Department of Radio and Television.", "A self-described average student, Letterman later endowed a scholarship for what he called \"C students\" at Ball State.", "Though he registered for the draft and passed his physical after graduating from college, he was not drafted for service in Vietnam because he received a draft lottery number of 346 (out of 366).Letterman began his broadcasting career as an announcer and newscaster at the college's student-run radio station—WBST—a 10-watt campus station that is now part of Indiana Public Radio.", "He was fired for treating classical music with irreverence.", "He then became involved with the founding of another campus station—WAGO-AM 570 (now WCRD, 91.3).He credits Paul Dixon, host of the ''Paul Dixon Show'', a Cincinnati-based talk show also shown in Indianapolis while he was growing up, for inspiring his choice of career:I was just out of college in 1969, and I really didn't know what I wanted to do.", "And then all of a sudden I saw him doing it on TV.", "And I thought: That's really what I want to do!=== Weatherman ===Soon after graduating from Ball State in 1969, Letterman began his career as a radio talk show host on WNTS (AM) and on Indianapolis television station WLWI (which changed its call sign to WTHR in 1976) as an anchor and weatherman.", "He received some attention for his unpredictable on-air behavior, which included congratulating a tropical storm for being upgraded to a hurricane and predicting hailstones \"the size of canned hams.\"", "He also occasionally reported the weather and the day's very high and low temps for fictitious cities (\"Eight inches of snow in Bingree and surrounding areas\"), on another occasion saying that the state border between Indiana and Ohio had been erased when a satellite map accidentally omitted it, attributing it to dirty political dealings.", "(\"The higher-ups have removed the border between Indiana and Ohio, making it one giant state.", "Personally, I'm against it.", "I don't know what to do about it.\")", "He also starred in a local kiddie show, made wisecracks as host of a late-night TV show called \"Freeze-Dried Movies\" (he once acted out a scene from ''Godzilla'' using plastic dinosaurs), and hosted a talk show that aired early on Saturday mornings called ''Clover Power'', in which he interviewed 4-H members about their projects.In 1971, Letterman appeared as a pit road reporter for ABC Sports' tape-delayed coverage of the Indianapolis 500, which was his first nationally telecast appearance (WLWI was the local ABC affiliate at the time).", "He was initially introduced as Chris Economaki, but this was corrected at the end of the interview (Jim McKay announced his name as Dave Letterman).", "Letterman interviewed Mario Andretti, who had just crashed out of the race.=== Move to Los Angeles ===Comedy StoreIn 1975, encouraged by his then-wife Michelle and several of his Sigma Chi fraternity brothers, Letterman moved to Los Angeles, California, with the hope of becoming a comedy writer.", "He and Michelle packed their belongings in his pickup truck and headed west.", "As of 2012, he still owned the truck.", "In Los Angeles, he began performing comedy at The Comedy Store.", "Jimmie Walker saw him on stage; with an endorsement from George Miller, Letterman joined a group of comedians whom Walker hired to write jokes for his stand-up act, a group that at various times also included Jay Leno, Paul Mooney, Robert Schimmel, Richard Jeni, Louie Anderson, Elayne Boosler, Byron Allen, Jack Handey, and Steve Oedekerk.By the summer of 1977, Letterman was a writer and regular on the six-week summer series ''The Starland Vocal Band Show'', broadcast on CBS.", "He hosted a 1977 pilot for a game show called ''The Riddlers'' (which was never picked up), and co-starred in the Barry Levinson-produced comedy special ''Peeping Times'', which aired in January 1978.Later that year, Letterman was a cast member on Mary Tyler Moore's variety show, ''Mary''.", "He made a guest appearance on ''Mork & Mindy'' (as a parody of EST leader Werner Erhard) and appearances on game shows such as ''The $20,000 Pyramid'', ''The Gong Show'', ''Hollywood Squares'', ''Password Plus'', and ''Liar's Club'', as well as the Canadian cooking show ''Celebrity Cooks'' (November 1977), talk shows such as ''90 Minutes Live'' (February 24 and April 14, 1978), and ''The Mike Douglas Show'' (April 3, 1979 and February 7, 1980).", "He was also screen tested for the lead role in the 1980 film ''Airplane!", "'', a role that eventually went to Robert Hays.Letterman's brand of dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of scouts for ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'', and he was soon a regular guest on the show.", "He became a favorite of Carson and was a regular guest host for the show beginning in 1978.Letterman credits Carson as the person who influenced his career the most." ], [ "NBC", "=== Morning show ===On June 23, 1980, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on NBC, ''The David Letterman Show''.", "It was originally 90 minutes long but was shortened to 60 minutes in August 1980.The show was a critical success, winning two Emmy Awards, but was a ratings disappointment and was canceled, the last show airing October 24, 1980.=== ''Late Night with David Letterman'' ===Letterman interviewing comedian Jerry Lewis in 1982NBC kept Letterman on its payroll to try him in a different time slot.", "''Late Night with David Letterman'' debuted February 1, 1982; the first guest was Bill Murray.", "Murray went on to become one of Letterman's most recurrent guests, guesting on his later CBS show's celebration of his 30th anniversary in late-night television, which aired January 31, 2012, and on the final CBS show, which aired May 20, 2015.The show ran Monday through Thursday nights at 12:30 a.m. Eastern Time, immediately following ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' (a Friday night broadcast was added in June 1987).", "It was seen as edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students).", "Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was borne out in verbal sparring matches with Cher (who even called him an \"asshole\" on the show), Shirley MacLaine, Charles Grodin, and Madonna.", "The show also featured comedy segments and running characters, in a style heavily influenced by the 1950s and 1960s programs of Steve Allen.The show often featured quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including \"Stupid Pet Tricks\" (which had its origins on Letterman's morning show), Stupid Human Tricks, dropping various objects off the roof of a five-story building, demonstrations of unorthodox clothing (such as suits made of Alka-Seltzer, Velcro and suet), a recurring Top 10 list, the Monkey-Cam (and the Audience Cam), a facetious letter-answering segment, several \"Films by My Dog Bob\" in which a camera was mounted on Letterman's own dog (often with comic results) and Small Town News, all of which moved with Letterman to CBS.Other episodes included Letterman using a bullhorn to interrupt a live interview on ''The Today Show'' on August 19, 1985, announcing that he was the NBC News president Lawrence K. Grossman and that he was not wearing any pants; walking across the hall to Studio 6B, at the time the news studio for WNBC-TV, and interrupting Al Roker's weather segments during ''Live at Five''; and staging \"elevator races\", complete with commentary by NBC Sports' Bob Costas.", "In one appearance, in 1982, Andy Kaufman (who was wearing a neck brace) appeared with professional wrestler Jerry Lawler, who slapped and knocked the comedian to the ground (Lawler and Kaufman's friend Bob Zmuda later revealed that the incident was staged)." ], [ "CBS", "=== ''Late Show with David Letterman'' ===The Ed Sullivan Theater, where ''Late Show with David Letterman'' was recordedIn 1992, Johnny Carson retired, and many fans, and Carson himself, believed that Letterman would become the new host of ''The Tonight Show''.", "When NBC instead gave the job to Jay Leno, Letterman departed NBC to host his own late-night show on CBS, opposite ''The Tonight Show'' at 11:30 p.m., called the ''Late Show with David Letterman''.", "The new show debuted on August 30, 1993, and was taped at the historic Ed Sullivan Theater, where Ed Sullivan broadcast his eponymous variety series from 1948 to 1971.For Letterman's arrival, CBS spent $8 million in renovations.", "CBS also signed Letterman to a three-year, $14 million/year contract, doubling his ''Late Night'' salary.But while the expectation was that Letterman would retain his unique style and sense of humor with the move, ''Late Show'' was not an exact replica of his old NBC program.", "The monologue was lengthened.", "Paul Shaffer and the World's Most Dangerous Band followed Letterman to CBS, but they added a brass section and were rebranded the CBS Orchestra (at Shaffer's request); a small band had been mandated by Carson while Letterman occupied the 12:30 slot.", "Additionally, because of intellectual property disagreements, Letterman was unable to import many of his ''Late Night'' segments verbatim, but he sidestepped this problem by simply renaming them (the \"Top Ten List\" became the \"Late Show Top Ten\", \"Viewer Mail\" became the \"CBS Mailbag\", etc.).", "''Time'' magazine wrote, \"Letterman's innovation ... gained power from its rigorous formalism\"; as his biographer Jason Zinoman puts it, he was \"a fascinatingly disgruntled eccentric trapped inside a more traditional talk show.", "\"=== Popularity ===The ''Late Show'''s main competitor was NBC's ''The Tonight Show'', which Jay Leno hosted for 22 years from 1992 to 2014, except from June 1, 2009, to January 22, 2010, when Conan O'Brien hosted.", "In 1993 and 1994, the ''Late Show'' consistently gained higher ratings than ''The Tonight Show''.", "But in 1995, ratings dipped and Leno's show consistently beat Letterman's in the ratings from the time that Hugh Grant came on Leno's show after Grant's arrest for soliciting a prostitute.Leno typically attracted about five million nightly viewers between 1999 and 2009.The ''Late Show'' lost nearly half its audience during its competition with Leno, attracting 7.1 million viewers nightly in its 1993–94 season and about 3.8 million per night as of Leno's departure in 2009.In the final months of his first stint as host of ''The Tonight Show'', Leno beat Letterman in the ratings by a 1.3 million-viewer margin (5.2 million to 3.9 million), and ''Nightline'' and the ''Late Show'' were virtually tied.", "Once O'Brien took over ''Tonight'', Letterman closed the gap in the ratings.", "O'Brien initially drove the median age of ''Tonight Show'' viewers from 55 to 45, with most older viewers opting to watch the ''Late Show'' instead.", "After Leno returned to ''The Tonight Show'', Leno regained his lead.Letterman's shows have garnered both critical and industry praise, receiving 67 Emmy Award nominations, winning 12 times in his first 20 years in late night television.", "From 1993 to 2009, Letterman ranked higher than Leno in the annual Harris Poll of ''Nation's Favorite TV Personality'' 12 times.", "For example, in 2003 and 2004 Letterman ranked second in that poll, behind only Oprah Winfrey, a year that Leno was ranked fifth.", "Leno was higher than Letterman on that poll three times during the same period, in 1998, 2007, and 2008.=== Hosting the Academy Awards ===On March 27, 1995, Letterman hosted the 67th Academy Awards ceremony.", "Critics blasted what they deemed his poor performance, noting that his irreverent style undermined the traditional importance and glamor of the event.", "In a joke about their unusual names (inspired by a celebrated comic essay in ''The New Yorker'', \"Yma Dream\" by Thomas Meehan), he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey, and then both of them to Keanu Reeves: \"Oprah...Uma.", "Uma...Oprah,\" \"Have you kids met Keanu?\"", "This and many of his other jokes fell flat.", "Although Letterman attracted the highest ratings to the annual telecast since 1983, many felt that the bad publicity he generated caused a decline in the ''Late Show'' ratings.Letterman recycled the apparent debacle into a long-running gag.", "On his first show after the Oscars, he joked, \"Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised.\"", "He lampooned his stint two years later, during Billy Crystal's opening Oscar skit, which also parodied the plane-crashing scenes from that year's chief nominated film, ''The English Patient''.For years afterward, Letterman recounted his hosting the Oscars, although the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences continued to hold Letterman in high regard and invited him to host the Oscars again.", "On September 7, 2010, he made an appearance on the premiere of the 14th season of ''The View'', and confirmed that he had been considered for hosting again.=== Heart surgery hiatus ===On January 14, 2000, a routine check-up revealed that an artery in Letterman's heart was severely obstructed.", "He was rushed to emergency surgery for a quintuple bypass at New York Presbyterian Hospital.", "During the initial weeks of his recovery, reruns of the ''Late Show'' were shown and introduced by friends of Letterman including Norm Macdonald, Drew Barrymore, Ray Romano, Robin Williams, Bonnie Hunt, Megan Mullally, Bill Murray, Regis Philbin, Charles Grodin, Nathan Lane, Julia Roberts, Bruce Willis, Jerry Seinfeld, Martin Short, Steven Seagal, Hillary Clinton, Danny DeVito, Steve Martin, and Sarah Jessica Parker.Subsequently, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late-night talk show tradition of \"guest hosts\" that had virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990s, allowing Bill Cosby, Kathie Lee Gifford, Dana Carvey, Janeane Garofalo, and others to host new episodes of the ''Late Show''.", "Upon his return to the show on February 21, 2000, Letterman brought all but one of the doctors and nurses on stage who had participated in his surgery and recovery (with extra teasing of a nurse who had given him bed baths—\"This woman gave me a bath!", "\"), including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician Louis Aronne, who frequently appeared on the show.For a number of episodes, Letterman continued to crack jokes about his bypass, including saying, \"Bypass surgery: it's when doctors surgically create new blood flow to your heart.", "A bypass is what happened to me when I didn't get ''The Tonight Show!''", "It's a whole different thing.\"", "In a later running gag, he lobbied Indiana to rename the freeway circling Indianapolis (I-465) \"The David Letterman Bypass\".", "He also featured a montage of faux news coverage of his bypass surgery, which included a clip of Letterman's heart for sale on the Home Shopping Network.", "Letterman became friends with his doctors and nurses.", "In 2008, a ''Rolling Stone'' interview stated he hosted a doctor and nurse who'd helped perform the emergency quintuple-bypass heart surgery that saved his life in 2000.", "'These are people who were complete strangers when they opened my chest,' he says.", "'And now, eight years later, they're among my best friends.'", "Additionally, Letterman invited the band Foo Fighters to play \"Everlong\", introducing them as \"my favorite band, playing my favorite song.\"", "During Letterman's last show, on which Foo Fighters appeared, Letterman said that Foo Fighters had been in the middle of a South American tour which they canceled to come play on his comeback episode.Letterman again handed over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including Bill Cosby, Brad Garrett, Whoopi Goldberg, Elvis Costello, John McEnroe, Vince Vaughn, Will Ferrell, Bonnie Hunt, Luke Wilson, and bandleader Paul Shaffer) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of shingles.", "Later that year, Letterman made regular use of guest hosts—including Tom Arnold and Kelsey Grammer—for new shows broadcast on Fridays.", "In March 2007, Adam Sandler, who had been scheduled to be the lead guest, served as a guest host while Letterman was ill with a stomach virus.=== Re-signing with CBS ===Letterman with President Barack Obama in 2009In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS neared expiration, ABC offered him the time slot for long-running news program ''Nightline'' with Ted Koppel.", "Letterman was interested, as he believed he could never match Leno's ratings at CBS due to Letterman's complaint of weaker lead-ins from the network's late local news programs, but was reluctant to replace Koppel.", "He addressed his decision to re-sign on the air, stating that he was content at CBS and that he had great respect for Koppel.On December 4, 2006, CBS revealed that Letterman signed a new contract to host ''Late Show with David Letterman'' through the fall of 2010.", "\"I'm thrilled to be continuing on at CBS,\" said Letterman.", "\"At my age you really don't want to have to learn a new commute.\"", "Letterman further joked about the subject by pulling up his right pants leg, revealing a tattoo, presumably temporary, of the ABC logo.", "\"Thirteen years ago, David Letterman put CBS late night on the map and in the process became one of the defining icons of our network,\" said Leslie Moonves, president and CEO of CBS Corporation.", "\"His presence on our air is an ongoing source of pride, and the creativity and imagination that the ''Late Show'' puts forth every night is an ongoing display of the highest quality entertainment.", "We are truly honored that one of the most revered and talented entertainers of our time will continue to call CBS 'home.", "'\"According to a 2007 article in ''Forbes'' magazine, Letterman earned $40 million a year.", "A 2009 article in ''The New York Times'', however, said his salary was estimated at $32 million.", "In June 2009, Letterman's Worldwide Pants and CBS reached an agreement to continue the ''Late Show'' until at least August 2012.The previous contract had been set to expire in 2010, and the two-year extension was shorter than the typical three-year contract period negotiated in the past.", "Worldwide Pants agreed to lower its fee for the show, though it had remained a \"solid moneymaker for CBS\" under the previous contract.On the February 3, 2011 edition of the ''Late Show'', during an interview with Howard Stern, Letterman said he would continue to do his talk show for \"maybe two years, I think.\"", "In April 2012, CBS announced it had extended its contract with Letterman through 2014.His contract was subsequently extended to 2015.=== Retirement from ''Late Show'' ===During the taping of his show on April 3, 2014, Letterman announced that he had informed CBS president Leslie Moonves that he would retire from hosting ''Late Show'' by May 20, 2015.Later in his retirement Letterman occasionally stated, in jest, that he had been fired.", "It was announced soon after that comedian and political satirist Stephen Colbert would succeed Letterman.", "Letterman's last episode aired on May 20, 2015, and opened with a presidential sendoff featuring four of the five living American presidents, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, each mimicking the late president Gerald Ford's statement \"Our long national nightmare is over.\"", "It also featured cameos from ''The Simpsons'' and ''Wheel of Fortune'' (the latter with a puzzle saying \"Good riddance to David Letterman\"), a Top Ten List of \"things I wish I could have said to David Letterman\" performed by regular guests including Alec Baldwin, Barbara Walters, Steve Martin, Jerry Seinfeld, Jim Carrey, Chris Rock, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Peyton Manning, Tina Fey, and Bill Murray, and closed with a montage of scenes from both his CBS and NBC series set to a live performance of \"Everlong\" by Foo Fighters.The final episode of ''Late Show with David Letterman'' was watched by 13.76 million viewers in the United States with an audience share of 9.3/24, earning the show its highest ratings since following the 1994 Winter Olympics on February 25, 1994, and the show's highest demo numbers (4.1 in adults 25–54 and 3.1 in adults 18–49) since Oprah Winfrey's first ''Late Show'' appearance following the ending of her feud with Letterman on December 1, 2005.Bill Murray, who had been his first guest on ''Late Night'', was his final guest on ''Late Show''.", "In a rarity for a late-night show, it was also the highest-rated program on network television that night, beating out all prime-time shows.", "In total, Letterman hosted 6,080 episodes of ''Late Night'' and ''Late Show'', surpassing friend and mentor Johnny Carson as the longest-serving late-night talk show host in U.S. television history." ], [ "Post-''Late Show''", "Letterman at the 2019 Indianapolis 500In the months following the end of ''Late Show'', Letterman was seen occasionally at sports events such as the Indianapolis 500, during which he submitted to an interview with a local publication.", "He made a surprise appearance on stage in San Antonio, Texas when he was invited up for an extended segment during Steve Martin's and Martin Short's ''A Very Stupid Conversation'' show, saying \"I retired, and...I have no regrets,\" Letterman told the crowd after walking on stage.", "\"I was happy.", "I'll make actual friends.", "I was complacent.", "I was satisfied.", "I was content, and then a couple of days ago Donald Trump said he was running for president.", "I have made the biggest mistake of my life, ladies and gentlemen\" and then delivering a Top Ten List roasting Trump's presidential campaign followed by an onstage conversation with Martin and Short.", "Cellphone recordings of the appearance were posted on YouTube by audience members and widely reported in the media.In 2016, Letterman joined the climate change documentary show ''Years of Living Dangerously'' as one of its celebrity correspondents.", "In season two's premiere episode, Letterman traveled to India to investigate the country's efforts to expand its inadequate energy grid, power its booming economy, and bring electricity to 300 million citizens for the first time.", "He also interviewed Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and traveled to rural villages where power is a scarce luxury and explored the United States' role in India's energy future.On April 7, 2017, Letterman gave the induction speech for the band Pearl Jam into the Rock & Roll Hall Of Fame at a ceremony held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York City.", "Also in 2017, Letterman and Alec Baldwin co-hosted ''The Essentials'' on Turner Classic Movies.", "Letterman and Baldwin introduced seven films for the series.===Netflix===In 2018, Letterman began hosting a six-episode monthly series of hour-long programs on Netflix consisting of long-form interviews and field segments.", "The show, ''My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman'', premiered January 12, 2018 with Barack Obama as its first guest.", "The second season premiered on May 31, 2019.Season 3 premiered on October 21, 2020, and includes Kim Kardashian West, Robert Downey Jr., Dave Chappelle and Lizzo as guests.", "Season 4 premiered on May 20, 2022, with Billie Eilish as the first guest.", "In October 2022, Letterman traveled to Kyiv, Ukraine, to film a special standalone episode of ''My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman'', interviewing Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy." ], [ "Notable exchanges and incidents", "=== NBC and Johnny Carson ===In spite of Johnny Carson's clear intention to pass his title to Letterman, NBC selected Jay Leno to host ''The Tonight Show'' after Carson's departure.", "Letterman maintained a close relationship with Carson through his break with NBC.", "Three years after he left for CBS, HBO produced a made-for-television movie called ''The Late Shift'', based on a book by ''The New York Times'' reporter Bill Carter, chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the ''Tonight Show'' hosting spot.Carson later made a few cameo appearances as a guest on Letterman's show.", "Carson's final television appearance was on May 13, 1994, on a ''Late Show'' episode taped in Los Angeles, when he made a surprise appearance during a Top 10 list segment.", "In early 2005, it was revealed that Carson occasionally sent jokes to Letterman, who used them in his monologue; according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), Carson got \"a big kick out of it.\"", "Letterman would do a characteristic Carson golf swing after delivering one of his jokes.", "In a tribute to Carson, all the opening monologue jokes during the first show after Carson's death were by Carson.Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his \"rightful successor\".", "During the early years of the ''Late Show''s run, Letterman occasionally used some of Carson's trademark bits, including \"Carnac the Magnificent\" (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), \"Stump the Band\", and the \"Week in Review\".=== Oprah Winfrey ===Oprah Winfrey appeared on Letterman's show when he was hosting NBC's ''Late Night'' on May 2, 1989.After that appearance, the two had a 16-year feud that arose, as Winfrey explained to Letterman after it had been resolved, as a result of the acerbic tone of their 1989 interview, of which she said that it \"felt so uncomfortable to me that I didn't want to have that experience again\".", "The feud apparently ended on December 2, 2005, when Winfrey appeared on CBS's ''Late Show with David Letterman'' in an event Letterman jokingly called \"the Super Bowl of Love\".Winfrey and Letterman also appeared together in a ''Late Show'' promo aired during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLI in February 2007, with the two sitting next to each other on a couch watching the game.", "Since the game was played between the Indianapolis Colts and Chicago Bears, the Indianapolis-born Letterman wore a Peyton Manning jersey, while Winfrey, whose show was taped in Chicago, wore a Brian Urlacher jersey.", "On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' at Madison Square Garden in New York City.Three years later, during CBS's coverage of Super Bowl XLIV between the Colts and the New Orleans Saints, the two appeared again in a ''Late Show'' promo, this time with Winfrey sitting on a couch between Letterman and Leno.", "Letterman wore the retired 70 jersey of Art Donovan, a member of the Colts' Hall of Fame and a regular Letterman guest.", "The appearance was Letterman's idea: Leno flew to New York City on an NBC corporate jet, sneaking into the Ed Sullivan Theater during the ''Late Show''s February 4 taping wearing a disguise and meeting Winfrey and Letterman at a living room set created in the theater's balcony, where they taped their promo.Winfrey interviewed Letterman in January 2013 on ''Oprah's Next Chapter''.", "They discussed their feud and Winfrey revealed that she had had a \"terrible experience\" while appearing on Letterman's show years earlier.", "Letterman could not recall the incident but apologized.=== 2007–2008 writers' strike ===''Late Show'' went off air for eight weeks in 2007 during November and December because of the Writers Guild of America strike.", "Letterman's production company, Worldwide Pants, was the first company to make an individual agreement with the WGA, allowing his show to come back on the air on January 2, 2008.In his first episode back, he surprised the audience with a newly grown beard, which signified solidarity with the strike.", "His beard was shaved off during the show on January 7, 2008.=== Palin joke ===On June 8 and 9, 2009, Letterman told two sexually themed jokes about a daughter (never named) of Sarah Palin on his TV show.", "These included a statutory rape joke about Palin's then 14-year-old daughter, Willow, and MLB player Alex Rodriguez.", "Palin was in New York City at the time with Willow, and none of her other children were at the game.In a statement posted on the Internet, Palin said, \"I doubt Letterman would ever dare make such comments about anyone else's daughter\" and that \"laughter incited by sexually perverted comments made by a 62-year-old male celebrity aimed at a 14-year-old girl is disgusting.\"", "On his June 10 show, Letterman responded to the controversy, saying the jokes were meant to be about Palin's 18-year-old daughter, Bristol, whose pregnancy as an unmarried teenager had caused some controversy during the United States presidential election of 2008.", "\"These are not jokes made about Palin's 14-year-old daughter ...", "I would never, never make jokes about raping or having sex of any description with a 14-year-old girl.", "\"His remarks did not end public criticism.", "The National Organization for Women (NOW) released a statement supporting Palin, noting that Letterman had made \"only something of an apology.\"", "When the controversy failed to subside, Letterman addressed the issue again on his June 15 show, faulting himself for the error and apologizing \"especially to the two daughters involved, Bristol and Willow, and also to the governor and her family and everybody else who was outraged by the joke.\"", "Rodriguez demanded an apology for implying that he was a child molester.", "Letterman never specifically apologized to Rodriguez.=== Al-Qaeda death threat ===On August 17, 2011, it was reported that an Islamist militant had posted a death threat against Letterman on a website frequented by Al-Qaeda supporters, calling on American Muslims to kill him for making a joke about the death of Ilyas Kashmiri, an Al-Qaeda leader who was killed in a June 2011 drone strike in Pakistan.", "In his August 22 show, Letterman joked about the threat, saying \"State Department authorities are looking into this.", "They're not taking this lightly.", "They're looking into it.", "They're questioning, they're interrogating, there's an electronic trail—but everybody knows it's Leno.\"" ], [ "Appearances in other media", "Letterman receiving the 2012 Kennedy Center Honors Medallion, December 2012Letterman appeared in the pilot episode of the short-lived 1986 series ''Coach Toast'', and appears with a bag over his head as a guest on Bonnie Hunt's 1990s sitcom ''The Building''.", "He appeared in ''The Simpsons'' as himself in a couch gag when the Simpsons find themselves (and the couch) in ''Late Night with David Letterman''.", "He had a cameo in the feature film ''Cabin Boy'', with Chris Elliott, who worked as a writer for Letterman.", "In this and other appearances, Letterman is listed in the credits as \"Earl Hofert\", the name of Letterman's maternal grandfather.", "He also appeared as himself in the Howard Stern biographical film ''Private Parts'' and the 1999 Andy Kaufman biopic ''Man on the Moon'', in a few episodes of Garry Shandling's 1990s TV series ''The Larry Sanders Show'', and in \"The Abstinence\", a 1996 episode of the sitcom ''Seinfeld''.Letterman provided vocals for the Warren Zevon song \"Hit Somebody\" from ''My Ride's Here'', and provided the voice for Butt-head's father in the 1996 animated film ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'', again credited as Earl Hofert.Letterman was the focus of ''The Avengers on \"Late Night with David Letterman\"'', issue 239 (January 1984) of the Marvel comic book series ''The Avengers'', in which the title characters (specifically Hawkeye, Wonder Man, Black Widow, Beast, and Black Panther) are guests on ''Late Night''.", "A parody of Letterman named David Endochrine is gassed to death along with his bandleader, Paul, and their audience in Frank Miller's ''The Dark Knight Returns''.", "In ''SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron'', Letterman was parodied as \"David Litterbin\".", "Letterman appears in issues 13–14 and 18 of Harvey Pekar's autobiographical comic book ''American Splendor''.", "Those issues show Pekar's accounts of appearances on ''Late Night''.In 2010, a documentary directed by Joke Fincioen and Biagio Messina, ''Dying to do Letterman'', was released, featuring Steve Mazan, a standup comic, who has cancer and wants to appear on Letterman's show.", "The film won best documentary and jury awards at the Cinequest Film Festival.", "Mazan published a book of the same name (full title ''Dying to Do Letterman: Turning Someday into Today'') about his own saga.Letterman appeared as a guest on CNN's ''Piers Morgan Tonight'' on May 29, 2012, when he was interviewed by Regis Philbin, the guest host and Letterman's longtime friend.", "Philbin again interviewed Letterman (and Shaffer) while guest-hosting CBS's ''The Late Late Show'' (between the tenures of Craig Ferguson and James Corden) on January 27, 2015.In June 2013, Letterman appeared in the second episode of season two of ''Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee''.", "On November 5, 2013, he and Bruce McCall published a fiction satire book, ''This Land Was Made for You and Me (But Mostly Me)'', .In Week 13 of the 2021 NFL season, Letterman joined Peyton and Eli Manning on their Manningcast feed of the ''Monday Night Football'' game between the New England Patriots and Buffalo Bills.", "Letterman mocked Bill Belichick after he was caught on camera wiping his nose with his shirt and was in the middle of recalling being with Roger Goodell when Goodell was booed at the unveiling of Peyton Manning's statue in Indianapolis when ESPN suddenly cut to commercials.On February 1, 2022, Letterman was the guest on ''Late Night with Seth Meyers'', marking the 40th anniversary of the franchise's debut.On November 20, 2023, Letterman returned to the Ed Sullivan theater on ''The Late Show with Stephen Colbert''." ], [ "Business ventures", "Letterman started his production company, Worldwide Pants Incorporated, which produced his show and several others, in 1991.The company also produces feature films and documentaries and founded its own record label, Clear Entertainment.", "Worldwide Pants received significant attention in December 2007 after it was announced that it had independently negotiated its own contract with the Writers Guild of America, East, thus allowing Letterman, Craig Ferguson, and their writers to return to work, while the union continued its strike against production companies, networks, and studios with whom it had not yet reached agreements.Letterman, Bobby Rahal, and Mike Lanigan co-own Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing, an auto racing team competing in the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship and NTT IndyCar series.", "The team has twice won the Indianapolis 500: in 2004 with driver Buddy Rice, and in 2020 with Takuma Sato.The Letterman Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming is a private foundation through which Letterman has donated millions of dollars to charities and other nonprofit organizations in Indiana and Montana, celebrity-affiliated organizations such as Paul Newman's Hole in the Wall Gang Camp, Ball State University, the American Cancer Society, the Salvation Army, and ''Médecins Sans Frontières''.== Influences == Letterman's biggest influence and mentor was Johnny Carson.", "Other comedians who influenced Letterman were Paul Dixon, Steve Allen, Jonathan Winters, Garry Moore, Jack Paar, Don Rickles, and David Brenner.", "Although Ernie Kovacs has also been mentioned as an influence, Letterman has denied this.Comedians influenced by Letterman include Conan O'Brien, Jon Stewart, Stephen Colbert, Ray Romano, Jimmy Kimmel, Jay Leno, Arsenio Hall, Larry Wilmore, Seth Meyers, Norm Macdonald, Jimmy Fallon, John Oliver, and James Corden." ], [ "Personal life", "Letterman has tinnitus, a symptom of hearing loss.", "On the ''Late Show'' in 1996, he talked about his experience with tinnitus during an interview with William Shatner, who has severe tinnitus caused by an on-set explosion.", "Letterman has said that he was initially unable to pinpoint the noise inside his head and that he hears a constant ringing in his ears.Letterman no longer drinks alcohol.", "On more than one occasion, he said that he had once been a \"horrible alcoholic\" and had begun drinking around the age of 13 and continued until 1981 when he was 34.He has said that in 1981, \"I was drunk 80% of the time ...", "I loved it.", "I was one of those guys, I looked around, and everyone else had stopped drinking and I couldn't understand why.\"", "When he was shown drinking what appears to be alcohol on ''Late Night'' or the ''Late Show'', it was actually apple juice.In 2015, Letterman said of his anxiety: \"For years and years and years—30, 40 years—I was anxious and hypochondriacal and an alcoholic, and many, many other things that made me different from other people.\"", "He became calmer through a combination of Transcendental Meditation and low doses of medication.", "Letterman is a Presbyterian, a religious tradition he was originally brought up in by his mother, though he once said he was motivated by \"Lutheran, Midwestern guilt\".In August 2021, Letterman was hospitalized in Providence, Rhode Island, after hitting his head on the sidewalk and falling unconscious.", "He favorably recalled the care he received at Rhode Island Hospital in a video released by the hospital's owner.===Marriages, relationships, and family===On July 2, 1968, Letterman married his college sweetheart, Michelle Cook, in Muncie, Indiana; they divorced by October 1977.He also had a long-term cohabiting relationship with the former head writer and producer on ''Late Night'', Merrill Markoe, from 1978 to 1988.Markoe created several ''Late Night'' staples, such as \"Stupid Pet/Human Tricks\".", "''Time'' magazine wrote that theirs was the defining relationship of Letterman's career, with Markoe also acting as his writing partner.", "She \"put the surrealism in Letterman's comedy.", "\"Letterman and Regina Lasko started dating in February 1986, while he was still living with Markoe.", "Lasko gave birth to their son, Harry Joseph Letterman, on November 3, 2003.Harry is named after Letterman's father.", "In 2005, police discovered a plot to kidnap Letterman's son and demand a $5 million ransom.", "Kelly Frank, a house painter who had worked for Letterman, was charged in the conspiracy.Letterman and Lasko wed on March 19, 2009, in a quiet courthouse civil ceremony in Choteau, Montana, where he had purchased a ranch in 1999.Letterman announced the marriage during the taping of his show of March 23, shortly after congratulating Bruce Willis on his marriage the week before.", "Letterman told the audience he nearly missed the ceremony because his truck became stuck in mud two miles from their house.", "The family resides in North Salem, New York, on a estate.=== Extortion attempt and revelation of affairs ===On October 1, 2009, Letterman announced on his show that he had been the victim of a blackmail attempt by a person threatening to reveal his sexual relationships with several of his female employees—a fact Letterman immediately thereafter confirmed.", "He said that someone had left a package in his car with material he said he would write into a screenplay and a book if Letterman did not pay him $2 million.", "Letterman said that he contacted the Manhattan District Attorney's office and partook in a sting operation that involved the handover of a fake check to the extortionist.Joe Halderman, a producer of the CBS news magazine television series ''48 Hours'', was arrested around noon (EST) on October 1, 2009, after trying to deposit the check.", "He was indicted by a Manhattan grand jury following testimony from Letterman and pleaded not guilty to a charge of attempted grand larceny on October 2, 2009.Halderman pleaded guilty in March 2010 and was sentenced to six months in prison, followed by probation and community service.A central figure in the case and one of the women with whom Letterman had had a sexual relationship was his longtime personal assistant Stephanie Birkitt, who often appeared on the show.", "She had also worked for ''48 Hours''.", "Until a month before the revelations, she had shared a residence with Halderman, who allegedly had copied her personal diary and used it, along with private emails, in the blackmail package.In the days following the initial announcement of the affairs and the arrest, several prominent women, including Kathie Lee Gifford, co-host of NBC's ''Today Show'', and NBC news anchor Ann Curry, questioned whether Letterman's affairs with subordinates created an unfair working environment.", "A spokesman for Worldwide Pants said that the company's sexual harassment policy did not prohibit sexual relationships between managers and employees.", "According to business news reporter Eve Tahmincioglu, \"CBS suppliers are supposed to follow the company's business conduct policies\" and the CBS 2008 Business Conduct Statement states that \"If a consenting romantic or sexual relationship between a supervisor and a direct or indirect subordinate should develop, CBS requires the supervisor to disclose this information to his or her Company's Human Resources Department\".On October 3, 2009, TMZ reported that a former CBS employee, Holly Hester, had had a yearlong secret affair with Letterman in the early 1990s while she was his intern and a student at New York University.", "On October 5, 2009, Letterman devoted a segment of his show to a public apology to his wife and staff.", "Three days later, Worldwide Pants announced that Birkitt had been placed on a \"paid leave of absence\" from the ''Late Show''.=== Stalking incidents ===Beginning in May 1988, Letterman was stalked by Margaret Mary Ray, a woman with schizophrenia.", "She stole his Porsche, camped out on his tennis court, and repeatedly broke into his house.", "Her exploits drew national attention, with Letterman occasionally joking about her on his show, though he never named her.", "After she died by suicide at age 46 in October 1998, Letterman told ''The New York Times'' that he had great compassion for her.", "A spokesperson for Letterman said: \"This is a sad ending to a confused life.", "\"In 2005, a woman was able to obtain a restraining order from a New Mexico judge, prohibiting Letterman from contacting her.", "She claimed he had sent her coded messages via his television program, causing her bankruptcy and emotional distress.", "Law professor Eugene Volokh called the case \"patently frivolous\".=== Interests ===Letterman is a car enthusiast and owns an extensive collection.", "In 2012, it was reported that the collection consisted of ten Ferraris, eight Porsches, four Austin-Healeys, two Honda motorcycles, a Chevy pickup, and one car each from automakers Mercedes-Benz, Jaguar, MG, Volvo, and Pontiac.In his 2013 appearance on ''Comedians in Cars Getting Coffee'', part of Jerry Seinfeld's conversation with Letterman was filmed in Letterman's 1995 Volvo 960 station wagon, which is powered by a 380-horsepower racing engine.", "Paul Newman had the car built for Letterman.Letterman shares a close relationship with the rock band Foo Fighters since its appearance on his first show upon his return from heart surgery.", "The band appeared many times on the ''Late Show'', including a week-long stint in October 2014.While introducing the band's performance of \"Miracle\" on the show of October 17, 2014, Letterman told the story of how a souvenir video of himself and his four-year-old son learning to ski used the song as background music, unbeknownst to Letterman until he saw it.", "He stated: \"This is the second song of theirs that will always have great, great meaning for me for the rest of my life\".", "This was the first time the band had heard this story.", "Worldwide Pants co-produced Dave Grohl's ''Sonic Highways'' TV series.", "\"Letterman was the first person to get behind this project,\" Grohl said." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes 1994 ''Cabin Boy'' Old Salt In Fishing Village Credited as Earl Hofert 1996 ''Eddie'' Himself Cameo 1996 ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'' Mötley Crüe roadie (voice) Credited as Earl Hofert 1997 ''Private Parts'' Himself Cameo 1999 ''Man on the Moon'' Himself Cameo 2005 ''Strangers with Candy'' Executive producer 2016 ''Sully'' Himself Cameo 2019 ''Between Two Ferns: The Movie'' Himself 2022 ''Norm Macdonald: Nothing Special'' Himself Stand-up special ===Documentary feature films=== Year Title Role Notes 2005 ''Grizzly Man'' Himself Archive footage from a 2001 ''The Late Show with David Letterman'' episode starring Timothy Treadwell.", "Cut for the DVD release.===Television=== Year Title Role(s) Notes 1977 ''The Starland Vocal Band Show'' Announcer / Various 6 episodes 1978 ''Mary'' Announcer / Various 3 episodes 1978 ''Peeping Times'' Dan Cochran Television film 1979 ''Fast Friends'' Matt Morgan Television film 1979 ''Mork & Mindy'' Ellsworth Episode: \"Mork Goes Erk\" 1979 ''The Mary Tyler Moore Hour'' Various roles 8 episodes 1979 ''Password Plus'' Himself Game Show Participant / Celebrity Guest Star 1980 ''The David Letterman Show'' Himself (host) 90 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer 1981 ''Open All Night'' Man in Suit Episode: \"Buckaroo Buddies\" 1982–1993 ''Late Night with David Letterman'' Himself (host) 1,819 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer 1986 ''38th Primetime Emmy Awards'' Himself (co-host) Special 1993–2015 ''Late Show with David Letterman'' Himself (host) 4,263 episodes; also creator, writer and executive producer 1993 ''Murphy Brown'' Himself Episode: \"Bump in the Night\" 1993 ''The Building'' The Thief 5 episodes; also executive producerAlso appeared in Episode: \"Damned If You Do\" 1993–1995 ''The Larry Sanders Show'' Himself 2 episodes 1994 ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' Himself (voice) Episode: \"Late Night with Butt-head\" 1995 ''67th Academy Awards'' Himself (host) Television special 1995–1999 ''The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder'' 777 episodes; co-creator and executive producer 1995–1996 ''Bonnie'' 13 episodes; also executive producer 1995 ''The Nanny'' Himself Episode: \"Pen Pal\" 1995 ''Favorite Deadly Sins'' Himself Television film 1996 ''The Dana Carvey Show'' Himself Episode: \"The Diet Mug Root Beer Dana Carvey Show\" 1996 ''Seinfeld'' Himself Episode: \"The Abstinence\" 1996 ''The High Life'' 8 episodes; also executive producer 1996–2005 ''Everybody Loves Raymond'' 210 episodes; also executive producer 1997–1998 ''Spin City'' Himself / Rags 2 episodes 1998 ''Cosby'' Himself Episode \"Fifteen Minutes of Fame\" 1999–2004 ''The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn'' 1,190 episodes; co-creator and executive producer 2000–2004 ''ED'' 83 episodes; executive producer 2005–2014 ''The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson'' 2,058 episodes; co-creator and executive producer 2007 ''The Knights of Prosperity'' 13 episodes; also executive producer 2012 ''The Simpsons'' Himself (voice) Episode: \"The D'oh-cial Network\" 2018–present ''My Next Guest Needs No Introduction with David Letterman'' Himself (host) Also creator, writer and executive producer" ], [ "Awards, honors and legacy", "'''David Letterman Communication and Media Building'''Letterman at the 39th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1987In 1996, Letterman was ranked 45th on ''TV Guide''s 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time.", "In 2002, ''The Late Show with David Letterman'' was ranked seventh on TV Guide's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time.On September 7, 2007, Letterman visited his ''alma mater'', Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana, for the dedication of a communications facility named in his honor for his dedication to the university.", "The $21 million, David Letterman Communication and Media Building opened for the 2007 fall semester.", "Thousands of Ball State students, faculty, and local residents welcomed Letterman back to Indiana.", "Letterman's emotional speech touched on his struggles as a college student and his late father, and also included the \"top ten good things about having your name on a building\", finishing with \"if reasonable people can put my name on a $21 million building, anything is possible.\"", "Over many years Letterman \"has provided substantial assistance to Ball State's Department of Telecommunications, including an annual scholarship that bears his name.", "\"At the same time, Indiana Governor Mitch Daniels gave Letterman a Sagamore of the Wabash award, which recognizes distinguished service to the state of Indiana.", "'''Awards and nominations'''In his capacities as a performer, producer, or as part of a writing team, Letterman is among the most nominated people in the history of the Emmy Awards, with 52 nominations, winning two Daytime Emmys and ten Primetime Emmys since 1981.He won four American Comedy Awards and in 2011 became the first recipient of the Johnny Carson Award for Comedic Excellence at The Comedy Awards.Letterman was a recipient of the 2012 Kennedy Center Honors, where he was called \"one of the most influential personalities in the history of television, entertaining an entire generation of late-night viewers with his unconventional wit and charm.\"", "On May 16, 2017, Letterman was named the next recipient of the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor, the award granted annually by the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.", "He received the prize in a ceremony on October 22, 2017." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* , \"Book Review: The Legacy of David Letterman, Icon of the Grizzled Generation\" by Tom Carson, ''The New York Times'', April 10, 2017" ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delroy Lindo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Delroy George Lindo''' (born 18 November 1952) is an English-American actor.", "He is the recipient of such accolades as a NAACP Image Award, a Satellite Award, and nominations for a Drama Desk Award, a Helen Hayes Award, a Tony Award, two Critics' Choice Television Awards, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.He moved with his mother to San Francisco in the United States when he was 16, after they had left London and lived in Canada for a few years.", "Here he completed his education and entered acting.", "Lindo has played prominent roles in four Spike Lee films: West Indian Archie in ''Malcolm X'' (1992), Woody Carmichael in ''Crooklyn'' (1994), Rodney Little in ''Clockers'' (1995), and Paul in ''Da 5 Bloods'' (2020).", "He received universal acclaim for his performance in ''Da 5 Bloods'' as a Vietnam War veteran, winning the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor and the National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor.", "Lindo also played Bo Catlett in ''Get Shorty'' (1995), Arthur Rose in ''The Cider House Rules'' (1999), and Detective Castlebeck in ''Gone in 60 Seconds'' (2000).", "Lindo starred as Alderman Ronin Gibbons in the TV series ''The Chicago Code'' (2011), as Winter on the series ''Believe'' (2014), and as Adrian Boseman in ''The Good Fight'' (2017–2021)." ], [ "Early life", "Delroy Lindo was born in 1952 in Lewisham, south-east London, the son of Jamaican parents.", "His mother had immigrated to the UK in 1951 to work as a nurse, and his father worked in various jobs.", "Lindo grew up in nearby Eltham and attended Woolwich Polytechnic School for Boys.", "He became interested in acting as a child when he appeared in a nativity play at school.", "When he was a teenager, Lindo moved with his mother to Toronto, Ontario.", "When he was 16, they moved to San Francisco.", "At the age of 24, Lindo began his studies in acting at the American Conservatory Theater, graduating in 1979." ], [ "Career", "Lindo made his film debut in 1976 with the Canadian John Candy comedy ''Find the Lady''.", "He played an army sergeant in ''More American Graffiti'' (1979).For a decade from the early 1980s, Lindo's career was more focused on theatre acting than film, although he has said this was not a conscious decision.", "In 1982 he debuted on Broadway in ''\"Master Harold\"...and the Boys,'' directed by the play's South African author Athol Fugard.", "By 1988, Lindo had earned a Tony nomination for his portrayal of Herald Loomis in August Wilson's ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone''.Lindo returned to film in the science fiction film ''Salute of the Jugger'' (1990), which has become a cult classic.", "Although he had turned down Spike Lee for a role in ''Do the Right Thing'', Lee cast him as Woody Carmichael in the drama ''Crooklyn'' (1994), which brought Lindo notice.", "His other roles with Lee include West Indian Archie, a psychotic gangster, in ''Malcolm X'', and a starring role as a neighborhood drug dealer in ''Clockers''.Other films in which he has starring roles are Barry Sonnenfeld's ''Get Shorty'' (1995), Ron Howard's ''Ransom'' (1996), and ''Soul of the Game'' (1996), as the baseball player Satchel Paige.In 1998 Lindo co-starred as African-American explorer Matthew Henson, in the TV film ''Glory & Honor'', directed by Kevin Hooks.", "It portrayed Henson's nearly 20-year partnership with Commander Robert Peary in Arctic exploration, and their effort to find the Geographic North Pole in 1909.Lindo received a Satellite Award for best actor for his portrayal of Henson.", "Lindo has continued to work in television, and in 2006 was seen on the short-lived NBC drama ''Kidnapped''.Lindo had a small role in the 1995 film ''Congo'', playing the corrupt Captain Wanta.", "Lindo was not credited for the role.", "He played an angel in the comedy film ''A Life Less Ordinary'' (1997).He guest-starred on ''The Simpsons'' in the episode \"Brawl in the Family\", playing a character named Gabriel.In the British film ''Wondrous Oblivion'' (2003), directed by Paul Morrison, Lindo starred as Dennis Samuels, the father of a Jamaican immigrant family in London in the 1950s.", "Lindo said he made the film in honor of his parents, who had similarly moved to London in those years.In 2007, Lindo began an association with Berkeley Repertory Theatre in Berkeley, California, when he directed Tanya Barfield's play ''The Blue Door''.", "In the autumn of 2008, Lindo revisited August Wilson's play ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone'', directing a production at the Berkeley Rep.", "In 2010, he played the role of elderly seer Bynum in David Lan's production of ''Joe Turner'' at the Young Vic Theatre in London.Lindo was in the main cast of the Fox crime drama ''The Chicago Code'' (2011), the NBC fantasy series ''Believe'', and the ABC soap ''Blood & Oil'' (2015).", "In 2017, Lindo began playing Adrian Boseman in the CBS legal drama ''The Good Fight'', a role he would star in for the series' first four seasons and reprise as a guest star in its fifth season.", "Lindo was cast as the lead in an ABC drama pilot ''Harlem's Kitchen'' in March 2020.In 2015, Lindo was expected to play Marcus Garvey in a biopic of the black nationalist historical figure that had been in pre-production for several years.", "Lindo appeared in the action film ''Point Break'' (2015), the horror film ''Malicious'' (2018), the drama ''Battlecreek'', ''Da 5 Bloods'' (2020), another collaboration with Spike Lee, and ''The Harder They Fall'' (2021) as Bass Reeves.", "For his role in ''Da 5 Bloods'', Lindo received critical acclaim and a number of accolades.", "''Entertainment Weekly'' said of Hulu's comedy series ''Unprisoned'' (2023), \"Delroy Lindo is so good it should be illegal.", "\"===Upcoming===It was announced in July 2021 that Lindo would star as Mr Nancy in the British Amazon Prime miniseries adaptation of Neil Gaiman's ''Anansi Boys'' alongside Malachi Kirby.", "In November, Lindo officially joined the cast of the upcoming Marvel Studios film ''Blade'' in an undisclosed role.As of 2020, Lindo was developing a screenplay for his directorial debut about the Windrush generation." ], [ "Personal life", "Lindo married his wife Nashormeh in 1990.They settled in Oakland, California, in 1996, having moved from New York City and preferring the San Francisco Bay Area to Los Angeles.", "Their son Damiri was born in 2001.Lindo is a football fan and supports Manchester United.Upon learning more about the Windrush generation, both through his mother's account and his own role as a Jamaican immigrant in ''Wondrous Oblivion'', Lindo became inspired to study the subject and history further.", "In 2014, he completed a master's thesis from New York University's Gallatin School.", "He was awarded an honorary doctorate in Arts and Humanities from Virginia Union University." ], [ "Filmography", "=== Film === Year Title Role Notes 1976 ''Find the Lady'' Sam 1979 ''More American Graffiti'' Army Sergeant 1990 ''The Blood of Heroes'' Mbulu ''Mountains of the Moon'' Mabruki ''Bright Angel'' Harley 1991 ''The Hard Way'' Captain Brix 1992 ''Malcolm X'' West Indian Archie 1993 ''Blood In Blood Out'' \"Bonafide\" ''Mr.", "Jones'' Howard 1994 ''L'exil du roi Behanzin'' Behanzin ''Crooklyn'' Woody Carmichael 1995 ''Clockers'' Rodney Little ''Congo'' Captain Wanta Uncredited ''Get Shorty'' Bo Catlett 1996 ''Ransom'' FBI Special Agent Lonnie Hawkins ''Broken Arrow'' Colonel Max Wilkins ''Feeling Minnesota'' \"Red\" 1997 ''A Life Less Ordinary'' Jackson ''The Devil's Advocate'' Phillipe Moyez Uncredited 1999 ''Pros & Cons'' Kyle Pettibone ''The Cider House Rules'' Arthur Rose 2000 ''The Book of Stars'' Professor ''Gone in 60 Seconds'' Detective Roland Castlebeck ''Romeo Must Die'' Isaak O'Day 2001 ''The One'' Agent Harry Roedecker ''Heist'' Bobby Blane ''The Last Castle'' Brigadier General Jim Wheeler 2003 ''The Core'' Dr. Ed \"Braz\" Brazzleton ''Wondrous Oblivion'' Dennis Samuel 2005 ''Domino'' Claremont Williams ''Sahara'' Carl 2007 ''This Christmas'' Joe Black 2009 ''Up'' Beta (voice) 2011 ''The Big Bang'' Skeres 2014 ''Cymbeline'' Belarius 2015 ''Do You Believe?''", "Malachi ''Point Break'' FBI Instructor Hall 2017 ''Battlecreek'' Arthur 2018 ''Malicious'' Dr. Clark 2020 ''Da 5 Bloods'' Paul 2021 ''The Harder They Fall'' Bass Reeves === Television === Year Title Role Notes 1987 ''Beauty and the Beast'' Isaac Stubbs 2 episodes 1989 ''A Man Called Hawk'' Mark Slater Episode: \"Vendetta\" ''Perfect Witness'' Berger Television film 1991 ''Against the Law'' Ben Episode: \"Hoops\" 1996 ''Soul of the Game'' Satchel Paige Television film 1997 ''First Time Felon'' Calhoun Television film 1998 ''Glory & Honor'' Mathew Henson Television film 2002 ''The Simpsons'' Gabriel Voice; episode: \"Brawl in the Family\" 2003 ''Profoundly Normal'' Ricardo Thornton Television film 2005 ''Lackawanna Blues'' Mr. Lucious Television film 2006–2007 ''Kidnapped'' Latimer King Main cast; 13 episodes 2009 ''Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' Detective Victor Moran Episode: \"Baggage\" ''Mercy'' Dr. Alfred Parks Episode: \"Can We Get That Drink Now?\"", "2011 ''The Chicago Code'' Alderman Ronin Gibbons Main cast; 11 episodes 2013 ''Robot Chicken'' Dopey Smurf, Scorpion Cashier (voices) Episode: \"Papercut to Aorta\" 2014 ''Believe'' Dr. Milton Winter Main cast; 13 episodes 2015 ''Blood & Oil'' \"Tip\" Harrison Main cast; 10 episodes 2016 ''Marvel's Most Wanted'' Dominic Fortune Unaired pilot 2017–2021 ''The Good Fight'' Adrian Boseman Main cast; 40 episodes 2017 ''This Is Us'' Judge Ernest Bradley Episode: \"The Most Disappointed Man\" 2023 ''Unprisoned'' Edwin Alexander Also executive producer ''Anansi Boys'' Mr Nancy ''Upcoming''=== Theatre === Year Title Role Theatre 1975–76 ''Of Mice and Men'' Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre 1979 ''Spell Number 7'' PerformerNegro Ensemble Company 1981–82 ''Macbeth'' Performer Cincinnati Playhouse 1982–83 ''\"Master Harold\"...and the Boys'' WillieLyceum Theatre1983–84''Home''Cephus MilesHartford Stage Company''A Lesson from Aloes'' Performer Virginia Stage Company 1983–86 ''A Raisin in the Sun'' Walter Lee YoungerYale Repertory TheatreRoundabout Theatre Company1984–85''The Black Branch''Eli CroonerActors Theatre of Louisville''Advice to the Players''Robert Obosa1985''Much Ado About Nothing''Friar FrancisShakespeare & Company1985–86''Union Boys''Performer Yale Repertory Theatre1986–88''Joe Turner's Come and Gone''Herald LoomisHuntington Theatre CompanyOld Globe TheatreEthel Barrymore Theatre1988–89''Cobb''Oscar CharlestonYale Repertory Theatre1989–90''Miss Evers' Boys''Caleb HumphriesCenter Stage1990–91''Julius Caesar''Caius Cassius Center Theatre Group1992–93''Othello''OthelloGreat Lakes Theater1993''The Heliotrope Bouqet by Scott Joplin & Louis Chauvin''Scott JoplinPlaywrights Horizons' Theatre1998''Othello''OthelloActors Theatre of Louisville2008''Agamemnon''AgamemnonGetty Villa2009''Things of Dry Hours''Tice HoganNew York Theatre Workshop 2012 ''The Exonerated''Delbert Tibbs Bleecker Street Theater===Video games=== Year Title Role 2009 ''Up'' Beta (voice)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Award Year Category Nominee(s) Result African-American Film Critics Association 2022 Best Ensemble ''The Harder They Fall '' Austin Film Critics Association 2022Best Ensemble''The Harder They Fall '' Black Reel Awards 2000Outstanding Supporting Actor ''The Cider House Rules'' Outstanding Actor, TV Movie or Limited Series ''Strange Justice'' 2006''The Exonerated'' 2010Best Voice Performance''Up'' 2021 Outstanding Actor''Da 5 Bloods '' Detroit Film Critics Society2021Best Ensemble''The Harder They Fall '' Drama Desk Award 1988 Outstanding Featured Actor in a Play ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone'' Celebration of Black Cinema and Television 2021 Ensemble Award ''The Harder They Fall'' Chicago Film Critics Association1995 Best Supporting Actor ''Clockers'' 2020 Best Actor ''Da 5 Bloods'' Critics' Choice Super Awards 2020 Best Actor in an Action Movie ''Da 5 Bloods'' Critics' Choice Award 2018 Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series ''The Good Fight'' 2020 2021 Best Actor ''Da 5 Bloods'' Gotham Awards2021 Ensemble Tribute Award''The Harder They Fall''Hollywood Critics Association Awards2022Best Cast Ensemble''The Harder They Fall'' Hollywood Critics Association Midseason Award2020 Best Actor ''Da 5 Bloods'' Las Vegas Film Critics Society 1999 Best Supporting Actor ''The Cider House Rules''New York Film Critics Circle Awards 2020 Best Actor ''Da 5 Bloods'' NAACP Image Award 1992 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture''Malcolm X'' 1996 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture ''Ransom'' Outstanding Actor in a Television Movie ''Soul of the Game'' 2009 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series''Law and Order: SVU'' 2022 Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture''The Harder They Fall'' Outstanding Ensemble Cast in a Motion Picture National Board of Review Awards2021Best Cast ''The Harder They Fall'' National Society of Film Critics 1992 Best Supporting Actor ''Malcolm X'' 1995Best Supporting Actor ''Clockers'' ''Get Shorty'' 2020 Best Actor''Da 5 Bloods'' San Diego Film Critics Society 2022Best Performance by an Ensemble ''The Harder They Fall'' Santa Barbara International Film Festival 2021 American Riviera Award Himself Satellite Award 1999Best Actor - Miniseries of Television Movie ''Glory & Honor'' 2000 ''Strange Justice'' 2020 Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama ''Da 5 Bloods'' Screen Actors Guild Award 1995 Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture ''Get Shorty'' 1999 Outstanding Cast in a Motion Picture ''The Cider House Rules'' 2020 Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture ''Da 5 Bloods'' Tony Award 1988 Best Featured Actor in a Play ''Joe Turner's Come and Gone'' Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards2021Best Ensemble''The Harder They Fall''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** Mosi Secret, \"The Long, Occasionally Dark, and Ultimately Triumphant Career of Delroy Lindo\", ''GQ'', 20 April 2021" ] ]	wikipedia

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