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[ [ "David Janssen" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Janssen''' (born '''David Harold Meyer'''; March 27, 1931February 13, 1980) was an American film and television actor who is best known for his starring role as Richard Kimble in the television series ''The Fugitive'' (1963–1967).", "Janssen also had the title roles in three other series: ''Richard Diamond, Private Detective''; ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury'' and ''Harry O''.In 1996 ''TV Guide'' ranked him number 36 on its ''50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time'' list." ], [ "Early life", "David Janssen was born on March 27, 1931, in Naponee, a village in Franklin County in southern Nebraska, to Harold Edward Meyer, a banker, and Berniece Graf, a former Miss Nebraska and Ziegfeld girl.", "Following his parents' divorce in 1935, his mother moved with five-year-old David to Los Angeles, and married Eugene Janssen in 1940.Young David used his stepfather's name after he entered show business as a child.", "He attended Fairfax High School, where he excelled on the basketball court, setting a school scoring record that lasted over 20 years.", "His first film part was at the age of thirteen, and by the age of twenty-five he had appeared in twenty films and served two years as an enlisted man in the United States Army.", "During his Army days, Janssen became a friend of fellow enlistees Martin Milner and Clint Eastwood while posted at Fort Ord, California." ], [ "Acting career", "David Janssen as Dr. Richard Kimble in the TV series ''The Fugitive'', 1967 (final episode)Janssen starred in four television series of his own:* ''Richard Diamond, Private Detective'' (1957–1960), a CBS/Four Star hit series that also introduced Mary Tyler Moore, showing only her legs, and Barbara Bain as Diamond's girlfriend.", "* ''The Fugitive'' (1963–1967), the hit Quinn Martin-produced series, about a Midwest doctor wrongly convicted of murdering his wife;* ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury'' (1971–1972), one of Jack Webb's Mark VII Limited productions for Universal Studios, as a government agent investigating counterfeiters and other federal crimes; * ''Harry O'' (1974–1976), as a disabled San Diego-based private eye.", "At the time of its airing in August 1967, the final episode of ''The Fugitive'' held the record for the greatest number of American homes with television sets to watch a series finale – 72 percent.", "In 1996 ''TV Guide'' ranked ''The Fugitive'' number 36 on its ''50 Greatest Shows of All Time'' list.His films include: ''To Hell and Back'', the biography of Audie Murphy, who was the most decorated American soldier of World War II; ''Hell to Eternity'', a 1960 American World War II biopic starring Jeffrey Hunter as a Hispanic boy who fought in the Battle of Saipan and who was raised by Japanese-American foster parents; John Wayne's Vietnam war film ''The Green Berets''; opposite Gregory Peck, in the space story ''Marooned'', in which Janssen played an astronaut sent to rescue three stranded men in space; and ''The Shoes of the Fisherman'', as a television journalist in Rome reporting on the election of a new Pope (Anthony Quinn).", "He also played pilot Harry Walker in the 1973 action movie ''Birds of Prey''.", "He starred as a Los Angeles police detective trying to clear himself in the killing of an apparently innocent doctor in the 1967 film ''Warning Shot'', which was shot during a break in the spring and summer of 1966 between the third and fourth seasons of ''The Fugitive.", "''Janssen played an alcoholic in the 1977 TV movie ''A Sensitive, Passionate Man'', which co-starred Angie Dickinson, and played an engineer who devises an unbeatable system for blackjack in the 1978 made-for-TV movie ''Nowhere to Run'', co-starring Stefanie Powers and Linda Evans.", "Janssen's impressively husky voice was used to good effect as the narrator for the TV mini-series ''Centennial'' (1978–79); he also appeared in the final episode.", "And in 1979 he starred in the made-for-TV mini series ''S.O.S.", "Titanic'' as John Jacob Astor, playing opposite Beverly Ross as his wife, Madeleine.Though Janssen's scenes were cut from the final release, he also appeared as a journalist in the film ''Inchon'', which he accepted to work with Laurence Olivier, who played General Douglas MacArthur.", "At the time of his death, Janssen had just begun filming a television movie playing the part of Father Damien, the priest who dedicated himself to the leper colony on the island of Molokai, Hawaii.", "The part was eventually reassigned to actor Ken Howard of the CBS series ''The White Shadow''." ], [ "Personal life", "In 1974Janssen was married twice.", "His first marriage was to model and interior decorator Ellie Graham, whom he married in Las Vegas on August 25, 1958.They divorced in 1968.In 1975, he married actress and model Dani Crayne Greco.", "They remained married until Janssen's death." ], [ "Death", "Janssen was a heavy drinker, and a chain smoker who smoked up to four packs of cigarettes a day.", "He died from a sudden heart attack in the early morning of February 13, 1980, at his beachfront home in Malibu, California, at the age of 48.At the time of his death, Janssen was filming the television movie ''Father Damien''.", "Janssen was buried at the Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery in Culver City, California.", "A non-denominational funeral was held at the Jewish chapel of the cemetery on February 17.Suzanne Pleshette delivered the eulogy at the request of Janssen's widow.", "Milton Berle, Johnny Carson, Tommy Gallagher, Richard Harris, Stan Herman, Rod Stewart and Gregory Peck were among Janssen's pallbearers.", "Honorary pallbearers included Jack Lemmon, George Peppard, James Stewart and Danny Thomas.For his contribution to the television industry, David Janssen has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located on the 7700 block of Hollywood Boulevard." ], [ "Selected filmography", "* ''It's a Pleasure'' (1945) as Davey / boy referee (uncredited)* ''Swamp Fire'' (1946) as Emile's Eldest Son (uncredited)* ''No Room for the Groom'' (1952) as Soldier (scenes deleted)* ''Francis Goes to West Point'' (1952) as Cpl.", "Thomas* ''Untamed Frontier'' (1952) as Lottie's Dance Partner (uncredited)* ''Bonzo Goes to College'' (1952) as Jack (uncredited)* ''Yankee Buccaneer'' (1952) as Beckett* ''Back at the Front'' (1952) as Soldier (uncredited)* ''Leave It to Harry'' (1954) as Quiz Show Host (short subject)* ''Chief Crazy Horse'' (1955) as Lt. Colin Cartwright* ''Cult of the Cobra'' (1955) as Rico Nardi* ''Francis in the Navy'' (1955) as Lt. Anders* ''The Private War of Major Benson'' (1955) as Young Lieutenant* ''To Hell and Back'' (1955) as Lieutenant Lee* ''All That Heaven Allows'' (1955) as Freddie Norton (uncredited)* ''The Square Jungle'' (1955) as Jack Lindsay* ''Never Say Goodbye'' (1956) as Dave Heller* ''The Toy Tiger'' (1956) as Larry Tripps* ''Francis in the Haunted House'' (1956) as Police Lieutenant Hopkins* ''Away All Boats'' (1956) as Talker (uncredited)* ''Mr.", "Black Magic'' (1956) as Master of Ceremonies (short subject)* ''Showdown at Abilene'' (1956) as Verne Ward* ''The Girl He Left Behind'' (1956) as Capt.", "Genaro* ''Lafayette Escadrille'' (1958) as Duke Sinclair* ''Hell to Eternity'' (1960) as Sgt.", "Bill Hazen* ''Dondi'' (1961) as Dealey* ''King of the Roaring 20s – The Story of Arnold Rothstein'' (1961) as Arnold Rothstein* ''Ring of Fire'' (1961) as Sergeant Steve Walsh* ''Twenty Plus Two'' (1961) as Tom Alder* ''Man-Trap'' (1961) as Vince Biskay* ''My Six Loves'' (1963) as Marty Bliss* ''Warning Shot'' (1967) as Sgt.", "Tom Valens* ''The Green Berets'' (1968) as George Beckworth* ''The Shoes of the Fisherman'' (1968) as George Faber* ''Where It's At'' (1969) as A.C.* ''Marooned'' (1969) as Ted Dougherty* ''Generation'' (1969) as Jim Bolton* ''Macho Callahan'' (1970) as Diego Callahan* ''Once Is Not Enough'' (1975) as Tom Colt* ''The Swiss conspiracy'' (1976) as David Christopher* ''Two-Minute Warning'' (1976) as Steve* ''Warhead'' (1977) as Tony Stevens* ''Golden Rendezvous'' (1977) as Charles Conway* ''Covert Action'' (1978) as Lester Horton* ''Inchon'' (1981) as David Feld (scenes deleted after premiere; final film role; filmed in 1979; released posthumously)===Television films===* ''Belle Sommers'' (1962) as Danny Castle* ''Night Chase'' (1970) as Adrian Vico* ''The Longest Night'' (1972) as Alan Chambers* ''Moon of the Wolf'' (1972) as Sheriff Aaron Whitaker* ''Hijack'' (1973) as Jake Wilkenson* ''Birds of Prey'' (1973) as Harry Walker* ''Harry O – Such Dust As Dreams Are Made On'' (1973) as Harry Orwell* ''Pioneer Woman'' (1973) as Robert Douglas* ''Harry O – Smile Jenny, You're Dead'' (1974) as Harry Orwell* ''Don't Call the Police'' (1974) as Harry Orwell* ''Fer-de-Lance'' (1974) as Russ Bogan* ''Stalk the Wild Child'' (1976) as Dr. James Hazard* ''Mayday at 40,000 Feet!''", "(1976) as Captain Pete Douglass* ''A Sensitive, Passionate Man'' (1977) as Michael Delaney* ''Superdome'' (1978) as Mike Shelley* ''Nowhere to Run'' (1978) as Harry Adams* ''S.O.S.", "Titanic'' (1979) as John Jacob Astor* ''The Golden Gate murders'' (1979) as Det.", "Sgt.", "Paul Silver* ''High Ice'' (1980) as Glencoe MacDonald* ''City in Fear'' (1980) as Vince Perrino (released posthumously)* ''Father Damien: The Leper Priest'' – 1980 (Incomplete – Replaced by Ken Howard) ===Television series===* ''Boston Blackie'' (1 episode, 1951) as Armored Car Driver (uncredited)* ''Lux Video Theatre'' (3 episodes, 1955–1956) as Johnny Reynolds Jr. / Joe Davies / Ralph* ''Matinee Theatre'' (1 episode, 1956) as Paul Merrick* ''Sheriff of Cochise'' (1 episode, 1956) as Arnie Hix* ''Conflict'' (1 episode, 1957) as Sid Lukes* ''You Are There'' (1 episode, 1957) as Great Dalton* ''U.S.", "Marshal'' (1 episode ) * ''Alcoa Theatre'' (2 episodes, 1957–1958) as Jim McCandless / Mike Harper* ''The Millionaire'' (2 episodes, 1957–1958) as David Barrett / Peter Miller* ''Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre'' (4 episodes, 1957–1959) as Dix Porter / Seth Larker / Tod Owen / Danny Ensign* ''Richard Diamond, Private Detective'' (77 episodes, 1957–1960) as Richard Diamond / Chuck Garrett* ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse'' (1 episode, 1959) as Ross Ingraham* ''Death Valley Days'' (1 episode, 1961) as Dr. Bill Breckenridge* ''Adventures in Paradise'' (1 episode, 1961) as Scotty Bell* ''Thriller'' (1 episode, 1962) * ''Target: The Corruptors'' (1 episode, 1962) as Robbie Wilson* ''General Electric Theater'' (1 episode, 1962) as Pat Howard* ''Follow the Sun'' (2 episodes, 1962) as Johnny Sadowsky* ''Checkmate'' (1 episode, 1962) as Len Kobalsky* ''Cain's Hundred'' (1 episode, 1962) as Dan Mullin* ''Kraft Mystery Theatre'' (1 episode, 1962) * ''Route 66'' (1 episode, 1962) as Karno Starling* ''The Eleventh Hour'' (1 episode, 1962) as Hal Kincaid* ''The Dick Powell Show'' (1 episode, 1963) as Kenneth 'Ken' Morgan* ''Naked City'' (2 episodes, 1961–1963) as Carl Ashland / Blair Cameron* ''The Fugitive'' (120 episodes, 1963–1967) as Dr. Richard Kimble / varied aliases* ''The Hollywood Palace'' (1 episode, 1965)* ''O'Hara, U.S. Treasury'' (22 episodes, 1971–1972) as Jim O'Hara / James O'Hara* ''Cannon'' (1 episode, 1973) as Ian Kirk* ''Harry O'' (44 episodes, 1973–1976) as Harry Orwell* ''Police Story'' (1 episode, 1977) as Sgt.", "Joe Wilson* ''The Word'' (miniseries, all episodes, 1978) as Steve Randall* ''Centennial'' (1 episode, 1979, and narrator for all 12 episodes, 1978–1979) as Paul Garrett / Narrator* ''Biography'' (1979) as Host" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * David Janssen – Our Conversations: The Early Years (1965–1972): Volume 1 Michael Phelps * David Janssen: Our Conversations: The Final Years: (1973–1980): Volume 2 Michael Phelps" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The David Janssen Archive*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Docetism" ], [ "Introduction", "In the history of Christianity, '''docetism''' (from the ''dokeĩn'' \"to seem\", ''dókēsis'' \"apparition, phantom\") is the heterodox doctrine that the phenomenon of Jesus, his historical and bodily existence, and above all the human form of Jesus, was mere semblance without any true reality.", "Broadly it is taken as the belief that Jesus only seemed to be human, and that his human form was an illusion.The word ''Dokētaí'' (\"Illusionists\") referring to early groups who denied Jesus's humanity, first occurred in a letter by Bishop Serapion of Antioch (197–203), who discovered the doctrine in the Gospel of Peter, during a pastoral visit to a Christian community using it in Rhosus, and later condemned it as a forgery.", "It appears to have arisen over theological contentions concerning the meaning, figurative or literal, of a sentence from the Gospel of John: \"the Word was made Flesh\".Docetism was unequivocally rejected at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and is regarded as heretical by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Armenian Apostolic Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and many Protestant denominations that accept and hold to the statements of these early church councils, such as Reformed Baptists, Reformed Christians, and all Trinitarian Christians." ], [ "Definitions", "Docetism is broadly defined as any teaching that claims that Jesus' body was either absent or illusory.", "The term 'docetic' is rather nebulous.", "Two varieties were widely known.", "In one version, as in Marcionism, Christ was so divine that he could not have been human, since God lacked a material body, which therefore could not physically suffer.", "Jesus only ''appeared'' to be a flesh-and-blood man; his body was a phantasm.", "Other groups who were accused of docetism held that Jesus was a man in the flesh, but Christ was a separate entity who entered Jesus' body in the form of a dove at his baptism, empowered him to perform miracles, and abandoned him upon his death on the cross." ], [ "Christology and theological implications", "Docetism's origin within Christianity is obscure.", "Ernst Käsemann controversially defined the Christology of the Gospel of John as \"naïve docetism\" in 1968.The ensuing debate reached an impasse as awareness grew that the very term \"docetism\", like \"gnosticism\", was difficult to define within the religio-historical framework of the debate.", "It has occasionally been argued that its origins were in heterodox Judaism or Oriental and Grecian philosophies.", "The alleged connection with Jewish Christianity would have reflected Jewish Christian concerns with the inviolability of (Jewish) monotheism.", "Docetic opinions seem to have circulated from very early times, 1 John 4:2 appearing explicitly to reject them.", "Some 1stcentury Christian groups developed docetic interpretations partly as a way to make Christian teachings more acceptable to pagan ways of thinking about divinity.In his critique of the theology of Clement of Alexandria, Photius in his Myriobiblon held that Clement's views reflected a quasi-docetic view of the nature of Christ, writing that \"Clement hallucinates that the Word was not incarnate but ''only seems to be''.\"", "(ὀνειροπολεῖ καὶ μὴ σαρκωθῆναι τὸν λόγον ἀλλὰ ''δόξαι''.)", "In Clement's time, some disputes contended over whether Christ assumed the \"psychic\" flesh of mankind as heirs to Adam, or the \"spiritual\" flesh of the resurrection.", "Docetism largely died out during the first millennium AD.The opponents against whom Ignatius of Antioch inveighs are often taken to be Monophysite docetists.", "In his letter to the Smyrnaeans, 7:1, written around 110AD, he writes: While these characteristics fit a Monophysite framework, a slight majority of scholars consider that Ignatius was waging a polemic on two distinct fronts, one Jewish, the other docetic; a minority holds that he was concerned with a group that commingled Judaism and docetism.", "Others, however, doubt that there was actual docetism threatening the churches, arguing that he was merely criticizing Christians who lived Jewishly or that his critical remarks were directed at an Ebionite or Cerinthian possessionist Christology, according to which Christ was a heavenly spirit that temporarily possessed Jesus." ], [ "Islam and docetism", "Some commentators have attempted to make a connection between Islam and docetism using the following Quranic verse:Some scholars theorise that Islam was influenced by Manichaeism (Docetism) in this view.", "However the general consensus is that Manichaeism was not prevalent in Mecca in the 6th and 7th centuries, when Islam developed, and the influence can therefore not be proven." ], [ "Docetism and Christ myth theory", "Since Arthur Drews published his ''The Christ Myth'' (''Die Christusmythe'') in 1909, occasional connections have been drawn between docetist theories and the modern idea that Christ was a myth.", "Shailer Mathews called Drews' theory a \"modern docetism\".", "Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare thought any connection to be based on a misunderstanding of docetism.", "The idea recurred in classicist Michael Grant's 1977 review of the evidence for Jesus, who compared modern scepticism about a historical Jesus to the ancient docetic idea that Jesus only ''seemed'' to come into the world \"in the flesh\".", "Modern supporters of the theory did away with \"seeming\"." ], [ "Texts believed to include docetism", "===Non-canonical Christian texts===* Acts of John* Fundamental Epistle: In ''Against the Fundamental Epistle'', Augustine of Hippo makes reference to Manichaeans believing that Jesus was docetic.", "* Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter* Gospel of Basilides* Gospel of Judas* Gospel of Peter* Gospel of Philip* Second Treatise of the Great Seth" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "*******************" ], [ "Further reading", "" ], [ "External links", "* Docetae in the Catholic Encyclopedia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drachma" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Drachma''' may refer to:Ancient drachma, an ancient Greek currencyModern drachma, a modern Greek currencyCretan drachma, currency of the Cretan State''Drachma'' (moth), a moth genus" ], [ "See also", "Dram (disambiguation)Dirham" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Denarius" ], [ "Introduction", "Octavian and Mark Antony, struck at Ephesus in 41 BC.", "The coin commemorated the two men's defeat of Brutus and Cassius a year earlier as well as celebrating the new Second Triumvirate.\|360x360pxTop row (left to right): 157 BC Roman Republic, 73 AD Vespasian, 161 AD Marcus Aurelius, 194 AD Septimius Severus; Second row (left to right): 199 AD Caracalla, 200 AD Julia Domna, 219 AD Elagabalus, 236 AD Maximinus ThraxThe '''''denarius''''' (; : '''''dēnāriī''''', ) was the standard Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the ''antoninianus''.", "It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313).The word ''dēnārius'' is derived from the Latin ''dēnī'' \"containing ten\", as its value was originally of 10 ''assēs''.", "The word for \"money\" descends from it in Italian (''denaro''), Slovene (''denar''), Portuguese (''dinheiro''), and Spanish (''dinero'').", "Its name also survives in the dinar currency.Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 ''asses'' (\"X\") to 1 ''denarius'' (\"I\") conversion rate.", "However it can also be represented as X̶ (capital letter X with combining long stroke overlay)." ], [ "History", "Starting with Nero in 64 AD, the Romans continuously debased their silver coins until, by the end of the 3rd century AD, hardly any silver was left.A predecessor of the ''denarius'' was first struck in 269 or 268 BC, five years before the First Punic War, with an average weight of 6.81 grams, or of a Roman pound.", "Contact with the Greeks had prompted a need for silver coinage in addition to the bronze currency that the Romans were using at that time.", "This predecessor of the ''denarius'' was a Greek-styled silver coin of ''didrachm'' weight, which was struck in Neapolis and other Greek cities in southern Italy.", "These coins were inscribed with a legend that indicated that they were struck for Rome, but in style they closely resembled their Greek counterparts.", "They were rarely seen at Rome, to judge from finds and hoards, and were probably used either to buy supplies or to pay soldiers.The first distinctively Roman silver coin appeared around 226 BC.", "Classical historians have sometimes called these coins \"heavy ''denarii''\", but they are classified by modern numismatists as ''quadrigati'', a term which survives in one or two ancient texts and is derived from the ''quadriga'', or four-horse chariot, on the reverse.", "This, with a two-horse chariot or ''biga'' which was used as a reverse type for some early ''denarii'', was the prototype for the most common designs used on Roman silver coins for a number of years.Rome overhauled its coinage shortly before 211 BC, and introduced the ''denarius'' alongside a short-lived denomination called the ''victoriatus''.", "The ''denarius'' contained an average 4.5 grams, or of a Roman pound, of silver, and was at first tariffed at ten ''asses'', hence its name, which means 'tenner'.", "It formed the backbone of Roman currency throughout the Roman Republic and the early Empire.The ''denarius'' began to undergo slow debasement toward the end of the republican period.", "Under the rule of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) its weight fell to 3.9 grams (a theoretical weight of of a Roman pound).", "It remained at nearly this weight until the time of Nero (AD 37–68), when it was reduced to of a pound, or 3.4 grams.", "Debasement of the coin's silver content continued after Nero.", "Later Roman emperors also reduced its weight to 3 grams around the late 3rd century.The value at its introduction was 10 ''asses'', giving the ''denarius'' its name, which translates as \"containing ten\".", "In about 141 BC, it was re-tariffed at 16 ''asses'', to reflect the decrease in weight of the ''as''.", "The ''denarius'' continued to be the main coin of the Roman Empire until it was replaced by the antoninianus in the early 3rd century AD.", "The coin was last issued, in bronze, under Aurelian between 270 and 275 AD, and in the first years of the reign of Diocletian." ], [ "Debasement and evolution", "Year Event Weight Purity Notes 267 BC Predecessor 6.81 g ?", "pound.", "Equals 10 ''asses'', giving the ''denarius'' its name, which translates as \"containing ten\".", "The original copper coinage was weight-based, and was related to the Roman pound, the ''libra'', which was about 325 g. The basic copper coin, the ''as'', was to weigh 1 Roman pound.", "This was a large cast coin, and subdivisions of the ''as'' were used.", "The \"pound\" (''libra'', etc.)", "continued to be used as a currency unit, and survives e.g.", "in the British monetary system, which still uses the pound, abbreviated as £.", "211 BC Introduction 4.55 g 95–98% pound.", "''Denarius'' first struck.", "According to Pliny, it was established that the ''denarius'' should be given in exchange for ten pounds of bronze, the ''quinarius'' for five pounds, and the ''sestertius'' for two-and-a-half.", "But when the ''as'' was reduced in weight to one ounce, the ''denarius'' became equivalent to 16 ''asses'', the ''quinarius'' to eight, and the ''sestertius'' to four; although they retained their original names.", "It also appears, from Pliny and other writers, that the ancient ''libra'' was equivalent to 84 ''denarii''.", "200 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% pound.", "141 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% pound.", "Retariffed to equal 16 ''asses'' due to the decrease in weight of the ''as''.", "44 BC Debasement 3.9 g 95–98% Death of Julius Caesar, who set the ''denarius'' at 3.9 g. Legionary (professional soldier) pay was doubled to 225 ''denarii'' per year.14–37 AD 3.9 g 97.5–98% Tiberius slightly improved the fineness as he gathered his infamous hoard of 675 million ''denarii''.", "64–68 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% pound.", "This more closely matched the Greek ''drachma''.", "In 64 AD, Nero reduced the standard of the ''aureus'' to 45 to the Roman pound (7.2 g) and of the ''denarius'' to 96 to the Roman pound (3.30 g).", "He also lowered the ''denarius'' to 94.5% fine.", "Successive emperors lowered the fineness of the ''denarius''; in 180 Commodus reduced its weight by one-eighth to 108 to the pound.", "85–107 Debasement 3.41 g 93.5% Reduction in silver content under Domitian 148–161 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% 193–235 Debasement 3.41 g 83.5% Several emperors (193–235) steadily debased the ''denarius'' from a standard of 78.5% to 50% fine.", "In 212 Caracalla reduced the weight of the ''aureus'' from 45 to 50 to the Roman pound.", "They also coined the ''aes'' from a bronze alloy with a heavy lead admixture, and discontinued fractional denominations below the ''as''.", "In 215 Caracalla introduced the ''antoninianus'' (5.1 g; 52% fine), a double ''denarius'', containing 80% of the silver of two ''denarii''.", "The coin invariably carried the radiate imperial portrait.", "Elagabalus demonetized the coin in 219, but the senatorial emperors Pupienus and Balbinus in 238 revived the ''antoninianus'' as the principal silver denomination which successive emperors reduced to a less intrinsically valuable billon coin (2.60 g; 2% fine).", "241 Debasement 3.41 g 48% 274 Double ''Denarius'' 3.41 g 5% In 274, the emperor Aurelian reformed the currency and his denominations remained in use until the great recoinage of Diocletian in 293.Aurelian struck a radiate ''aurelianianus'' of increased weight (84 to the Roman pound) and fineness (5% fine) that was tariffed at five notational ''denarii'' (sometimes called \"common ''denarii''\" or \"''denarii communes''\" by modern writers, although this phrase does not appear in any ancient text).", "The coin carried on the reverse the numerals XXI, or in Greek κα (both meaning 21 or 20:1).", "Some scholars believe that this shows that the coin was equal to 20 ''sestertii'' (or 5 ''denarii''), but it is more likely that it was intended to guarantee that it contained or 5% of silver, and was thus slightly better than many of the coins in circulation.", "The ''aureus'' (minted at 50 or 60 to the Roman pound) was exchanged at rates of 600 to 1,000 ''denarii'', equivalent to 120 to 200 ''aurelianiani''.", "Rare fractions of billion ''denarii'', and of bronze ''sestertii'' and ''asses'', were also coined.", "At the same time, Aurelian reorganized the provincial mint at Alexandria, and he minted an improved Alexandrine ''tetradrachmon'' that might have been tariffed at par with the ''aurelianianus''.The emperor Tacitus in 276 briefly doubled the silver content of the ''aurelianianus'' and halved its tariffing to 2.5 d.c. (hence coins of Antioch and Tripolis (in Phoenicia) carry the value marks X.I), but Probus (276–282) immediately returned the ''aurelianianus'' to the standard and tariffing of Aurelian, and was the official tariffing until the reform of Diocletian in 293.755 ''Novus denarius'' (new penny) Pepin the Short (), the first king of the Carolingian dynasty and father of Charlemagne, minted the ''novus denarius'' (\"new penny\"): 240 pennies minted from one Carolingian pound.", "So a single coin contained 21 grains of silver.", "Around 755, Pepin's Carolingian Reform established the European monetary system, which can be expressed as: 1 pound = 20 shillings = 240 pennies.", "Originally the pound was a weight of silver rather than a coin, and from a pound of pure silver 240 pennies were struck.", "The Carolingian Reform restored the silver content of the penny that was already in circulation and was the direct descendant of the Roman ''denarius''.", "The shilling was equivalent to the ''solidus'', the money of account that prevailed in Europe before the Carolingian Reform; it originated from the Byzantine gold coin that was the foundation of the international monetary system for more than 500 years.", "Debts contracted before the Carolingian Reform were defined in ''solidi''.", "For three centuries following the Carolingian Reform, the only coin minted in Europe was the silver penny.", "Shillings and pounds were units of account used for convenience to express large numbers of pence, not actual coins.", "The Carolingian Reform also reduced the number of mints, strengthened royal authority over the mints, and provided for uniform design of coins.", "All coins bore the ruler's name, initial, or title, signifying royal sanction of the quality of the coins.", "Charlemagne spread the Carolingian system throughout Western Europe.", "The Italian ''lira'' and the French ''livre'' were derived from the Latin word for pound.", "Until the French Revolution, the unit of account in France was the ''livre'', which equalled 20 ''sols'' or ''sous'', each of which in turn equalled 12 ''deniers''.", "During the Revolution the ''franc'' replaced the ''livre'', and Napoleon's conquest spread the ''franc'' to Switzerland and Belgium.", "The Italian unit of account remained the ''lira'', and in Britain the pound-shilling-penny relationship survived until 1971.Even in England the pennies were eventually debased, leaving 240 pennies representing substantially less than a pound of silver, and the pound as a monetary unit became divorced from a pound weight of silver.", "After the breakup of the Carolingian Empire pennies debased much faster, particularly in Mediterranean Europe, and in 1172 Genoa began minting a silver coin equal to four pennies.", "Rome, Florence, and Venice followed with coins of denominations greater than a penny, and late in the 12th century Venice minted a silver coin equal to 24 pennies.", "By the mid-13th century Florence and Genoa were minting gold coins, effectively ending the reign of the silver penny (''denier'', ''denarius'') as the only circulating coin in Europe.", "785 Penny Offa, king of Mercia, minted and introduced to England a penny of 22.5 grains of silver.", "The coin's designated value, however, was that of 24 troy grains of silver (one pennyweight, or of a troy pound, or about 1.56 grams), with the difference being a premium attached by virtue of the minting into coins (seigniorage).", "The penny led to the term \"penny weight\".", "240 actual pennies (22.5 grains; minus the 1.5 grain for the seigniorage) weighed only 5,400 troy grains, known as a Saxon pound and later known as the tower pound, a unit used only by mints.", "The tower pound was abolished in the 16th century.", "However, 240 pennyweights (24 grains) made one troy pound of silver in weight, and the monetary value of 240 pennies also became known as a \"pound\".", "The silver penny remained the primary unit of coinage for about 500 years.", "790 Penny 1.76 g 95–96% Charlemagne new penny with smaller diameter but greater weight.", "Average weight of 1.7 g, but ideal theoretical mass of 1.76 g. Purity is from 95% to 96%.", "Penny1.58 g 99% Tower pound of 5400 grains abolished and replaced by the Troy pound of 5760 grains.", "1158 Penny 92.5% The purity of 92.5% silver (i.e.", "sterling silver) was instituted by Henry II in 1158 with the \"Tealby Penny\" — a hammered coin.", "1500s Penny By the 16th century it contained about a third the silver content of a Troy pennyweight of 24 grains.", "1915 Penny The penny, now struck in bronze, was worth around one-sixth of its value during the Middle Ages.", "British government sources suggest that there has been an 8700% price inflation since 1914, or an average of 4.2% annually." ], [ "Value, comparisons and silver content", "Flavia Domitilla, wife of Vespasian and mother of Titus and DomitianQuintus Antonius Balbus ()1 gold ''aureus'' = 2 gold ''quinarii'' = 25 silver ''denarii'' = 50 silver ''quinarii'' = 100 bronze ''sestertii'' = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper ''asses'' = 800 copper ''semisses'' = 1,600 copper ''quadrantes''It is difficult to give even rough comparative values for money from before the 20th century, as the range of products and services available for purchase was so different.", "During the republic (509 BC – 27 BC), a legionary earned 112.5 ''denarii'' per year (0.3 ''denarii'' per day).", "Under Julius Caesar, this was doubled to 225 ''denarii''/yr, with soldiers having to pay for their own food and arms, while in the reign of Augustus a Centurion received at least 3,750 ''denarii'' per year, and for the highest rank, 15,000 ''denarii''.By the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire (), a common soldier or unskilled laborer would be paid 1 ''denarius''/day (with no tax deductions), around 300% inflation compared to the early period.", "Using the cost of bread as a baseline, this pay equates to around US$20 in 2013 terms.", "Expressed in terms of the price of silver, and assuming 0.999 purity, a troy ounce ''denarius'' had a precious metal value of around US$2.60 in 2021.At the height of the Roman Empire a ''sextarius'' (546 ml or about 2 American cups) of ordinary wine cost roughly one ''dupondius'' ( of a ''denarius''); after Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices was issued in 301 AD, the same item cost 8 debased common ''denarii'' – 6300% inflation.Silver content plummeted across the lifespan of the ''denarius''.", "Under the Roman Empire (after Nero) the ''denarius'' contained approximately 50 grains, 3.24 grams, or 0.105 ozt (about troy ounce).", "The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances.", "From a purity of greater than 90% silver in the 1st century AD, the ''denarius'' fell to under 60% purity by 200 AD, and plummeted to 5% purity by 300 AD.", "By the reign of Gallienus, the ''antoninianus'' was a copper coin with a thin silver wash.==Influence==In the final years of the 1st century BC Tincomarus, a local ruler in southern Britain, started issuing coins that appear to have been made from melted down ''denarii''.", "The coins of Eppillus, issued around Calleva Atrebatum around the same time, appear to have derived design elements from various ''denarii'', such as those of Augustus and M. Volteius.Even after the ''denarius'' was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as a unit of account, and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood.", "The Arabs who conquered large parts of the land that once belonged to the Eastern Roman Empire issued their own gold dinar.", "The lasting legacy of the ''denarius'' can be seen in the use of \"d\" as the abbreviation for the British penny until 1971.It also survived in France as the name of a coin, the denier.", "The ''denarius'' also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the ''dinar'' used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arab nations.", "The major currency unit in former Principality of Serbia, Kingdom of Serbia and former Yugoslavia was ''dinar'', and it is still used in present-day Serbia.", "The Macedonian currency ''denar'' is also derived from the Roman ''denarius''.", "The Italian word ''denaro'', the Spanish word ''dinero'', the Portuguese word ''dinheiro'', and the Slovene word '''', all meaning money, are also derived from Latin ''denarius''.", "The pre-decimal currency of the United Kingdom until 1970 of pounds, shillings and pence was abbreviated as lsd, with \"d\" referring to ''denarius'' and standing for penny." ], [ "Use in the Bible", "In the New Testament, the gospels refer to the ''denarius'' as a day's wage for a common laborer (Matthew 20:2, John 12:5).", "In the Book of Revelation, during the Third Seal: Black Horse, a choinix (\"quart\") of wheat and three quarts of barley were each valued at one ''denarius''.", "Bible scholar Robert H. Mounce says the price of the wheat and barley as described in the vision appears to be ten to twelve times their normal cost in ancient times.", "Revelation thus describes a condition where basic goods are sold at greatly inflated prices.", "Thus, the black horse rider depicts times of deep scarcity or famine, but not of starvation.", "Apparently, a choinix of wheat was the daily ration of one adult.", "Thus, in the conditions pictured by Revelation 6, the normal income for a working-class family would buy enough food for only one person.", "The less costly barley would feed three people for one day's wages.The ''denarius'' is also mentioned in the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant & in Parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37).", "The Render unto Caesar passage in Matthew 22:15–22 and Mark 12:13–17 uses the word (δηνάριον) to describe the coin held up by Jesus, translated in the King James Bible as \"tribute penny\".", "It is commonly thought to be a ''denarius'' with the head of Tiberius." ], [ "See also", "* Denarius of L. Censorinus – for the detailed description of a specific Roman ''denarius''* Dupondius* French denier* Gold Dinar* Ides of March Coin* Macedonian denar* Sestertius* Solidus (coin)* Tribute penny* Pay (Roman army)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Denarius* From Octavian to Augustus: Images Illustrating His Rise to Power* Denarius – A Roman soldier's daily pay *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Della Rovere" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Della Rovere''' (; literally \"of the oak tree\") was a powerful Italian noble family.", "It had humble origins in Savona, in Liguria, and acquired power and influence through nepotism and ambitious marriages arranged by two Della Rovere popes: Francesco Della Rovere, who ruled as Sixtus IV from 1471 to 1484) and his nephew Giuliano, who became Julius II in 1503.Sixtus IV built the Sistine Chapel, which was named after him.", "Julius II was patron to Michelangelo, Raphael and many other Renaissance artists and started the modern rebuilt of St. Peter's Basilica.", "Also the Basilica of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome was the family church of the Della Rovere.", "Members of the family were influential in the Church of Rome, and as dukes of Urbino, dukes of Sora and lords of Senigallia; the title of Urbino was extinguished with the death of Francesco Maria II in 1631, and the family died out with the death of his granddaughter Vittoria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany." ], [ "History", "Francesco Della Rovere was born into a poor family in Liguria in north-west Italy in 1414, the son of Leonardo della Rovere of Savona.", "A Franciscan who became Minister General of his order, then cardinal, he had a reptation for unworldliness until he was elected pope in 1471.As Sixtus IV he was both wealthy and powerful, and at once set about giving power and wealth to his nephews of the Della Rovere and Riario families.", "Within months of his election, he had made Giuliano della Rovere (the future pope Julius II) and Pietro Riario both cardinals and bishops; four other nephews were also made cardinals.", "He made Giovanni Della Rovere, who was not a priest, prefect of Rome, and arranged for him to marry into the da Montefeltro family, dukes of Urbino.", "Sixtus claimed descent from a noble Della Rovere family, the counts of Vinovo in Piemonte, and adopted their coat-of-arms.Guidobaldo da Montefeltro adopted Francesco Maria I della Rovere, his sister's child and nephew of Pope Julius II.", "Guidobaldo I, who was heirless, called Francesco Maria at his court, and named him as heir of the Duchy of Urbino in 1504, this through the intercession of Julius II.", "In 1508, Francesco Maria inherited the duchy thereby starting the line of Rovere Dukes of Urbino.", "That dynasty ended in 1626 when Pope Urban VIII incorporated Urbino into the papal dominions.", "As compensation to the last sovereign duke, the title only could be continued by Francesco Maria II, and after his death by his heir, Federico Ubaldo.Vittoria, last descendant of the della Rovere family (she was the only child of Federico Ubaldo), married Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.", "They had two children: Cosimo III, Tuscany's longest reigning monarch, and Francesco Maria de' Medici, a prince of the Church." ], [ "Della Rovere Dukes of Urbino (1508)", "#Francesco Maria I della Rovere (1490–1538)#Guidobaldo II della Rovere (1514–1574)#Francesco Maria II della Rovere (1549–1631) - duchy abolished, title continued#Federico Ubaldo della Rovere (1605–1623) - title became extinct with his death." ], [ "Other people with the same surname", "Among the many people who did not belong to this family, but bore the same name, are:* the Della Rovere family, counts of Vinovo, among them: Domenico della Rovere of Vinovo, cardinal, who built the there his brother Cristoforo della Rovere of Vinovoand various artists, including:* the brothers Giovan Battista Della Rovere and Giovan Mauro Della Rovere, both known as \"il Fiamminghino\"* an unrelated Lombard family of painters and illuminators active in the seventeenth century." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Tizian Portrait Papst Sixtus IV ca.", "1545-46 Uffizien Florenz-01 (cropped).jpg\|Francesco della Rovere, later Sixtus IVFile:Pope Julius II.jpg\|Giuliano della Rovere, later Julius IIFile:Titian - Portrait of Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - WGA22982.jpg\|Francesco Maria I della RovereFile:Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) - Portrait of Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino - 1956.7.1 - Yale University Art Gallery.jpg\|Guidobaldo II della RovereFile:Francesco II della Rovere.jpg\|Francesco Maria II della RovereFile:Sustermans, Justus - Vittoria della Rovere con una rosa.jpg\|Vittoria della RovereFile:Urbino, palazzo ducale visto dal mercatale 02.JPG\|Palazzo Ducale, UrbinoFile:Panoramica P.za Duca Rocca.jpg\|Rocca Della Rovere in SenigalliaFile:Rocca Roveresca2 - Mondavio, Italia.JPG\|Rocca Roveresca in MondavioFile:Palazzo Della Rovere di San Lorenzo in Campo.JPG\|Palazzo Della Rovere in San Lorenzo in CampoFile:Borgo - palazzo dei Penitenzieri 1150682.JPG\|Palazzo Della Rovere in Rome" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ian Verstegen (2007).", "''Patronage and Dynasty: the Rise of the Della Rovere in Renaissance Italy''.", "Kirksville, Missouri: Truman State University Press." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Mamet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Alan Mamet''' (; born November 30, 1947) is an American playwright, filmmaker, and author.", "He won a Pulitzer Prize and received Tony nominations for his plays ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' (1984) and ''Speed-the-Plow'' (1988).", "He first gained critical acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway 1970s plays: ''The Duck Variations'', ''Sexual Perversity in Chicago'', and ''American Buffalo''.", "His plays ''Race'' and ''The Penitent'', respectively, opened on Broadway in 2009 and previewed off-Broadway in 2017.Feature films that Mamet both wrote and directed include ''House of Games'' (1987), ''Homicide'' (1991), ''The Spanish Prisoner'' (1997), and his biggest commercial success, ''Heist'' (2001).", "His screenwriting credits include ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' (1981), ''The Verdict'' (1982), ''The Untouchables'' (1987), ''Hoffa'' (1992), ''Wag the Dog'' (1997), and ''Hannibal'' (2001).", "Mamet himself wrote the screenplay for the 1992 adaptation of ''Glengarry Glen Ross'', and wrote and directed the 1994 adaptation of his play ''Oleanna'' (1992).", "He created and produced the CBS series ''The Unit'' (2006–2009).Mamet's books include: ''On Directing Film'' (1991), a commentary and dialogue about film-making; ''The Old Religion'' (1997), a novel about the lynching of Leo Frank; ''Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy'' (2004), a Torah commentary with Rabbi Lawrence Kushner; ''The Wicked Son'' (2006), a study of Jewish self-hatred and antisemitism; ''Bambi vs. Godzilla'', a commentary on the movie business; ''The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture'' (2011), a commentary on cultural and political issues; ''Three War Stories'' (2013), a trio of novellas about the physical and psychological effects of war; and ''Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood'' (2023), an autobiographical account of his experiences in Hollywood." ], [ "Early life", "Mamet was born in 1947 in Chicago to Lenore June (née Silver), a teacher, and Bernard Morris Mamet, a labor attorney.", "He is Jewish.", "His paternal grandparents were Polish Jews.", "Mamet has said his parents were communists and described himself as a red diaper baby.", "One of his earliest jobs was as a busboy at Chicago's London House and The Second City.", "He also worked as an actor, editor for ''Oui'' magazine and as a cab-driver.", "He was educated at the progressive Francis W. Parker School and at Goddard College in Plainfield, Vermont.", "At the Chicago Public Library Foundation 20th anniversary fundraiser in 2006, though, Mamet announced \"My alma mater is the Chicago Public Library.", "I got what little educational foundation I got in the third-floor reading room, under the tutelage of a Coca-Cola sign\".After a move to Chicago's North Side, Mamet encountered theater director Robert Sickinger, and began to work occasionally at Sickinger's Hull House Theatre.", "This represented the beginning of Mamet's lifelong involvement with the theater." ], [ "Career", "===Theater===Mamet is a founding member of the Atlantic Theater Company; he first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in 1976, ''The Duck Variations,'' ''Sexual Perversity in Chicago,'' and ''American Buffalo.''", "He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1984 for ''Glengarry Glen Ross,'' which received its first Broadway revival in the summer of 2005.His play ''Race'', which opened on Broadway on December 6, 2009, and featured James Spader, David Alan Grier, Kerry Washington, and Richard Thomas in the cast, received mixed reviews.", "His play ''The Anarchist'', starring Patti LuPone and Debra Winger, in her Broadway debut, opened on Broadway on November 13, 2012, in previews and was scheduled to close on December 16, 2012.His 2017 play ''The Penitent'' previewed off-Broadway on February 8, 2017.In 2002, Mamet was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame.", "Mamet later received the PEN/Laura Pels Theater Award for Grand Master of American Theater in 2010.In 2017, Mamet released an online class for writers entitled ''David Mamet teaches dramatic writing''.In 2019 Mamet returned to the London West End with a new play, ''Bitter Wheat'', at the Garrick Theatre, starring John Malkovich.In 2023 it was announced Mamet was writing a new play entitled, ''Henry Johnson''.", "The production is announced to debut in Los Angeles starring Shia LaBeouf.===Film===Mamet's first film work was as a screenwriter, later directing his own scripts.According to Joe Mantegna, Mamet worked as a script doctor for the 1978 film ''Towing''.Mamet's first produced screenplay was the 1981 production of ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'', based on James M. Cain's novel.", "He received an Academy Award nomination one year later for the 1982 legal drama, ''The Verdict''.", "He also wrote the screenplays for ''The Untouchables'' (1987), ''Hoffa'' (1992), ''The Edge'' (1997), ''Wag the Dog'' (1997), ''Ronin'' (1998), and ''Hannibal'' (2001).", "He received a second Academy Award nomination for ''Wag the Dog''.In 1987, Mamet made his film directing debut with his screenplay ''House of Games'', which won Best Screenplay awards at the 1987 Venice Film Festival and the Film of the Year in 1989 from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards.", "The film starred his then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, and many longtime stage associates and friends, including fellow Goddard College graduates.", "Mamet was quoted as saying, \"It was my first film as a director and I needed support, so I stacked the deck.\"", "After ''House of Games'', Mamet later wrote and directed two more films focusing on the world of con artists, ''The Spanish Prisoner'' (1997) and ''Heist'' (2001).", "Among those films, ''Heist'' enjoyed the biggest commercial success.Other films that Mamet both wrote and directed include: ''Things Change'' (1988), ''Homicide'' (1991) (nominated for the Palme d'Or at 1991 Cannes Film Festival and won a \"Screenwriter of the Year\" award for Mamet from the London Film Critics' Circle Awards), ''Oleanna'' (1994), ''The Winslow Boy'' (1999), ''State and Main'' (2000), ''Spartan'' (2004), ''Redbelt'' (2008), and the 2013 bio-pic TV movie ''Phil Spector''.A feature-length film, a thriller titled ''Blackbird'', was intended for release in 2015, but is still in development.When Mamet adapted his play for the 1992 film ''Glengarry Glen Ross'', he wrote an additional part (including the monologue \"Coffee's for closers\") for Alec Baldwin.Mamet continues to work with an informal repertory company for his films, including Crouse, William H. Macy, Joe Mantegna, and Rebecca Pidgeon, as well as the aforementioned school friends.Mamet rewrote the script for ''Ronin'' under the pseudonym \"Richard Weisz\" and turned in an early version of a script for ''Malcolm X'' which was rejected by director Spike Lee.", "Mamet also wrote an unproduced biopic script about Roscoe Arbuckle with Chris Farley intended to portray him.", "In 2000, Mamet directed a film version of ''Catastrophe,'' a one-act play by Samuel Beckett featuring Harold Pinter and John Gielgud (in his final screen performance).", "In 2008, he wrote and directed the mixed martial arts movie ''Redbelt,'' about a martial arts instructor tricked into fighting in a professional bout.In ''On Directing Film'', Mamet advocates for a method of storytelling based on Eisenstein's montage theory, stating that the story should be told through the juxtaposition of uninflected images.", "This method relies heavily on the cut between scenes, and Mamet urges directors to eliminate as much narration as possible.", "Mamet asserts that directors should focus on getting the point of a scene across, rather than simply following a protagonist, or adding visually beautiful or intriguing shots.", "Films should create order from disorder in search of the objective.In 2023, reports emerged that Mamet would direct and co-write a new film titled ''Assassination'', his first film since 2008.The film will center around the Chicago Mob ordering the assassination of John F. Kennedy, and will star Viggo Mortensen, Shia LaBeouf, Courtney Love, Al Pacino, and John Travolta.", "The film's production is scheduled to start in September 2023.===Books===Mamet published the essay collection ''Writing in Restaurants'' in 1986, followed by the poetry collection ''The Hero Pony'' in 1990.He has also published a series of short plays, monologues and four novels, ''The Village'' (1994), ''The Old Religion'' (1997), ''Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources'' (2000), and ''Chicago'' (2018).", "He has written several non-fiction texts, and children's stories, including ''True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor ''(1997).", "In 2004 he published a lauded version of the classical Faust story, ''Faustus'', however, when the play was staged in San Francisco during the spring of 2004, it was not well received by critics.", "On May 1, 2010, Mamet released a graphic novel ''The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant)''.Mamet detailed his conversion from modern liberalism to \"a reformed liberal\" in ''The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture'' in 2011.Mamet published ''Three War Stories'', a collection of novellas, in 2013 ; the novel ''The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet'' in 2019; and the political commentary ''Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch'' in 2022.=== Television and radio ===Mamet wrote one episode of ''Hill Street Blues'', \"A Wasted Weekend\", that aired in 1987.His then-wife, Lindsay Crouse, appeared in numerous episodes (including that one) as Officer McBride.", "Mamet is also the creator, producer and frequent writer of the television series ''The Unit'', where he wrote a well-circulated memo to the writing staff.", "He directed a third-season episode of ''The Shield'' with Shawn Ryan.", "In 2007, Mamet directed two television commercials for Ford Motor Company.", "The two 30-second ads featured the Ford Edge and were filmed in Mamet's signature style of fast-paced dialogue and clear, simple imagery.", "Mamet's sister, Lynn, is a producer and writer for television shows, such as ''The Unit'' and ''Law & Order''.Mamet has contributed several dramas to BBC Radio through Jarvis & Ayres Productions, including an adaptation of ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' for BBC Radio 3 and new dramas for BBC Radio 4.The comedy ''Keep Your Pantheon (or On the Whole I'd Rather Be in Mesopotamia)'' was aired in 2007.", "''The Christopher Boy's Communion'' was another Jarvis & Ayres production, first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on March 8, 2021.=== Archives ===The papers of David Mamet were sold to the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin in 2007 and first opened for research in 2009.The growing collection consists mainly of manuscripts and related production materials for most of his plays, films, and other writings, but also includes his personal journals from 1966 to 2005.In 2015, the Ransom Center secured a second major addition to Mamet's papers, including more recent works.", "Additional materials relating to Mamet and his career can be found in the Ransom Center's collections of Robert De Niro, Mel Gussow, Tom Stoppard, Sam Shepard, Paul Schrader, Don DeLillo, and John Russell Brown.===Critical reception=======Mamet speak====Mamet's style of writing dialogue, marked by a cynical, street-smart edge, has come to be called ''Mamet speak.''", "Mamet himself has criticized his (and other writers') tendency to write \"pretty\" at the expense of sound, logical plots.", "When asked how he developed his style for writing dialogue, Mamet said, \"In my family, in the days prior to television, we liked to while away the evenings by making ourselves miserable, based solely on our ability to speak the language viciously.", "That's probably where my ability was honed.", "\"====Gender issues====Mamet's plays have frequently sparked debate and controversy.", "Following a 1992 staging of ''Oleanna'', a play in which a college student accuses her professor of trying to rape her, a critic reported that the play divided the audience by gender and recounted that \"couples emerged screaming at each other\".In his 2014 book ''David Mamet and Male Friendship'', Arthur Holmberg examined Mamet's portrayal of male friendships, especially focusing on the contradictions and ambiguities of male bonding as dramatized in Mamet's plays and films." ], [ "Personal life", "Mamet and actress Lindsay Crouse married in 1977 and divorced in 1990.The couple have two children.", "Mamet has been married to actress and singer-songwriter Rebecca Pidgeon since 1991, and they have two children.", "Mamet and Pidgeon live in Santa Monica, California.Mamet is a Reform Jew and strongly pro-Israel.===Political views===In 2005, Mamet became a contributing blogger for ''The Huffington Post'', drawing satirical cartoons with themes including political strife in Israel.", "In a 2008 essay at ''The Village Voice'' titled \"Why I Am No Longer a 'Brain-Dead Liberal he discussed how his political views had shifted from liberalism to conservatism.", "In interviews, Mamet has highlighted his agreement with free market theorists such as Friedrich Hayek, the historian Paul Johnson, and economist Thomas Sowell, whom Mamet called \"one of our greatest minds\".", "In 2022, Mamet declined to explicitly label himself a Republican, but described himself as a conservative who \"would like to conserve those things I grew up with: the love of family, the love of the country, love of service, love of God, love of community\".During promotion of a book, Mamet said British people had \"a taint of anti-semitism,\" claiming they \"want to give Israel away to some people whose claim is rather dubious.\"", "In the same interview, Mamet went on to say that \"there are famous dramatists and novelists in the UK whose works are full of anti-Semitic filth.\"", "He refused to give examples because of British libel laws (the interview was conducted in New York City for the ''Financial Times'').", "He is known for his pro-Israel positions; in his book ''The Secret Knowledge'' he claimed that \"Israelis would like to live in peace within their borders; the Arabs would like to kill them all.", "\"Mamet endorsed Republican Mitt Romney for president in 2012, and wrote an article for ''The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles'' imploring fellow Jewish Americans to vote for Romney.In an essay for ''Newsweek'', published on January 29, 2013, Mamet argued against gun control laws: \"It was intended to guard us against this inevitable decay of government that the Constitution was written.", "Its purpose was and is not to enthrone a Government superior to an imperfect and confused electorate, but to protect us from such a government.", "\"Mamet has described the NFL anthem protests as \"absolutely fucking despicable\".", "In a 2020 interview, he described Donald Trump as a \"great president\" and supported his re-election.", "After Trump lost the election, Mamet appeared to endorse claims that the election had been illegitimate in his 2022 book ''Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch'', though shortly after its publication, he said he \"misspoke\" on the subject.In 2022, Mamet made comments in support of Florida's Parental Rights in Education Act, called the \"Don't Say Gay\" bill by its critics, which restricts what public school teachers in Florida can discuss with children in kindergarten through third grade about sexual orientation and gender identity.", "In an interview with Fox News, Mamet claimed that the law was necessary because teachers \"are abusing children mentally and using sex to do so\", further alleging that \"teachers are inclined, particularly men because men are predators, to pedophilia\"." ], [ "Works", "=== Plays ===* ''Lakeboat'' (1970)* ''The Duck Variations'' (1972)* ''Lone Canoe'' (1972)* ''Sexual Perversity in Chicago'' (1974)* ''Squirrels'' (1974)* ''American Buffalo'' (1975)* ''Reunion'' (1976)* ''The Water Engine'' (1976)* ''A Life in the Theatre'' (1977)* ''The Woods'' (1977)* ''The Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock'' (1978)* ''Mr.", "Happiness'' (1978)* ''Prairie du Chien'' (1979)* ''The Blue Hour'' (1979)* ''Lakeboat (revision)'' (1980)* ''Edmond'' (1982)* ''The Frog Prince'' (1983)* ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' (1983)* ''The Shawl'' (1985)* ''Goldberg Street: Short Plays and Monologues'' (1985)* ''The Poet & The Rent'' (1986)* ''Speed-the-Plow'' (1988)* ''Bobby Gould in Hell'' (1989)* ''Oleanna'' (1992)* ''The Cryptogram'' (1994)* ''The Old Neighborhood'' (1997)* ''Boston Marriage'' (1999)* ''Faustus'' (2004)* ''Romance'' (2005)* ''The Voysey Inheritance (adaptation)'' (2005)* ''Keep Your Pantheon'' (2007)* ''November'' (2007)* ''The Vikings and Darwin'' (2008)* ''Race'' (2009)* ''School'' (2009)* ''The Anarchist'' (2012)* ''China Doll'' (2015)* ''The Penitent'' (2017)* ''Bitter Wheat'' (2019)* ''The Christopher Boy's Communion'' (2020)* ''Henry Johnson'' (2023) ===Filmography==='''Films''' Year Title Director Writer Notes 1981 ''The Postman Always Rings Twice'' 1982 ''The Verdict'' 1987 ''The Untouchables'' ''House of Games'' 1988 ''Things Change'' 1989 ''We're No Angels'' 1991 ''Homicide'' 1992 ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' Also based on his play ''Hoffa'' Also associate producer1994 ''Oleanna'' Also based on his play 1996 ''American Buffalo'' 1997 ''The Spanish Prisoner'' ''The Edge'' ''Wag the Dog'' 1998 ''Ronin'' Credited as \"Richard Weisz\" 1999 ''The Winslow Boy'' 2000 ''Lakeboat'' Also based on his play ''State and Main'' 2001 ''Hannibal'' ''Heist'' 2004 ''Spartan'' 2005 ''Edmond'' Also based on his play 2008 ''Redbelt'' 2023''The Penitent'' Also based on his play '''Short films''' Year Title Director Writer2000''Catastrophe''2010''Lost Masterpieces of Pornography''''Inside the Actor's Workshop''''The Marquee''''Our Valley''''Two Painters'''''Television''' Year Title Director Writer ExecutiveProducer Notes1987''Hill Street Blues'' TV SeriesEpisode \"A Wasted Weekend\" 1992 ''The Water Engine'' TV MovieAlso based on his play 1993''A Life in the Theatre'' 1994 ''Texan'' TV Movie 1996 ''Ricky Jay and His 52 Assistants'' TV Special 1999 ''Lansky'' TV Movie2004''The Shield'' TV SeriesEpisode \"Strays\"2006-2009''The Unit'' TV Series; also creatorDirected 4 episodes and wrote 11 episodes 2013 ''Phil Spector'' TV Movie'''Acting roles''' Year Title Role Notes 1987''Black Widow''HerbTheatrical feature film 1992 ''The Water Engine'' Brown Haired ManTV Movie 1996''Dr.", "Katz, Professional Therapist'' Himself (voice) TV animated seriesEpisode: \"New Telephone System\"2011''The Simpsons'' TV animated seriesEpisode: \"Homer the Father\"2023''Beau is Afraid'' Rabbi (voice) Theatrical feature film'''Unrealized projects'''* ''Ace in the Hole'' remake (1990) – Script for Brian De Palma to direct* ''Charlie Chan in Horse and Rider'' (1992) – Script for Warner Bros.* ''Ordinary Daylight'' (1992) – Adaptation of the memoir, for Warner Bros.* ''High and Low'' remake (1993) – Script for Martin Scorsese to direct* ''Diary of a Young London Physician'' (2002) – Adaptation of ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde'', for Warner Bros.* ''Joan of Bark: The Dog That Saved France'' (2004) – Writer/director, for Columbia Pictures* ''The Prince of Providence '' (2004) – Adaptation of the novel, for Michael Corrente to direct* ''The Bones'' (2005) – Adaptation of the novel, for Columbia Pictures* ''Whistle'' (2005) – Adaptation of the novel, for Columbia Pictures* ''The Diary of Anne Frank'' (2009) – Adaptation of the novel, for Disney Pictures* ''Have Gun – Will Travel'' TV series reboot (2013) – Writer/director, for CBS* ''Blackbird'' (2013) – Writer/director* ''7 Deadly Sins'' TV miniseries (2013) – Writer/director, for Fox* ''Speed-the-Plow'' film adaptation (2016) – Writer/director* ''The Force'' (2017) – Adaptation of the novel, for James Mangold to direct===Books===* ''Writing in Restaurants'' (1987)* ''Some Freaks'' (1989)* ''On Directing Film'' (1991)* ''The Cabin: Reminiscence and Diversions'' (1992)* ''The Village'' (1994)* ''A Whore's Profession'' (1994)* ''Make-Believe Town: Essays and Remembrances'' (1996)* ''The Old Religion'' (1997)* ''Three Uses of the Knife'' (1998)* ''True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor'' (1999)* ''The Chinaman'' (1999)* ''Jafsie and John Henry: Essays'' (1999)* ''Wilson: A Consideration of the Sources'' (2000)* ''South of the Northeast Kingdom'' (2002)* ''Five Cities of Refuge: Weekly Reflections on Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy'' (with Lawrence Kushner) (2003)* ''The Wicked Son: Anti-Semitism, Self-hatred, and the Jews'' (2006)* ''Bambi Vs. Godzilla: On the Nature, Purpose, and Practice of the Movie Business'' (2007)* ''Theatre'' (2010)* ''The Trials of Roderick Spode (The Human Ant)'' (2010)* ''The Secret Knowledge: On the Dismantling of American Culture'' (2011)* ''Three War Stories'' (2013)* ''Chicago'' (2018)* ''The Diary of a Porn Star by Priscilla Wriston-Ranger: As Told to David Mamet With an Afterword by Mr. Mamet'' (2019)* ''Recessional: The Death of Free Speech and the Cost of a Free Lunch'' (2022)* ''Everywhere an Oink Oink: An Embittered, Dyspeptic, and Accurate Report of Forty Years in Hollywood'' (2023)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "===Theatre===YearAwardCategoryWorkResult1977 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Play ''American Buffalo'' New York Drama Critics' Circle Best American Play Drama Desk Award Outstanding Play ''The Water Engine'' ''Edmond'' 1984 ''Glengarry Glen Ross'' Pulitzer Prize Drama Tony Award Best Play New York Drama Critics' Circle Best American Play 1988 Drama Desk Award Outstanding Play ''Speed-the-Plow'' Tony Award Best Play Drama Desk Award Outstanding Play ''Oleanna'' 1995 ''The Cryptogram'' Pulitzer Prize Drama ===Film===YearAwardCategoryWorkResult Academy Award Best Adapted Screenplay ''The Verdict'' Golden Globe Award Best Screenplay Golden Globe Award ''House of Games'' 1997 Golden Globe Award ''Wag the Dog'' Academy Award Best Adapted Screenplay BAFTA Award Best Adapted Screenplay ===Television===YearAwardCategoryWorkResult2013 Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Miniseries or Movie ''Phil Spector'' Outstanding Directing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie, or Dramatic Special" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Radavich, David.", "\"Man among Men: David Mamet's Homosocial Order\".", "''American Drama'' 1:1 (Fall 1991): 46–60.", "* Radavich, David.", "\"Rabe, Mamet, Shepard, and Wilson: Mid-American Male Dramatists of the 1970s and '80s\".", "''The Midwest Quarterly'' XLVIII: 3 (Spring 2007): 342–58." ], [ "External links", "* David Mamet Papers at the Harry Ransom Center* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 6" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1060 – Béla I is crowned king of Hungary.", "1240 – Mongol invasion of Rus': Kyiv, defended by Voivode Dmytro, falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan.", "1492 – After exploring the island of Cuba (which he had mistaken for Japan) for gold, Christopher Columbus lands on an island he names Hispaniola.", "1534 – The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar.===1601–1900===1648 – Pride's Purge removes royalist sympathizers from Parliament so that the High Court of Justice could put the King on trial.", "1704 – Battle of Chamkaur: During the Mughal-Sikh Wars, an outnumbered Sikh Khalsa defeats a Mughal army.", "1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army begins retreat during the second Jacobite Rising.", "1790 – The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia.", "1803 – Five French warships attempting to escape the Royal Naval blockade of Saint-Domingue are all seized by British warships, signifying the end of the Haitian Revolution.", "1865 – Georgia ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S.", "Constitution.", "1882 – Transit of Venus, second and last of the 19th century.", "1884 – The Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., is completed.", "1897 – London becomes the world's first city to host licensed taxicabs.===1901–present===1904 – Theodore Roosevelt articulated his \"Corollary\" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the U.S. would intervene in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable.", "1907 – A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, kills 362 workers.", "1912 – The Nefertiti Bust is discovered.", "1916 – World War I: The Central Powers capture Bucharest.", "1917 – Finland declares independence from the Russian Empire.", "* 1917 – Halifax Explosion: A munitions explosion near Halifax, Nova Scotia kills more than 1,900 people in the largest artificial explosion up to that time.", "* 1917 – World War I: is the first American destroyer to be sunk by enemy action when it is torpedoed by German submarine .", "1921 – The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives.", "1922 – One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the Irish Free State comes into existence.", "1928 – The government of Colombia sends military forces to suppress a month-long strike by United Fruit Company workers, resulting in an unknown number of deaths.", "1933 – In United States v. One Book Called Ulysses Judge John M. Woolsey rules that James Joyce's novel ''Ulysses'' is not obscene despite coarse language and sexual content, a leading decision affirming free expression.", "1941 – World War II: Camp X opens in Canada to begin training Allied secret agents for the war.", "1956 – A violent water polo match between Hungary and the USSR takes place during the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, against the backdrop of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.", "1957 – Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion of Vanguard TV3 thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite into Earth orbit.", "1967 – Adrian Kantrowitz performs the first human heart transplant in the United States.", "1969 – Altamont Free Concert: At a free concert performed by the Rolling Stones, eighteen-year old Meredith Hunter is stabbed to death by Hells Angels security guards.", "1971 – Pakistan severs diplomatic relations with India, initiating the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.", "1973 – The Twenty-fifth Amendment: The United States House of Representatives votes 387–35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States.", "(On November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92–3.", ")1975 – The Troubles: Fleeing from the police, a Provisional IRA unit takes a British couple hostage in their flat on Balcombe Street, London, beginning a six-day siege.", "1977 – South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country.", "1978 – Spain ratifies the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum.", "1982 – The Troubles: The Irish National Liberation Army bombs a pub frequented by British soldiers in Ballykelly, Northern Ireland, killing eleven soldiers and six civilians.", "1989 – The École Polytechnique massacre (or Montreal Massacre): Marc Lépine, an anti-feminist gunman, murders 14 young women at the École Polytechnique in Montreal.", "1990 – A military jet of the Italian Air Force, abandoned by its pilot after an on-board fire, crashed into a high school near Bologna, Italy, killing 12 students and injuring 88 other people.", "1991 – Yugoslav Wars: In Croatia, forces of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) heaviest bombardment of Dubrovnik during a siege of seven months.", "1992 – The Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, India, is demolished, leading to widespread riots causing the death of over 1,500 people.", "1998 – in Venezuela, Hugo Chávez is victorious in presidential elections.", "1999 – ''A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.'': The Recording Industry Association of America sues the peer-to-peer file-sharing service Napster, alleging copyright infringement.", "2005 – An Iranian Air Force C-130 military transport aircraft crashes into a ten-floor apartment building in a residential area of Tehran, killing all 94 on board and 12 more on the ground.", "2006 – NASA reveals photographs taken by Mars Global Surveyor suggesting the presence of liquid water on Mars.", "2015 – Venezuelan parliamentary election: For the first time in 17 years, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela loses its majority in parliament.", "2017 – Donald Trump's administration officially announces the recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 846 – Hasan al-Askari, Arabian 11th of the Twelve Imams (d. 874)1285 – Ferdinand IV of Castile (d. 1312)1421 – Henry VI of England (d. 1471)1478 – Baldassare Castiglione, Italian courtier, diplomat, and author (d. 1529)1520 – Barbara Radziwiłł, queen of Poland (d. 1551)1545 – Janus Dousa, Dutch historian and noble (d. 1604)1586 – Niccolò Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (d. 1670)1592 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle (d. 1676)===1601–1900===1608 – George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1670)1637 – Edmund Andros, English courtier and politician, 4th Colonial Governor of New York (d. 1714)1640 – Claude Fleury, French historian and author (d. 1723)1645 – Maria de Dominici, Maltese sculptor and painter (d. 1703)1685 – Marie Adélaïde of Savoy (d. 1712)1721 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French minister and politician (d. 1794) 1721 – James Elphinston, Scottish philologist and linguist (d. 1809)1732 – Warren Hastings, British colonial administrator of India (d. 1818)1752 – Gabriel Duvall, American jurist and politician (d. 1844)1778 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850)1792 – William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)1803 – Maria Josepha Amalia of Saxony (d. 1829)1805 – Richard Hanson, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of South Australia (d. 1876)1812 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 1884)1823 – Max Müller, German-English philologist and orientalist (d. 1900)1827 – William Arnott, Australian biscuit manufacturer and founder of Arnott's Biscuits (d. 1901)1833 – John S. Mosby, American colonel (d. 1916)1835 – Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, German chemist (d. 1910)1841 – Frédéric Bazille, French painter and soldier (d. 1870)1848 – Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer (d. 1925)1849 – August von Mackensen, German field marshal (d. 1945)1853 – Hans Molisch, Czech-Austrian botanist and academic (d. 1937) 1853 – Haraprasad Shastri, Indian historian and scholar (d. 1931)1863 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (d. 1914)1864 – William S. Hart, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1946)1872 – Arthur Henry Adams, Australian journalist and author (d. 1936)1875 – Albert Bond Lambert, American golfer and pilot (d. 1946)* 1875 – Evelyn Underhill, English mystic and author (d. 1941)1876 – Fred Duesenberg, German-American businessman, co-founded the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company (d. 1932)1878 – Elvia Carrillo Puerto, Mexican politician (d. 1968)1882 – Warren Bardsley, Australian cricketer (d. 1954)1884 – Cornelia Meigs, American author, playwright, and academic (d. 1973)1886 – Joyce Kilmer, American soldier, author, and poet (d. 1918)1887 – Lynn Fontanne, British actress (d. 1983)* 1887 – Joseph Lamb, American pianist and composer (d. 1960)1888 – Will Hay, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)1890 – Dion Fortune, Welsh occultist, psychologist, and author (d. 1946)* 1890 – Yoshio Nishina, Japanese physicist and academic (d. 1951)* 1890 – Rudolf Schlichter, German painter and illustrator (d. 1955)1892 – Osbert Sitwell, English-Italian captain, poet, and author (d. 1969)1893 – Homer N. Wallin, American admiral (d. 1984)* 1893 – Sylvia Townsend Warner, English author and poet (d. 1978)1896 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (d. 1983)1898 – Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-American photographer and journalist (d. 1995)* 1898 – John McDonald, Scottish-Australian politician, 37th Premier of Victoria (d. 1977)* 1898 – Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish sociologist and economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)* 1898 – Winifred Lenihan, American actress, writer, and director (d. 1964)1900 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974)===1901–present===1901 – Eliot Porter, American photographer and academic (d. 1990)1903 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and manager (d. 1946)1904 – Ève Curie, French-American journalist and pianist (d. 2007)1905 – Elizabeth Yates, American journalist and author (d. 2001)1907 – John Barkley Rosser Sr., American logician (d. 1989)1908 – Herta Freitag, Austrian-American mathematician (d. 2000) 1908 – Pierre Graber, Swiss lawyer and politician, 69th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 2003)* 1908 – Baby Face Nelson, American gangster (d. 1934)* 1908 – Miklós Szabó, Hungarian runner (d. 2000)1909 – Rulon Jeffs, American religious leader (d. 2002) 1909 – Alan McGilvray, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1996)1910 – David M. Potter, American historian, author, and academic (d. 1971)1913 – Karl Haas, German-American pianist, conductor, and radio host (d. 2005)* 1913 – Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and actress (d. 2004)1914 – Cyril Washbrook, English cricketer (d. 1999)1916 – Yekaterina Budanova, Russian captain and pilot (d. 1943)* 1916 – Kristján Eldjárn, Icelandic educator and politician, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982)* 1916 – Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and producer (d. 1986)1917 – Dean Hess, American minister and colonel (d. 2015) 1917 – Kamal Jumblatt, Lebanese lawyer and politician (d. 1977)* 1917 – Irv Robbins, Canadian-American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (d. 2008)1918 – Tauba Biterman, Polish Holocaust survivor (d. 2019)1919 – Skippy Baxter, Canadian-American figure skater and coach (d. 2012)* 1919 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (d. 1983)1920 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (d. 2012) 1920 – Peter Dimmock, English sportscaster and producer (d. 2015)* 1920 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)1921 – Otto Graham, American football player and coach (d. 2003) 1921 – Piero Piccioni, Italian lawyer, pianist, and composer (d. 2004)1922 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944) 1922 – Benjamin A. Gilman, American soldier and politician (d. 2016)1924 – Wally Cox, American actor (d. 1973)1927 – Jim Fuchs, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 2010)1928 – Bobby Van, American actor, dancer, and singer (d. 1980)1929 – Philippe Bouvard, French journalist and radio host* 1929 – Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-Austrian cellist and conductor (d. 2016)* 1929 – Frank Springer, American comic book illustrator (d. 2009)* 1929 – Alain Tanner, Swiss director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2022)1930 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian banker and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (d. 2000)1931 – Zeki Müren, Turkish singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1996)1932 – Kamleshwar, Indian author, screenwriter, and critic (d. 2007)1933 – Henryk Górecki, Polish composer and academic (d. 2010)* 1933 – Donald J. Kutyna, American general1934 – Nick Bockwinkel, American wrestler, sportscaster, and actor (d. 2015)1935 – Jean Lapointe, Canadian actor, singer, and politician (d. 2022)1936 – Bill Ashton, English saxophonist and composer 1936 – Kenneth Copeland, American evangelist and author* 1936 – David Ossman, American writer and comedian1937 – Alberto Spencer, Ecuadorian-American soccer player (d. 2006)1938 – Patrick Bauchau, Belgian-American actor1939 – Franco Carraro, Italian politician and sports administrator1940 – Lawrence Bergman, Canadian lawyer and politician* 1940 – Richard Edlund, American visual effects designer and cinematographer1941 – Helen Cornelius, American country singer-songwriter and actress 1941 – Bruce Nauman, American sculptor and illustrator* 1941 – Richard Speck, American murderer (d. 1991)* 1941 – Bill Thomas, American academic and politician1942 – Peter Handke, Austrian author and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate 1942 – Robb Royer, American guitarist, keyboard player, and songwriter 1943 – Mike Smith, English singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer (d. 2008) 1943 – Keith West, English rock singer-songwriter and music producer1944 – Jonathan King, English singer-songwriter, record producer, music entrepreneur, television/radio presenter, and convicted sex offender1945 – Shekhar Kapur, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter1946 – Frankie Beverly, American soul/funk singer-songwriter, musician, and producer 1946 – Willy van der Kuijlen, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2021)1947 – Lawrence Cannon, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1947 – Henk van Woerden, Dutch-South African painter and author (d. 2005)* 1947 – Miroslav Vitouš, Czech-American bassist and songwriter 1948 – Jean-Paul Ngoupandé, Central African politician, Prime Minister of the Central African Republic (d. 2014) 1948 – Don Nickles, American businessman and politician* 1948 – Keke Rosberg, Finnish racing driver* 1948 – JoBeth Williams, American actress1949 – Linda Barnes, American author, playwright, and educator 1949 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986)* 1949 – Doug Marlette, American author and cartoonist (d. 2007)* 1949 – Peter Willey, English cricketer and umpire1950 – Guy Drut, French hurdler and politician 1950 – Joe Hisaishi, Japanese pianist, composer, and conductor* 1950 – Helen Liddell, Baroness Liddell of Coatdyke, Scottish journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Scotland1951 – Wendy Ellis Somes, English ballerina and producer 1951 – Maurice Hope, Caribbean-English boxer1952 – Nicolas Bréhal, French author and critic (d. 1999) 1952 – Craig Newmark, American computer programmer and entrepreneur; founded Craigslist* 1952 – Shio Satō, Japanese illustrator (d. 2010)1953 – Sue Carroll, English journalist (d. 2011) 1953 – Gary Goodman, Australian cricketer and coach* 1953 – Geoff Hoon, English academic and politician, Minister of State for Europe* 1953 – Tom Hulce, American actor * 1953 – Masami Kurumada, Japanese author and illustrator1954 – Nicola De Maria, Italian painter 1954 – Chris Stamey, American singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer1955 – Anne Begg, Scottish educator and politician 1955 – Rick Buckler, English drummer, songwriter, and producer * 1955 – Graeme Hughes, Australian cricketer, rugby league player, and sportscaster* 1955 – Tony Woodcock, English footballer* 1955 – Steven Wright, American actor, comedian, and screenwriter1956 – Peter Buck, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer 1956 – Hans Kammerlander, Italian mountaineer and guide* 1956 – Randy Rhoads, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 1982)1957 – Adrian Borland, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 1999) 1957 – Andrew Cuomo, American politician, 56th Governor of New York* 1957 – Bill Hanzlik, American basketball player and coach1958 – Nick Park, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter1959 – Deborah Estrin, American computer scientist and academic* 1959 – Stephen Hepburn, English politician* 1959 – Satoru Iwata, Japanese game programmer and businessman (d. 2015)* 1959 – Stephen Muggleton, English computer scientist and engineer1960 – Masahiko Katsuya, Japanese journalist and photographer (d. 2018)1961 – David Lovering, American drummer * 1961 – Jonathan Melvoin, American musician (d. 1996) * 1961 – Manuel Reuter, German race car driver1962 – Janine Turner, American actress 1962 – Ben Watt, English singer-songwriter, musician, author, DJ, and radio presenter1963 – Ulrich Thomsen, Danish actor and producer1964 – Mall Nukke, Estonian painter1965 – Gordon Durie, Scottish footballer and manager1966 – Natascha Badmann, Swiss triathlete* 1966 – Per-Ulrik Johansson, Swedish golfer1967 – Judd Apatow, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Helen Greiner, American businesswoman and engineer* 1967 – Arnaldo Mesa, Cuban boxer (d. 2012)1968 – Karl Ove Knausgård, Norwegian author 1968 – Ali Latifiyan, Iranian writer and political theorist* 1968 – Akihiro Yano, Japanese baseball player1969 – Torri Higginson, Canadian actress1970 – Ulf Ekberg, Swedish singer-songwriter, keyboard player, and producer * 1970 – Adrian Fenty, American lawyer and politician, 6th Mayor of the District of Columbia* 1970 – Mark Reckless, English politician* 1970 – Jeff Rouse, American swimmer1971 – Craig Brewer, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1971 – José Contreras, Cuban baseball player* 1971 – Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player* 1971 – Naozumi Takahashi, Japanese singer and voice actor* 1971 – Carole Thate, Dutch field hockey player* 1971 – Ryan White, American activist (d. 1990)1972 – Ewan Birney, English scientist 1972 – Heather Mizeur, American lawyer and politician1974 – Jens Pulver, American mixed martial artist and boxer 1974 – Nick Stajduhar, Canadian ice hockey player1975 – Noel Clarke, English actor, director, and screenwriter 1975 – Adrian García Arias, Mexican footballer 1976 – Lindsay Price, American actress1977 – Kevin Cash, American baseball player and manager* 1977 – Andrew Flintoff, English cricketer, coach, and sportscaster* 1977 – Paul McVeigh, Irish footballer1978 – Chris Başak, American baseball player 1978 – Darrell Jackson, American football player* 1978 – Adriana Moisés Pinto, Brazilian basketball player* 1978 – Ramiro Pez, Argentine rugby player1979 – Tim Cahill, Australian footballer1980 – Danielle Downey, American golfer and coach (d. 2014)* 1980 – Steve Lovell, English footballer* 1980 – Carlos Takam, Cameroonian-French boxer1981 – Federico Balzaretti, Italian footballer1982 – Ryan Carnes, American actor and producer* 1982 – Alberto Contador, Spanish cyclist* 1982 – Sean Ervine, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1982 – Robbie Gould, American football player* 1982 – Aaron Sandilands, Australian footballer* 1982 – Susie Wolff, Scottish race car driver1984 – Syndric Steptoe, American football player 1984 – Nora Kirkpatrick, American actress and musician* 1984 – Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland1985 – Shannon Bobbitt, American basketball player 1985 – Aristeidis Grigoriadis, Greek swimmer* 1985 – R. P. Singh, Indian cricketer1986 – Sean Edwards, English race car driver (d. 2013) 1986 – Matt Niskanen, American ice hockey player1988 – Adam Eaton, American baseball player 1988 – Ravindra Jadeja, Indian cricketer* 1988 – Sandra Nurmsalu, Estonian singer and violinist * 1988 – Nils Petersen, German footballer* 1988 – Nobunaga Shimazaki, Japanese voice actor1989 – Felix Schiller, German footballer1990 – Tamira Paszek, Austrian tennis player1991 – Rachel Jarry, Australian basketball player 1991 – Milica Mandić, Serbian taekwondo athlete* 1991 – Coco Vandeweghe, American tennis player1992 – Viktor Antipin, Russian ice hockey player 1992 – Britt Assombalonga, Congolese footballer* 1992 – Johnny Manziel, American football player1993 – Jasprit Bumrah, Indian cricketer 1993 – Elián González, Cuban technician, known for a child custody and immigration case held in 2000* 1993 – Tautau Moga, Australian-Samoan rugby league player1994 – Giannis Antetokounmpo, Greek-Nigerian basketball player 1994 – Wakatakakage Atsushi, Japanese sumo wrestler* 1994 – Shreyas Iyer, Indian cricketer1995 – A Boogie wit da Hoodie, American rapper and singer-songwriter1996 – Davide Calabria, Italian footballer* 1996 – Stefanie Scott, American actress and singer1997 – Sabrina Ionescu, American basketball player1998 – Angelīna Kučvaļska, Latvian figure skater" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 343 – Saint Nicholas, Greek bishop and saint (b.", "270)* 735 – Prince Toneri of Japan (b.", "676)* 762 – Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, Arab rebel leader (b.", "710)1185 – Afonso I of Portugal (b.", "1109)1305 – Maximus, Metropolitan of Kyiv1306 – Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk (b.", "1270)1352 – Pope Clement VI (b.", "1291)1562 – Jan van Scorel, Dutch painter (b.", "1495)===1601–1900===1616 – Ahmad Ibn al-Qadi, Moroccan writer, judge and mathematician (b.", "1552)1618 – Jacques Davy Duperron, French cardinal (b.", "1556)1658 – Baltasar Gracián, Spanish priest and author (b.", "1601)1675 – John Lightfoot, English priest, scholar, and academic (b.", "1602)1686 – Eleonora Gonzaga, Queen consort of Ferdinand III (b.", "1630)1716 – Benedictus Buns, Dutch priest and composer (b.", "1642)1718 – Nicholas Rowe, English poet and playwright (b.", "1674)1746 – Lady Grizel Baillie, Scottish poet and songwriter (b.", "1665)1771 – Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Italian anatomist and pathologist (b.", "1682)1779 – Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin, French painter (b.", "1699)1788 – Jonathan Shipley, English bishop (b.", "1714)1855 – William John Swainson, English ornithologist and entomologist (b.", "1789)1867 – Jean Pierre Flourens, French physiologist and academic (b.", "1794)1868 – August Schleicher, German linguist and academic (b.", "1821)1878 – Theodoros Vryzakis, Greek painter and educator (b.", "1814)1879 – Erastus Brigham Bigelow, American businessman (b.", "1814)1882 – Alfred Escher, Swiss businessman and politician, founded Credit Suisse (b.", "1819)* 1882 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist, essayist, and short story writer (b.", "1815)1889 – Jefferson Davis, American general and politician, President of the Confederate States of America (b.", "1808)1892 – Werner von Siemens, German engineer and businessman, founded the Siemens Company (b.", "1816)===1901–present===1918 – Alexander Dianin, Russian chemist (b.", "1851) 1921 – Said Halim Pasha, Ottoman politician, 280th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b.", "1865)1924 – Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1863)1945 – Edmund Dwyer-Gray, Irish-Australian politician, 29th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1870)1951 – Harold Ross, American journalist and publisher, founded ''The New Yorker'' (b.", "1892)1955 – Honus Wagner, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1874)1956 – B. R. Ambedkar, Indian economist and politician, 1st Indian Minister of Justice (b.", "1891)1961 – Frantz Fanon, Martinique-French psychiatrist and author (b.", "1925)1964 – Evert van Linge, Dutch footballer and architect (b.", "1895)1972 – Janet Munro, English actress and singer (b.", "1934)1974 – Nikolay Kuznetsov, Soviet naval officer (b.", "1904)1976 – João Goulart, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 24th President of Brazil (b.", "1918)1980 – Charles Deutsch, French engineer and businessman, co-founded DB (b.", "1911) 1982 – Jean-Marie Seroney, Kenyan activist and politician (b.", "1927)1983 – Lucienne Boyer, French singer and actress (b.", "1903) 1983 – Gul Khan Nasir, Pakistani poet, historian, and politician (b.", "1914)1985 – Burr Tillstrom, American actor and puppeteer (b.", "1917) 1985 – Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1893)1985 – Carroll Cole, American serial killer, arsonist, and cannibal (b.", "1938)1988 – Roy Orbison, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1936)1989 – Frances Bavier, American actress (b.", "1902) 1989 – Sammy Fain, American pianist and composer (b.", "1902)* 1989 – John Payne, American actor, singer, and producer (b.", "1912)1990 – Pavlos Sidiropoulos, Greek singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1948) 1990 – Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Malaysia (b.", "1903)1991 – Mimi Smith, English nurse (b.", "1906) 1991 – Richard Stone, English economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1913)1993 – Don Ameche, American actor (b.", "1908)1994 – Heinz Baas, German footballer and manager (b.", "1922)* 1994 – Gian Maria Volonté, Italian actor and director (b.", "1933)1996 – Pete Rozelle, American businessman (b.", "1926)1997 – Willy den Ouden, Dutch swimmer (b.", "1918)1998 – César Baldaccini, French sculptor and educator (b.", "1921)2000 – Werner Klemperer, German-American actor (b.", "1920)* 2000 – Aziz Mian, Pakistani singer-songwriter and poet (b.", "1942)2001 – Charles McClendon, American football player and coach (b.", "1923)2002 – Philip Berrigan, American priest and activist (b.", "1923)2003 – Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, Guatemalan general and politician, President of Guatemala (b.", "1918)2005 – Charly Gaul, Luxembourger cyclist (b.", "1932)* 2005 – Devan Nair, Malaysian-Singaporean union leader and politician, 3rd President of Singapore (b.", "1923)* 2005 – Danny Williams, South African singer (b.", "1942)* 2005 – William P. Yarborough, American general (b.", "1912)2006 – John Feeney, New Zealand director and producer (b.", "1922)2010 – Mark Dailey, American-Canadian journalist and actor (b.", "1953)2011 – Dobie Gray, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1940)2012 – Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó, Equatoguinean engineer and politician, Prime Minister of Equatorial Guinea (b.", "1961)* 2012 – Jan Carew, Guyanese author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1920)* 2012 – Jeffrey Koo Sr., Taiwanese banker and businessman (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Huw Lloyd-Langton, English guitarist (b.", "1951)* 2012 – Pedro Vaz, Uruguayan lawyer and politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Uruguay (b.", "1963)2013 – Jean-Pierre Desthuilliers, French poet and critic (b.", "1939) 2013 – Stan Tracey, English pianist and composer (b.", "1926)* 2013 – M. K. Turk, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1942)2014 – Ralph H. Baer, German-American video game designer, created the Magnavox Odyssey (b.", "1922) 2014 – Jimmy Del Ray, American wrestler and manager (b.", "1962)* 2014 – Fred Hawkins, American golfer (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Luke Somers, English-American photographer and journalist (b.", "1981)2015 – Ko Chun-hsiung, Taiwanese actor, director, and politician (b.", "1945) 2015 – Liu Juying, Chinese general and politician (b.", "1917)* 2015 – Nicholas Smith, British actor (b.", "1934)2016 – Peter Vaughan, British actor (b.", "1923)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", " Anniversary of the Founding of Quito (Ecuador)* Armed Forces Day (Ukraine) * Christian feast day: Abraham of Kratia Aemilianus (Roman Catholic Church) Denise and companionsBlessed János Scheffler María del Monte Carmelo Sallés y Barangueras Nicholas of Myra, and its related observances:* St Nicholas Day, where St. Nicholas/Santa Claus leaves little presents in children's shoes.", "(International) December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (Spain)* Day of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technologies of Azerbaijan* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Finland from Russia in 1917.", "* National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women (Canada)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 6" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 5" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===63 BC – Cicero gives the fourth and final of the Catiline Orations.", " 633 – Fourth Council of Toledo opens, presided over by Isidore of Seville.", "1033 – The Jordan Rift Valley earthquake destroys multiple cities across the Levant, triggers a tsunami and kills many.", "1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona is assassinated, most likely by his brother, Berenguer Ramon II.", "1408 – Seeking to resubjugate Muscovy, Emir Edigu of the Golden Horde reaches Moscow, burning areas around the city but failing to take the city itself.", "1456 – The first of two earthquakes measuring 7.2 strikes Italy, causing extreme destruction and killing upwards of 70,000 people.", "1484 – Pope Innocent VIII issues the ''Summis desiderantes affectibus'', a papal bull that deputizes Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger as inquisitors to root out alleged witchcraft in Germany.", "1496 – King Manuel I of Portugal issues a decree ordering the expulsion of Jews from the country.", "1560 – Thirteen-year-old Charles IX becomes king of France, with Queen Mother Catherine de' Medici as regent.", "1578 – Sir Francis Drake, after sailing through Strait of Magellan, raids Valparaiso.===1601–1900===1649 – The town of Raahe () is founded by Count Per Brahe the Younger.", "1757 – Seven Years' War: Battle of Leuthen: Frederick II of Prussia leads Prussian forces to a decisive victory over Austrian forces under Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine.", "1766 – In London, auctioneer James Christie holds his first sale.", "1770 – 29th Regiment of Foot privates Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy are found guilty for the manslaughter of Crispus Attucks and Samuel Gray respectively in the Boston Massacre.", "1775 – At Fort Ticonderoga, Henry Knox begins his historic transport of artillery to Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "1776 – Phi Beta Kappa, the oldest academic honor society in the U.S., holds its first meeting at the College of William & Mary.", "1831 – Former U.S. President John Quincy Adams takes his seat in the House of Representatives.", "1847 – Jefferson Davis is elected to the U.S.", "Senate.", "1848 – California Gold Rush: In a message to the United States Congress, U.S. President James K. Polk confirms that large amounts of gold had been discovered in California.", "1865 – Chincha Islands War: Peru allies with Chile against Spain.", "1895 – New Haven Symphony Orchestra of Connecticut performs its first concert.===1901–present===1914 – The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition began in an attempt to make the first land crossing of Antarctica.", "1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is suppressed and its participants are executed by the Kontrrazvedka.", "1921 – The Football Association bans women's football in England from league grounds, a ban that stays in place for 50 years.", "1933 – The Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified.", "1934 – Abyssinia Crisis: Italian troops attack Wal Wal in Abyssinia, taking four days to capture the city.", "1935 – Mary McLeod Bethune founds the National Council of Negro Women in New York City.", "1936 – The Soviet Union adopts a new constitution and the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic is established as a full Union Republic of the USSR.", "1941 – World War II: In the Battle of Moscow, Georgy Zhukov launches a massive Soviet counter-attack against the German army.", " 1941 – World War II: Great Britain declares war on Finland, Hungary and Romania.", "1943 – World War II: Allied air forces begin attacking Germany's secret weapons bases in Operation Crossbow.", "1945 – Flight 19, a group of TBF Avengers, disappears in the Bermuda Triangle.", "1952 – Beginning of the Great Smog in London.", "A cold fog combines with air pollution and brings the city to a standstill for four days.", "Later, a Ministry of Health report estimates 4,000 fatalities as a result of it.", "1955 – The American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merge and form the AFL–CIO.", "* 1955 – E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks lead the Montgomery bus boycott.", "1958 – Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) is inaugurated in the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II when she speaks to the Lord Provost in a call from Bristol to Edinburgh.", " 1958 – The Preston By-pass, the UK's first stretch of motorway, opens to traffic for the first time.", "(It is now part of the M6 and M55 motorways.", ")1964 – Vietnam War: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain Roger Donlon is awarded the first Medal of Honor of the war.", " 1964 – Lloyd J.", "Old discovers the first linkage between the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and disease—mouse leukemia—opening the way for the recognition of the importance of the MHC in the immune response.", "1971 – Battle of Gazipur: Pakistani forces stand defeated as India cedes Gazipur to Bangladesh.", "1977 – Egypt breaks diplomatic relations with Syria, Libya, Algeria, Iraq and South Yemen.", "The move is in retaliation for the Declaration of Tripoli against Egypt.", "1983 – Dissolution of the Military Junta in Argentina.", "1991 – Leonid Kravchuk is elected the first president of Ukraine.", "1995 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lanka's government announces the conquest of the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna.", " 1995 – Azerbaijan Airlines Flight A-56 crashes near Nakhchivan International Airport in Nakhchivan, Azerbaijan, killing 52 people.", "2005 – The Civil Partnership Act comes into effect in the United Kingdom, and the first civil partnership is registered there.", " 2005 – The 6.8 Lake Tanganyika earthquake shakes the eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme''), killing six people.", "2006 – Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the government in Fiji.", "2007 – Westroads Mall shooting: Nineteen-year-old Robert A. Hawkins kills nine people, including himself, with a WASR-10 at a Von Maur department store in Omaha, Nebraska.", "2013 – Militants attack a Defense Ministry compound in Sana'a, Yemen, killing at least 56 people and injuring 200 others.", "2014 – Exploration Flight Test-1, the first flight test of Orion, is launched.", "2017 – The International Olympic Committee bans Russia from competing at the 2018 Winter Olympics for doping at the 2014 Winter Olympics." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 852 – Zhu Wen, Chinese emperor (d. 912)1377 – Jianwen Emperor of China (d. 1402)1389 – Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (d. 1455)1443 – Pope Julius II (d. 1513)1470 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (d. 1530)1495 – Nicolas Cleynaerts, Flemish philologist and lexicographer (d. 1542)1537 – Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shōgun (d. 1597)1539 – Fausto Sozzini, Italian theologian and author (d. 1604)1547 – Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)1556 – Anne Cecil, Countess of Oxford, English countess (d. 1588)1596 – Henry Lawes, English composer (d. 1662)===1601–1900===1661 – Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (d. 1724)1666 – Francesco Scarlatti, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1741)1687 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1762)1697 – Giuseppe de Majo, Italian organist and composer (d. 1771)1782 – Martin Van Buren, American lawyer and politician, 8th President of the United States (d. 1862)1784 – George Shepherd, English illustrator and painter (d. 1862)1803 – Fyodor Tyutchev, Russian poet and diplomat (d. 1873)1820 – Afanasy Fet, Russian poet and author (d. 1892)1822 – Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, American philosopher and academic, co-founded Radcliffe College (d. 1907)1829 – Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière, French-Canadian lawyer and politician, 4th Premier of Quebec (d. 1908)1830 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and author (d. 1894)1839 – George Armstrong Custer, American general (d. 1876)1841 – Marcus Daly, Irish-American businessman (d. 1900)1849 – Eduard Seler, German anthropologist, ethnohistorian, linguist, and academic (d. 1922)1855 – Clinton Hart Merriam, American zoologist, ornithologist, entomologist, and ethnographer (d. 1942)1859 – John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, English admiral and politician, 2nd Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1935)1861 – Konstantin Korovin, Russian-French painter and set designer (d. 1939)1862 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (d. 1900)1863 – Paul Painlevé, French mathematician and politician, 84th Prime Minister of France (d. 1933)1866 – John Beresford, Irish polo player (d. 1944)* 1866 – Traian Demetrescu, Romanian poet and author (d. 1896)1867 – Antti Aarne, Finnish author and academic (d. 1925) 1867 – Józef Piłsudski, Polish field marshal and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland (d. 1935)1868 – Arnold Sommerfeld, German physicist and academic (d. 1951)1869 – Ellis Parker Butler, American author and poet (d. 1937)1870 – Vítězslav Novák, Czech composer and educator (d. 1949)1872 – Harry Nelson Pillsbury, American chess player (d. 1906)1875 – Arthur Currie, Canadian general (d. 1933)1879 – Clyde Vernon Cessna, American pilot and businessman, founded the Cessna Aircraft Corporation (d. 1954)1881 – René Cresté, French actor and director (d. 1922)1886 – Rose Wilder Lane, American journalist and author (d. 1968)* 1886 – Pieter Oud, Dutch historian, academic, and politician, Minister of Finance of the Netherlands (d. 1968)* 1886 – Nikolai Uglanov, Soviet politician (d. 1937)1890 – David Bomberg, English painter, illustrator, and academic (d. 1957) 1890 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1976)1891 – Paul Kogerman, Estonian chemist and academic (d. 1951)1894 – Charles Robberts Swart, South African lawyer and politician, 1st State President of South Africa (d. 1982)1895 – Elbert Frank Cox, American mathematician and academic (d. 1969)1896 – Ann Nolan Clark, American historian, author, and educator (d. 1995)* 1896 – Carl Ferdinand Cori, Czech-American biochemist and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984)1897 – Nunnally Johnson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1977) 1897 – Gershom Scholem, German-Israeli philosopher and historian (d. 1982)1898 – Josh Malihabadi, Indian-Pakistani poet and translator (d. 1982) 1898 – Grace Moore, American soprano and actress (d. 1947)1900 – Jimmy Dimmock, English footballer (d. 1972)===1901–present===1901 – Walt Disney, American animator, director, producer, and screenwriter, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (d. 1966) 1901 – Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist and author (d. 1980)* 1901 – Werner Heisenberg, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)1902 – Emeric Pressburger, Hungarian-English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1988) 1902 – Strom Thurmond, American educator, general, and politician, 103rd Governor of South Carolina (d. 2003)1903 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German actor and singer (d. 2011) 1903 – C. F. Powell, English-Italian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1969)1905 – Francisco Javier Arana, Guatemalan Army colonel and briefly Guatemalan head of state (d. 1949) 1905 – Otto Preminger, Austrian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1986)1907 – Lin Biao, Chinese general and politician, 2nd Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1971) 1907 – Giuseppe Occhialini, Italian-French physicist and academic (d. 1993)1910 – Abraham Polonsky, American director and screenwriter (d. 1999)1911 – Władysław Szpilman, Polish pianist and composer (d. 2000)1912 – Kate Simon, American travel writer (d. 1990) 1912 – Sonny Boy Williamson II, American singer-songwriter and harmonica player (d. 1965)1913 – Esther Borja, Cuban soprano and actress (d. 2013)1914 – Hans Hellmut Kirst, German lieutenant and author (d. 1989)1916 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish-American virologist and immunologist, created the world's first effective live polio vaccine (d. 2013) 1916 – Walt McPherson, American basketball player and coach (d. 2013)1917 – Ken Downing, English racing driver (d. 2004)1919 – Alun Gwynne Jones, Baron Chalfont, English historian and politician (d. 2020)1921 – Alvy Moore, American actor and producer (d. 1997)1922 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (d. 2011)* 1922 – Don Robertson, American songwriter and pianist (d. 2015) 1924 – Robert Sobukwe, South African banker and politician (d. 1978)1925 – Anastasio Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan politician, 73rd President of Nicaragua (d. 1980)1926 – Adetowun Ogunsheye, first female Nigerian professor and university dean1927 – Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand (d. 2016)* 1927 – W.D.", "Amaradeva, Sri Lankan musician and composer (d. 2016)1929 – Madis Kõiv, Estonian physicist, philosopher, and author (d. 2014)1930 – Yi-Fu Tuan, Chinese-American geographer (d. 2022)1931 – Ladislav Novák, Czech footballer and manager (d. 2011)1932 – Alf Dubs, Baron Dubs, British politician* 1932 – Sheldon Glashow, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1932 – Jim Hurtubise, American race car driver (d. 1989)* 1932 – Nadira, Indian actress (d. 2006)* 1932 – Little Richard, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (d. 2020)1933 – Gennadiy Agapov, Russian race walker (d. 1999) 1933 – Harry Holgate, Australian politician, 36th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1997)1934 – Joan Didion, American novelist and screenwriter (d. 2021)1935 – Calvin Trillin, American novelist, humorist, and journalist* 1935 – Yury Vlasov, Ukrainian-Russian weightlifter and politician (d. 2021)1936 – James Lee Burke, American journalist, author, and academic1938 – J. J. Cale, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013) 1940 – Tony Crafter, Australian cricket umpire 1940 – Boris Ignatyev, Russian footballer and manager* 1940 – Peter Pohl, Swedish author, director, and screenwriter* 1940 – Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012)1942 – Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (d. 2017)1943 – Eva Joly, Norwegian-French judge and politician* 1943 – Andrew Yeom Soo-jung, South Korean cardinal1944 – Jeroen Krabbé, Dutch actor, director, and producer1945 – Serge Chapleau, Canadian cartoonist* 1945 – Moshe Katsav, Iranian-Israeli educator and politician, 8th President of Israel1946 – José Carreras, Spanish tenor and actor 1946 – Andy Kim, Canadian pop singer-songwriter* 1946 – Sarel van der Merwe, South African racing driver1947 – Rudy Fernandez, Filipino triathlete 1947 – Bruce Golding, Jamaican lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Jamaica* 1947 – Tony Gregory, Irish activist and politician (d. 2009)* 1947 – Jügderdemidiin Gürragchaa, Mongolian cosmonaut and military leader* 1947 – Jim Messina, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1947 – Jim Plunkett, American football player and radio host* 1947 – Kim Simmonds, Welsh blues-rock singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1947 – Don Touhig, Welsh journalist and politician1948 – Denise Drysdale, Australian television host and actress1949 – John Altman, English composer and conductor* 1949 – David Manning, English civil servant and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States1951 – Morgan Brittany, American actress 1951 – Link Byfield, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2015)* 1951 – Anne-Mie van Kerckhoven, Belgian painter and illustrator1953 – Gwen Lister, South African-Namibian journalist, publisher, and activist1954 – Hanif Kureishi, English author and playwright1955 – Miyuki Kawanaka, Japanese singer 1955 – Juha Tiainen, Finnish hammer thrower (d. 2003)1956 – Klaus Allofs, German footballer and manager 1956 – Butch Lee, Puerto Rican basketball player* 1956 – Adam Thorpe, French-English author, poet, and playwright* 1956 – Krystian Zimerman, Polish virtuoso pianist1957 – Raquel Argandoña, Chilean model, actress, and politician 1957 – Art Monk, American football player1958 – Dynamite Kid, English wrestler (d. 2018)1959 – Lee Chapman, English footballer* 1959 – Oleksandr Yaroslavsky, Ukrainian businessman 1960 – Frans Adelaar, Dutch footballer and manager 1960 – Osvaldo Golijov, Argentinian-American composer and educator* 1960 – Jack Russell, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1960 – Matthew Taylor, English businessman and politician1961 – Ralf Dujmovits, German mountaineer 1961 – Laura Flanders, British journalist1962 – José Cura, Argentinian tenor, conductor, and director 1962 – Pablo Morales, American swimmer and coach* 1962 – Nivek Ogre, Canadian singer-songwriter * 1962 – Fred Rutten, Dutch footballer and manager1963 – Doctor Dré, American television and radio host 1963 – Carrie Hamilton, American actress and playwright (d. 2002)* 1963 – Alberto Nisman, Argentinian lawyer (d. 2015)1964 – Martin Vinnicombe, Australian cyclist1965 – Manish Malhotra, Indian fashion designer* 1965 – John Rzeznik, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer * 1965 – Wayne Smith, Jamaican rapper (d. 2014)* 1965 – Valeriy Spitsyn, Russian race walker1967 – Gary Allan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1968 – Margaret Cho, American comedian, actress, producer, and screenwriter* 1968 – Lisa Marie, American model and actress* 1968 – Lydia Millet, American novelist* 1968 – Falilat Ogunkoya, Nigerian sprinter1969 – Eric Etebari, American actor, director, and producer 1969 – Morgan J. Freeman, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1969 – Sajid Javid, British Pakistani banker and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer* 1969 – Lewis Pugh, English swimmer and lawyer* 1969 – Ramón Ramírez, Mexican footballer * 1969 – Catherine Tate, English actress, comedian, and writer1970 – Kevin Haller, Canadian ice hockey player 1970 – Michel'le, American singer-songwriter 1971 – Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, German businessman and politician, German Federal Minister of Defence 1971 – Ashia Hansen, American-English triple jumper* 1971 – Gabriel Hjertstedt, Swedish golfer* 1971 – Kali Rocha, American actress 1972 – Cliff Floyd, American baseball player and sportscaster 1972 – Duane Ross, American hurdler and coach1973 – Argo Arbeiter, Estonian footballer 1973 – Arik Benado, Israeli footballer* 1973 – Mikelangelo Loconte, Italian singer-songwriter, producer, and actor* 1973 – Luboš Motl, Czech physicist and academic1974 – Ravish Kumar, Indian journalist and author 1974 – Brian Lewis, American sprinter1975 – Ronnie O'Sullivan, English snooker player and radio host 1975 – Paula Patton, American actress1976 – Amy Acker, American actress 1976 – Xavier Garbajosa, French rugby player* 1976 – Norishige Kanai, Japanese doctor and astronaut* 1976 – Sachiko Kokubu, Japanese actress and model* 1976 – Rachel Komisarz, American swimmer and coach1977 – Peter van der Vlag, Dutch footballer1978 – Neil Druckmann, American video game designer and author* 1978 – Olli Jokinen, Finnish ice hockey player* 1978 – Marcelo Zalayeta, Uruguayan footballer1979 – Matteo Ferrari, Italian footballer 1979 – Niklas Hagman, Finnish ice hockey player* 1979 – Gareth McAuley, Northern Irish footballer* 1979 – Nick Stahl, American actor1980 – Ibrahim Maalouf, Lebanese-French trumpet player and composer 1980 – Jessica Paré, Canadian actress1981 – Adan Canto, Mexican actor (d. 2024)1982 – Eddy Curry, American basketball player* 1982 – Keri Hilson, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1982 – Gabriel Luna, American actor1983 – Joakim Lindström, Swedish ice hockey player1984 – Lauren London, American actress1985 – Shikhar Dhawan, Indian cricketer 1985 – Frankie Muniz, American actor, drummer, and race car driver* 1985 – Josh Smith, American basketball player* 1985 – Danny Wicks, Australian rugby league player1986 – LeGarrette Blount, American football player 1986 – James Hinchcliffe, Canadian Indycar racing driver * 1986 – Justin Smoak, American baseball player1987 – A. J. Pollock, American baseball player1988 – Ross Bagley, American actor* 1988 – Tina Charles, American basketball player* 1988 – Kyle Long, American football player* 1988 – Joanna Rowsell, English cyclist1989 – Jurrell Casey, American football player 1989 – Kwon Yu-ri, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress1990 – Montee Ball, American football player1991 – Cam Fowler, Canadian-American ice hockey player* 1991 – Jacopo Sala, Italian footballer* 1991 – Christian Yelich, American baseball player1992 – Ilja Antonov, Estonian footballer 1992 – Natalie Sourisseau, Canadian field hockey player1993 – Ross Barkley, English footballer1994 – Ondrej Duda, Slovak footballer* 1994 – Semi Ojeleye, American basketball player1995 – Danny Levi, New Zealand rugby league player 1995 – Anthony Martial, French footballer* 1995 – Kaetlyn Osmond, Canadian figure skater1997 – Maddie Poppe, American singer-songwriter and musician 1997 – Quinnen Williams, American football player* 1998- Conan Gray, American singer-songwriter" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===63 BC – Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman politician (b.", "114 BC) 334 – Li Ban, emperor of Cheng Han (b.", "288)* 902 – Ealhswith, queen consort and wife of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex1082 – Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona (b.", "1053)1212 – Dirk van Are, bishop and lord of Utrecht1244 – Joan, Countess of Flanders and Hainault (b.", "1199 or 1200)1355 – John III, Duke of Brabant (b.", "1300)1560 – Francis II of France (b.", "1544)1570 – Johan Friis, Danish politician (b.", "1494)===1601–1900===1624 – Gaspard Bauhin, Swiss botanist and physician (b.", "1560)1654 – Jean François Sarrazin, French author and poet (b.", "1611)1663 – Severo Bonini, Italian organist and composer (b.", "1582)1749 – Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, Canadian commander and explorer (b.", "1685)1758 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (b.", "1688)1770 – James Stirling, Scottish mathematician and surveyor (b.", "1692)1784 – Phillis Wheatley, Senegal-born slave, later American poet (b.", "1753)1791 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Austrian composer and musician (b.", "1756)1819 – Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg-Stolberg, German poet and lawyer (b.", "1750)1870 – Alexandre Dumas, French novelist and playwright (b.", "1802)1887 – Eliza R. Snow, American poet and songwriter (b.", "1804)1891 – Pedro II of Brazil (b.", "1825)===1901–present===1918 – Schalk Willem Burger, South African commander, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of the South African Republic (b.", "1852)1925 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1867)1926 – Claude Monet, French painter (b.", "1840)1931 – Vachel Lindsay, American poet (b.", "1879)1933 – Alexander Atabekian, Armenian physician and anarchist publisher (b.", "1869)1940 – Jan Kubelík, Czech violinist and composer (b.", "1880)1941 – Amrita Sher-Gil, Hungarian-Pakistani painter (b.", "1913)1942 – Jock Delves Broughton, English captain (b.", "1883)1946 – Louis Dewis, Belgian-French painter and educator (b.", "1872)1951 – Shoeless Joe Jackson, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1887)* 1951 – Abanindranath Tagore, Indian painter, author, and academic (b.", "1871)1953 – William Sterling Parsons, American admiral (b.", "1901)1955 – Glenn L. Martin, American pilot and businessman, founded the Glenn L. Martin Company (b.", "1886)1961 – Emil Fuchs, German-American lawyer and businessman (b.", "1878)1963 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer and educator (b.", "1905)* 1963 – Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b.", "1892)1964 – V. Veerasingam, Sri Lankan educator and politician (b.", "1892)1965 – Joseph Erlanger, American physiologist, neuroscientist, and academic Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1874)1968 – Fred Clark, American actor (b.", "1914)1969 – Claude Dornier, German engineer and businessman, founded Dornier Flugzeugwerke (b.", "1884)* 1969 – Princess Alice of Battenberg (b.", "1885)1973 – Robert Watson-Watt, Scottish engineer, invented the radar (b.", "1892)1975 – Constance McLaughlin Green, American historian and author (b.", "1897)1977 – Katherine Milhous, American author and illustrator (b.", "1894) 1977 – Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Russian marshal and politician, Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (b.", "1895)1979 – Jesse Pearson, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (b.", "1930)1983 – Robert Aldrich, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1918)1984 – Cecil M. Harden, American politician (b.", "1894)1986 – Edward Youde, Welsh-Chinese sinologist and diplomat, 26th Governor of Hong Kong (b.", "1924)1989 – John Pritchard, English conductor and director (b.", "1921)1990 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (b.", "1916)1991 – Richard Speck, American mass murderer (b.", "1941)1994 – Harry Horner, Czech-American director, producer, and production designer (b.", "1910)1995 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (b.", "1918) 1995 – Charles Evans, English mountaineer, surgeon, and educator (b.", "1918)* 1995 – Gwen Harwood, Australian poet and playwright (b.", "1920)* 1995 – Clair Cameron Patterson, American scientist (b.", "1922)1997 – Eugen Cicero, Romanian-German jazz pianist (b.", "1940)1998 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (b.", "1907)2001 – Franco Rasetti, Italian-American physicist and academic (b.", "1901)2002 – Roone Arledge, American sportscaster and producer (b.", "1931)* 2002 – Ne Win, Burmese general and politician, 4th President of Burma (b.", "1911)2005 – Edward L. Masry, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1932)2006 – David Bronstein, Ukrainian-Belarusian chess player and theoretician (b.", "1924)2007 – Andrew Imbrie, American composer and academic (b.", "1921) 2007 – George Paraskevaides, Greek-Cypriot businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Joannou & Paraskevaides (b.", "1916)* 2007 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (b.", "1928)2008 – Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow (b.", "1929) 2008 – George Brecht, American chemist and composer (b.", "1926)* 2008 – Nina Foch, Dutch-American actress (b.", "1924)* 2008 – Beverly Garland, American actress and businesswoman (b.", "1926)* 2008 – Anca Parghel, Romanian singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1957)2009 – William Lederer, American soldier and author (b.", "1912)2010 – Alan Armer, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2010 – Don Meredith, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b.", "1938)2011 – Peter Gethin, English racing driver (b.", "1940) 2011 – Gennady Logofet, Russian footballer and manager (b.", "1942)2012 – Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer (b.", "1920) 2012 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian philanthropist (b.", "1909)* 2012 – Oscar Niemeyer, Brazilian architect, designed the United Nations Headquarters and Cathedral of Brasília (b.", "1907)* 2012 – Ignatius IV of Antioch, Syrian patriarch (b.", "1920)2013 – Fred Bassetti, American architect and academic, founded Bassetti Architects (b.", "1917) 2013 – William B. Edmondson, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Africa (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Nelson Mandela, South African lawyer and politician, 1st President of South Africa, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)2014 – Ernest C. Brace, American captain and pilot (b.", "1931) 2014 – Fabiola, Queen of Belgium (b.", "1928)* 2014 – Talât Sait Halman, Turkish poet, translator, and historian (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Jackie Healy-Rae, Irish hurdler and politician (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Silvio Zavala, Mexican historian and author (b.", "1909)2015 – Vic Eliason, American clergyman and radio host, founded VCY America (b.", "1936) 2015 – Tibor Rubin, Hungarian-American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Chuck Williams, American businessman and author, founded Williams Sonoma (b.", "1915) 2016 – Tyruss Himes (\"Big Syke\"), American rapper (b.", "1968)2017 – Michael I of Romania, fifth and last king of Romania (b.", "1921)* 2017 – August Ames, Canadian American pornographic actress (b.", "1994)2019 – Robert Walker, American actor (b.", "1940)2020 – Peter Alliss, English professional golfer (b.", "1931) 2021 – Bob Dole, American politician (b.", "1923)2022 – Kirstie Alley, American actress and producer (b.", "1951)2023 – Norman Lear, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1922)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:AberciusClement of Alexandria (Episcopal Church)CrispinaDalmatius of PaviaGerboldJustinian of Ramsey IslandNicetius (Nizier)Pelinus of BrindisiSabbas the SanctifiedDecember 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Children's Day (Suriname)Day of Military Honour - Battle of Moscow (Russia)Discovery Day (Haiti and Dominican Republic)International Volunteer Day for Economic and Social DevelopmentKlozum (Schiermonnikoog, Netherlands)Saint Nicholas' Eve (Belgium, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Hungary, Romania, Germany, Poland and the UK)*Krampusnacht (Austria)The King Bhumibol Adulyadej Memorial Birthday (Thailand) World Soil Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 5" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 4" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 771 – Austrasian king Carloman I dies, leaving his brother Charlemagne as sole king of the Frankish Kingdom.", "* 963 – The lay papal protonotary is elected pope and takes the name Leo VIII, being consecrated on 6 December after ordination.", "1110 – An army led by Baldwin I of Jerusalem and Sigurd the Crusader of Norway captures Sidon at the end of the First Crusade.", "1259 – Kings Louis IX of France and Henry III of England agree to the Treaty of Paris, in which Henry renounces his claims to French-controlled territory on continental Europe (including Normandy) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.", "1563 – The final session of the Council of Trent is held nearly 18 years after the body held its first session on December 13, 1545.===1601–1900===1619 – Thirty-eight colonists arrive at Berkeley Hundred, Virginia.", "The group's charter proclaims that the day \"be yearly and perpetually kept holy as a day of thanksgiving to Almighty God.", "\"1676 – The Battle of Lund, becomes the bloodiest battle in Scandinavian history.", "1745 – Charles Edward Stuart's army reaches Derby, its furthest point during the Second Jacobite Rising.", "1783 – At Fraunces Tavern in New York City, U.S. General George Washington bids farewell to his officers.", "1786 – Mission Santa Barbara is dedicated (on the feast day of Saint Barbara).", "1791 – The first edition of ''The Observer'', the world's first Sunday newspaper, is published.", "1804 – The United States House of Representatives adopts articles of impeachment against Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase.", "1829 – In the face of fierce local opposition, British Governor-General Lord William Bentinck issues a regulation declaring that anyone who abets ''suttee'' in Bengal is guilty of culpable homicide.", "1861 – The 109 Electors of the several states of the Confederate States of America unanimously elect Jefferson Davis as President and Alexander H. Stephens as Vice President.", "1864 – American Civil War: In the Battle of Waynesboro, Georgia, Union cavalry forces defeated Confederate cavalry, opening the way for Sherman's army to approach the coast.", "1865 – North Carolina ratifies 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed soon by Georgia, and U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.", "1867 – Former Minnesota farmer Oliver Hudson Kelley founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the Grange).", "1872 – The American brigantine is discovered drifting in the Atlantic.", "Her crew is never found.", "1875 – Notorious New York City politician Boss Tweed escapes from prison; he is later recaptured in Spain.", "1881 – The first edition of the ''Los Angeles Times'' is published.", "1893 – First Matabele War: A patrol of 34 British South Africa Company soldiers is ambushed and annihilated by more than 3,000 Matabele warriors on the Shangani River in Matabeleland.===1901–present===1906 – Alpha Phi Alpha the first intercollegiate Greek lettered fraternity for African-Americans was founded at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.", "1909 – In Canadian football, the First Grey Cup game is played.", "The University of Toronto Varsity Blues defeat the Toronto Parkdale Canoe Club, 26–6.", " 1909 – The Montreal Canadiens ice hockey club, the oldest surviving professional hockey franchise in the world, is founded as a charter member of the National Hockey Association.", "1917 – The Finnish Senate submits to the Parliament of Finland a proposal for the form of government of the Republic of Finland and issued a communication to Parliament declaring the independence of Finland.", "1918 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sails for the World War I peace talks in Versailles, becoming the first US president to travel to Europe while in office.", "1919 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Polonsky conspiracy is initiated, with an attempt to assassinate the high command of the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine.", "1928 – Cosmo Gordon Lang was enthroned as the Archbishop of Canterbury, the first bachelor to be appointed in 150 years.", "1939 – World War II: is struck by a mine (laid by ) off the Scottish coast and is laid up for repairs until August 1940.", "1942 – World War II: Carlson's patrol during the Guadalcanal Campaign ends.", "1943 – World War II: In Yugoslavia, resistance leader Marshal Josip Broz Tito proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.", " 1943 – World War II: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt closes down the Works Progress Administration, because of the high levels of wartime employment in the United States.", "1945 – By a vote of 65–7, the United States Senate approves United States participation in the United Nations.", "(The UN had been established on October 24, 1945.", ")1948 – Chinese Civil War: The SS ''Kiangya'', carrying Nationalist refugees from Shanghai, explodes in the Huangpu River.", "1949 – Sir Duncan George Stewart, governor of the Crown Colony of Sarawak, was fatally stabbed by a member of the Rukun 13.", "1950 – Korean War: Jesse L. Brown (the 1st African-American Naval aviator) is killed in action during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.", "1950 – Korean War: Associated Press photographer Max Desfor photographs hundreds of Korean refugees crossing a downed bridge in the Taedong River: 1951 Pulitzer Prize winner ''Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea''.", "1956 – The Million Dollar Quartet (Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Carl Perkins, and Johnny Cash) get together at Sun Studio for the first and last time.", "1964 – Free Speech Movement: Police arrest over 800 students at the University of California, Berkeley, following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest of the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property.", "1965 – Launch of Gemini 7 with crew members Frank Borman and Jim Lovell.", "The Gemini 7 spacecraft was the passive target for the first crewed space rendezvous performed by the crew of Gemini 6A.", "1969 – Black Panther Party members Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are shot and killed during a raid by 14 Chicago police officers.", " 1971 – The PNS ''Ghazi'', a Pakistan Navy submarine, sinks during the course of the Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971.", "* 1971 – During a concert by Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention at the Montreux Casino, an audience member fires a flare gun into the ceiling, causing a fire that destroys the venue.", "1974 – Martinair Flight 138 crashes into the Saptha Kanya mountain range in Maskeliya, Sri Lanka, killing 191.", "1977 – Jean-Bédel Bokassa, president of the Central African Republic, crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire.", "* 1977 – Malaysian Airline System Flight 653 is hijacked and crashes in Tanjong Kupang, Johor, killing 100.", "1978 – Following the murder of Mayor George Moscone, Dianne Feinstein becomes San Francisco's first female mayor.", "1979 – The Hastie fire in Hull kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest Bruce George Peter Lee.", "1981 – South Africa grants independence to the Ciskei \"homeland\" (not recognized by any government outside South Africa).", "1982 – The People's Republic of China adopts its current constitution.", "1983 – US Navy aircraft from USS ''John F. Kennedy'' and USS ''Independence'' attack Syrian missile sites in Lebanon in response to an F-14 being fired on by an SA-7.One A-6 Intruder and A-7 Corsair are shot down.", "One American pilot is killed, one is rescued, and one is captured.", "1984 – Sri Lankan Civil War: Sri Lankan Army soldiers kill 107–150 civilians in Mannar.", "1986 – The MV ''Amazon Venture'' oil tanker begins leaking oil while at the port of Savannah in the United States, resulting in an oil spill of approximately .", "1991 – Terry A. Anderson is released after seven years in captivity as a hostage in Beirut; he is the last and longest-held American hostage in Lebanon.", "* 1991 – Pan American World Airways ceases its operations after 64 years.", "1992 – Somali Civil War: President George H. W. Bush orders 28,000 U.S. troops to Somalia in Northeast Africa.", "1998 – The ''Unity Module'', the second module of the International Space Station, is launched.", "2005 – Tens of thousands of people in Hong Kong protest for democracy and call on the government to allow universal and equal suffrage.", "2006 – Six black youths assault a white teenager in Jena, Louisiana.", "2014 – Islamic insurgents kill three state police at a traffic circle before taking an empty school and a \"press house\" in Grozny.", "Ten state forces die with 28 injured in gun battles ending with ten insurgents killed.", "2015 – A firebomb is thrown into a restaurant in the Egyptian capital of Cairo, killing 17 people.", "2017 – The Thomas Fire starts near Santa Paula in California.", "It eventually became the largest wildfire in modern California history to date after burning in Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties.", "2021 – Semeru on the Indonesian island of Java erupts, killing at least 68 people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===AD 34 – Persius, Roman poet (d. 62) 846 – Hasan al-Askari 11th Imam of Twelver Shia Islam (d. 874)1428 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe (d. 1511)1506 – Thomas Darcy, 1st Baron Darcy of Chiche (d. 1558)1555 – Heinrich Meibom, German poet and historian (d. 1625)1575 – Sister Virginia Maria, Italian nun (d. 1650)1580 – Samuel Argall, English adventurer and naval officer (d. 1626)1585 – John Cotton, English-American minister and theologian (d. 1652)1595 – Jean Chapelain, French poet and critic (d. 1674)===1601–1900===1647 – Daniel Eberlin, German composer (d. 1715)1660 – André Campra, French composer and conductor (d. 1744)1667 – Michel Pignolet de Montéclair, French composer and educator (d. 1737)1670 – John Aislabie, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1742)1713 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (d. 1786)1727 – Johann Gottfried Zinn, German anatomist and botanist (d. 1759)1777 – Juliette Récamier, French businesswoman (d. 1849)1795 – Thomas Carlyle, Scottish-English historian, philosopher, and academic (d. 1881)1798 – Jules Armand Dufaure, French lawyer and politician, 33rd Prime Minister of France (d. 1881)1817 – Nikoloz Baratashvili, Georgian poet and author (d. 1845)1835 – Samuel Butler, English author and critic (d. 1902)1844 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1914)1861 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1922)1865 – Edith Cavell, English nurse, humanitarian, and saint (Anglicanism) (d. 1915)1867 – Stanley Argyle, Australian politician, 32nd Premier of Victoria (d. 1940)1868 – Jesse Burkett, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1953)1875 – Agnes Forbes Blackadder, Scottish medical doctor (d. 1964)* 1875 – Joe Corbett, American baseball player and coach (d. 1945)* 1875 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian-Swiss poet and author (d. 1926)1881 – Erwin von Witzleben, Polish-German field marshal (d. 1944)1882 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (d. 1963)1883 – Katharine Susannah Prichard, Australian author and playwright (d. 1969)1884 – R. C. Majumdar, Indian historian (d. 1980)1887 – Winifred Carney, Irish suffragist, trade unionist, and Irish republican (d. 1943)1892 – Francisco Franco, Spanish general and dictator, Prime Minister of Spain (d. 1975)* 1892 – Liu Bocheng, Chinese commander and politician (d. 1986)1893 – Herbert Read, English poet and critic (d. 1968)1895 – Feng Youlan, Chinese philosopher and academic (d. 1990)1897 – Robert Redfield, American anthropologist of Mexico (d. 1958)1899 – Karl-Günther Heimsoth, German physician and politician (d. 1934)* 1899 – Charlie Spencer, English footballer and manager (d. 1953)===1901–present===1903 – Cornell Woolrich, American author (d. 1968)1904 – Albert Norden, German journalist and politician (d. 1982)1908 – Alfred Hershey, American bacteriologist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)1910 – Alex North, American composer and conductor (d. 1991)* 1910 – R. Venkataraman, Indian lawyer and politician, 6th President of India (d. 2009)1912 – Pappy Boyington, American colonel and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1988)1913 – Mark Robson, Canadian-American director and producer (d. 1978)1914 – Rudolf Hausner, Austrian painter and sculptor (d. 1995) 1914 – Claude Renoir, French cinematographer (d. 1993)1915 – Eddie Heywood, American pianist and composer (d. 1989)1916 – Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr., American journalist and author (d. 1994)1919 – I. K. Gujral, Indian poet and politician, 12th Prime Minister of India (d. 2012)1920 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (d. 2013)* 1920 – Michael Bates, English actor (d. 1978)* 1920 – Jeanne Manford, American educator and activist, co-founded PFLAG (d. 2013)1921 – Deanna Durbin, Canadian actress and singer (d. 2013)1923 – Charles Keating, American lawyer and financier (d. 2014)* 1923 – Eagle Keys, American-Canadian football player and coach (d. 2012)* 1923 – John Krish, English director and screenwriter (d. 2016)1924 – John C. Portman, Jr., American architect, designed the Renaissance Center and Tomorrow Square (d. 2017)1925 – Albert Bandura, Canadian-American psychologist and academic (d. 2021)1926 – Ned Romero, American actor and opera singer (d. 2017)1929 – Şakir Eczacıbaşı, Turkish pharmacist, photographer, and businessman (d. 2010)1930 – Ronnie Corbett, Scottish actor and screenwriter (d. 2016) 1930 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (d. 2013)1931 – Alex Delvecchio, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager 1931 – Wally George, American radio and television host (d. 2003)1932 – Roh Tae-woo, South Korean general and politician, 6th President of South Korea (d. 2021)1933 – Horst Buchholz, German actor (d. 2003)* 1933 – Wink Martindale, American game show host and producer* 1933 – Dick Ricketts, American baseball and basketball player (d. 1988)1934 – Bill Collins, Australian film critic and author (d. 2019) 1934 – Victor French, American actor and director (d. 1989)1935 – Paul O'Neill, American businessman and politician, 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury (d. 2020)1936 – Freddy Cannon, American singer and guitarist* 1936 – John Giorno, American poet and performance artist (d. 2019)1937 – Max Baer, Jr., American actor, director, and producer1938 – Andre Marrou, American lawyer and politician* 1938 – Yvonne Minton, Australian-English soprano and actress1939 – Stephen W. Bosworth, American academic and diplomat, United States Ambassador to South Korea (d. 2016) 1939 – Joan Brady, American-British author1940 – Gerd Achterberg, German footballer and manager 1940 – Gary Gilmore, American murderer (d. 1977)1941 – Marty Riessen, American tennis player and coach1942 – Bob Mosley, American singer-songwriter and bass player1944 – Chris Hillman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Anna McGarrigle, Canadian musician and singer-songwriter * 1944 – François Migault, French race car driver (d. 2012)* 1944 – Dennis Wilson, American singer-songwriter, producer, and drummer (d. 1983)1945 – Roberta Bondar, Canadian neurologist, academic, and astronaut1946 – Karina, Spanish singer/actress1947 – Jane Lubchenco, American ecologist, academic, and diplomat1948 – Southside Johnny, American singer-songwriter 1949 – Jeff Bridges, American actor 1949 – Jock Stirrup, Baron Stirrup, English air marshal and politician1950 – Bjørn Kjellemyr, Norwegian bassist and composer1951 – Gary Rossington, American guitarist (d. 2023) * 1951 – Patricia Wettig, American actress and playwright1953 – Rick Middleton, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1953 – Jean-Marie Pfaff, Belgian footballer and manager 1954 – Tony Todd, American actor1955 – Philip Hammond, English businessman and politician, former Chancellor of the Exchequer* 1955 – Dave Taylor, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager* 1955 – Cassandra Wilson, American singer-songwriter and producer 1956 – Nia Griffith, Welsh educator and politician, former Shadow Secretary of State for Wales 1956 – Bernard King, American basketball player and sportscaster1957 – Raul Boesel, Brazilian race car driver and radio host 1957 – Eric S. Raymond, American computer programmer and author* 1957 – Lee Smith, American baseball player1958 – Sergei Starikov, Russian ice hockey player and coach1960 – David Green, Nicaraguan-American baseball player* 1960 – Glynis Nunn, Australian heptathlete and hurler1961 – Frank Reich, American football player and coach 1961 – Naomi Robson, American-Australian television host1962 – Vinnie Dombroski, American singer-songwriter and musician 1962 – Gary Freeman, New Zealand rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster* 1962 – Nixon Kiprotich, Kenyan runner* 1962 – Kevin Richardson, English footballer and manager1963 – Sergey Bubka, Ukrainian pole vaulter 1963 – Nigel Heslop, English rugby player1964 – Scott Hastings, Scottish rugby player and sportscaster 1964 – Chelsea Noble, American actress* 1964 – Marisa Tomei, American actress1965 – Álex de la Iglesia, Spanish director, producer, and screenwriter 1965 – Shaun Hollamby, English race car driver and businessman* 1965 – Ulf Kirsten, German footballer and manager1966 – Fred Armisen, American actor and musician 1966 – Andy Hess, American bass player * 1966 – Suzanne Malveaux, American journalist* 1966 – Suzette M. Malveaux, American lawyer and academic1967 – Guillermo Amor, Spanish footballer and manager1968 – Tahir Dawar, Pakistani police officer and Pashto poet (d. 2018)1969 – Dionne Farris, American singer-songwriter, producer and actress 1969 – Jay-Z, American rapper, producer, and actor, co-founded Roc-A-Fella Records* 1969 – Plum Sykes, English journalist and author1970 – Kevin Sussman, American actor and comedian1971 – Shannon Briggs, American boxer and actor1972 – Jassen Cullimore, Canadian ice hockey player 1972 – Yūko Miyamura, Japanese voice actress and singer1973 – Tyra Banks, American model, actress, and producer 1973 – Frank Boeijen, Dutch keyboard player \t* 1973 – Mina Caputo, American singer-songwriter and keyboard player * 1973 – Michael Jackson, English footballer and manager\t* 1973 – Steven Menzies, Australian rugby league player* 1973 – Kate Rusby, English singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1973 – Corliss Williamson, American basketball player and coach1974 – Tadahito Iguchi, Japanese baseball player1976 – Kristina Groves, Canadian speed skater* 1976 – Betty Lennox, American basketball player1977 – Ajit Agarkar, Indian cricketer 1977 – Darvis Patton, American sprinter* 1977 – Morten Veland, Norwegian guitarist and songwriter1978 – Jaclyn Victor, Malaysian singer and actress1979 – Ysabella Brave, American singer-songwriter* 1979 – Jay DeMerit, American soccer player1980 – Brian Cook, American basketball player 1980 – Viktor, Canadian wrestler and manager1981 – Brian Vandborg, Danish cyclist1982 – Nathan Douglas, English triple jumper* 1982 – Waldo Ponce, Chilean footballer* 1982 – Ho-Pin Tung, Dutch-Chinese race car driver* 1982 – Nick Vujicic, Australian evangelist1983 – Jimmy Bartel, Australian footballer 1983 – Chinx, American rapper (d. 2015)1984 – Lindsay Felton, American actress 1984 – Marco Giambruno, Italian footballer* 1984 – Anna Petrakova, Russian basketball player* 1984 – Joe Thomas, American football player1985 – Andrew Brackman, American baseball player 1985 – Stephen Dawson, Irish footballer * 1985 – Carlos Gómez, Dominican baseball player1986 – Kaija Udras, Estonian skier 1986 – Martell Webster, American basketball player1987 – Orlando Brown, American actor and rapper1988 – Yeng Constantino, Filipina singer and songwriter* 1988 – Andriy Pylyavskyi, Ukrainian footballer1990 – Lukman Haruna, Nigerian footballer 1990 – Blake Leary, Australian rugby league player* 1990 – Igor Sjunin, Estonian triple jumper1991 – Duje Dukan, Croatian basketball player 1991 – André Roberson, American basketball player* 1991 – Reality Winner, American intelligence specialist convicted of espionage1992 – Peta Hiku, New Zealand rugby league player 1992 – Jean-Claude Iranzi, Rwandan footballer* 1992 – Jin, South Korean singer, songwriter and actor* 1992 – Joe Musgrove, American baseball player* 1992 – Blake Snell, American baseball player1994 – Gabriel Lundberg, Danish basketball player1996 – Ivan Belikov, Russian footballer* 1996 – Diogo Jota, Portuguese footballer* 1996 – Sebastián Vegas, Chilean footballer1999 – Kim Do-yeon, South Korean singer and actress" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===530 BC – Cyrus the Great, king of Persia (b.", "600 BC)* 749 – John of Damascus, Syrian priest and saint (b.", "676)* 771 – Carloman I, Frankish king (b.", "751)* 870 – Suairlech ind Eidnén mac Ciaráin, Irish bishop1075 – Anno II, German archbishop and saint (b.", "1010)1131 – Omar Khayyám, Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b.", "1048)1214 – William the Lion, Scottish king (b.", "1143)1260 – Aymer de Valence, Bishop of Winchester (b.", "1222)1270 – Theobald II of Navarre (b.", "1238)1334 – Pope John XXII (b.", "1249)1340 – Henry Burghersh, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of England (b.", "1292)1341 – Janisław I, Archbishop of Gniezno1408 – Valentina Visconti, wife of Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans1456 – Charles I, Duke of Bourbon (b.", "1401)1459 – Adolphus VIII, Count of Holstein (b.", "1401)1576 – Georg Joachim Rheticus, Austrian-Slovak mathematician and cartographer (b.", "1514)1585 – John Willock, Scottish minister and reformer (b.", "1515)===1601–1900===1603 – Maerten de Vos, Flemish painter and draughtsman (b.", "1532)1609 – Alexander Hume, Scottish poet (b.", "1560)1637 – Nicholas Ferrar, English trader (b.", "1592)1642 – Cardinal Richelieu, French cardinal and politician, Chief Minister to the French Monarch (b.", "1585)1649 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (b.", "1585)1679 – Thomas Hobbes, English philosopher and theorist (b.", "1588)1680 – Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b.", "1616)1696 – Empress Meishō of Japan (b.", "1624)1732 – John Gay, English poet and playwright (b.", "1685)1798 – Luigi Galvani, Italian physician, physicist, and philosopher (b.", "1737)1828 – Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1770)1839 – John Leamy, Irish–American merchant (b.", "1757)1841 – David Daniel Davis, Welsh-English physician and academic (b.", "1777)1845 – Gregor MacGregor, Scottish soldier and explorer (b.", "1786)1850 – William Sturgeon, English physicist, invented the electric motor (b.", "1783)1893 – John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and chemist (b.", "1820)1897 – Griffith Rhys Jones, Welsh conductor (b.", "1834)===1901–present===1902 – Charles Dow, American journalist and publisher, co-founded the Dow Jones & Company (b.", "1851)1926 – Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painter (b.", "1861)1933 – Stefan George, German-Swiss poet and translator (b.", "1868)1935 – Johan Halvorsen, Norwegian violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1864)* 1935 – Charles Richet, French physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1850)1938 – Tamanishiki San'emon, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 32nd Yokozuna (b.", "1903)1942 – Juhan Kukk, Estonian politician, 3rd Head of State of Estonia (b.", "1885)* 1942 – Fritz Löhner-Beda, Jewish Austrian librettist, lyricist and writer (b.", "1883)1944 – Roger Bresnahan, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1879)1945 – Thomas Hunt Morgan, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1866)* 1945 – Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (b.", "1879) 1948 – Frank Benford, American physicist and engineer (b.", "1883)1950 – Jesse L. Brown, 1st African-American Naval aviator (b.", "1926)1954 – George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (b.", "1881)1955 – József Galamb, Hungarian-American engineer (b.", "1881)1963 – Constance Davey, Australian psychologist (b.", "1882)1967 – Bert Lahr, American actor (b.", "1895)1969 – Fred Hampton, American Black Panthers activist (b.", "1948)1971 – Shunryū Suzuki, Japanese-American monk and educator, founded the San Francisco Zen Center (b.", "1904)1975 – Hannah Arendt, German-American historian, theorist, and academic (b.", "1906)1976 – Tommy Bolin, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1951)* 1976 – Benjamin Britten, English pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1913)* 1976 – W. F. McCoy, Irish soldier, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1886)1980 – Francisco de Sá Carneiro, Portuguese lawyer and politician, 111th Prime Minister of Portugal (b.", "1934) 1980 – Stanisława Walasiewicz, Polish-American runner (b.", "1911)* 1980 – Don Warrington, Canadian football player (b.", "1948)1981 – Jeanne Block, American psychologist (b.", "1923)1984 – Jack Mercer, American animator, screenwriter, voice actor, and singer (b.", "1910)1987 – Arnold Lobel, American author and illustrator (b.", "1933) 1987 – Rouben Mamoulian, Georgian-American director and screenwriter (b.", "1897)1988 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist and academic (b.", "1899)1992 – Henry Clausen, American lawyer and author (b.", "1905)1993 – Margaret Landon, American missionary and author (b.", "1903) 1993 – Frank Zappa, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1940)1999 – Rose Bird, American academic and judge, 25th Chief Justice of California (b.", "1936)2000 – Henck Arron, Surinamese banker and politician, 1st Prime Minister of the Republic of Suriname (b.", "1936)2003 – Iggy Katona, American race car driver (b.", "1916)2004 – Elena Souliotis, Greek soprano and actress (b.", "1943)2005 – Errol Brathwaite, New Zealand soldier and author (b.", "1924) 2005 – Gregg Hoffman, American film producer (b.", "1963)2006 – K. Ganeshalingam, Sri Lankan accountant and politician, Mayor of Colombo (b.", "1938) 2006 – Ross A. McGinnis, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1987)2007 – Pimp C, American rapper (b.", "1973)2009 – Liam Clancy, Irish singer, actor, and guitarist (b.", "1935)2010 – King Curtis Iaukea, American wrestler (b.", "1937)2011 – Sonia Pierre, Haitian-Dominican activist (b.", "1965) * 2011 – Sócrates, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1954) * 2011 – Hubert Sumlin, American singer and guitarist (b.", "1931)2012 – Vasily Belov, Russian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1932) 2012 – Jack Brooks, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Miguel Calero, Colombian footballer and manager (b.", "1971)* 2012 – Anthony Deane-Drummond, English general (b.", "1917)2013 – Joana Raspall i Juanola, Spanish author and poet (b.", "1913)2014 – Claudia Emerson, American poet and academic (b.", "1957)* 2014 – V. R. Krishna Iyer, Indian lawyer and judge (b.", "1914)* 2014 – Vincent L. McKusick, American lawyer and judge (b.", "1921)* 2014 – Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1929)2015 – Bill Bennett, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of British Columbia (b.", "1932) 2015 – Robert Loggia, American actor and director (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Yossi Sarid, Israeli journalist and politician, 15th Israeli Minister of Education (b.", "1940)2016 – Patricia Robins, British writer and WAAF officer (b.", "1921)2017 – Shashi Kapoor, Indian actor (b.", "1938)2022 – Bob McGrath, American singer and actor (b.", "1932) 2022 – Patrick Tambay, French race car driver (b.", "1949)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:AdaAnno IIBarbara, and its related observances:Barbórka, Miners' Day in PolandEid il-Burbara, a holiday similar to Halloween in honor of Saint Barbara.", "(Russia, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Turkey)Bernardo degli UbertiClement of Alexandria (Anglicanism, Eastern Catholicism)Giovanni CalabriaJohn of DamascusMaruthasNicholas Ferrar (Anglicanism)OsmundSigiramnusDecember 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Navy Day (India)Thai Environment Day (Thailand)Tupou I Day (Tonga)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 4" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 3" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 915 – Pope John X crowns Berengar I of Italy as Holy Roman Emperor (probable date).===1601–1900===1775 – American Revolutionary War: becomes the first vessel to fly the Grand Union Flag (the precursor to the Stars and Stripes); the flag is hoisted by John Paul Jones.", "1799 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Wiesloch: Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Sztáray defeats the French at Wiesloch.", "1800 – War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden: French General Jean Victor Marie Moreau decisively defeats the Archduke John of Austria near Munich.", "Coupled with First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte's earlier victory at Marengo, this will force the Austrians to sign an armistice and end the war.", " 1800 – United States presidential election: The Electoral College casts votes for president and vice president that result in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr.", "1818 – Illinois becomes the 21st U.S.", "state.", "1834 – The Zollverein (German Customs Union) begins the first regular census in Germany.", "1854 – Battle of the Eureka Stockade: More than 20 gold miners at Ballarat, Victoria, are killed by state troopers in an uprising over mining licences.", "1859 – Nigeria's first newspaper, missionary Henry Townsend's ''Iwe Irohin'', was published.", "1881 – The first issue of Tamperean daily newspaper ''Aamulehti'' (\"Morning Paper\") is published.", "1898 – The Duquesne Country and Athletic Club defeats an all-star collection of early football players 16–0, in what is considered to be the very first all-star game for professional American football.===1901–present===1901 – In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt delivers a 20,000-word report to the House of Representatives asking Congress to curb the power of trusts \"within reasonable limits\".", "The speech was not delivered in person.", "1904 – The Jovian moon Himalia is discovered by Charles Dillon Perrine at California's Lick Observatory.", "1910 – Modern neon lighting is first demonstrated by Georges Claude at the Paris Motor Show.", "1912 – Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia (the Balkan League) sign an armistice with the Ottoman Empire, temporarily halting the First Balkan War.", "(The armistice will expire on February 3, 1913, and hostilities will resume.", ")1919 – After nearly 20 years of planning and construction, including two collapses causing 89 deaths, the Quebec Bridge opens to traffic.", "1920 – Following more than a month of Turkish–Armenian War, the Turkish-dictated Treaty of Alexandropol is concluded.", "1925 – Final agreement is signed between the Irish Free State, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom formalizing the Partition of Ireland.", "1929 – President Herbert Hoover delivers his first State of the Union message to Congress.", "It is presented in the form of a written message rather than a speech.", "1938 – Nazi Germany issues the Decree on the Utilization of Jewish Property forcing Jews to sell real property, businesses, and stocks at below market value as part of Aryanization.", "1944 – Greek Civil War: Fighting breaks out in Athens between the ELAS and government forces supported by the British Army.", "1959 – The current flag of Singapore is adopted, six months after Singapore became self-governing within the British Empire.", "1960 – The musical ''Camelot'' debuts at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway.", "It will become associated with the Kennedy administration.", "1965 – Soviet Union, Space probe of the Luna program, called Luna 8, is launched, but crashes on the Moon.", "1967 – At Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, a transplant team headed by Christiaan Barnard carries out the first heart transplant on a human (53-year-old Louis Washkansky).", "1971 – Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: Pakistan launches a pre-emptive strike against India and a full-scale war begins.", "1972 – Spantax Flight 275 crashes during takeoff from Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport, killing all 155 people on board.", "1973 – Pioneer program: Pioneer 10 sends back the first close-up images of Jupiter.", "1979 – In Cincinnati, 11 fans are suffocated in a crush for seats on the concourse outside Riverfront Coliseum before a Who concert.", "* 1979 – Iranian Revolution: Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini becomes the first Supreme Leader of Iran.", "1982 – A soil sample is taken from Times Beach, Missouri, that will be found to contain 300 times the safe level of dioxin.", "1984 – Bhopal disaster: A methyl isocyanate leak from a Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, India, kills more than 3,800 people outright and injures 150,000–600,000 others (some 6,000 of whom later died from their injuries) in one of the worst industrial disasters in history.", "1989 – In a meeting off the coast of Malta, U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev release statements indicating that the Cold War between NATO and the Warsaw Pact may be coming to an end.", "1992 – The Greek oil tanker ''Aegean Sea'', carrying 80,000 tonnes of crude oil, runs aground in a storm while approaching A Coruña, Spain, and spills much of its cargo.", "* 1992 – A test engineer for Sema Group uses a personal computer to send the world's first text message via the Vodafone network to the phone of a colleague.", "1994 – Taiwan holds its first full local elections; James Soong elected as the first and only directly elected Governor of Taiwan, Chen Shui-bian became the first directly elected Mayor of Taipei, Wu Den-yih became the first directly elected Mayor of Kaohsiung.", "1995 – Cameroon Airlines Flight 3701 crashes on approach to Douala International Airport in Douala, Cameroon, killing 71 of the 76 people on board.", "1997 – In Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, representatives from 121 countries sign the Ottawa Treaty prohibiting manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel landmines.", "The United States, People's Republic of China, and Russia do not sign the treaty, however.", "1999 – NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere.", "2005 – XCOR Aerospace makes the first crewed rocket aircraft delivery of U.S. Mail in Kern County, California.", "2007 – Winter storms cause the Chehalis River to flood many cities in Lewis County, Washington, and close a portion of Interstate 5 for several days.", "At least eight deaths and billions of dollars in damages are blamed on the floods.", "2009 – A suicide bombing at a hotel in Mogadishu, Somalia, kills 25 people, including three ministers of the Transitional Federal Government.", "2012 – At least 475 people are killed after Typhoon Bopha makes landfall in the Philippines.", "2014 – The Japanese space agency, JAXA, launches the space explorer Hayabusa2 from the Tanegashima Space Center on a six-year round trip mission to an asteroid to collect rock samples.", "2021 – COVID-19 pandemic: New Zealand moves into COVID-19 Protection Framework (Traffic Light System), moving Auckland out of lockdown for fully vaccinated people.", "2022 – Massive power outage after Moore County substation attack, that leaves 45,000 people, without power, for five days, leading to a FBI probe.", "2023 – Mount Marapi located in West Sumatra, Indonesia begins a sporadic series of eruptions.", "23 people were killed, and 12 were injured." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1368 – Charles VI of France (d. 1422)1447 – Bayezid II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1512)1483 – Nicolaus von Amsdorf, German theologian and Protestant reformer (d. 1565)1560 – Jan Gruter, Dutch scholar and critic (d. 1627)1590 – Daniel Seghers, Flemish Jesuit brother and painter (d. 1661)===1601–1900===1616 – John Wallis, English mathematician and cryptographer (d. 1703)1684 – Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (d. 1754)1722 – Hryhorii Skovoroda, Ukrainian poet, composer, and philosopher (d. 1794)1729 – Antonio Soler, Spanish composer and theorist (d. 1783)1730 – Mahadaji Shinde, Maratha ruler of Gwalior (d. 1794)1755 – Gilbert Stuart, American painter (d. 1828)1793 – Clarkson Frederick Stanfield, English painter and academic (d. 1867)1800 – France Prešeren, Slovenian poet and lawyer (d. 1849)1810 – Louisa Susannah Cheves McCord, American author and political essayist (d. 1879)1826 – George B. McClellan, American general and politician, 24th Governor of New Jersey (d. 1885)1827 – Lombe Atthill, Northern Irish obstetrician and gynaecologist (d. 1910)1833 – Carlos Finlay, Cuban epidemiologist and physician (d. 1915)1838 – Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist and academic (d. 1916)* 1838 – Octavia Hill, English activist and author (d. 1912)* 1838 – Princess Louise of Prussia (d. 1923)1842 – Phoebe Hearst, American philanthropist and activist (d. 1919) 1842 – Charles Alfred Pillsbury, American businessman, founded the Pillsbury Company (d. 1899)* 1842 – Ellen Swallow Richards, American chemist, ecologist, and educator (d. 1911)1848 – William Shiels, Irish-Australian politician, 16th Premier of Victoria (d. 1904)1850 – Richard Butler, English-Australian politician, 23rd Premier of South Australia (d. 1925)1856 – George Leake, Australian politician, 3rd Premier of Western Australia (d. 1902)1857 – Joseph Conrad, Polish-born British novelist (d. 1924)* 1857 – Mathilde Kralik, Austrian pianist and composer (d. 1944)1863 – Gussie Davis, African-American songwriter (d. 1899)1864 – Herman Heijermans, Dutch author and playwright (d. 1924)1867 – William John Bowser, Canadian lawyer and politician, 17th Premier of British Columbia (d. 1933)1872 – Arthur Charles Hardy, Canadian lawyer and politician, Canadian Speaker of the Senate (d. 1962)* 1872 – William Haselden, English cartoonist (d. 1953)1875 – Max Meldrum, Scottish-Australian painter and educator (d. 1955)1878 – Francis A. Nixon, American businessman (d. 1956)1879 – Albert Asher, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1965) 1879 – Charles Hutchison, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1949)* 1879 – Kafū Nagai, Japanese author and playwright (d. 1959)* 1879 – Donald Matheson Sutherland, Canadian physician and politician, 5th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 1970)1880 – Fedor von Bock, German field marshal (d. 1945)1883 – Anton Webern, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1945)1884 – Rajendra Prasad, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st President of India (d. 1963) 1884 – Walther Stampfli, Swiss lawyer and politician, 50th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1965)1886 – Manne Siegbahn, Swedish physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)1887 – Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, Japanese general and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1990)1891 – Thomas Farrell, American general (d. 1967)1894 – Deiva Zivarattinam, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1975)1895 – Anna Freud, Austrian-English psychologist and psychoanalyst (d. 1982) 1895 – Sheng Shicai, Chinese warlord (d. 1970)1897 – William Gropper, American cartoonist and painter (d. 1977)1899 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1965)* 1899 – Howard Kinsey, American tennis player (d. 1966)1900 – Albert Hawke, Australian politician, 18th Premier of Western Australia (d. 1986) 1900 – Ulrich Inderbinen, Swiss mountaineer (d. 2004)* 1900 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)===1901–present===1901 – Glenn Hartranft, American shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1970) 1901 – Mildred Wiley, American high jumper (d. 2000)1902 – Mitsuo Fuchida, Japanese captain and pilot (d. 1976) 1902 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (d. 1993)1904 – Edgar Moon, Australian tennis player (d. 1976)1905 – Les Ames, English cricketer (d. 1990)1907 – Connee Boswell, American jazz singer (d. 1976)1911 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, conductor, and academic (d. 1979)1914 – Irving Fine, American composer and academic (d. 1962)1918 – Abdul Haris Nasution, Indonesian general and politician, 12th Indonesian Minister of Defence (d. 2000)1919 – Charles Lynch, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1994)1921 – Phyllis Curtin, American soprano and academic (d. 2016)* 1921 – John Doar, American lawyer and activist (d. 2014)1922 – Len Lesser, American actor (d. 2011) 1922 – Eli Mandel, Canadian poet, critic, and academic (d. 1992)* 1922 – Sven Nykvist, Swedish director and cinematographer (d. 2006)1923 – Trevor Bailey, English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2011) 1923 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian-Serbian footballer and manager (d. 2010)* 1923 – Moyra Fraser, Australian-English actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2009)1924 – Wiel Coerver, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2011) 1924 – F. Sionil José, Filipino journalist, writer and author (d. 2022)* 1924 – Roberto Mieres, Argentinian race car driver and sailor (d. 2012)1925 – Ferlin Husky, American country music singer (d. 2011)1927 – Andy Williams, American singer (d. 2012)1928 – Thomas M. Foglietta, American politician and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Italy (d. 2004) 1928 – Muhammad Habibur Rahman, Indian-Bangladeshi jurist and politician, Prime Minister of Bangladesh (d. 2014)1929 – John S. Dunne, American priest and theologian (d. 2013)1930 – Jean-Luc Godard, French-Swiss director and screenwriter (d. 2022)* 1930 – Raul M. Gonzalez, Filipino lawyer and politician, 42nd Filipino Secretary of Justice (d. 2014)* 1930 – Yves Trudeau, Canadian sculptor (d. 2017)1931 – Franz Josef Degenhardt, German author and poet (d. 2011) 1931 – Jaye P. Morgan, American singer and actress1932 – Takao Fujinami, Japanese lawyer and politician (d. 2007)1933 – Nicolas Coster, British-American actor (d. 2023)* 1933 – Paul J. Crutzen, Dutch chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)1934 – Viktor Gorbatko, Russian general, pilot and cosmonaut (d. 2017) 1934 – Abimael Guzmán, Peruvian philosopher and academic (d. 2021)1935 – Eddie Bernice Johnson, American nurse and politician (d. 2023)1937 – Bobby Allison, American race car driver and businessman* 1937 – Morgan Llywelyn, American-Irish model and author1938 – Jean-Claude Malépart, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 1989) 1938 – Sally Shlaer, American mathematician and engineer (d. 1998)1939 – John Paul Sr., Dutch-American race car driver 1939 – David Phillips, English chemist and academic1940 – Jeffrey R. Holland, American academic and religious leader1942 – Mike Gibson, Northern Irish-Irish rugby player* 1942 – Pedro Rocha, Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2013)* 1942 – Alice Schwarzer, German journalist and publisher, founded ''EMMA Magazine''* 1942 – David K. Shipler, American journalist and author1943 – Joseph Franklin Ada, American lawyer and politician, 5th Governor of Guam 1943 – J. Philippe Rushton, English-Canadian psychologist and academic (d. 2012)1944 – Ralph McTell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1944 – Craig Raine, English poet, author, and playwright* 1944 – António Variações, Portuguese musician (d. 1984)1948 – Jan Hrubý, Czech violinist and songwriter 1948 – Maxwell Hutchinson, English architect and television host* 1948 – Ozzy Osbourne, English singer-songwriter1949 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American actress (d. 2017) 1949 – Mickey Thomas, American singer-songwriter1950 – Alberto Juantorena, Cuban runner1951 – Mike Bantom, American basketball player and coach* 1951 – Jim Brewer, American basketball player* 1951 – Ray Candy, American wrestler and trainer (d. 1994)* 1951 – Rick Mears, American race car driver* 1951 – Mike Stock, English songwriter, record producer, and musician1952 – Don Barnes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1952 – Benny Hinn, Israeli-American evangelist and author* 1952 – Duane Roland, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2006)* 1952 – Mel Smith, English comedian, actor, director, and producer (d. 2013)1953 – Franz Klammer, Austrian skier and race car driver 1953 – Rob Waring, American-Norwegian vibraphonist and contemporary composer1954 – Grace Andreacchi, American-English author, poet, and playwright1955 – Steven Culp, Americana actor1956 – Émile Gros Raymond Nakombo, Central African politician, Mayor of Bangui1956 – Ewa Kopacz, Polish physician and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Poland1957 – Maxim Korobov, Russian businessman and politician1959 – Eamonn Holmes, Irish journalist and game show host1960 – Daryl Hannah, American actress and producer 1960 – Igor Larionov, Russian ice hockey player* 1960 – Julianne Moore, American actress and author* 1960 – Mike Ramsey, American ice hockey player and coach1962 – Richard Bacon, English banker, journalist, and politician 1962 – Nataliya Grygoryeva, Ukrainian hurdler* 1962 – Tammy Jackson, American basketball player1963 – Joe Lally, American singer-songwriter and bass player 1963 – Terri Schiavo, American medical patient (d. 2005)1964 – Darryl Hamilton, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)1965 – Andrew Stanton, American voice actor, director, producer, screenwriter* 1965 – Katarina Witt, German figure skater and actress1966 – Flemming Povlsen, Danish footballer and manager 1966 – Irina Zhuk, Russian figure skater and coach1967 – Marie Françoise Ouedraogo, Burkinabé mathematician1968 – Brendan Fraser, American actor and producer* 1968 – Montell Jordan, American singer-songwriter and producer1969 – Bill Steer, English guitarist and songwriter 1969 – Hal Steinbrenner, American businessman1970 – Paul Byrd, American baseball player 1970 – Lindsey Hunter, American basketball player and coach* 1970 – Christian Karembeu, French footballer* 1970 – Laura Schuler, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1971 – Heiko Herrlich, German footballer and manager 1971 – Frank Sinclair, English-Jamaican footballer and manager* 1971 – Henk Timmer, Dutch footballer and manager* 1971 – Vernon White, American mixed martial artist and wrestler1972 – Danilo Goffi, Italian runner1973 – Bruno Campos, Brazilian-American actor and lawyer* 1973 – Holly Marie Combs, American actress and producer* 1973 – MC Frontalot, American rapper* 1973 – Charl Willoughby, South African cricketer1974 – Lucette Rådström, Swedish journalist1976 – Mark Boucher, South African cricketer* 1976 – Gary Glover, American baseball player* 1976 – Cornelius Griffin, American football player* 1976 – Byron Kelleher, New Zealand rugby player* 1976 – Tomotaka Okamoto, Japanese soprano1977 – Chad Durbin, American baseball player 1977 – Troy Evans, American football player* 1977 – Adam Małysz, Polish ski jumper and race car driver* 1977 – Yelena Zadorozhnaya, Russian runner1978 – Daniel Alexandersson, Swedish footballer 1978 – Jiří Bicek, Slovak ice hockey player* 1978 – Bram Tankink, Dutch cyclist* 1978 – Trina, American rapper and producer1979 – Daniel Bedingfield, New Zealand-English singer-songwriter 1979 – Rock Cartwright, American football player* 1979 – Tiffany Haddish, American comedian and actress* 1979 – Sean Parker, American entrepreneur and philanthropist1980 – Anna Chlumsky, American actress 1980 – Jenna Dewan, American actress and dancer* 1980 – Zlata Filipović, Bosnian-Irish diarist 1981 – Ioannis Amanatidis, Greek footballer 1981 – Brian Bonsall, American actor and musician* 1981 – Tyjuan Hagler, American football player* 1981 – Edwin Valero, Venezuelan boxer (d. 2010)* 1981 – David Villa, Spanish footballer1982 – Manny Corpas, Panamanian baseball player 1982 – Michael Essien, Ghanaian footballer* 1982 – Dascha Polanco, Dominican-American actress* 1982 – Franco Sbaraglini, Argentinian-Italian rugby player1983 – Stephen Donald, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Aleksey Drozdov, Russian decathlete* 1983 – Sherri DuPree, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1983 – Andy Grammer, American singer, songwriter, and record producer* 1983 – James Ihedigbo, American football player1984 – Manuel Arana, Spanish footballer 1984 – Avraam Papadopoulos, Greek footballer1985 – Nina Ansaroff, American martial artist 1985 – László Cseh, Hungarian swimmer* 1985 – Mike Randolph, American soccer player* 1985 – Brian Roberts, American basketball player* 1985 – Amanda Seyfried, American actress* 1985 – Robert Swift, American basketball player* 1985 – Marcus Williams, American basketball player1986 – James Laurinaitis, American football player1987 – Michael Angarano, American actor, director, and screenwriter* 1987 – Erik Grönwall, Swedish singer-songwriter* 1987 – Brian Robiskie, American football player* 1987 – Alicia Sacramone, American gymnast1988 – Melissa Aldana, Chilean saxophonist1989 – Selçuk Alibaz, Turkish footballer* 1989 – Alex McCarthy, English footballer* 1989 – Tomasz Narkun, Polish mixed martial artist1990 – Christian Benteke, Belgian footballer 1990 – Sharon Fichman, Canadian-Israeli tennis player* 1990 – Matt Reynolds, American baseball player1991 – Ekaterine Gorgodze, Georgian tennis player1992 – Cristian Ceballos, Spanish footballer* 1992 – Joseph McManners, English singer-songwriter, musician and actor1994 – Jake T. Austin, American actor 1994 – Lil Baby, American rapper* 1994 – Solomone Kata, New Zealand rugby league player* 1994 – Bernarda Pera, American tennis player1995 – Julius Honka, Finnish ice hockey player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===311 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (b.", "244)* 649 – Birinus, French-English bishop and saint (b.", "600)* 860 – Abbo, bishop of Auxerre* 937 – Siegfried, Frankish nobleman* 978 – Abraham, Coptic pope of Alexandria1038 – Emma of Lesum, Saxon countess and Saint1099 – Saint Osmund (b.", "1065)1154 – Pope Anastasius IV (b.", "1073)1265 – Odofredus, Italian lawyer and jurist1266 – Henry III the White, Duke of Wroclaw1309 – Henry III, Duke of Głogów (b.", "1251/60)1322 – Maud Chaworth, Countess of Leicester (b.", "1282)1532 – Louis II, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken (b.", "1502)1533 – Vasili III of Russia (b.", "1479)1542 – Jean Tixier de Ravisi, French scholar and academic (b.", "1470)1552 – Francis Xavier, Spanish missionary and saint (b.", "1506)1592 – Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (b.", "1545)===1601–1900===1610 – Honda Tadakatsu, Japanese general and daimyō (b.", "1548)1668 – William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Salisbury (b.", "1591)1691 – Katherine Jones, Viscountess Ranelagh, British scientist (b.", "1615)1706 – Countess Emilie Juliane of Barby-Mühlingen (b.", "1637)1752 – Henri-Guillaume Hamal, Walloon musician and composer (b.", "1685)1765 – Lord John Sackville, English cricketer and politician (b.", "1713)1789 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (b.", "1714)1815 – John Carroll, American archbishop (b.", "1735)1876 – Samuel Cooper, American general (b.", "1798)1882 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (b.", "1811)1888 – Carl Zeiss, German physicist and lens maker, created the optical instrument (b.", "1816)1890 – Billy Midwinter, English-Australian cricketer (b.", "1851)1892 – Afanasy Fet, Russian author and poet (b.", "1820)1894 – Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet, and essayist (b.", "1850)===1901–present===1902 – Robert Lawson, New Zealand architect, designed the Otago Boys' High School and Knox Church (b.", "1833)1904 – David Bratton, American water polo player (b.", "1869)1910 – Mary Baker Eddy, American religious leader and author, founded Christian Science (b.", "1821)1912 – Prudente de Morais, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Brazil (b.", "1841)1917 – Harold Garnett, English-French cricketer (b.", "1879)1919 – Pierre-Auguste Renoir, French painter and sculptor (b.", "1841)1928 – Ezra Meeker, American farmer and politician (b.", "1830)1934 – Charles James O'Donnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b.", "1849)1935 – Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom (b.", "1868)1937 – William Propsting, Australian politician, 20th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1861)1941 – Pavel Filonov, Russian painter and poet (b.", "1883)1949 – Maria Ouspenskaya, Russian-American actress and educator (b.", "1876)1952 – Rudolf Margolius, Czech lawyer and politician (b.", "1913)1956 – Manik Bandopadhyay, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1908)* 1956 – Alexander Rodchenko, Russian sculptor, photographer, and graphic designer (b.", "1891)1967 – Harry Wismer, American football player and sportscaster (b.", "1913)1972 – William Manuel Johnson, American bassist (b.", "1872)1973 – Emile Christian, American trombonist, cornet player, and composer (b.", "1895) 1973 – Adolfo Ruiz Cortines, President of Mexico, 1952-1958 (b.", "1889)1979 – Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player and coach (b.", "1905)1980 – Oswald Mosley, English lieutenant, fascist, and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b.", "1896)1981 – Walter Knott, American farmer, founded Knott's Berry Farm (b.", "1889) 1981 – Joel Rinne, Finnish actor (b.", "1897)1984 – Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin, Azerbaijani-Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1919)1989 – Fernando Martín Espina, Spanish basketball player (b.", "1962)* 1989 – Connie B.", "Gay, American businessman, founded the Country Music Association (b.", "1914)1993 – Lewis Thomas, American physician, etymologist, and academic (b.", "1913)1996 – Georges Duby, French historian and author (b.", "1919)1998 – Pierre Hétu, Canadian pianist and conductor (b.", "1936)1999 – John Archer, American actor (b.", "1915)* 1999 – Scatman John, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1942)* 1999 – Madeline Kahn, American actress, comedian, and singer (b.", "1942)* 1999 – Horst Mahseli, Polish footballer (b.", "1934)* 1999 – Jarl Wahlström, Finnish 12th General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1918)2000 – Gwendolyn Brooks, American poet and educator (b.", "1917) 2000 – Hoyt Curtin, American composer and producer (b.", "1922)2002 – Adrienne Adams, American illustrator (b.", "1906) 2002 – Glenn Quinn, Irish-American actor (b.", "1970)2003 – David Hemmings, English actor (b.", "1941) 2003 – Sita Ram Goel, Indian historian, publisher and writer (b.", "1921)2004 – Shiing-Shen Chern, Chinese-American mathematician and academic (b.", "1911)2005 – Frederick Ashworth, American admiral (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (b.", "1928)* 2005 – Kikka Sirén, Finnish pop/schlager singer (b.", "1964)2007 – James Kemsley, Australian cartoonist and actor (b.", "1948)2008 – Robert Zajonc, Polish-American psychologist and author (b.", "1923)2009 – Leila Lopes, Brazilian actress and journalist (b.", "1959) 2009 – Richard Todd, Irish-born British soldier and actor (b.", "1919)2010 – Abdumalik Bahori, Azerbaijani poet and author (b.", "1927)2011 – Dev Anand, Indian actor, director, and producer (b.", "1923)2012 – Jules Mikhael Al-Jamil, Iraqi-Lebanese archbishop (b.", "1938) 2012 – Kuntal Chandra, Bangladeshi cricketer (b.", "1984)* 2012 – Fyodor Khitruk, Russian animator, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1917)* 2012 – Diego Mendieta, Paraguayan footballer (b.", "1980)* 2012 – Janet Shaw, Australian cyclist and author (b.", "1966)2013 – Paul Aussaresses, French general (b.", "1918) 2013 – Reda Mahmoud Hafez Mohamed, Egyptian air marshal (b.", "1952)* 2013 – Ahmed Fouad Negm, Egyptian poet and educator (b.", "1929)2014 – Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (b.", "1929) 2014 – Jacques Barrot, French politician, French European Commissioner (b.", "1937)* 2014 – Nathaniel Branden, Canadian–American psychotherapist and author (b.", "1930)* 2014 – Ian McLagan, English-American singer-songwriter and keyboard player (b.", "1945)* 2014 – James Stewart, Canadian mathematician and academic (b.", "1941)2015 – Gladstone Anderson, Jamaican singer and pianist (b.", "1934) 2015 – Eevi Huttunen, Finnish speed skater (b.", "1922)* 2015 – Scott Weiland, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1967)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Abbo of Auxerre Pope Abraham of Alexandria (Coptic, 6 Koiak)) Adrian (Ethernan) Birinus Cassian of Tangier Emma (of Lesum or of Bremen) Francis Xavier Blessed Johann Nepomuk von Tschiderer zu Gleifheim Zephaniah December 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Doctors' Day (Cuba)* International Day of Persons with Disabilities" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 3" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 2" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===1244 – Pope Innocent IV arrives at Lyon for the First Council of Lyon.", "1409 – The University of Leipzig opens.===1601–1900===1697 – St Paul's Cathedral, rebuilt to the design of Sir Christopher Wren following the Great Fire of London, is consecrated.", "1763 – Dedication of the Touro Synagogue, in Newport, Rhode Island, the first synagogue in what will become the United States.", "1766 – Swedish parliament approves the Swedish Freedom of the Press Act and implements it as a ground law, thus being first in the world with freedom of speech.", "1804 – At Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Napoleon Bonaparte crowns himself Emperor of the French.", "1805 – War of the Third Coalition: Battle of Austerlitz: French troops under Napoleon decisively defeat a joint Russo-Austrian force.", "1823 – Monroe Doctrine: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James Monroe proclaims American neutrality in future European conflicts, and warns European powers not to interfere in the Americas.", "1845 – Manifest Destiny: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President James K. Polk proposes that the United States should aggressively expand into the West.", "1848 – Franz Joseph I becomes Emperor of Austria.", "1851 – French President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte overthrows the Second Republic.", "1852 – Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte becomes Emperor of the French as Napoleon III.", "1859 – Militant abolitionist leader John Brown is hanged for his October 16 raid on Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.", "1865 – Alabama ratifies the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, followed by North Carolina, then Georgia; U.S. slaves were legally free within two weeks.", "1867 – At Tremont Temple in Boston, British author Charles Dickens gives his first public reading in the United States.", "1899 – Philippine–American War: The Battle of Tirad Pass, known as the \"Filipino Thermopylae\", is fought.===1901–present===1908 – Puyi becomes Emperor of China at the age of two.", "1917 – World War I: Russia and the Central Powers sign an armistice at Brest-Litovsk, and peace talks leading to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk begin.", "1927 – Following 19 years of Ford Model T production, the Ford Motor Company unveils the Ford Model A as its new automobile.", "1930 – Great Depression: In a State of the Union message, U.S. President Herbert Hoover proposes a $150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the economy.", "1939 – New York City's LaGuardia Airport opens.", "1942 – World War II: During the Manhattan Project, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiates the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.", "1943 – World War II: A Luftwaffe bombing raid on the harbour of Bari, Italy, sinks numerous cargo and transport ships, including the American , which is carrying a stockpile of mustard gas.", "1947 – Jerusalem Riots of 1947: Arabs riot in Jerusalem in response to the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.", "1949 – Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others is adopted.", "1950 – Korean War: The Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River ends with a decisive Chinese victory and UN forces are completely expelled from North Korea.", "1954 – Cold War: The United States Senate votes 65 to 22 to censure Joseph McCarthy for \"conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute\".", " 1954 – The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, between the United States and Taiwan, is signed in Washington, D.C.1956 – The ''Granma'' reaches the shores of Cuba's Oriente Province.", "Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and 80 other members of the 26th of July Movement disembark to initiate the Cuban Revolution.", "1957 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 126 relating to the Kashmir conflict is adopted.", "1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba will adopt Communism.", "1962 – Vietnam War: After a trip to Vietnam at the request of U.S. President John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield becomes the first American official to comment adversely on the war's progress.", "1968 – Wien Consolidated Airlines Flight 55 crashes into Pedro Bay, Alaska, killing all 39 people on board.", "1970 – The United States Environmental Protection Agency begins operations.", "1971 – Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, and Umm al-Quwain form the United Arab Emirates.", "1975 – Laotian Civil War: The Pathet Lao seizes the Laotian capital of Vientiane, forces the abdication of King Sisavang Vatthana, and proclaims the Lao People's Democratic Republic.", "1976 – Fidel Castro becomes President of Cuba, replacing Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado.", "1977 – A Tupolev Tu-154 crashes near Benghazi, Libya, killing 59.", "1980 – Salvadoran Civil War: Four American missionaries are raped and murdered by a death squad.", "1982 – At the University of Utah, Barney Clark becomes the first person to receive a permanent artificial heart.", "1988 – Benazir Bhutto is sworn in as Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first woman to head the government of a Muslim-majority state.", "1989 – The Peace Agreement of Hat Yai is signed and ratified by the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) and the governments of Malaysia and Thailand, ending the over two-decade-long communist insurgency in Malaysia.", "1991 – Canada and Poland become the first nations to recognize the independence of Ukraine from the Soviet Union.", "1993 – Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar is shot and killed by police in Medellín.", "* 1993 – Space Shuttle program: STS-61: NASA launches the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' on a mission to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.", "1999 – The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive following the Good Friday Agreement.", "2001 – Enron files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.", "2015 – San Bernardino attack: Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik kill 14 people and wound 22 at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernardino, California.", "2016 – Thirty-six people die in a fire at a converted Oakland, California, warehouse serving as an artist collective.", "2020 – Cannabis is removed from the list of most dangerous drugs of the international drug control treaty by the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600=== 503 – Emperor Jianwen of Liang, emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty (d. 551) 1501 – Queen Munjeong, Korean queen (d. 1565)1578 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (d. 1641)1599 – Thomas Bruce, 1st Earl of Elgin, Scottish nobleman (d. 1663)===1601–1900===1629 – Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, Catholic cardinal (d. 1704)1694 – William Shirley, English-American lawyer and politician, Governor of the province of Massachusetts Bay (d. 1771)1703 – Ferdinand Konščak, Croatian missionary and explorer (d. 1759)1738 – Richard Montgomery, Irish-American general (d. 1775)1754 – William Cooper, American judge and politician, founded Cooperstown, New York (d. 1809)1759 – James Edward Smith, English botanist and mycologist, founded the Linnean Society (d. 1828) 1760 – John Breckinridge, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 5th United States Attorney General (d. 1806)* 1760 – Joseph Graetz, German organist, composer, and educator (d. 1826)1798 – António Luís de Seabra, 1st Viscount of Seabra, Portuguese magistrate and politician (d. 1895)1810 – Henry Yesler, American businessman and politician, 7th Mayor of Seattle (d. 1892)1811 – Jean-Charles Chapais, Canadian farmer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Agriculture (d. 1885)1817 – Heinrich von Sybel, German historian, academic, and politician (d. 1895)1825 – Pedro II of Brazil (d. 1891)1827 – William Burges, English architect and designer (d. 1881)1846 – Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau, French lawyer and politician, 68th Prime Minister of France (d. 1904)1847 – Deacon White, American baseball player and manager (d. 1939)1859 – Georges Seurat, French painter (d. 1891)1860 – Charles Studd, England cricketer and missionary (d. 1931)1863 – Charles Edward Ringling, American businessman, co-founded the Ringling Brothers Circus (d. 1926)1866 – Harry Burleigh, American singer-songwriter (d. 1949)1876 – Yusuf Akçura, Tatar-Turkish activist and ideologue of Turanism (d. 1935)1877 – Cahir Healy, Northern Irish Anti Partitionist, writer and politician (d. 1970)1884 – Erima Harvey Northcroft, New Zealand soldier, lawyer, and judge (d. 1953) 1884 – Yahya Kemal Beyatlı, Turkish poet and author (d. 1958)1885 – George Minot, American physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1950)1891 – Otto Dix, German painter and illustrator (d. 1969)* 1891 – Charles H. Wesley, American historian and author (d. 1987)1894 – Warren William, American actor (d. 1948)1895 – Harriet Cohen, English pianist (d. 1967)1897 – Ivan Bagramyan, Russian general (d. 1982) 1897 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (d. 1987)1898 – Indra Lal Roy, Indian lieutenant and first Indian fighter aircraft pilot (d. 1918)1899 – John Barbirolli, English cellist and conductor (d. 1970)* 1899 – John Cobb, English race car driver and pilot (d. 1952)* 1899 – Ray Morehart, American baseball player (d. 1989)1900 – Elisa Godínez Gómez de Batista, former First Lady of Cuba (d. 1993) 1900 – Herta Hammerbacher, German landscape architect and professor (d. 1985)===1901–present===1901 – Raimundo Orsi, Argentinian-Italian footballer (d. 1986)1906 – Peter Carl Goldmark, Hungarian-American engineer (d. 1977)1909 – Arvo Askola, Finnish runner (d. 1975) 1909 – Walenty Kłyszejko, Estonian–Polish basketball player and coach (d. 1987)* 1909 – Joseph P. Lash, American activist and author (d. 1987)1910 – Russell Lynes, American photographer, historian, and author (d. 1991) 1910 – Taisto Mäki, Finnish runner (d. 1979)1912 – George Emmett, English cricketer and coach (d. 1976)1913 – Marc Platt, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2014)1914 – Bill Erwin, American actor (d. 2010) 1914 – Adolph Green, American playwright and composer (d. 2002)1915 – Takahito, Prince Mikasa of Japan (d. 2016)1916 – Howard Finster, American minister and painter (d. 2001)1917 – Sylvia Syms, American singer (d. 1992)1921 – Carlo Furno, Italian cardinal (d. 2015)1922 – Iakovos Kambanelis, Greek author, poet, and screenwriter (d. 2011)1923 – Maria Callas, American-Greek soprano and actress (d. 1977)1924 – Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (d. 2012) 1924 – Alexander Haig, American general and politician, 59th United States Secretary of State (d. 2010)* 1924 – Else Marie Pade, Danish composer (d. 2016)* 1924 – Vilgot Sjöman, Swedish actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006)1925 – Julie Harris, American actress (d. 2013)1927 – Ralph Beard, American basketball player (d. 2007)1928 – Guy Bourdin, French photographer (d. 1991)1929 – Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019)* 1929 – Leon Litwack, American historian and author (d. 2021)1930 – Gary Becker, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2014) 1930 – David Piper, English race car driver1931 – Nigel Calder, English journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1931 – Masaaki Hatsumi, Japanese martial artist and educator, founded Bujinkan* 1931 – Wynton Kelly, American pianist and composer (d. 1971)* 1931 – Edwin Meese, American lawyer, 75th United States Attorney General* 1931 – Gareth Wigan, British film studio executive (d. 2010)1933 – Peter Robin Harding, English marshal and pilot (d. 2021) 1933 – Mike Larrabee, American sprinter and educator (d. 2003)1934 – Tarcisio Bertone, Italian cardinal1935 – David Hackett Fischer, American historian, author, and academic1937 – Manohar Joshi, Indian lawyer and politician, 15th Chief Minister of Maharashtra1939 – Yael Dayan, Israeli journalist, author, and politician* 1939 – Francis Fox, Canadian lawyer and politician, 48th Secretary of State for Canada* 1939 – Harry Reid, American lawyer and politician, 25th Lieutenant Governor of Nevada (d. 2021) 1940 – Willie Brown, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2019)1941 – Mike England, Welsh footballer and manager* 1941 – Tom McGuinness, English guitarist, songwriter, author, and producer1942 – Anna G. Jónasdóttir, Icelandic political scientist and academic1943 – Wayne Allard, American veterinarian and politician1944 – Cathy Lee Crosby, American actress and tennis player 1944 – Ibrahim Rugova, Kosovan journalist and politician, 1st President of Kosovo (d. 2006)* 1944 – Dionysis Savvopoulos, Greek singer-songwriter* 1944 – Botho Strauß, German author and playwright1945 – Penelope Spheeris, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1945 – Alan Thomson, Australian cricketer1946 – John Banks, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Mayor of Auckland City 1946 – David Macaulay, English-American author and illustrator* 1946 – Gianni Versace, Italian fashion designer, founded Versace (d. 1997)1947 – Isaac Bitton, Moroccan-French drummer and songwriter 1947 – Tommy Jenkins, English footballer and manager* 1947 – Ivan Atanassov Petrov, Bulgarian neurologist and author1948 – Elizabeth Berg, American nurse and author 1948 – T. Coraghessan Boyle, American novelist and short story writer* 1948 – Patricia Hewitt, Australian-English educator and politician, English Secretary of State for Health* 1948 – Toninho Horta, Brazilian guitarist and composer* 1948 – Antonín Panenka, Czech footballer 1950 – John Wesley Ryles, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Amin Saikal, Afghan-Australian political scientist and academic* 1950 – Benjamin Stora, Algerian-French historian and author* 1950 – Paul Watson, Canadian activist, founded the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society1952 – Carol Shea-Porter, American social worker, academic, and politician 1952 – Keith Szarabajka, American actor1954 – Dan Butler, American actor, director, and screenwriter1956 – Steven Bauer, Cuban-American actor and producer1957 – Dagfinn Høybråten, Norwegian political scientist and politician, Norwegian Minister of Health1958 – Randy Gardner, American figure skater* 1958 – Andrew George, English politician* 1958 – Vladimir Parfenovich, Belarusian canoe racer and politician* 1958 – George Saunders, American short story writer and essayist1959 – Kelefa Diallo, Guinean general (d. 2013)1960 – Peter Blakeley, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1960 – Deb Haaland, American politician, 54th United States Secretary of the Interior* 1960 – Razzle, English rock drummer (d. 1984)* 1960 – Rick Savage, English singer-songwriter and bass player * 1960 – Silk Smitha, Indian film actress1962 – John Dyegh, Nigerian businessman and politician1963 – Brendan Coyle, English actor* 1963 – Ann Patchett, American author* 1963 – Rich Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and scout* 1963 – Ron Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach1965 – Shane Flanagan, Australian rugby league player and coach1966 – Philippe Etchebest, French chef and television host* 1966 – Jinsei Shinzaki, Japanese wrestler and promoter, co-founded Sendai Girls' Pro Wrestling1967 – Mary Creagh, English scholar and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Transport1968 – David Batty, English footballer* 1968 – Jiří Dopita, Czech ice hockey player* 1968 – Darryl Kile, American baseball player (d. 2002)* 1968 – Lucy Liu, American actress and producer* 1968 – Nate Mendel, American singer-songwriter and bass player * 1968 – Rena Sofer, American actress1969 – Ulrika Bergquist, Swedish journalist 1969 – Chris Kiwomya, English footballer* 1969 – Pavel Loskutov, Estonian runner* 1969 – Tanya Plibersek, Australian journalist and politician, 45th Australian Minister of Health1970 – Joe Lo Truglio, American actor and comedian 1970 – Maksim Tarasov, Russian pole vaulter* 1970 – Treach, American rapper and actor1971 – Wilson Jermaine Heredia, American actor and singer 1971 – Rachel McQuillan, Australian tennis player* 1971 – Jüri Reinvere, Estonian-German composer and poet* 1971 – Francesco Toldo, Italian footballer* 1971 – Mine Yoshizaki, Japanese illustrator1972 – Alan Henderson, American basketball player 1972 – Sergei Zholtok, Latvian ice hockey player (d. 2004)1973 – Graham Kavanagh, Irish footballer and manager 1973 – Monica Seles, Serbian-American tennis player* 1973 – Lee Steele, English footballer* 1973 – Jan Ullrich, German cyclist1975 – Mark Kotsay, American baseball player and manager 1976 – Masafumi Gotoh, Japanese singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1977 – Siyabonga Nomvethe, South African footballer1978 – Jarron Collins, American basketball player and coach* 1978 – Jason Collins, American basketball player* 1978 – Nelly Furtado, Canadian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress* 1978 – Luigi Malafronte, Italian footballer* 1978 – Peter Moylan, Australian baseball player* 1978 – Maëlle Ricker, Canadian snowboarder* 1978 – David Rivas, Spanish footballer* 1978 – Andrew Ryan, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster* 1978 – Christopher Wolstenholme, English singer-songwriter and bass player 1979 – Yvonne Catterfeld, German singer-songwriter and actress 1979 – Michael McIndoe, Scottish footballer* 1979 – Abdul Razzaq, Pakistani cricketer1980 – Adam Kreek, Canadian rower 1980 – Darryn Randall, South African cricketer (d. 2013)* 1980 – Joel Ward, Canadian ice hockey player1981 – Maria Ferekidi, Greek canoe racer 1981 – Eric Jungmann, American actor* 1981 – Thomas Pöck, Austrian ice hockey player* 1981 – Danijel Pranjić, Croatian footballer* 1981 – Britney Spears, American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress1982 – Christos Karipidis, Greek footballer 1982 – Matt Walsh, American basketball player1983 – Action Bronson, American rapper, songwriter, chef, and television host 1983 – Chris Burke, Scottish footballer* 1983 – Bibiana Candelas, Mexican volleyball player* 1983 – Jaime Durán, Mexican footballer * 1983 – Eugene Jeter, American-Ukrainian basketball player, coach, and executive* 1983 – Jana Kramer, American actress and singer* 1983 – Aaron Rodgers, American football player* 1983 – Daniela Ruah, Portuguese-American actress1984 – Péter Máté, Hungarian footballer1985 – Amaury Leveaux, French swimmer* 1985 – Dorell Wright, American basketball player1986 – Song Ha-yoon, South Korean actress 1986 – Claudiu Keșerü, Romanian footballer* 1986 – Renee Montgomery, American basketball player and executive* 1986 – Tal Wilkenfeld, Australian bass player and composer1988 – Alfred Enoch, English actor 1988 – Stephen McGinn, Scottish footballer1989 – Etta Bond, English singer-songwriter 1989 – Matteo Darmian, Italian footballer* 1989 – Cassie Steele, Canadian singer-songwriter and actress* 1989 – Robert Turbin, American football player1990 – Emmanuel Agyemang-Badu, Ghanaian footballer 1990 – Gastón Ramírez, Uruguayan footballer1991 – Chloé Dufour-Lapointe, Canadian skier 1991 – Brandon Knight, American basketball player* 1991 – Charlie Puth, American singer-songwriter and pianist1992 – Sim Bhullar, Canadian basketball player 1992 – Gary Sánchez, Dominican baseball player1993 – Haruka Ishida, Japanese singer and actress 1993 – Kostas Stafylidis, Greek footballer1994 – Zach Cunningham, American football player 1994 – Aaron Jones, American football player* 1994 – Elias Lindholm, Swedish ice hockey player* 1994 – Fumika Shimizu, Japanese actress and model* 1994 – Tomokaze Yūta, Japanese sumo wrestler1995 – Uladzislau Hancharou, Belarusian trampolinist 1995 – Inori Minase, Japanese actress, voice actress and singer1996 – Jake Doran, Australian cricketer1997 – De'Andre Hunter, American basketball player1998 – Annalise Basso, American actress 1998 – Anna Kalinskaya, Russian tennis player* 1998 – Juice Wrld, American rapper, singer and songwriter (d. 2019)" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 537 – Pope Silverius* 930 – Ma Yin, Chinese warlord, king of Chu (Ten Kingdoms) (b.", "853)* 949 – Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman 1022 – Elvira Menéndez, queen of Alfonso V of Castile (b.", "996)1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam1340 – Geoffrey le Scrope, Chief Justice of King Edward III of England1348 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (b.", "1297)1381 – John of Ruusbroec, Flemish priest and mystic (b.", "1293)1455 – Isabel of Coimbra, queen of Portugal (b.", "1432)1463 – Albert VI, Archduke of Austria (b.", "1418)1469 – Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, Italian banker and politician (b.", "1416)1510 – Muhammad Shaybani, Khan of Bukhara (b.", "1451)1515 – Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general (b.", "1453)1547 – Hernán Cortés, Spanish general and explorer (b.", "1485)1594 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish mathematician, cartographer, and philosopher (b.", "1512)===1601–1900===1615 – Louis des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, French general (b.", "1541)1665 – Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, French author (b.", "1588)1694 – Pierre Puget, French painter, sculptor, and architect (b.", "1622)1719 – Pasquier Quesnel, French theologian and author (b.", "1634)1723 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (b.", "1674)1726 – Samuel Penhallow, English-American historian and author (b.", "1665)1747 – Vincent Bourne, English poet and scholar (b.", "1695)1748 – Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b.", "1662)1774 – Johann Friedrich Agricola, German organist and composer (b.", "1720)1814 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher, author, and politician (b.", "1740)1844 – Eustachy Erazm Sanguszko, Polish general and politician (b.", "1768)1849 – Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (b.", "1792)1859 – John Brown, American abolitionist (b.", "1800)1881 – Jenny von Westphalen, German author (b.", "1814)1885 – Allen Wright, Principal chief of the Choctaw Nation (1866-1870); proposed the name \"Oklahoma\", from Choctaw words ''okra'' and ''umma'', meaning \"Territory of the Red People.\"", "(b.", "1826)1888 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, poet, and playwright (b.", "1840)1892 – Jay Gould, American businessman and financier (b.", "1836)1899 – Gregorio del Pilar, Filipino general and politician, 1st Governor of Bulacan (b.", "1875)===1901–present===1918 – Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (b.", "1868)1924 – Kazimieras Būga, Lithuanian linguist and philologist (b.", "1879)1927 – Paul Heinrich von Groth, German scientist who systematically classified minerals and founded the journal ''Zeitschrift für Krystallographie und Mineralogie'' (b.", "1843)1931 – Vincent d'Indy, French composer and educator (b.", "1851)1936 – John Ringling, American businessman, co-founded Ringling Brothers Circus (b.", "1866)1943 – Nordahl Grieg, Norwegian journalist and author (b.", "1902)1944 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (b.", "1874) 1944 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Egyptian-Italian poet and composer (b.", "1876)* 1944 – Eiji Sawamura, Japanese baseball player and soldier (b.", "1917)1950 – Dinu Lipatti, Romanian pianist and composer (b.", "1917)1953 – Reginald Baker, Australian rugby player (b.", "1884)* 1953 – Trần Trọng Kim, Vietnamese historian, scholar, and politician, Prime Minister of Vietnam (b.", "1883)1957 – Harrison Ford, American actor (b.", "1884) 1957 – Manfred Sakel, Ukrainian-American neurophysiologist and psychiatrist (b.", "1902)1966 – L. E. J. Brouwer, Dutch mathematician and philosopher (b.", "1881) 1966 – Giles Cooper, Irish author, playwright, and screenwriter (b.", "1918)1967 – Francis Spellman, American cardinal (b.", "1889).", "1969 – José María Arguedas, Peruvian anthropologist, author, and poet (b.", "1911)* 1969 – Kliment Voroshilov, Ukrainian-Russian marshal and politician, 3rd Head of State of The Soviet Union (b.", "1881)1974 – Sylvi Kekkonen, Finnish writer and wife of President of Finland Urho Kekkonen (b.", "1900) 1974 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (b.", "1897)1976 – Danny Murtaugh, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1917)1980 – Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Indian-Pakistani lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Pakistan (b.", "1905)* 1980 – Romain Gary, Lithuanian-French author, director, and screenwriter (b.", "1914)1981 – Wallace Harrison, American architect, co-founded Harrison & Abramovitz (b.", "1895)1982 – Marty Feldman, English actor and comedian (b.", "1933)* 1982 – Giovanni Ferrari, Italian footballer and manager (b.", "1907)1983 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American actress and singer (b.", "1904)1985 – Philip Larkin, English poet, author, and librarian (b.", "1922)1986 – Desi Arnaz, Cuban-American actor, singer, businessman, and television producer (b.", "1917) 1986 – John Curtis Gowan, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1912)1987 – Luis Federico Leloir, French-Argentinian physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906) 1987 – Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich, Belarusian physicist, astronomer, and cosmologist (b.", "1914)1988 – Karl-Heinz Bürger, German colonel (b.", "1904) 1988 – Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer-songwriter (b.", "1922)1990 – Aaron Copland, American composer and conductor (b.", "1900) 1990 – Robert Cummings, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1908)1993 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord (b.", "1949)1995 – Robertson Davies, Canadian author, playwright, and critic (b.", "1913)* 1995 – Roxie Roker, American actress (b.", "1929)* 1995 – Mária Telkes, Hungarian–American biophysicist and chemist (b.", "1900)1997 – Shirley Crabtree, English wrestler (b.", "1930) 1997 – Michael Hedges, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1953)1999 – Charlie Byrd, American guitarist (b.", "1925)2000 – Gail Fisher, American actress (b.", "1935)2002 – Ivan Illich, Austrian priest and philosopher (b.", "1926) 2002 – Arno Peters, German cartographer and historian (b.", "1916)2003 – Alan Davidson, British soldier, historian, and author (b.", "1924)2004 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (b.", "1910)* 2004 – Mona Van Duyn, American poet and academic (b.", "1921)2005 – William P. Lawrence, American admiral and pilot (b.", "1930) 2005 – Van Tuong Nguyen, Australian convicted drug trafficker (b.", "1980)2006 – Mariska Veres, Dutch singer (b.", "1947)2007 – Jennifer Alexander, Canadian-American ballerina and actress (b.", "1972)* 2007 – Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic, novelist, and short story writer (b.", "1916)2008 – Odetta, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress (b.", "1930) 2008 – Henry Molaison, American memory disorder patient (b.", "1926)* 2008 – Edward Samuel Rogers, Canadian lawyer and businessman (b.", "1933)* 2008 – Renato de Grandis, Italian composer, musicologist, and writer (b.", "1927)2009 – Foge Fazio, American football player and coach (b.", "1938) 2009 – Eric Woolfson, Scottish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer (b.", "1945)2012 – Tom Hendry, Canadian playwright, co-founded the Manitoba Theatre Centre (b.", "1929) 2012 – Ehsan Naraghi, Iranian sociologist and author (b.", "1926)2013 – William Allain, American soldier and politician, 58th Governor of Mississippi (b.", "1928) 2013 – Jean-Claude Beton, Algerian-French engineer and businessman, founded Orangina (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Marcelo Déda, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b.", "1960)* 2013 – Junior Murvin, Jamaican singer-songwriter (b.", "1946)2014 – A. R. Antulay, Indian lawyer and politician, 8th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b.", "1929) 2014 – Jean Béliveau, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Josie Cichockyj, English basketball player and coach (b.", "1964)* 2014 – Bobby Keys, American saxophonist (b.", "1943)* 2014 – Don Laws, American figure skater and coach (b.", "1929)2015 – Sandy Berger, American lawyer and politician, 19th United States National Security Advisor (b.", "1945) 2015 – Will McMillan, American actor, director, and producer (b.", "1944)* 2015 – George T. Sakato, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1921)2020 – Pat Patterson, American wrestler (b.", "1941)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Armed Forces Day (Cuba)Christian feast day:Avitus of RouenBibianaChanning Moore Williams (Anglicanism)ChromatiusHabakkuk (Eastern Orthodox)December 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)International Day for the Abolition of Slavery (United Nations)Lao National DayNational Day (United Arab Emirates)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 2" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 1" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 800 – A council is convened in the Vatican, at which Charlemagne is to judge the accusations against Pope Leo III.", "1420 – Henry V of England enters Paris alongside his father-in-law King Charles VI of France.", "1577 – Courtiers Christopher Hatton and Thomas Heneage are knighted by Queen Elizabeth I of England.===1601–1900===1640 – End of the Iberian Union: Portugal acclaims as King João IV of Portugal, ending 59 years of personal union of the crowns of Portugal and Spain and the end of the rule of the Philippine Dynasty.", "1662 – Diarist John Evelyn records skating on the frozen lake in St James's Park, London, watched by Charles II and Queen Catherine.", "1768 – The former slave ship ''Fredensborg'' sinks off Tromøya in Norway.", "1821 – José Núñez de Cáceres wins the independence of the Dominican Republic from Spain and names the new territory the Republic of Spanish Haiti.", "1822 – Pedro I is crowned Emperor of Brazil.", "1824 – United States presidential election: Since no candidate received a majority of the total electoral college votes in the election, the United States House of Representatives is given the task of deciding the winner in accordance with the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "1828 – Argentine general Juan Lavalle makes a coup against governor Manuel Dorrego, beginning the Decembrist revolution.", "1834 – Slavery is abolished in the Cape Colony in accordance with the Slavery Abolition Act 1833.", "1862 – In his State of the Union Address President Abraham Lincoln reaffirms the necessity of ending slavery as ordered ten weeks earlier in the Emancipation Proclamation.", "1865 – Shaw University, the first historically black university in the southern United States, is founded in Raleigh, North Carolina.", "1878 – President Rutherford B. Hayes gets the first telephone installed in the White House.", "1900 – Nicaragua sells canal rights to U.S. for $5 million.", "The canal agreement fails in March 1901.Great Britain rejects amended treaty===1901–present===1913 – The Buenos Aires Metro, the first underground railway system in the Southern Hemisphere and in Latin America, begins operation.", " 1913 – Crete, having obtained self rule from Turkey after the First Balkan War, is annexed by Greece.", "1918 – Transylvania unites with Romania, following the incorporation of Bessarabia (March 27) and Bukovina (November 28) and thus concluding the Great Union.", " 1918 – Iceland becomes a sovereign state, yet remains a part of the Danish kingdom.", "* 1918 – The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is proclaimed.", "1919 – Lady Astor becomes the first female Member of Parliament (MP) to take her seat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.", "(She had been elected to that position on November 28.", ")1924 – The National Hockey League's first United States-based franchise, the Boston Bruins, plays their first game in league play at home, at the still-extant Boston Arena indoor hockey facility.", "1934 – Sergei Kirov is assassinated, paving way for the repressive Great Purge, and Vinnytsia massacre by General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin.", "1939 – World War II: A day after the beginning of the Winter War in Finland, the Cajander III Cabinet resigns and is replaced by the Ryti I Cabinet, while the Finnish Parliament move from Helsinki to Kauhajoki to escape the Soviet airstrikes.", "* 1939 – The Soviet Union establishes the Finnish Democratic Republic puppet state in Terijoki.", "1941 – World War II: Emperor Hirohito of Japan gives his tacit approval to the decision of the imperial council to initiate war against the United States.", " 1941 – World War II: Fiorello La Guardia, Mayor of New York City and Director of the Office of Civilian Defense, signs Administrative Order 9, creating the Civil Air Patrol.", "1952 – The ''New York Daily News'' reports the news of Christine Jorgensen, the first notable case of sex reassignment surgery.", "1955 – American Civil Rights Movement: In Montgomery, Alabama, seamstress Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's racial segregation laws, an incident which leads to that city's bus boycott.", "1958 – The Central African Republic attains self-rule within the French Union.", " 1958 – The Our Lady of the Angels School fire in Chicago kills 92 children and three nuns.", "1959 – Cold War: Opening date for signature of the Antarctic Treaty, which sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on the continent.", "1960 – Patrice Lumumba is arrested by Mobutu Sese Seko's men on the banks of the Sankuru River, for inciting the army to rebellion.", "1963 – Nagaland, became the 16th state of India.", "1964 – Vietnam War: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb North Vietnam.", "1969 – Vietnam War: The first draft lottery in the United States is held since World War II.", "1971 – Cambodian Civil War: Khmer Rouge rebels intensify assaults on Cambodian government positions, forcing their retreat from Kompong Thmar and nearby Ba Ray.", "* 1971 – Purge of Croatian Spring leaders starts in Yugoslavia at the meeting of the League of Communists at the Karađorđevo estate.", "1973 – Papua New Guinea gains self-government from Australia.", "1974 – TWA Flight 514, a Boeing 727, crashes northwest of Dulles International Airport, killing all 92 people on board.", "* 1974 – Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 6231, another Boeing 727, crashes northwest of John F. Kennedy International Airport.", "1981 – Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308, a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, crashes in Corsica, killing all 180 people on board.", "1984 – NASA conducts the Controlled Impact Demonstration, wherein an airliner is deliberately crashed in order to test technologies and gather data to help improve survivability of crashes.", "1988 – World AIDS Day is proclaimed worldwide by the UN member states.", " 1988 – Benazir Bhutto, is named as the Prime Minister of Pakistan, becoming the first female leader to lead a Muslim nation.", "1989 – Philippine coup attempt: The right-wing military rebel Reform the Armed Forces Movement attempts to oust Philippine President Corazon Aquino in a failed bloody coup d'état.", " 1989 – Cold War: East Germany's parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the Communist Party the leading role in the state.", "1990 – Channel Tunnel sections started from the United Kingdom and France meet beneath the seabed.", "1991 – Cold War: Ukrainian voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the Soviet Union.", "1997 – In the Indian state of Bihar, Ranvir Sena attacks the CPI (ML) Party Unity stronghold Lakshmanpur-Bathe, killing 63 lower caste people.", " 1997 – Fourteen year-old Michael Carneal opens fire at a group of students in Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky, killing three and injuring five.", "2000 – Vicente Fox Quesada is inaugurated as the president of Mexico, marking the first peaceful transfer of executive federal power to an opposing political party following a free and democratic election in Mexico's history.", "2001 – The United Russia political party was founded.", "2005 – As a result of the merger of the Perm Oblast and the Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug, a new subject of the Russian Federation, the Perm Krai, was created.", "2006 – The law on same-sex marriage comes into force in South Africa, legalizing same-sex marriage for the first time on the African continent.", "2009 – The Treaty of Lisbon entered into force in the European Union.", "2011 – The Alma-Ata Metro was opened.", "2018 – The Oulu Police informed the public about the first offence of the much larger child sexual exploitation in Oulu, Finland.", "2019 – Arsenal Women 11–1 Bristol City Women breaks the record for most goals scored in a FA Women's Super League match, with Vivianne Miedema involved in ten of the eleven Arsenal goals.", "2019 – The outbreak of coronavirus infection began in Wuhan.", "2020 – The Arecibo Telescope collapsed." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 624 – Hasan ibn Ali, the second Shia Imam (d. 670)1081 – Louis VI, French king (d. 1137)1083 – Anna Komnene, Byzantine physician and scholar (d. 1153) 1415 – Jan Długosz, Polish historian (d. 1480)1438 – Peter II, Duke of Bourbon, son of Charles I (d. 1503)1443 – Magdalena of France, French princess (d. 1495)1521 – Takeda Shingen, Japanese daimyō (d. 1573)1525 – Tadeáš Hájek, Czech physician and astronomer (d. 1600)1530 – Bernardino Realino, Italian Jesuit (d. 1616)1561 – Sophie Hedwig of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Duchess consort of Pomerania-Wolgast (d. 1631)1580 – Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc, French astronomer and historian (d. 1637)===1601–1900===1690 – Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of the United Kingdom (d. 1764)1709 – Franz Xaver Richter, Czech composer, violinist, and conductor (d. 1789)1716 – Étienne Maurice Falconet, French sculptor (d. 1791)1743 – Martin Heinrich Klaproth, German chemist and academic (d. 1817)1761 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (d. 1850)1792 – Nikolai Lobachevsky, Russian mathematician and geometer (d. 1856)1800 – Mihály Vörösmarty, Hungarian poet (d. 1855)1805 – 9th Dalai Lama, Tibetan Buddhist spiritual leader (d. 1815)1844 – Alexandra of Denmark (d. 1925)1846 – Ledi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (d. 1923)1847 – Julia A. Moore, American poet (d. 1920)1855 – John Evans, English-Australian politician, 21st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1943)1869 – Eligiusz Niewiadomski, Polish painter and critic (d. 1923)1871 – Archie MacLaren, English cricketer (d. 1944)1883 – Henry Cadbury, American historian, scholar, and academic (d. 1974)1884 – Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, German painter and etcher (d. 1976)1886 – Rex Stout, American detective novelist (d. 1975) 1886 – Zhu De, Chinese general and politician, 1st Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China (d. 1976)1894 – Afrânio Pompílio Gastos do Amaral, Brazilian herpetologist (d. 1982)1895 – Henry Williamson, English farmer, soldier, and author (d. 1977)1896 – Georgy Zhukov, Russian general and politician, 2nd Minister of Defence for the Soviet Union (d. 1974)1898 – Stuart Garson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Manitoba (d. 1977)* 1898 – Cyril Ritchard, Australian-American actor and singer (d. 1977)1900 – Karna Maria Birmingham, Australian artist, illustrator and print maker (d. 1987)===1901–present===1901 – Ilona Fehér, Hungarian-Israeli violinist and educator (d. 1988)1903 – Nikolai Voznesensky, Soviet economic planner, member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1950)1905 – Alex Wilson, Canadian sprinter and coach (d. 1994)1910 – Alicia Markova, English ballerina and choreographer (d. 2004)1911 – Walter Alston, American baseball player and manager (d. 1984)* 1911 – Calvin Griffith, Canadian-American businessman (d. 1999)1912 – Billy Raimondi, American baseball player (d. 2010) 1912 – Minoru Yamasaki, American architect, designed the World Trade Center (d. 1986)1913 – Mary Martin, American actress and singer (d. 1990)1916 – Wan Li, Chinese educator and politician, 4th Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 2015)1917 – Thomas Hayward, American tenor and actor (d. 1995) 1917 – Marty Marion, American baseball player and manager (d. 2011)1920 – Peter Baptist Tadamaro Ishigami, Japanese priest, 1st Bishop of Naha (d. 2014)1921 – Vernon McGarity, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2013)1922 – Vsevolod Bobrov, Russian ice hockey player, footballer, and manager (d. 1979)1923 – Dick Shawn, American actor (d. 1987)* 1923 – Stansfield Turner, American admiral and academic, 12th Director of Central Intelligence (d. 2018)1924 – Masao Horiba, Japanese businessman, founded Horiba (d. 2015)1925 – Martin Rodbell, American biochemist and endocrinologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)1926 – Mother Antonia, American-Mexican nun and activist (d. 2013) 1926 – Allyn Ann McLerie, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2018)* 1926 – Keith Michell, Australian actor (d. 2015)* 1926 – Robert Symonds, American actor (d. 2007)* 1926 – Colin Tennant, 3rd Baron Glenconner, Scottish businessman (d. 2010)1927 – Micheline Bernardini, French dancer and model1928 – Emily McLaughlin, American actress (d. 1991)* 1928 – Malachi Throne, American actor (d. 2013)1929 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997)1930 – Marie Bashir, Australian psychiatrist, academic, and politician, 37th Governor of New South Wales* 1930 – Joachim Hoffmann, German historian and author (d. 2002)1931 – Jimmy Lyons, American saxophonist (d. 1986) 1931 – Jim Nesbitt, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)* 1931 – George Maxwell Richards, Trinidadian politician, 4th President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2018)1933 – Lou Rawls, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (d. 2006) 1933 – Violette Verdy, French ballerina (d. 2016)1934 – Billy Paul, American soul singer (d. 2016)1935 – Sola Sierra, Chilean human rights activist (d. 1999)1936 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (d. 2014)1937 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano and actress (d. 2005)* 1937 – Gordon Crosse, English composer and academic (d. 2021)* 1937 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga, Latvian psychologist and politician, President of Latvia1938 – Sandy Nelson, American rock and roll drummer (d. 2022)1939 – Lee Trevino, American golfer and sportscaster 1940 – Mike Denness, Scottish cricketer and referee (d. 2013) 1940 – Jerry Lawson, American electronic engineer and inventor (d. 2011)* 1940 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2005)* 1940 – Tasso Wild, German footballer1942 – Mohamed Kamel Amr, Egyptian politician, Egyptian Minister of Foreign Affairs 1942 – John Crowley, American author and academic* 1942 – Ross Edwards, Australian cricketer1943 – Kenny Moore, American runner and journalist1944 – Eric Bloom, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1944 – John Densmore, American drummer and songwriter * 1944 – Michael Hagee, American general* 1944 – Tahar Ben Jelloun, Moroccan author and poet1945 – Bette Midler, American singer-songwriter, actress and producer1946 – Jonathan Katz, American comedian and actor* 1946 – Kemal Kurspahić, Bosnian journalist and author (d. 2021)* 1946 – Gilbert O'Sullivan, Irish singer-songwriter and pianist 1947 – Alain Bashung, French singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2009) 1947 – Bob Fulton, English-Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021)1948 – George Foster, American baseball player and radio host 1948 – Sarfraz Nawaz, Pakistani cricketer and politician* 1948 – John Roskelley, American mountaineer and author* 1948 – Neil Warnock, English footballer and manager* 1948 – N. T. Wright, English bishop and scholar* 1948 – Patrick Ibrahim Yakowa, Nigerian civil servant and politician, Governor of Kaduna State (d. 2012)1949 – Jan Brett, American author and illustrator 1949 – Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug lord and narcoterrorist (d. 1993)* 1949 – Sebastián Piñera, Chilean businessman and politician, 35th President of Chile (d. 2024)1950 – Manju Bansal, Indian biologist and academic 1950 – Ross Hannaford, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)* 1950 – Richard Keith, American actor and drummer * 1950 – Gary Panter, American illustrator and painter* 1950 – Filippos Petsalnikos, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice (d. 2020)1951 – Aleksandr Panayotov Aleksandrov, Bulgarian cosmonaut 1951 – Obba Babatundé, American actor, director, and producer* 1951 – Doug Mulray, Australian radio and television host (d. 2023)* 1951 – Jaco Pastorius, American bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1987)* 1951 – Nozipho Schroeder, South African lawn bowler* 1951 – Treat Williams, American actor (d. 2023) 1952 – Stephen Poliakoff, English director, producer, and playwright1954 – Alan Dedicoat, English journalist* 1954 – Judith Hackitt, English chemist and engineer* 1954 – François Van der Elst, Belgian footballer (d. 2017)1955 – Veikko Aaltonen, Finnish actor, director, and screenwriter 1955 – Verónica Forqué, Spanish actress* 1955 – Udit Narayan, Indian playback singer* 1955 – Pat Spillane, Irish footballer and sportscaster* 1955 – Karen Tumulty, American journalist1956 – Julee Cruise, American singer-songwriter, musician, and actress (d. 2022)1957 – Chris Poland, American guitarist and songwriter * 1957 – Deep Roy, Kenyan-British actor* 1957 – Vesta Williams, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2011)1958 – Javier Aguirre, Mexican footballer and manager 1958 – Candace Bushnell, American journalist and author* 1958 – Alberto Cova, Italian runner* 1958 – Gary Peters, American politician* 1958 – Charlene Tilton, American actress and singer 1959 – Billy Childish, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and painter 1959 – Wally Lewis, Australian rugby league player, coach, and sportscaster1960 – Carol Alt, American model and actress 1960 – Shirin M. Rai, Indian-English political scientist and academic* 1960 – Jane Turner, Australian actress and producer1961 – Safra Catz, Israeli-American businesswoman 1961 – Raymond E. Goldstein, American biophysicist and academic* 1961 – Jeremy Northam, English actor 1962 – Sylvie Daigle, Canadian speed skater 1962 – Pamela McGee, American basketball player and coach1963 – Marco Greco, Brazilian race car driver 1963 – Nathalie Lambert, Canadian speed skater* 1963 – Arjuna Ranatunga, Sri Lankan cricketer and politician1964 – Salvatore Schillaci, Italian footballer 1964 – Jo Walton, Welsh-Canadian author and poet1965 – Henry Honiball, South African rugby player 1965 – Magnifico, Slovenian singer1966 – Andrew Adamson, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Katherine LaNasa, American actress, ballet dancer, and choreographer * 1966 – Larry Walker, Canadian baseball player and coach1967 – Nestor Carbonell, American actor 1967 – Reggie Sanders, American baseball player1968 – Justin Chadwick, English actor and director 1968 – Sarah Fitzgerald, Australian squash player* 1968 – Anders Holmertz, Swedish swimmer1969 – Richard Carrier, American author and blogger1970 – Golden Brooks, American actress * 1970 – Jonathan Coulton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1970 – Kirk Rueter, American baseball player* 1970 – Sarah Silverman, American comedian, actress, and singer * 1970 – Tisha Waller, American high jumper and educator1971 – Christian Pescatori, Italian race car driver 1971 – Mika Pohjola, Finnish-American pianist and composer* 1971 – John Schlimm, American author and educator1972 – Stanton Barrett, American race car driver and stuntman 1972 – Bart Millard, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Steve Gibb, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1974 – Costinha, Portuguese footballer and manager1975 – Matt Fraction, American author 1975 – Isaiah \"Ikey\" Owens, American keyboard player and producer (d. 2014)* 1975 – Thomas Schie, Norwegian racing driver and sportscaster* 1975 – Farah Shah, Pakistani actress and host* 1975 – Sophia Skou, Danish swimmer1976 – Tomasz Adamek, Polish boxer 1976 – Laura Ling, American journalist and author* 1976 – Dean O'Gorman, New Zealand actor, artist, and photographer* 1976 – Matthew Shepard, American hate crime victim (d. 1998)* 1976 – Evangelos Sklavos, Greek basketball player1977 – Brad Delson, American guitarist and producer 1977 – Sophie Guillemin, French actress* 1977 – Lee McKenzie, Scottish journalist* 1977 – Nate Torrence, American actor and comedian 1978 – Mat Kearney, American musician1979 – Stephanie Brown Trafton, American discus thrower* 1979 – Ryan Malone, American ice hockey player1980 – Iftikhar Anjum, Pakistani cricketer 1980 – Mohammad Kaif, Indian cricketer and politician* 1980 – Mubarak Hassan Shami, Kenyan-Qatari runner* 1980 – Gianna Terzi, Greek singer1981 – Park Hyo-shin, South Korean singer-songwriter and actor 1981 – Luke McPharlin, Australian footballer* 1981 – I Made Wirawan, Indonesian footballer1982 – Riz Ahmed, English actor and rapper 1982 – Christos Kalantzis, Greek footballer* 1982 – Christos Melissis, Greek footballer1984 – Charles Michael Davis, American actor 1984 – Yolandi Visser, South African rapper and actress1985 – Ilfenesh Hadera, American actress 1985 – Janelle Monáe, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress * 1985 – Emiliano Viviano, Italian footballer1986 – DeSean Jackson, American football player1987 – Simon Dawkins, English footballer* 1987 – Tabarie Henry, Virgin Islander sprinter* 1987 – Vance Joy, Australian singer-songwriter* 1987 – Brett Williams, English footballer1988 – Tyler Joseph, American musician and singer 1988 – Zoë Kravitz, American actress, singer, and model * 1988 – Dan Mavraides, Greek-American basketball player* 1988 – Michael Raffl, Austrian ice hockey player1989 – Sotelúm, Mexican trumpet player, composer, and producer1990 – Tomáš Tatar, Slovak ice hockey player1991 – Rakeem Christmas, American basketball player 1991 – Hilda Melander, Swedish tennis player* 1991 – Sun Yang, Chinese swimmer1992 – Masahudu Alhassan, Ghanaian footballer 1992 – Javier Báez, Puerto Rican baseball player* 1992 – Linos Chrysikopoulos, Greek basketball player* 1992 – Gary Payton II, American basketball player* 1992 – Marco van Ginkel, Dutch footballer1993 – Reena Pärnat, Estonian archer 1993 – Beau Webster, Australian cricketer1994 – Seedy Njie, English footballer1995 – Agnė Čepelytė, Lithuanian tennis player* 1995 – Jenna Fife, Scottish footballer* 1995 – James Wilson, English footballer1997 – Sada Williams, Barbadian sprinter1999 – Nico Schlotterbeck, German footballer2001 – Carole Monnet, French tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 217 – Yehudah HaNasi, 'Nasi', Rabbi and editor of the Mishnah (b.", "135)* 660 – Eligius, Frankish bishop and saint (b.", "588)* 948 – Gao Conghui, Chinese governor and prince (b.", "891)* 969 – Fujiwara no Morotada, Japanese statesman (b.", "920)1018 – Thietmar of Merseburg, German bishop (b.", "975)1135 – Henry I, king of England (b.", "1068)1241 – Isabella of England, Holy Roman Empress (b.", "1214)1255 – Muhammad III of Alamut, Nizari Ismaili Imam1335 – Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan, Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate (b.", "1305)1374 – Magnus Ericson, king of Sweden (b.", "1316)1433 – Go-Komatsu, emperor of Japan (b.", "1377)1455 – Lorenzo Ghiberti, Italian goldsmith and sculptor (b.", "1378)1521 – Leo X, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1475)1530 – Margaret of Austria, duchess of Savoy (b.", "1480)1580 – Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (b.", "1509)1581 – Alexander Briant, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr and saint (b.", "1556)* 1581 – Edmund Campion, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b.", "1540)* 1581 – Ralph Sherwin, English Roman Catholic priest, martyr, and saint (b.", "1550)===1601–1900===1633 – Isabella Clara Eugenia, infanta of Spain (b.", "1566)1640 – Miguel de Vasconcelos, Portuguese politician, Prime Minister of Portugal (b.", "1590)1660 – Pierre d'Hozier, French genealogist and historian (b.", "1592)1729 – Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (b.", "1665)1750 – Johann Gabriel Doppelmayr, German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b.", "1671)1755 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (b.", "1696)1767 – Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, Scottish politician (b.", "1710)1825 – Alexander I, emperor and autocrat of Russia (b.", "1777)1865 – Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich, Swiss pastor, poet, and educator (b.", "1796)1866 – George Everest, Welsh geographer and surveyor (b.", "1790)1867 – Charles Gray Round, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1797)1884 – William Swainson, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, Attorney-General of the Crown Colony of New Zealand (b.", "1809)===1901–present===1913 – Juhan Liiv, Estonian poet and author (b.", "1864)1914 – Alfred Thayer Mahan, American captain and historian (b.", "1840)1916 – Charles de Foucauld, French priest and martyr (b.", "1858)1923 – Virginie Loveling, Belgian author and poet (b.", "1836)1928 – José Eustasio Rivera, Colombian-American lawyer and poet (b.", "1888)1933 – Pekka Halonen, Finnish painter (b.", "1865)1934 – Sergey Kirov, Russian engineer and politician (b.", "1886)1935 – Bernhard Schmidt, Estonian-German optician, invented the Schmidt camera (b.", "1879)1942 – Leon Wachholz, Polish scientist and medical examiner (b.", "1867)1943 – Damrong Rajanubhab, Thai historian and educator (b.", "1862)1944 – Charlie Kerins, Executed Irish Republican (b.", "1918)1947 – Aleister Crowley, English magician, poet, and mountaineer (b.", "1875)* 1947 – G. H. Hardy, English mathematician and theorist (b.", "1877)1950 – Ernest John Moeran, English pianist and composer (b.", "1894)1954 – Fred Rose, American pianist, composer, and publisher (b.", "1898)1958 – Elizabeth Peratrovich, Alaskan-American civil rights activist (b.", "1911)1964 – J.", "B. S. Haldane, English-Indian geneticist and biologist (b.", "1892)* 1964 – Charilaos Vasilakos, Greek runner (b.", "1877)1968 – Nicolae Bretan, Romanian opera singer, composer, and conductor (b.", "1887) 1968 – Darío Moreno, Turkish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1921)1973 – David Ben-Gurion, Israeli politician, 1st Prime Minister of Israel (b.", "1886)1975 – Nellie Fox, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1927)* 1975 – Ernesto Maserati, Italian race car driver and engineer (b.", "1898)* 1975 – Anna Roosevelt Halsted, American journalist (b.", "1906)1981 – Russ Manning, American author and illustrator (b.", "1929)1984 – Roelof Frankot, Dutch painter and photographer (b.", "1911)1986 – Frank McCarthy, American general and film producer (b.", "1912)1987 – James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (b.", "1924)* 1987 – Punch Imlach, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (b.", "1918)1988 – J. Vernon McGee, American pastor and theologian (b.", "1904)1989 – Alvin Ailey, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1931)1990 – Carla Lehmann, Canadian-English actress (b.", "1917)1991 – Pat O'Callaghan, Irish athlete (b.", "1906)* 1991 – George Stigler, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1911)1993 – Ray Gillen, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1959)1995 – Hopper Levett, English cricketer (b.", "1908)* 1995 – Colin Tapley, New Zealand-English actor (b.", "1907)* 1995 – Maxwell R. Thurman, American general (b.", "1931)1996 – Peter Bronfman, Canadian businessman (b.", "1928)1997 – Michel Bélanger, Canadian banker and businessman (b.", "1929)* 1997 – Stéphane Grappelli, French violinist (b.", "1908)* 1997 – Endicott Peabody, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 62nd Governor of Massachusetts (b.", "1920)1998 – Janet Lewis, American poet and novelist (b.", "1899)2001 – Ellis R. Dungan, American director and producer (b.", "1909)2002 – Edward L. Beach Jr., American captain and author (b.", "1918) 2002 – Dave McNally, American baseball player (b.", "1942)2003 – Clark Kerr, American economist and academic (b.", "1911) 2003 – Eugenio Monti, Italian bobsledder (b.", "1928)2004 – Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (b.", "1911) 2004 – Bill Brown, Scottish footballer (b.", "1931)2005 – Gust Avrakotos, American CIA officer (b.", "1938) 2005 – Mary Hayley Bell, English actress and playwright (b.", "1911)* 2005 – Freeman V. Horner, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b.", "1922)2006 – Claude Jade, French actress (b.", "1948) 2006 – Bruce Trigger, Canadian archaeologist, anthropologist, and historian (b.", "1937)2007 – Ken McGregor, Australian tennis player and footballer (b.", "1929) 2007 – Anton Rodgers, British actor (b.", "1933)* 2007 – Ivo Rojnica, Croatian-Argentine war crimes suspect, businessman, diplomat, and intelligence agent (b.", "1915)2008 – Paul Benedict, American actor (b.", "1938) 2008 – Joseph B. Wirthlin, American businessman and religious leader (b.", "1917)2010 – Adriaan Blaauw, Dutch astronomer and academic (b.", "1914) 2010 – Hillard Elkins, American actor and producer (b.", "1929)2011 – Christa Wolf, German author and critic (b.", "1929)2012 – Jovan Belcher, American football player (b.", "1987)* 2012 – Arthur Chaskalson, South African lawyer and judge, 18th Chief Justice of South Africa (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Rick Majerus, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1948)* 2012 – Ed Price, American soldier, pilot, and politician (b.", "1918)2013 – Richard Coughlan, English drummer (b.", "1947) 2013 – Stirling Colgate, American physicist and academic (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Edward Heffron, American soldier (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Martin Sharp, Australian cartoonist and songwriter (b.", "1942)2014 – Mario Abramovich, Argentinian violinist and composer (b.", "1926) 2014 – Dimitrios Trichopoulos, Greek epidemiologist, oncologist, and academic (b.", "1938)* 2014 – Rocky Wood, New Zealand-Australian author (b.", "1959)2015 – Rob Blokzijl, Dutch physicist and computer scientist (b.", "1943) 2015 – Joseph Engelberger, American physicist and engineer (b.", "1925)* 2015 – John F. Kurtzke, American neurologist and academic (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Jim Loscutoff, American basketball player (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Trevor Obst, Australian footballer and coach (b.", "1940)2018 – Vivian Lynn, New Zealand artist (b.", "1931) 2018 – Ken Berry, American actor, dancer, and singer (b.", "1933)2019 – Paula Tilbrook, English actress (b.", "1930)2020 – Arnie Robinson, American athlete (b.", "1948)2022 – Gaylord Perry, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1938)2023 – Sandra Day O'Connor, first female U.S. Supreme Court Justice (1981-2006) (b.", "1930)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Battle of the Sinop Day (Russia)Christian feast day:Alexander BriantAnsanusBlessed Bruna PellesiCastritianCharles de FoucauldEdmund CampionEligiusEvasiusGrwstNahumNicholas Ferrar (Episcopal Church)Ralph SherwinUrsicinus of BresciaDecember 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Damrong Rajanubhab Day (Thailand)Earliest day on which Farmer's Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Friday in December.", "(Ghana)Earliest day on which Good Neighborliness Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December.", "(Turkmenistan)Earliest day on which Sindhi Cultural Day can fall, while December 7 is the latest; celebrated on the first Sunday in December.", "(Sindhi diaspora)First President Day (Kazakhstan)Freedom and Democracy Day (Chad)Great Union Day, celebrates the union of Transylvania with Romania in 1918 (Romania)Military Abolition Day (Costa Rica)National Day (Myanmar)Republic Day (Central African Republic)Restoration of Independence Day (Portugal)Rosa Parks Day (Ohio and Oregon, United States)Self-governance Day or ''Fullveldisdagurinn'' (Iceland)Teachers' Day (Panama)World AIDS Day, and its related observances: Day Without Art" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 1" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 24" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 502 – Chinese emperor Xiao Yan names Xiao Tong his heir designate.", "* 640 – Pope John IV is elected, several months after his predecessor's death.", "* 759 – Tang dynasty poet Du Fu departs for Chengdu, where he is hosted by fellow poet Pei Di.", "1144 – The capital of the crusader County of Edessa falls to Imad ad-Din Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo.", "1294 – Pope Boniface VIII is elected, replacing St. Celestine V, who had resigned.", "1500 – A joint Venetian–Spanish fleet captures the Castle of St. George on the island of Cephalonia.===1601–1900===1737 – The Marathas defeat the combined forces of the Mughal Empire, Rajputs of Jaipur, Nizam of Hyderabad, Nawab of Awadh and Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Bhopal.", "1777 – Kiritimati, also called Christmas Island, is discovered by James Cook.", "1800 – The Plot of the rue Saint-Nicaise fails to kill Napoleon Bonaparte.", "1814 – Representatives of the United Kingdom and the United States sign the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812.", "1818 – The first performance of \"Silent Night\" takes place in the Nikolauskirche in Oberndorf, Austria.", "1826 – The Eggnog Riot at the United States Military Academy begins that night, wrapping up the following morning.", "1846 – British acquired Labuan from the Sultanate of Brunei for Great Britain.", "1865 – Jonathan Shank and Barry Ownby form The Ku Klux Klan.", "1868 – The Greek Presidential Guard is established as the royal escort by King George I.", "1871 – The opera ''Aida'' premieres in Cairo, Egypt.===1901–present===1906 – Reginald Fessenden transmits the first radio broadcast; consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech.", "1913 – The Italian Hall disaster in Calumet, Michigan results in the deaths of 73 striking workers families at a Christmas party participants (including 59 children) when someone falsely yells \"fire\".", "1914 – World War I: The \"Christmas truce\" begins.", "1918 – Region of Međimurje is captured by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Hungary.", "1920 – Gabriele D'Annunzio surrendered the Italian Regency of Carnaro in the city of Fiume to Italian Armed Forces.", "1924 – Albania becomes a republic.", "1929 – Assassination attempt on Argentine President Hipólito Yrigoyen.", "* 1929 – A four alarm fire breaks out in the West Wing of the White House in Washington, D.C.1939 – World War II: Pope Pius XII makes a Christmas Eve appeal for peace.", "1941 – World War II: Kuching is conquered by Japanese forces.", "* 1941 – World War II: Benghazi is conquered by the British Eighth Army.", "1942 – World War II: French monarchist, Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle, assassinates Vichy French Admiral François Darlan in Algiers, Algeria.", "1943 – World War II: U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower is named Supreme Allied Commander for Operation Overlord.", "1944 – World War II: The Belgian Troopship Leopoldville was torpedoed and sank with the loss of 763 soldiers and 56 crew.", "1945 – Five of nine children become missing after their home in Fayetteville, West Virginia, is burned down.", "1951 – Libya becomes independent.", "Idris I is proclaimed King of Libya.", "1952 – First flight of Britain's Handley Page Victor strategic bomber.", "1953 – Tangiwai disaster: In New Zealand's North Island, at Tangiwai, a railway bridge is damaged by a lahar and collapses beneath a passenger train, killing 151 people.", "1964 – Vietnam War: Viet Cong operatives bomb the Brinks Hotel in Saigon, South Vietnam to demonstrate they can strike an American installation in the heavily guarded capital.", "* 1964 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 282 crashes after takeoff from San Francisco International Airport, killing three.", "1966 – A Canadair CL-44 chartered by the United States military crashes into a small village in South Vietnam, killing 111.", "1968 – Apollo program: The crew of Apollo 8 enters into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so.", "They performed ten lunar orbits, took the ''Earthrise'' photograph, broadcast live TV pictures, and read the first ten verses of Genesis.", "1969 – Nigerian troops capture Umuahia, the Biafran capital.", "1971 – LANSA Flight 508 is struck by lightning and crashes in the Puerto Inca District in the Department of Huánuco in Peru, killing 91.", "1973 – District of Columbia Home Rule Act is passed, allowing residents of Washington, D.C. to elect their own local government.", "1974 – Cyclone Tracy devastates Darwin, Australia.", "1983 – Aeroflot Flight 601 crashes during takeoff from Leshukonskoye Airport, killing 44 of the 49 people on board.", "1994 – Air France Flight 8969 is hijacked on the ground at Houari Boumediene Airport, Algiers, Algeria.", "Over the course of three days three passengers are killed, as are all four terrorists.", "1996 – A Learjet 35 crashes into Smarts Mountain near Dorchester, New Hampshire, killing both pilots on board.", "1997 – The Sid El-Antri massacre in Algeria kills between 50 and 100 people.", "1999 – Indian Airlines Flight 814 is hijacked in Indian airspace between Kathmandu, Nepal, and Delhi, India.", "The aircraft landed at Kandahar in Afghanistan.", "The incident ended on December 31 with the release of 190 survivors (one passenger is killed).", "2003 – The Spanish police thwart an attempt by ETA to detonate 50 kg of explosives at 3:55 p.m. inside Madrid's busy Chamartín Station.", "2005 – Chad–Sudan relations: Chad declares a state of belligerence against Sudan following a December 18 attack on Adré, which left about 100 people dead.", "2008 – The Lord's Resistance Army, a Ugandan rebel group, begins a series of attacks against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, massacring more than 400.", "2018 – A helicopter crash kills Martha Érika Alonso, first female Governor of Puebla, Mexico, and her husband Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor.", "2021 – Burmese military forces commit the Mo So massacre, killing at least 44 civilians." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===3 BC – Galba, Roman emperor (d. 69)1166 – John, King of England (d. 1216)1389 – John V, Duke of Brittany (d. 1442)1474 – Bartolomeo degli Organi, Italian musician (d. 1539)1475 – Thomas Murner, German poet and translator (d. 1537)1508 – Pietro Carnesecchi, Italian scholar (d. 1567)1520 – Martha Leijonhufvud, Swedish noble (d. 1584)1537 – Willem IV van den Bergh, Stadtholder of Guelders and Zutphen (d. 1586)1549 – Kaspar Ulenberg, German theologian (d. 1617)1588 – Constance of Austria (d. 1631)1596 – Leonaert Bramer, Dutch painter (d. 1674)1597 – Honoré II, Prince of Monaco (d. 1662)===1601–1900===1625 – Johann Rudolph Ahle, German organist, composer, and theorist (d. 1673)1635 – Mariana of Austria (d. 1696)1679 – Domenico Sarro, Italian composer and educator (d. 1744)1698 – William Warburton, English bishop (d. 1779)1726 – Johann Hartmann, Danish composer (d. 1793)1731 – Julie Bondeli, Swiss salonist and lady of letters (d. 1778)1754 – George Crabbe, English priest, surgeon, and poet (d. 1832)1761 – Selim III, Ottoman sultan (d. 1808)* 1761 – Jean-Louis Pons, French astronomer (d. 1831)1797 – Carl Georg von Wächter, German jurist (d. 1880)1798 – Adam Mickiewicz, Polish poet and playwright (d. 1855)1809 – Kit Carson, American general (d. 1868)1810 – Wilhelm Marstrand, Danish painter and illustrator (d. 1873)1812 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal, German lawyer and jurist (d. 1894)1818 – James Prescott Joule, English physicist and brewer (d. 1889)1822 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (d. 1888)1827 – Alexander von Oettingen, German theologian and statistician (d. 1905)1837 – Empress Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1898)1843 – Lydia Koidula, Estonian poet and playwright (d. 1886)1845 – George I of Greece (d. 1913)1865 – Szymon Askenazy, Polish historian, educator, and diplomat, founded the Askenazy school (d. 1935)1867 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (d. 1915)1868 – Charles Harvey Bollman, American naturalist (d. 1889)* 1868 – Emanuel Lasker, German chess player, mathematician, and philosopher (d. 1941)1869 – Henriette Roland Holst, Dutch poet, playwright, and politician (d. 1952)1872 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1927)1875 – Émile Wegelin, French rower (d. 1962)1877 – Sigrid Schauman, Finnish painter and critic (d. 1979)1879 – Émile Nelligan, Canadian poet (d. 1941) 1879 – Alexandrine of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1952)1880 – Johnny Gruelle, American author and illustrator (d. 1939)1881 – Charles Wakefield Cadman, American composer and critic (d. 1946)1882 – Hans Rebane, Estonian journalist and politician, 8th Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1961) 1882 – Georges Legagneux, French aviator (d. 1914) 1883 – Stefan Jaracz, Polish actor and producer (d. 1945) 1885 – Paul Manship, American sculptor (d. 1966)1886 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American actor, director, and producer (d. 1962)1887 – Louis Jouvet, French actor and producer (d. 1951)1891 – Feodor Stepanovich Rojankovsky, Russian illustrator and painter (d. 1970)1892 – Ruth Chatterton, American actress (d. 1961)* 1893 – Harry Warren, American pianist and composer (d. 1981)1894 – Georges Guynemer, French captain and pilot (d. 1917) 1894 – Jack Thayer, American businessman (d. 1945)1895 – E. Roland Harriman, American financier and philanthropist (d. 1978) 1895 – Noel Streatfeild, English author (d. 1986)* 1895 – Marguerite Williams, American geologist (d. 1991)1897 – Ville Pörhölä, Finnish shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1964) 1897 – Väinö Sipilä, Finnish runner (d. 1987)1898 – Baby Dodds, American drummer (d. 1959)1900 – Joey Smallwood, Canadian journalist and politician, 1st Premier of Newfoundland (d. 1991)* 1900 – Hawayo Takata, Japanese-American teacher and master practitioner of Reiki (d. 1980)===1901–present===1903 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (d. 1972) 1903 – Ernst Krenkel, Polish-Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1971)* 1903 – Ava Helen Pauling, American humanitarian and activist (d. 1981)1904 – Joseph M. Juran, Romanian-American engineer and businessman (d. 2008)1905 – Howard Hughes, American businessman, engineer, and pilot (d. 1976)1906 – Franz Waxman, German-American composer and conductor (d. 1967)1907 – I. F. Stone, American journalist and author (d. 1989)1910 – Ellen Braumüller, German javelin thrower and triathlete (d. 1991) 1910 – Fritz Leiber, American author and poet (d. 1992)* 1910 – Max Miedinger, Swiss typeface designer, created Helvetica (d. 1980)1913 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter and academic (d. 1967)1914 – Ralph Marterie, Italian-American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1978)* 1914 – Herbert Reinecker, German author and screenwriter (d. 2007)1918 – Dave Bartholomew, American bandleader, composer and arranger (d. 2019)1919 – Qateel Shifai, Pakistani poet and songwriter (d. 2001)* 1919 – Pierre Soulages, French artist (d. 2022)1920 – Franco Lucentini, Italian author and screenwriter (d. 2002) 1920 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian-Russian lieutenant and navigator (d. 1944)1921 – Bill Dudley, American football player (d. 2010)1922 – Ava Gardner, American actress (d. 1990)1923 – George Patton IV, American general (d. 2004) 1923 – William C. Schneider, American aerospace engineer (d. 1999)1924 – Lee Dorsey, American singer-songwriter (d. 1986) 1924 – Abdirizak Haji Hussein, Somalian soldier and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Somalia (d. 2014)* 1924 – Mohammed Rafi, Indian singer (d. 1980)1927 – Mary Higgins Clark, American author (d. 2020)1928 – Adam Exner, Canadian Roman Catholic prelate (d. 2023)* 1928 – Norman Rossington, English actor (d. 1999)* 1928 – Lev Vlassenko, Georgian-Australian pianist and educator (d. 1996)1929 – Lennart Skoglund, Swedish footballer (d. 1975) 1929 – Red Sullivan, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2019)* 1929 – Philip Ziegler, English historian and author (d. 2023)1930 – Robert Joffrey, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1988) 1930 – John J. Kelley, American runner (d. 2011)1931 – Ray Bryant, American pianist and composer (d. 2011) 1931 – Mauricio Kagel, Argentinian-German composer and scholar (d. 2008)1932 – Colin Cowdrey, Indian-English cricketer (d. 2000) 1932 – On Kawara, Japanese-American painter (d. 2014)1934 – John Critchinson, English pianist and composer (d. 2017) 1934 – Alex Hutchinson, Australian jazz musician* 1934 – Stjepan Mesić, Croatian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Croatia1936 – Ivan Lawrence, English lawyer and politician1937 – Félix, Brazilian footballer and manager (d. 2012)* 1937 – John Taylor, Baron Kilclooney, Northern Irish politician, Irish Minister of Home Affairs1938 – Bobby Henrich, American baseball player 1938 – Valentim Loureiro, Portuguese soldier and politician1940 – Janet Carroll, American actress and singer (d. 2012) 1940 – Anthony Fauci, American physician, Director of National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases1941 – Mike Hazlewood, English singer-songwriter (d. 2001)1942 – Indra Bania, Indian actor, director, and playwright (d. 2015)* 1942 – Jonathan Borofsky, American sculptor and painter* 1942 – Đoàn Viết Hoạt, Vietnamese journalist, educator, and activist1943 – Tarja Halonen, Finnish lawyer and politician, 11th President of Finland 1943 – Suzy Menkes, English journalist and critic1944 – Barry Elliott, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2018) 1944 – Mike Curb, American businessman and politician, 42nd Lieutenant Governor of California* 1944 – Oswald Gracias, Indian cardinal* 1944 – Daniel Johnson, Jr., Canadian lawyer and politician, 25th Premier of Quebec* 1944 – Erhard Keller, German speed skater* 1944 – Bob Shaw, Australian golfer* 1944 – Woody Shaw, American trumpeter (d. 1989)1945 – Lemmy, English hard rock singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2015) 1945 – Nicholas Meyer, American screenwriter, film director, and author* 1945 – Steve Smith, Canadian-American actor and comedian1946 – Jan Akkerman, Dutch rock guitarist and songwriter 1946 – Jeff Sessions, American lawyer and politician, 44th Attorney General of Alabama and 84th Attorney General of the United States1947 – Kevin Sheedy, Australian footballer and coach1948 – Stan Bowles, English footballer and sportscaster* 1948 – Frank Oliver, New Zealand rugby player and coach1949 – Warwick Brown, Australian race car driver 1949 – Randy Neugebauer, American accountant and politician1950 – Dana Gioia, American poet and critic 1950 – Hiroshi Ikushima, Japanese businessman and academic* 1950 – Libby Larsen, American composer* 1950 – Tommy Turtle, British soldier (d. 2020) 1951 – John D'Acquisto, American baseball player 1951 – Nick Kent, English-French journalist and author1952 – Michael Ray, American jazz musician1953 – Timothy Carhart, American actor1954 – Yves Debay, Congolese-French commander and journalist (d. 2013) 1954 – José María Figueres, Costa Rican businessman and politician, President of Costa Rica (1994-1998)* 1954 – Helen Jones, English lawyer and politician1955 – Grand L. Bush, American actor 1955 – Scott Fischer, American mountaineer and guide (d. 1996)* 1955 – Clarence Gilyard, American actor and educator (d. 2022)1956 – Shim Hwa-jin, South Korean academic and educator 1956 – Anil Kapoor, Indian actor and producer1957 – Hamid Karzai, Afghan politician, 12th President of Afghanistan1958 – Munetaka Higuchi, Japanese drummer and producer (d. 2008)* 1958 – Paul Pressey, American basketball player and coach* 1958 – Gene Sperling, American economist * 1958 – Diane Tell, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist1959 – Chris Blackhurst, English journalist 1959 – Lee Daniels, American director and producer1960 – Glenn McQueen, Canadian-American animator (d. 2002) 1960 – Carol Vorderman, Welsh television host1961 – Ilham Aliyev, Azerbaijani businessman and politician, 4th President of Azerbaijan 1961 – Mary Barra, American businesswoman, current CEO and chairwoman of General Motors* 1961 – Eriko Kitagawa, Japanese director and screenwriter* 1961 – Darren Wharton, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player* 1961 – Wade Williams, American actor * 1961 – Jay Wright, American basketball player and coach1962 – Kate Spade, American fashion designer (d. 2018)1963 – Caroline Aherne, English actress, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2016)* 1963 – Jay Bilas, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1963 – Timo Jutila, Finnish ice hockey player and sportscaster* 1963 – Mary Ramsey, American singer-songwriter and violinist * 1963 – Neil Turbin, American singer-songwriter 1964 – Mark Valley, American actor 1965 – Millard Powers, American bass player, songwriter, and producer 1966 – Diedrich Bader, American actor1967 – Mikhail Shchennikov, Russian race walker* 1967 – Pernilla Wahlgren, Swedish singer and actress1968 – Doyle Bramhall II, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1968 – Marleen Renders, Belgian runner1969 – Milan Blagojevic, Australian footballer and manager 1969 – Pernille Fischer Christensen, Danish director and screenwriter* 1969 – Taro Goto, Japanese soccer player* 1969 – Leavander Johnson, American boxer (d. 2005)* 1969 – Ryuji Kato, Japanese soccer player* 1969 – Nick Love, English director and screenwriter* 1969 – Ed Miliband, English academic and politician, Minister for the Cabinet Office* 1969 – Mark Millar, Scottish author* 1969 – Luis Musrri, Chilean footballer and manager* 1969 – Oleg Skripochka, Russian astronaut and engineer* 1969 – Gintaras Staučė, Lithuanian footballer and manager1970 – Adam Haslett, American author and academic 1970 – Amaury Nolasco, Puerto Rican actor 1971 – Geoff Allott, New Zealand cricketer 1971 – Sascha Fischer, German rugby player* 1971 – Ricky Martin, Puerto Rican singer-songwriter and actor 1972 – Álvaro Mesén, Costa Rican footballer 1972 – Klaus Schnellenkamp, Chilean businessman and author1973 – Liu Dong, Chinese-Spanish runner 1973 – Paul Foot, English comedian* 1973 – Stephenie Meyer, American author and film producer * 1973 – Ali Salem Tamek, Moroccan activist1974 – Thure Lindhardt, Danish actor 1974 – Paal Nilssen-Love, Norwegian drummer and composer * 1974 – Marcelo Salas, Chilean footballer* 1974 – Ryan Seacrest, American radio host and television personality, and producer * 1974 – J.D.", "Walsh, American actor, director, and producer1976 – Linda Ferga, French hurdler1977 – Michael Raymond-James, American actor 1978 – Yıldıray Baştürk, German-Turkish footballer 1978 – Warren Tredrea, Australian footballer and sportscaster1979 – Chris Hero, American wrestler and trainer1980 – Stephen Appiah, Ghanaian footballer* 1980 – Tomas Kalnoky, Czech-American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1980 – Maarja-Liis Ilus, Estonian pop musician1981 – Dima Bilan, Russian singer-songwriter and actor1983 – Gregor Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player* 1983 – Tim Jennings, American football player1984 – Isaac De Gois, Australian rugby league player 1984 – Austin Stowell, American actor 1985 – Alexey Dmitriev, German ice hockey player 1985 – David Ragan, American race car driver1986 – Tim Elliott, American mixed martial artist 1986 – Kyrylo Fesenko, Ukrainian basketball player1987 – Jane Summersett, American ice dancer1988 – Stefanos Athanasiadis, Greek footballer* 1988 – Emre Özkan, Turkish footballer* 1988 – Simon Zenke, Nigerian footballer1989 – Matt Calvert, Canadian ice hockey player1990 – Brigetta Barrett, American high jumper* 1990 – Marcus Jordan, American basketball player* 1990 – Ryo Miyake, Japanese fencer1991 – Sofia Black-D'Elia, American actress 1991 – Lara Michel, Swiss tennis player* 1991 – Eric Moreland, American basketball player* 1991 – Louis Tomlinson, English singer* 1991 – Taylor Zakhar Perez, American actor1992 – Davante Adams, American football player 1992 – P. J. Hairston, American basketball player1994 – Fa'amanu Brown, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Miguel Castro, Dominican baseball player* 1994 – Matt Frawley, Australian rugby league player* 1994 – Han Seung-woo, South Korean singer1995 – Anett Kontaveit, Estonian tennis player1998 – Alexis Mac Allister, Argentine footballer2002 – Joshua Primo, Canadian basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===36 – Gongsun Shu, emperor of Chengjia* 427 – Archbishop Sisinnius I of Constantinople* 903 – Hedwiga, duchess of Saxony* 950 – Shi Hongzhao, Chinese general* 950 – Wang Zhang, Chinese official* 950 – Yang Bin, Chinese chancellor1193 – Roger III of Sicily (b.", "1175)1257 – John I, Count of Hainaut (b.", "1218)1263 – Hōjō Tokiyori, regent of Japan (b.", "1227)1281 – Henry V of Luxembourg (b.", "1216)1449 – Walter Bower, Scottish chronicler (b.", "1385)1453 – John Dunstaple, English composer (b.", "1390)1456 – Đurađ Branković, Despot of Serbia (b.", "1377)1473 – John Cantius, Polish scholar and theologian (b.", "1390)1524 – Vasco da Gama, Portuguese explorer and politician, Governor of Portuguese India (b.", "1469)1541 – Andreas Karlstadt, Christian theologian and reformer (b.", "1486)===1601–1900===1635 – Hester Jonas, German nurse (b.", "1570)1660 – Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange (b.", "1631)1707 – Noël Coypel, French painter and educator (b.", "1628)1813 – Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan (b.", "1740)1844 – Friedrich Bernhard Westphal, Danish-German painter (b.", "1803)1863 – William Makepeace Thackeray, English author and poet (b.", "1811)1865 – Charles Lock Eastlake, English painter and historian (b.", "1793)1867 – José Mariano Salas, Mexican general and politician.", "President of Mexico (1846, 1859) and regent of the Second Mexican Empire (b.", "1797)1868 – Adolphe d'Archiac, French paleontologist and geologist (b.", "1802)1872 – William John Macquorn Rankine, Scottish physicist and engineer (b.", "1820)1873 – Johns Hopkins, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1795)1879 – Anna Bochkoltz, German operatic soprano, voice teacher and composer (b.", "1815)1889 – Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate, Dutch pastor and poet (b.", "1819)1893 – B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (b.", "1807)1898 – Charbel Makhluf, Lebanese priest and saint (b.", "1828)===1901–present===1914 – John Muir, Scottish-American geologist, botanist, and author, founded Sierra Club (b.", "1838)1920 – Stephen Mosher Wood, American lieutenant and politician (b.", "1832)1923 – Joe Lacey, Irish Hunger Striker died during the 1923 Irish hunger strikes (b.", "1895)1926 – Wesley Coe, American shot putter, hammer thrower, and discus thrower (b.", "1879)1931 – Carlo Fornasini, micropalaeontologist (b.", "1854)* 1931 – Flying Hawk, American warrior, educator and historian (b.", "1854)1935 – Alban Berg, Austrian composer and educator (b.", "1885)1938 – Bruno Taut, German architect and urban planner (b.", "1880)1941 – Siegfried Alkan, German composer (b.", "1858)1942 – François Darlan, French admiral and politician, 122nd Prime Minister of France (b.", "1881)1945 – Josephine Sabel, American singer and comedian (b.", "1866)1947 – Charles Gondouin, French rugby player and tug of war competitor (b.", "1875)1957 – Norma Talmadge, American actress and producer (b.", "1894)1961 – Robert Hillyer, American poet and academic (b.", "1895)1962 – Wilhelm Ackermann, German mathematician (b.", "1896) 1962 – Eveline Adelheid von Maydell, German illustrator (b.", "1890)1964 – Claudia Jones, Trinidad-British journalist and activist (b.", "1915)1965 – John Black, English businessman (b.", "1895)* 1965 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (b.", "1906)1967 – Burt Baskin, American businessman, co-founded Baskin-Robbins (b.", "1913)1969 – Stanisław Błeszyński, Polish-German entomologist and lepidopterist (b.", "1927)* 1969 – Cortelia Clark, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1907)* 1969 – Olivia FitzRoy, English soldier and author (b.", "1921)* 1969 – Alfred B. Skar, Norwegian journalist and politician (b.", "1896)1971 – Maria Koepcke, German-Peruvian ornithologist and zoologist (b.", "1924)1972 – Gisela Richter, English-American archaeologist and historian (b.", "1882)1973 – Fritz Gause, German historian and author (b.", "1893)1975 – Bernard Herrmann, American composer and conductor (b.", "1911)1977 – Samael Aun Weor, Colombian author and educator (b.", "1917)1980 – Karl Dönitz, German admiral and politician, President of Germany (b.", "1891)1982 – Louis Aragon, French author and poet (b.", "1897)1984 – Peter Lawford, English-American actor (b.", "1923)1985 – Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, American lawyer (b.", "1904) 1985 – Camille Tourville, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b.", "1927)1986 – Gardner Fox, American author (b.", "1911)1987 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, 45th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b.", "1919)* 1987 – M. G. Ramachandran, Sri Lankan-Indian actor, producer, and politician, 5th Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu (b.", "1917)1988 – Jainendra Kumar, Indian author (b.", "1905)1990 – Thorbjørn Egner, Norwegian playwright and songwriter (b.", "1922)1991 – Virginia Sorensen, American author (b.", "1912)1992 – Bobby LaKind, American singer-songwriter and conga player (b.", "1945)* 1992 – James Mathews, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1968)* 1992 – Peyo, Belgian cartoonist, created The Smurfs (b.", "1928)1993 – Norman Vincent Peale, American minister and author (b.", "1898)1994 – John Boswell, American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1947)* 1994 – Rossano Brazzi, Italian actor (b.", "1916)1997 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1930) 1997 – Toshiro Mifune, Chinese-Japanese actor and producer (b.", "1920)* 1997 – Pierre Péladeau, Canadian businessman, founded Quebecor (b.", "1925)1998 – Syl Apps, Canadian ice hockey player and pole vaulter (b.", "1915)1999 – Bill Bowerman, American runner, coach, and businessman, co-founded Nike, Inc. (b.", "1911)* 1999 – Maurice Couve de Murville, French soldier and politician, 152nd Prime Minister of France (b.", "1907)* 1999 – João Figueiredo, Brazilian general and politician, 30th President of Brazil (b.", "1918)* 1999 – William C. Schneider, American aerospace engineer (b.", "1923)2000 – John Cooper, English businessman, co-founded the Cooper Car Company (b.", "1923)2002 – Kjell Aukrust, Norwegian author and poet (b.", "1920)* 2002 – Jake Thackray, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1938)2004 – Johnny Oates, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b.", "1946)2006 – Braguinha, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1907)* 2006 – Kenneth Sivertsen, Norwegian guitarist and composer (b.", "1961)* 2006 – Frank Stanton, American businessman (b.", "1908)2007 – Nicholas Pumfrey, English lawyer and judge (b.", "1951) 2007 – George Warrington, American businessman (b.", "1952)2008 – Ralph Harris, British journalist (b.", "1921) 2008 – Harold Pinter, English playwright, screenwriter, director, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1930)2009 – Marcus Bakker, Dutch journalist and politician (b.", "1923) 2009 – Rafael Caldera, Venezuelan lawyer and politician, 65th President of Venezuela (b.", "1916)* 2009 – George Michael, American sportscaster (b.", "1939)* 2009 – Gero von Wilpert, German author and academic (b.", "1933)2010 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (b.", "1926) 2010 – Frans de Munck, Dutch footballer and manager (b.", "1922)* 2010 – Orestes Quércia, Brazilian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of São Paulo State (b.", "1938)* 2010 – Eino Tamberg, Estonian composer and educator (b.", "1930)2011 – Johannes Heesters, Dutch-German entertainer (b.", "1903)2012 – Richard Rodney Bennett, English-American composer and academic (b.", "1936)* 2012 – Charles Durning, American soldier and actor (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Jack Klugman, American actor (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Dennis O'Driscoll, Irish poet and critic (b.", "1954)2013 – Frédéric Back, German-Canadian director, animator, and screenwriter (b.", "1924) 2013 – Ian Barbour, Chinese-American author and scholar (b.", "1923)* 2013 – John M. Goldman, English haematologist and oncologist (b.", "1938)* 2013 – Allan McKeown, English-American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1946)2014 – Buddy DeFranco, American clarinet player (b.", "1923) 2014 – Edward Greenspan, Canadian lawyer and author (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Herbert Harris, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1926)* 2014 – Krzysztof Krauze, Polish director and screenwriter (b.", "1953)2015 – Turid Birkeland, Norwegian businesswoman and politician, Norwegian Minister of Culture (b.", "1962) 2015 – Letty Jimenez Magsanoc, Filipino journalist (b.", "1941)* 2015 – Adriana Olguín, Chilean lawyer and politician, Chilean Minister of Justice (b.", "1911)2016 – Rick Parfitt, British musician (b.", "1948) 2016 – Liz Smith, English actress (b.", "1921)* 2016 – Richard Adams, English author (b.", "1920)* 2016 – Ben Xi, Chinese singer (b.1994)2017 – Jerry Kindall, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1935) 2017 – Heather Menzies, Canadian-American model and actress (b.", "1949)2018 – Martha Érika Alonso, Governor of Puebla (b.", "1973) 2018 – Rafael Moreno Valle Rosas, former governor of Puebla (b.", "1968)2023 – Cheri Barry, American politician and mayor of Meridian, Mississippi (b.", "1955) 2023 – Richard Bowes, American science fiction author (b.", "1944)* 2023 – Troy Dargan, Cook Islands rugby league footballer (b.", "1997)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Adela and Irmina Paola Elisabetta Cerioli Adam and Eve December 24 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Christmas Eve (Christianity) and its related observances: Aðfangadagskvöld, the day when the 13th and the last Yule Lad arrives to towns.", "(Iceland) Feast of the Seven Fishes (Italian Americans) Juleaften (Denmark)/Julaften (Norway)/Julafton (Sweden) Nittel Nacht (certain Orthodox Jewish denominations) Nochebuena (Spain and Spanish-speaking countries) The Declaration of Christmas Peace (Old Great Square of Turku, Finland's official Christmas City) Wigilia (Poland) Quviasukvik, the Inuit new year (Alaska, Canada, Greenland and Russia)* Kūčios (Lithuania)* Independence Day (Libya)* Day of Military Honour – Siege of Ismail (Russia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 24" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 26" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 887 – Berengar I is elected as king of Italy by the lords of Lombardy.", "He is crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at Pavia.", "1481 – Battle of Westbroek: An army of 4,000 to 5,000 soldiers raised by David of Burgundy, Bishop of Utrecht, attacks an armed mob of people from nearby Utrecht who were trying to avenge the massacre of the inhabitants of Westbroek.===1601–1900===1704 – Second Battle of Anandpur: In the Second Battle of Anandpur, Aurangzeb's two generals, Wazir Khan and Zaberdast Khan executed two children of Guru Gobind Singh, Zorawar Singh aged eight and Fateh Singh aged five, by burying them alive into a wall.", "1709 – The opera ''Agrippina'' by George Frideric Handel premiered in Venice.", "1723 – Bach led the first performance of ''Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes'', BWV 40, his first Christmas Cantata composed for Leipzig.", "1776 – American Revolutionary War: In the Battle of Trenton, the Continental Army attacks and successfully defeats a garrison of Hessian forces.", "1790 – Louis XVI of France gives his public assent to Civil Constitution of the Clergy during the French Revolution.", "1793 – Second Battle of Wissembourg: France defeats Austria.", "1799 – Henry Lee III's eulogy to George Washington in congress declares him as \"first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of his countrymen\".", "1805 – Austria and France sign the Treaty of Pressburg.", "1806 – Battles of Pultusk and Golymin: Russian forces hold French forces under Napoleon.", "1811 – A theater fire in Richmond, Virginia kills 72 people, including the Governor of Virginia George William Smith and the president of the First National Bank of Virginia Abraham B.", "Venable.", "1825 – Advocates of liberalism in Russia rise up against Czar Nicholas I in the Decembrist revolt, but are later suppressed.", "1843 – The discovery of octonions by John T. Graves, who denoted them with a boldface '''O''', was announced to his mathematician friend William Hamilton, discoverer of quaternions, in a letter on this date.", "1860 – First Rules derby is held between Sheffield F.C.", "and Hallam F.C., the oldest football fixture in the world.", "1861 – American Civil War: The ''Trent Affair'': Confederate diplomatic envoys James Murray Mason and John Slidell are freed by the United States government, thus heading off a possible war between the United States and the United Kingdom.", "1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Chickasaw Bayou begins as General William Tecumseh Sherman begins landing his troops.", "* 1862 – The largest mass-hanging in U.S. history took place in Mankato, Minnesota, where 38 Native Americans died.", "1871 – ''Thespis'', the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration, debuts.", "1898 – Marie and Pierre Curie announce the isolation of radium.===1901–present===1919 – Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox is sold to the New York Yankees by owner Harry Frazee, allegedly establishing the Curse of the Bambino superstition.", "1941 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs a bill establishing the fourth Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day in the United States.", "1941 – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill addresses a joint meeting of the U.S.", "Congress.", "1943 – World War II: German warship ''Scharnhorst'' is sunk off of Norway's North Cape after a battle against major Royal Navy forces.", "1944 – World War II: George S. Patton's Third Army breaks the encirclement of surrounded U.S. forces at Bastogne, Belgium.", "1948 – Cardinal József Mindszenty is arrested in Hungary and accused of treason and conspiracy.", "* 1948 – The last Soviet troops withdraw from North Korea.", "1963 – The Beatles' \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" and \"I Saw Her Standing There\" are released in the United States, marking the beginning of Beatlemania on an international level.", "1966 – The first Kwanzaa is celebrated by Maulana Karenga, the chair of Black Studies at California State University, Long Beach.", "1968 – The Communist Party of the Philippines is established by Jose Maria Sison, breaking away from the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930.", "1972 – Vietnam War: As part of Operation Linebacker II, 120 American B-52 Stratofortress bombers attacked Hanoi, including 78 launched from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, the largest single combat launch in Strategic Air Command history.", "1975 – Tu-144, the world's first commercial supersonic aircraft, surpassing Mach 2, goes into service.", "1978 – The inaugural Paris-Dakar Rally begins.", "1980 – Witnesses report the first of several sightings of unexplained lights near RAF Woodbridge, in Rendlesham Forest, Suffolk, England, United Kingdom, an incident called \"Britain's Roswell\".", "1989 – United Express Flight 2415 crashes on approach to the Tri-Cities Airport in Pasco, Washington, killing all six people on board.", "1991 – The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union meets and formally dissolves the Soviet Union, ending the Cold War.", "1994 – Four Armed Islamic Group hijackers seize control of Air France Flight 8969.When the plane lands at Marseille, a French Gendarmerie assault team boards the aircraft and kills the hijackers.", "1998 – Iraq announces its intention to fire upon U.S. and British warplanes that patrol the northern and southern no-fly zones.", "1999 – The storm Lothar sweeps across Central Europe, killing 137 and causing US$1.3 billion in damage.", "2003 – The 6.6 Bam earthquake shakes southeastern Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent''), leaving more than 26,000 dead and 30,000 injured.", "2004 – The 9.1–9.3 Indian Ocean earthquake shakes northern Sumatra with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent'').", "One of the largest observed tsunamis, it affected coastal and partially mainland areas of Thailand, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, and Indonesia; death toll is estimated at 227,898.", "* 2004 – Orange Revolution: The final run-off election in Ukraine is held under heavy international scrutiny.", "2006 – Two earthquakes in Hengchun, Taiwan measuring 7.0 and 6.9 on the moment magnitude scale kill two and disrupt telecommunications across Asia.", "2012 – China opens the world's longest high-speed rail route, which links Beijing and Guangzhou.", "2015 – During the December 2015 North American storm complex, a tornado outbreak affects the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, killing 13 people.", "One EF4 tornado caused 10 of the 13 fatalities, doing substantial damage to the suburb of Rowlett." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1194 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1250)1446 – Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, French noble (d. 1472)1526 – Rose Lok, businesswoman and Protestant exile (d.1613)1532 – Wilhelm Xylander, German scholar and academic (d. 1576)1536 – Yi I, Korean philosopher and scholar (d. 1584)1537 – Albert, Count of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1593)1581 – Philip III, Landgrave of Hesse-Butzbach (d. 1643)===1601–1900===1618 – Elisabeth of the Palatinate, German princess, philosopher, and Calvinist (d. 1680)1628 – John Page, English Colonial politician (d. 1692)1646 – Robert Bolling, English/English Colonial merchant and planter (d. 1709)1687 – Johann Georg Pisendel, German violinist and composer (d. 1755)1716 – Thomas Gray, English poet and scholar (d. 1771) 1716 – Jean François de Saint-Lambert, French soldier and philosopher (d. 1803)1723 – Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, German-French author and playwright (d. 1807)1737 – Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (d. 1815)1751 – Lord George Gordon, English lieutenant and politician (d. 1793) 1751 – Clemens Maria Hofbauer, Austrian priest, missionary, and saint (d. 1820)1769 – Ernst Moritz Arndt, German writer and poet (d. 1860)1780 – Mary Somerville, Scottish mathematician, astronomer, and author (d. 1872)1785 – Étienne Constantin de Gerlache, Belgian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1871)1782 – Philaret Drozdov, Russian metropolitan and saint (d. 1867)1791 – Charles Babbage, English mathematician and engineer, invented the Difference engine (d. 1871)1803 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (d. 1882)1819 – E. D. E. N. Southworth, American author and educator (d. 1899)1820 – Dion Boucicault, Irish actor and playwright (d. 1890)1837 – Morgan Bulkeley, American soldier and politician, 54th Governor of Connecticut (d. 1922) 1837 – George Dewey, American admiral (d. 1917)1852 – Johannes François Snelleman, Dutch zoologist, orientalist, and ethnographer (d. 1938)1853 – René Bazin, French author and academic (d. 1932)1854 – José Yves Limantour, Mexican financier and politician, Mexican Secretary of Finance (d. 1935)1859 – William Stephens, American lawyer and politician, 24th Governor of California (d. 1944)1863 – Charles Pathé, French record producer, co-founded Pathé Records (d. 1957)1864 – Yun Chi-ho, Korean activist and politician (d. 1945)1867 – Phan Bội Châu, Vietnamese activist (d. 1940)1869 – Mathieu Cordang, Dutch cyclist (d. 1942)1872 – Norman Angell, English journalist, academic, and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)1873 – Thomas Wass, English cricketer (d. 1953)1874 – Khan Bahadur Ahsanullah, Bangladeshi theologian and academic (d. 1965)1883 – Maurice Utrillo, French painter (d. 1955)1885 – Bazoline Estelle Usher, African-American educator (d. 1992)1887 – Arthur Percival, English general (d. 1966)1888 – Marius Canard, French orientalist and historian (d. 1982)1890 – Konstantinos Georgakopoulos, Greek lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973)* 1890 – Percy Hodge, English runner (d. 1967)1891 – Henry Miller, American author and painter (d. 1980)1892 – Don Barclay, American actor and illustrator (d. 1975)1893 – Mao Zedong, Chinese politician, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party (d. 1976)1894 – Jean Toomer, American author and poet (d. 1967)1900 – Evelyn Bark, leading member of the British Red Cross, first female recipient of the CMG (d. 1993) ===1901–present===1901 – Elmar Muuk, Estonian linguist and author (d. 1941)1902 – Anatoli Lvovich Kaplan, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1980)1903 – Elisha Cook, Jr., American actor (d. 1995)1904 – Alejo Carpentier, Swiss-Cuban musicologist and author (d. 1980)1905 – William Loeb III, American publisher (d. 1981)1907 – Albert Gore, Sr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1998)1908 – Ralph Hill, American runner (d. 1994)1909 – Matt Gordy, American pole vaulter (d. 1989)1910 – Imperio Argentina, Argentine-Spanish actress and singer (d. 2003)* 1910 – Marguerite Churchill, American actress (d. 2000)1912 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (d. 1962)1913 – Frank Swift, English footballer and journalist (d. 1958)1914 – Richard Widmark, American actor (d. 2008)1915 – Rolf Botvid, Swedish actor and screenwriter (d. 1998) 1918 – Olga Lopes-Seale, Guyanese-Barbadian singer and radio host (d. 2011) 1918 – Georgios Rallis, Greek lieutenant and politician, 173rd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2006)1921 – Steve Allen, American actor, singer, talk show host, and screenwriter (d. 2000) 1921 – John Severin, American illustrator (d. 2012)1922 – Richard Mayes, English actor (d. 2006)1923 – Richard Artschwager, American painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 2013)1924 – Frank Broyles, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2017)1926 – Earle Brown, American composer (d. 2002)1927 – Denis Gifford, English journalist and historian (d. 2000) 1927 – Alan King, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)* 1927 – Stu Miller, American baseball player (d. 2015)* 1927 – Denis Quilley, English actor (d. 2003)1928 – Martin Cooper, American engineer, invented the mobile phone1929 – Kathleen Crowley, American actress (d. 2017)* 1929 – Régine Zylberberg, Belgian-French singer and actress (d. 2022)1930 – Jean Ferrat, French singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2010) 1930 – Harry Gamble, American football player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)* 1930 – Donald Moffat, English-American actor (d. 2018)1933 – Caroll Spinney, American puppeteer and voice actor (d. 2019)1935 – Duke Fakir, American singer* 1935 – Rohan Kanhai, Guyanese cricketer * 1935 – Norm Ullman, Canadian ice hockey player1936 – Peep Jänes, Estonian architect 1936 – Trevor Taylor, English race car driver (d. 2010)1937 – John Horton Conway, English mathematician, known for Conway's Game of Life (d. 2020)1938 – Bahram Beyzai, Iranian director, producer, and screenwriter* 1938 – Robert Hamerton-Kelly, South African-American pastor, scholar, and author (d. 2013)* 1938 – Alamgir Kabir, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1989)* 1938 – Mirko Kovač, Yugoslav-Croatian author, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 2013)1939 – Fred Schepisi, Australian director and screenwriter 1939 – Phil Spector, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2021) 1940 – Edward C. Prescott, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2022) 1940 – Ray Sadecki, American baseball player (d. 2014)1941 – Daniel Schmid, Swiss actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006)1942 – Vinicio Cerezo, Guatemalan politician, 28th President of Guatemala* 1942 – Catherine Coulter, American author* 1942 – Gray Davis, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 37th Governor of California1944 – William Ayers, American academic and activist1945 – John Walsh, American television host, producer, and activist, created ''America's Most Wanted''1946 – Alan Frumin, American lawyer and politician 1946 – Tiit Rosenberg, Estonian historian and academic1947 – James T. Conway, American general 1947 – Jean Echenoz, French author * 1947 – Carlton Fisk, American baseball player* 1947 – Josef Janíček, Czech singer-songwriter, guitarist, and keyboard player* 1947 – Liz Lochhead, Scottish poet and playwright* 1947 – Richard Levis McCormick, American historian and academic1948 – Candy Crowley, American journalist1949 – José Ramos-Horta, East Timorese lawyer and politician, 2nd President of East Timor, Nobel Prize laureate1950 – Raja Pervaiz Ashraf, Pakistani businessman and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Pakistan 1950 – Mario Mendoza, Mexican baseball player and manager1953 – Leonel Fernández, Dominican lawyer and politician, 51st President of the Dominican Republic 1953 – Toomas Hendrik Ilves, Swedish-Estonian journalist and politician, 4th President of Estonia* 1953 – Makis Katsavakis, Greek footballer and manager* 1953 – Henning Schmitz, German drummer1954 – Peter Hillary, New Zealand mountaineer and philanthropist 1954 – Ozzie Smith, American baseball player and sportscaster1955 – Evan Bayh, American lawyer and politician, 46th Governor of Indiana1956 – David Sedaris, American comedian, author, and radio host1957 – Dermot Murnaghan, English-Northern Irish journalist and game show host1958 – Adrian Newey, English aerodynamicist and engineer1959 – Wang Lijun, Chinese police officer and politician 1959 – Kōji Morimoto, Japanese animator and director* 1959 – Hans Nielsen, Danish motorcycle racer1960 – Keith Martin Ball, American mathematician and academic 1960 – Ruud Kaiser, Dutch footballer and manager* 1960 – Jim Toomey, American cartoonist* 1960 – Cem Uzan, Turkish businessman and politician1961 – Andrew Lock, Australian mountaineer 1961 – John Lynch, Northern Irish actor1962 – James Kottak, American drummer (d. 2024) 1962 – Mark Starr, English wrestler (d. 2013)1963 – Craig Teitzel, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Lars Ulrich, Danish-American drummer, songwriter, and producer1964 – Elizabeth Kostova, American author1966 – Jay Farrar, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1966 – Tim Legler, American basketball player and sportscaster* 1966 – Jay Yuenger, American guitarist and producer1968 – Matt Zoller Seitz, American film critic and author1969 – Isaac Viciosa, Spanish runner1970 – James Mercer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist1971 – Jared Leto, American actor and musician* 1971 – Mika Nurmela, Finnish footballer* 1971 – Tatiana Sorokko, Russian-American model and journalist1972 – Esteban Fuertes, Argentinian footballer 1972 – Robert Muchamore, English author1973 – Paulo Frederico Benevenute, Brazilian footballer 1973 – Gianluca Faliva, Italian rugby player* 1973 – Nobuhiko Matsunaka, Japanese baseball player* 1973 – Steve Prescott, English rugby player (d. 2013)1974 – Joshua John Miller, American actor, director, and screenwriter1975 – Chris Calaguio, Filipino basketball player* 1975 – Marcelo Ríos, Chilean tennis player* 1975 – María Vasco, Spanish race walker1976 – Simon Goodwin, Australian footballer and coach1977 – Fatih Akyel, Turkish footballer and manager* 1977 – Adrienn Hegedűs, Hungarian tennis player1978 – Karel Rüütli, Estonian lawyer and politician 1978 – Kaoru Sugayama, Japanese volleyball player1979 – Fabián Carini, Uruguayan footballer 1979 – Chris Daughtry, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1979 – Dimitry Vassiliev, Russian ski jumper* 1979 – Craig Wing, Australian rugby player1980 – Todd Dunivant, American soccer player 1980 – Ceylan Ertem, Turkish singer1981 – Pablo Canavosio, Argentine-Italian rugby player 1981 – Omar Infante, Venezuelan baseball player* 1981 – Nikolai Nikolaeff, Australian actor1982 – Kenneth Darby, American football player 1982 – Noel Hunt, Irish footballer* 1982 – Aksel Lund Svindal, Norwegian skier1983 – Yu Takahashi, Japanese singer-songwriter 1983 – Alexander Wang, American fashion designer1984 – Ahmed Barusso, Ghanaian footballer 1984 – Leonardo Ghiraldini, Italian rugby player* 1984 – Alex Schwazer, Italian race walker1985 – Beth Behrs, American actress 1985 – Damir Markota, Croatian basketball player1986 – Joe Alexander, American-Israeli basketball player 1986 – Kit Harington, English actor* 1986 – Hugo Lloris, French footballer* 1986 – Selen Soyder, Turkish actress and beauty queen1987 – Oskar Osala, Finnish ice hockey player1989 – Yohan Blake, Jamaican sprinter* 1989 – Tomáš Kundrátek, Czech ice hockey player1990 – Jon Bellion, American rapper, singer, songwriter and record producer 1990 – Andy Biersack, American singer-songwriter * 1990 – Denis Cheryshev, Russian footballer* 1990 – Cory Jefferson, American basketball player* 1990 – Aaron Ramsey, Welsh footballer1991 – Brandon Scherff, American football player 1991 – Eden Sher, American actress* 1991 – Trevor Siemian, American football player1992 – Cecilia Costa Melgar, Chilean tennis player 1992 – Jade Thirlwall, English singer1994 – Colby Cave, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2020) 1994 – Souleymane Coulibaly, Ivorian footballer1997 – Tamara Zidanšek, Slovenian tennis player2001 – Aleksej Pokuševski, Serbian basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 268 – Dionysius, pope of the Catholic Church* 418 – Zosimus, pope of the Catholic Church* 831 – Euthymius of Sardis, Byzantine bishop and saint (b.", "754)* 865 – Zheng, empress of the Tang Dynasty* 893 – Masrur al-Balkhi, Abbasid general 1006 – Gao Qiong, Chinese general (b.", "935)1191 – Reginald Fitz Jocelin, archbishop-elect of Canterbury1302 – Valdemar, king of Sweden (b.", "1239)1331 – Philip I, Prince of Taranto, titular Latin Emperor (b.", "1278)1350 – Jean de Marigny, French archbishop1352 – John, 3rd Earl of Kent, English politician (b.", "1330)1360 – Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent, English commander (b.", "1314)1413 – Michele Steno, doge of Venice (b.", "1331)1441 – Niccolò III d'Este, marquess of Ferrara1458 – Arthur III, duke of Brittany (b.", "1393)1476 – Galeazzo Maria Sforza, duke of Milan (b.", "1444)1530 – Babur, Mughal emperor (b.", "1483)1574 – Charles de Lorraine, French cardinal (b.", "1524)===1601–1900===1646 – Henri de Bourbon, prince of Condé (b.", "1588)1731 – Antoine Houdar de la Motte, French author (b.", "1672)1771 – Claude Adrien Helvétius, French philosopher and activist (b.", "1715)1780 – John Fothergill, English physician and botanist (b.", "1712)1784 – Seth Warner, American colonel (b.", "1743)1786 – Gasparo Gozzi, Italian playwright and critic (b.", "1713)1863 – Francis Caulfeild, 2nd Earl of Charlemont, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (b.", "1775)1869 – Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille, French physician and physiologist (b.", "1797)1890 – Heinrich Schliemann, German-Italian archaeologist and author (b.", "1822)===1901–present===1902 – Mary Hartwell Catherwood, American author and poet (b.", "1849)1909 – Frederic Remington, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1861)1923 – Dietrich Eckart, German journalist, poet, and politician (b.", "1868)1925 – Jan Letzel, Czech architect, designed the Hiroshima Peace Memorial (b.", "1880)1929 – Albert Giraud, Belgian poet (b.", "1860)1931 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian and educator, created the Dewey Decimal Classification (b.", "1851)1933 – Anatoly Lunacharsky, Russian journalist and politician (b.", "1875) 1933 – Henry Watson Fowler, English lexicographer and educator (b.", "1858)1959 – Jack Tresadern, English footballer and manager (b.", "1890)1960 – Tetsuro Watsuji, Japanese historian and philosopher (b.", "1889)1963 – Gorgeous George, American wrestler (b.", "1915)1966 – Ina Boudier-Bakker, Dutch author (b.", "1875)* 1966 – Herbert Otto Gille, German general (b.", "1897)* 1966 – Guillermo Stábile, Argentinian footballer and manager (b.", "1905)1968 – Weegee, Ukrainian-American photographer and journalist (b.", "1898)1970 – Lillian Board, South African-English runner (b.", "1948)1972 – Harry S. Truman, American colonel and politician, 33rd President of the United States (b.", "1884)1973 – Harold B. Lee, American religious leader, 11th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b.", "1899)1974 – Farid al-Atrash, Syrian-Egyptian singer-songwriter, oud player, and actor (b.", "1915) 1974 – Jack Benny, American comedian, vaudevillian, actor, and violinist (b.", "1894)* 1974 – Frederick Dalrymple-Hamilton, Scottish admiral (b.", "1890)1977 – Howard Hawks, American director and screenwriter (b.", "1896)1980 – Tony Smith, American sculptor and educator (b.", "1912)1981 – Amber Reeves, New Zealand-English author and scholar (b.", "1887) 1981 – Suat Hayri Ürgüplü, Turkish politician, Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1903)* 1981 – Savitri, Indian actress, playback singer, dancer, director and producer (b.", "1936)1983 – Hans Liska, Austrian-German artist (b.", "1907)1986 – Elsa Lanchester, English-American actress (b.", "1902)1987 – Dorothy Bliss, American invertebrate zoologist, curator at the American Museum of Natural History (b.", "1916)1988 – Glenn McCarthy, American businessman, founded the Shamrock Hotel (b.", "1907)* 1988 – Pablo Sorozábal, German-Spanish composer and conductor (b.", "1897)1989 – Doug Harvey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1924)1990 – Gene Callahan, American art director and production designer (b.", "1923)1994 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (b.", "1933)1996 – JonBenét Ramsey, American child beauty queen and prominent unsolved murder victim (b.", "1990)1997 – Cahit Arf, Turkish mathematician and academic (b.", "1910) 1997 – Cornelius Castoriadis, Greek economist and philosopher (b.", "1922)1998 – Ram Swarup, Indian writer on Hindu philosophy and religion (b.", "1920)1999 – Curtis Mayfield, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1942)* 1999 – Shankar Dayal Sharma, Indian academic and politician, 9th President of India (b.", "1918)2000 – Jason Robards, American actor (b.", "1922)2001 – Nigel Hawthorne, English actor (b.", "1929)2002 – Herb Ritts, American photographer and director (b.", "1952) 2002 – Armand Zildjian, American businessman, founded the Avedis Zildjian Company (b.", "1921)2003 – Virginia Coffey, American civil rights activist (b.", "1904)2004 – Jonathan Drummond-Webb, South African surgeon and academic (b.", "1959)* 2004 – Angus Ogilvy, English businessman (b.", "1928)* 2004 – Reggie White, American football player and wrestler (b.", "1961)Casualties of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami:* Troy Broadbridge, Australian footballer (b.", "1980) Sigurd Køhn, Norwegian saxophonist and composer (b.", "1959) Mieszko Talarczyk, Polish-Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1974)2005 – Muriel Costa-Greenspon, American soprano (b.", "1937) 2005 – Ted Ditchburn, English footballerand manager (b.", "1921)* 2005 – Kerry Packer, Australian publisher and businessman (b.", "1937)* 2005 – Viacheslav Platonov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b.", "1939)* 2005 – Vincent Schiavelli, American actor (b.", "1948)* 2005 – Erich Topp, German commander (b.", "1914)2006 – Gerald Ford, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 38th President of the United States (b.", "1913) 2006 – Ivar Formo, Norwegian skier and engineer (b.", "1951)* 2006 – Munir Niazi, Indian-Pakistani poet (b.", "1928)2009 – Felix Wurman, American cellist and composer (b.", "1958)2010 – Salvador Jorge Blanco, 48th President of the Dominican Republic (b.", "1926)* 2010 – Edward Bhengu, South African activist (b.", "1934)* 2010 – Teena Marie, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1956)2011 – Houston Antwine, American football player (b.", "1939) 2011 – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (b.", "1940)* 2011 – Sarekoppa Bangarappa, Indian politician, 15th Chief Minister of Karnataka (b.", "1932)* 2011 – Joe Bodolai, American screenwriter and producer (b.", "1948)* 2011 – James Rizzi, American painter and illustrator (b.", "1950)2012 – Gerry Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1929) 2012 – Gerald McDermott, American author and illustrator (b.", "1941)* 2012 – Ibrahim Tannous, Lebanese general (b.", "1929)2013 – Paul Blair, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1944) 2013 – Marta Eggerth, Hungarian-American actress and singer (b.", "1912)2014 – Stanisław Barańczak, Polish-American poet, critic, and scholar (b.", "1946) 2014 – James B. Edwards, American dentist, soldier, and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of Energy (b.", "1927)* 2014 – Leo Tindemans, Belgian politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Belgium (b.", "1922)2015 – Sidney Mintz, American anthropologist and academic (b.", "1922) 2015 – Jim O'Toole, American baseball player (b.", "1937)2016 – Ricky Harris, American comedian, actor (b.", "1962) 2016 – George S. Irving, American actor, singer and dancer (b.", "1922)2017 – Irv Weinstein, American broadcaster and television news anchor (b.", "1930)2020 – Brodie Lee, American Professional Wrestler (b.", "1979)2021 – Giacomo Capuzzi, Italian Roman Catholic prelate, bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodi (b.", "1929) 2021 – Paul B. Kidd, Australian author, journalist, and radio show host (b.", "1945)* 2021 – Karolos Papoulias, Greek politician, President of Greece from 2005 to 2015 (b.", "1929)* 2021 – Desmond Tutu, South African Anglican bishop, theologian and anti-apartheid and human rights activist (b.", "1931)* 2021 – Edward O. Wilson, American biologist (b.", "1929)2023 – Lukas Enembe, Indonesian politician, Governor of Papua from 2013 to 2023 (b.1967) 2023 – Tom Smothers, American comedian, actor, and activist (b.", "1937)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Boxing Day, except when December 26 is a Sunday.", "If it is a Sunday, Boxing Day is transferred to December 27 by Royal Proclamation.", "(Commonwealth of Nations), and its related observances:Day of Good Will (South Africa and Namibia)Family Day (Vanuatu)Thanksgiving (Solomon Islands)Christian feast day:Abadiu of Antinoe (Coptic Church)Earliest day on which Feast of the Holy Family can fall, celebrated on Sunday after Christmas or 30 if Christmas falls on a Sunday.", "James the Just (Eastern Orthodox Church)Saint Stephen (Western Church)Synaxis of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox Church)December 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Independence and Unity Day (Slovenia)Mauro Hamza Day (Houston, Texas)Mummer's Day (Padstow, Cornwall)St. Stephen's Day (public holiday in Alsace, Austria, Catalonia, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Ireland, Luxembourg, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland), and its related observances:*Father's Day (Bulgaria)The first day of Kwanzaa, celebrated until January 1 (United States)The first day of Junkanoo street parade, the second day is on the New Year's Day (The Bahamas)The second day of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)*Second day of Christmas (Public holiday in the Netherlands, Poland and Slovakia)Veer Baal Divas, is observed to pay tribute to martyr sons of Guru Gobind Singh ji.", "Wren Day (Ireland and the Isle of Man)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 26" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Definable real number" ], [ "Introduction", "The square root of 2 is equal to the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length 1 and is therefore a '''constructible number'''Informally, a '''definable real number''' is a real number that can be uniquely specified by its description.", "The description may be expressed as a construction or as a formula of a formal language.", "For example, the positive square root of 2, , can be defined as the unique positive solution to the equation , and it can be constructed with a compass and straightedge.Different choices of a formal language or its interpretation give rise to different notions of definability.", "Specific varieties of definable numbers include the constructible numbers of geometry, the algebraic numbers, and the computable numbers.", "Because formal languages can have only countably many formulas, every notion of definable numbers has at most countably many definable real numbers.", "However, by Cantor's diagonal argument, there are uncountably many real numbers, so almost every real number is undefinable." ], [ "Constructible numbers", "One way of specifying a real number uses geometric techniques.", "A real number is a constructible number if there is a method to construct a line segment of length using a compass and straightedge, beginning with a fixed line segment of length 1.Each positive integer, and each positive rational number, is constructible.", "The positive square root of 2 is constructible.", "However, the cube root of 2 is not constructible; this is related to the impossibility of doubling the cube." ], [ "Real algebraic numbers", "Algebraic numbers on the complex plane colored by degree (red=1, green=2, blue=3, yellow=4)A real number is called a real algebraic number if there is a polynomial , with only integer coefficients, so that is a root of , that is, .", "Each real algebraic number can be defined individually using the order relation on the reals.", "For example, if a polynomial has 5 real roots, the third one can be defined as the unique such that and such that there are two distinct numbers less than at which is zero.All rational numbers are constructible, and all constructible numbers are algebraic.", "There are numbers such as the cube root of 2 which are algebraic but not constructible.The real algebraic numbers form a subfield of the real numbers.", "This means that 0 and 1 are algebraic numbers and, moreover, if and are algebraic numbers, then so are , , and, if is nonzero, .The real algebraic numbers also have the property, which goes beyond being a subfield of the reals, that for each positive integer and each real algebraic number , all of the th roots of that are real numbers are also algebraic.There are only countably many algebraic numbers, but there are uncountably many real numbers, so in the sense of cardinality most real numbers are not algebraic.", "This nonconstructive proof that not all real numbers are algebraic was first published byGeorg Cantor in his 1874 paper \"On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers\".Non-algebraic numbers are called transcendental numbers.", "The best known transcendental numbers are and ." ], [ "Computable real numbers", "A real number is a computable number if there is an algorithm that, given a natural number , produces a decimal expansion for the number accurate to decimal places.", "This notion was introduced by Alan Turing in 1936.The computable numbers include the algebraic numbers along with many transcendental numbers including Like the algebraic numbers, the computable numbers also form a subfield of the real numbers, and the positive computable numbers are closed under taking th roots for each Not all real numbers are computable.", "Specific examples of noncomputable real numbers include the limits of Specker sequences, and algorithmically random real numbers such as Chaitin's Ω numbers." ], [ "Definability in arithmetic", "Another notion of definability comes from the formal theories of arithmetic, such as Peano arithmetic.", "The language of arithmetic has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the natural numbers.", "Because no variables of this language range over the real numbers, a different sort of definability is needed to refer to real numbers.", "A real number is ''definable in the language of arithmetic'' (or ''arithmetical'') if its Dedekind cut can be defined as a predicate in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula in the language of arithmetic, with three free variables, such thatHere ''m'', ''n'', and ''p'' range over nonnegative integers.The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals.", "A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called ''analytical''.Every computable real number is arithmetical, and the arithmetical numbers form a subfield of the reals, as do the analytical numbers.", "Every arithmetical number is analytical, but not every analytical number is arithmetical.", "Because there are only countably many analytical numbers, most real numbers are not analytical, and thus also not arithmetical.Every computable number is arithmetical, but not every arithmetical number is computable.", "For example, the limit of a Specker sequence is an arithmetical number that is not computable.The definitions of arithmetical and analytical reals can be stratified into the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy.", "In general, a real is computable if and only if its Dedekind cut is at level of the arithmetical hierarchy, one of the lowest levels.", "Similarly, the reals with arithmetical Dedekind cuts form the lowest level of the analytical hierarchy." ], [ "Definability in models of ZFC", "A real number is '''first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters''', if there is a formula in the language of set theory, with one free variable, such that is the unique real number such that holds.", "This notion cannot be expressed as a formula in the language of set theory.All analytical numbers, and in particular all computable numbers, are definable in the language of set theory.", "Thus the real numbers definable in the language of set theory include all familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, , , et cetera, along with all algebraic numbers.", "Assuming that they form a set in the model, the real numbers definable in the language of set theory over a particular model of ZFC form a field.", "Each set model of ZFC set theory that contains uncountably many real numbers must contain real numbers that are not definable within (without parameters).", "This follows from the fact that there are only countably many formulas, and so only countably many elements of can be definable over .", "Thus, if has uncountably many real numbers, one can prove from \"outside\" that not every real number of is definable over .", "This argument becomes more problematic if it is applied to class models of ZFC, such as the von Neumann universe.", "The assertion \"the real number is definable over the ''class'' model \" cannot be expressed as a formula of ZFC.", "Similarly, the question of whether the von Neumann universe contains real numbers that it cannot define cannot be expressed as a sentence in the language of ZFC.", "Moreover, there are countable models of ZFC in which all real numbers, all sets of real numbers, functions on the reals, etc.", "are definable." ], [ "See also", "* Berry's paradox* Constructible universe* ''Entscheidungsproblem''* Ordinal definable set* Tarski's undefinability theorem" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diego de Almagro" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diego de Almagro''' (; – July 8, 1538), also known as '''El Adelantado''' and '''El Viejo''', was a Spanish conquistador known for his exploits in western South America.", "He participated with Francisco Pizarro in the Spanish conquest of Peru.", "While subduing the Inca Empire he laid the foundation for Quito and Trujillo as Spanish cities in present-day Ecuador and Peru respectively.", "From Peru, Almagro led the first Spanish military expedition to central Chile.", "Back in Peru, a longstanding conflict with Pizarro over the control of the former Inca capital of Cuzco erupted into a civil war between the two bands of conquistadores.", "In the battle of Las Salinas in 1538, Almagro was defeated by the Pizarro brothers and months later he was executed." ], [ "Early years", "Shield of Diego de AlmagroThe origins of Diego de Almagro were humble.", "He was born in 1475 in the village of Almagro or in Malagón, in Ciudad Real, where he was given the name of the village for his surname as he was the illegitimate son of Juan de Montenegro and Elvira Gutiérrez.", "In order to preserve the honor of his mother, her relatives took the infant Diego and took him to the nearby town of Bolaños de Calatrava, where he was raised by Sancha López del Peral, later moving to Aldea del Rey.At the age of four he returned to Almagro, and was placed under the tutelage of an uncle named Hernán Gutiérrez.", "At age fifteen he ran away from home because of his uncle's harshness.", "He went to the home of his mother, who was now living with her new husband, to tell her what had happened and that he was going to travel the world, and asked for some bread.", "His mother, anguished, gave him a piece of bread and some coins and said: ''\"Take, son, and do not give me more trouble, and go, and God help you in your adventure.", "\"''He went to Seville and after probably stealing to survive, Almagro became a ''criado'' or servant of Don Luis Gonzalez de Polanco, one of the four ''Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad'' and later a Counselor of the Catholic Monarchs.", "While living in Seville, Almagro stabbed another servant in an argument, inflicting serious enough injuries that he was to be tried in court.Don Luis, using his influence, prevailed upon Don Pedro Arias Dávila to allow Almagro to embark in one of the ships going to the New World from the port of Sanlucar de Barrameda.", "The Casa de Contratacion (royal agency for the Spanish Empire) required that the men who crossed the Atlantic provide their own weapons, clothes, and farming tools, which Don Polanco provided to his servant." ], [ "Arrival in America", "Conquest of ColombiaRoute by Diego de Almagro shown in ''''''Diego de Almagro, now in his late thirties, arrived in the New World on June 30, 1514, with the expedition that Ferdinand II of Aragon had sent under the leadership of Dávila.", "The expedition arrived at the city of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, Panama, where many other future conquistadors were already assembled, among them Francisco Pizarro.There are not many details of Almagro's activities during this period, but it is known that he accompanied various sailors who departed from Darien between 1514 and 1515.He eventually returned and settled in Darien, where he was granted an encomienda, building a house and making a living from agriculture.Almagro undertook his first independent conquest on November 1515, commanding 260 men as he founded Villa del Acla, named after the Indian place.", "Due to illness he had to hand over command to Gaspar de Espinosa.Espinosa decided to undertake a new expedition, which departed in December 1515 with 200 men, including Almagro and Francisco Pizarro, who for the first time was designated as a captain.", "During this expedition, which lasted 14 months, Almagro, Pizarro and Hernando de Luque became close friends.Also during this time Almagro established a friendship with Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who was in charge of Acla.", "Almagro wanted to have a ship built with the remaining materials of the Espinosa expedition, to be finished on the coast of the \"Great South Sea\", as the Pacific Ocean was first called by the Spanish.", "Current historians do not believe that Almagro was expected to participate in Balboa's expedition and probably returned to Darien.Almagro took part in the various expeditions that took place in the Gulf of Panama, including those of Espinosa, which were supported by Balboa's ships.", "Almagro was recorded as a witness on the lists of natives whom Espinosa ordered to be carried.", "He remained as an early settler in the newly founded city of Panama, staying there for four years, managing his properties and those of Pizarro.", "He took Ana Martínez, an indigenous woman, as a common-law wife.", "In this period, his first son, ''El Mozo'', was born to them." ], [ "Conquest of Peru", "By 1524 an association of conquest regarding South America was formalized among De Almagro, Pizarro and Luque.", "By the beginning of August 1524, they had received the requisite permission to discover and conquer lands further south.", "In the first expedition, De Almagro lost his eye to an arrow shot at the Battle of Punta Quemada.", "He subsequently remained in Panama to recruit men and gather supplies for the expeditions led by Pizarro.After several expeditions to South America, Pizarro secured his stay in Peru with the ''Capitulation'' on 6 July 1529.During Pizarro's continued exploration of Incan territory, he and his men succeeded in defeating the Inca army under Emperor Atahualpa during the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532.De Almagro joined Pizarro soon afterward, bringing more men and arms.After Peru fell to the Spanish, both Pizarro and De Almagro initially worked together in the founding of new cities to consolidate their dominions.", "As such, Pizarro dispatched De Almagro to pursue Quizquiz, fleeing to the Inca Empire's northern city of Quito.", "Their fellow conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, who had gone forth without Pizarro's approval, had already reached Quito and witnessed the destruction of the city by Inca general Rumiñawi.", "The Inca warrior had ordered the city to be burned and its gold to be buried at an undisclosed location where the Spanish could never find it.", "The arrival of Pedro de Alvarado from Guatemala, in search of Inca gold further complicated the situation for Almagro and Belalcázar.", "Alvarado's presence, however, did not last long as he left South America in exchange for monetary compensation from Pizarro.In an attempt to claim Quito ahead of Belalcázar, in August 1534 De Almagro founded a city on the shores of Laguna de Colta (Colta Lake) in the foothills of Chimborazo, some south of present-day Quito, and named it \"Santiago de Quito.\"", "Four months later would come the foundation of the Peruvian city of Trujillo, which Almagro named as \"Villa Trujillo de Nueva Castilla\" (the Village of Trujillo in New Castille) in honor of Francisco Pizarro's birthplace, Trujillo in Extremadura, Spain.", "These events were the height of the Pizarro-Almagro friendship, which historians describe as one of the last events in which their friendship soon faded and entered a period of turmoil for the control of the Incan capital of Cuzco." ], [ "Conflict with Pizarro", "Diego de Almagro with Francisco Pizarro in Castile''drawing from 1615''After splitting the treasure of Inca emperor Atahualpa, both Pizarro and Almagro left towards Cuzco and took the city in 1533.However, De Almagro's friendship with Pizarro showed signs of deterioration in 1526 when Pizarro, in the name of the rest of the conquistadors, called forth the \"Capitulacion de Toledo\" law in which King Charles I of Spain had laid out his authorization for the conquest of Peru and the awards every conquistador would receive from it.", "Long before, however, each conquistador had promised to equally split the benefits.", "Pizarro managed to have a larger stake and awards for himself.", "Despite this, De Almagro still obtained an important fortune for his services, and the King awarded him in November 1532 the noble title of \"Don\" and he was assigned a personal coat of arms.Although by this time Diego de Almagro had already acquired sufficient wealth in the conquest of Peru and was living a luxurious life in Cuzco, the prospect of conquering the lands further south was very attractive to him.", "Given that the dispute with Pizarro over Cuzco had kept intensifying, Almagro spent a great deal of time and money equipping a company of 500 men for a new exploration south of Peru.By 1534 the Spanish crown had determined to split the region in two parallel lines, forming the governorship of \"Nueva Castilla\" (from the 1° to the 14° latitude, close to Pisco), and that of \"Nueva Toledo\" (from the 14° to the 25° latitude, in Taltal, Chile), assigning the first to Francisco Pizarro and the second to Diego de Almagro.", "The crown had previously assigned Almagro the governorship of Cuzco, and as such De Almagro was heading there when Charles V divided the territory between Nueva Castilla and Nuevo Toledo.", "This might have been the reason why Almagro did not immediately confront Pizarro for Cuzco, and promptly decided to embark on his new quest for the discovery of the riches of Chile." ], [ "Discovery of Chile", "Almagro takes possession of Chile in the valley of Copiapó''painting from first half 20th century''=== The preparations ===Charles V had given Diego a grant extending two hundred leagues south of Francisco Pizarro's.", "Francisco and Diego concluded a new contract on 12 June 1535, in which they agreed to share future discoveries equally.", "Diego raised an expedition for Chile, expecting it \"would lead to even greater riches than they had found in Peru.\"", "Almagro prepared the way by sending ahead three of his Spanish soldiers, the religious chief of the Inca empire, Willaq Umu, and Paullo Topa, brother of Manco Inca Yupanqui.", "De Almagro sent Juan de Saavedra forward with one hundred and fifty men, and soon followed them with additional forces.", "Saavedra established on January 23, 1535, the first Spanish settlement in Bolivia near the Inca regional capital of Paria.===Following the Inca Trail and crossing the Andes===Almagro left Cuzco on July 3, 1535, with his supporters and stopped at Moina until the 20th of that month.", "Meanwhile, Francisco Pizarro's brother, Juan Pizarro, had arrested Inca Manco Inca Yupanqui, further complicating De Almagro's plans as it heavily increased the dissatisfaction of the Indians submitted to Spanish rule.", "Not having formally been appointed governor of any territories in the Capitulation of Toledo in 1528, however, forcing him to declare himself ''adelantado'' (governor) of Nueva Toledo, or southern Peru and present-day Chile.", "Some sources suggest Almagro received such a requirement in 1534 by the Spanish king and was officially declared governor of New Toledo.Once he left Moina, De Almagro followed the Inca trail followed by 750 Spaniards deciding to join him in quest for the gold lost in the ransom of Atahualpa, which had mainly benefited the Pizarro brothers and their supporters.", "After crossing the Bolivian mountain range and traveling past Lake Titicaca, Almagro arrived on the shores of the Desaguadero River and finally set up camp in Tupiza.", "From there, the expedition stopped at Chicoana and then turned to the southeast to cross the Andes mountains.The expedition turned out to be a difficult and exhausting endeavor.", "The hardest phase was the crossing of the Andean cordilleras: the cold, hunger and tiredness meant the death of various Spanish and natives, but mainly slaves who were not accustomed to such rigorous climate.Upon this point, De Almagro determined everything was a failure.", "He ordered a small group under Rodrigo Orgóñez on a reconnaissance of the country to the south.By luck, these men found the Valley of Copiapó, where Gonzalo Calvo Barrientos, a Spanish soldier whom Pizarro had expelled from Peru for stealing objects the Inca had offered for his ransom, had already established a friendship with the local natives.", "There, in the valley of the river Copiapó, Almagro took official possession of Chile and claimed it in the name of King Charles V." ], [ "Dismayed in Chile", "Statue of De Almagro in Almagro, SpainDe Almagro promptly initiated the exploration of the new territory, starting up the valley the Aconcagua River, where he was well received by the natives.", "However, the intrigues of his interpreter, Felipillo, who had previously helped Pizarro in dealing with ''Atahualpa'', almost thwarted De Almagro's efforts.", "Felipillo had secretly urged the local natives to attack the Spanish, but they desisted, not understanding the dangers that they posed.", "De Almagro directed Gómez de Alvarado along with 100 horsemen and 100 foot to continue the exploration, which ended in the confluence of the Ñuble and Itata rivers.", "The Battle of Reinohuelén between the Spanish and Mapuche indigenous peoples forced the explorers to return to the north.De Almagro's own reconnaissance of the land and the bad news of Gómez de Alvarado's encounter with the fierce Mapuche, along with the bitter cold winter that settled ferociously upon them, only served to confirm that everything had failed.", "He never found gold or the cities which Incan scouts had told him lay ahead, only communities of the indigenous population who lived from subsistence agriculture.", "Local tribes put up fierce resistance to the Spanish forces.", "The exploration of the territories of Nueva Toledo, which lasted 2 years, was marked by a complete failure for De Almagro.", "Despite this, at first he thought staying and founding a city would serve well for his honor.", "The initial optimism that led Almagro to bring his son he had with the indigenous Panamanian Ana Martínez to Chile had faded.Some historians have suggested that, but for the urging of his senior explorers, De Almagro would probably have stayed permanently in Chile.", "He was urged to return to Peru and this time take definitive possession of Cuzco, so as to consolidate an inheritance for his son.", "Dismayed with his experience in the south, Almagro made plans of return to Peru.", "He never officially founded a city in the territory of what is now Chile.The withdrawal of the Spanish from valleys of Chile was violent: Almagro authorized his soldiers to ransack the natives' properties, leaving their soil desolate.", "In addition, the Spanish soldiers took natives captive to serve as slaves.", "The locals were captured, tied together, and forced to carry the heavy loads belonging to the conquistadors." ], [ "Return to Peru", "Capture and execution of Diego de Almagro in Cusco.", "Engraving, circa 1600After the exhausting crossing of the Atacama Desert, mainly due to the harsh weather conditions, Almagro finally reached Cuzco, Peru, in 1537.According to some authors, it was during this time that the Spanish term ''\"roto\"'' (torn), used by Peruvians to refer to Chileans, was first coined.", "De Almagro's disappointed troops returned to Cuzco with their \"torn clothes\" due to the extensive and laborious passage on foot by the Atacama Desert.After his return, De Almagro was surprised to learn of the Inca Manco's rebellion.", "Diego de Almagro sent an embassy to the Inca, but they mistrusted all of the Spaniards by this time.", "Hernando Pizarro's men formed an uneasy truce with De Almagro's men, surveying to determine the boundaries of their leaders' royal grants.", "They needed to determine in which portion the city of Cuzco was located.", "However, De Almagro's troops quickly took the city and imprisoned the Pizarro brothers, Hernando and Gonzalo, on the night of 8 April 1537.After occupying Cuzco, De Almagro confronted an army sent by Francisco Pizarro to liberate his brothers.", "Alonso de Alvarado commanded it and was defeated during the Battle of Abancay on July 12, 1537.He and some of his men were imprisoned.", "Later, Gonzalo Pizarro and De Alvarado escaped prison.", "Subsequent negotiations between Francisco Pizarro and De Almagro concluded with the liberation of Hernando, the third Pizarro brother, in return for conceding control and administration of Cuzco to De Almagro.", "Pizarro never intended to give up the city permanently, but was buying time to organize an army strong enough to defeat Almagro's troops.During this time De Almagro fell ill, and Pizarro and his brothers grabbed the opportunity to defeat him and his followers.", "The Almagristas were defeated at Las Salinas in April 1538, with Orgóñez being killed on the field of battle.", "De Almagro fled to Cuzco, still in the hands of his loyal supporters, but found only temporary refuge; the forces of the Pizarro brothers entered the city without resistance.", "Once captured, Almagro was humiliated by Hernando Pizarro and his requests to appeal to the King were ignored.When Diego de Almagro begged for his life, Hernando responded:\"-he was surprised to see Almagro demean himself in a manner so unbecoming a brave cavalier, that his fate was no worse than had befallen many a soldier before him; and that, since God had given him the grace to be a Christian, he should employ his remaining moments in making up his account with Heaven!", "\"Almagro was condemned to death and executed by ''garrote'' in his dungeon, and then decapitated, on July 8, 1538.His corpse was taken to the public Plaza Mayor of Cuzco, where a herald proclaimed his crimes.", "Hernán Ponce de León took his body and buried him in the church of Our Lady of Mercy in Cuzco." ], [ "El Mozo", "Diego de Almagro II (1520–1542), known as ''El Mozo'' (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of Panama, became the foil of the conspirators who had put Pizarro to the sword.", "Pizarro was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad De Almagro Governor of Peru.", "From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order.", "The lad De Almagro fought the desperate battle of Chupas on September 16, 1542, escaped to Cuzco, but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city." ], [ "See also", "History of CuscoList of conquistadors in ColombiaSpanish conquest of the MuiscaSpanish conquest of the KunaSpanish conquest of the Inca EmpireHistory of ChilePedro de Valdivia, Alonso de Ojeda" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Documental sources and bibliographies for the study of the History of Chile by the University of Chile* The conquistadores, description of the profile of the conquistadors that arrived in America in search of honor and fortune in the name of the Spanish monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church* History of Chile by José Del Pozo" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Divinity" ], [ "Introduction", "Juno, Minerva, and Venus), by Isaac Oliver, c. 1558'''Divinity''' or '''the divine''' are things that are either related to, devoted to, or proceeding from a deity.", "What is or is not divine may be loosely defined, as it is used by different belief systems.", "Under monotheism and polytheism this is clearly delineated.", "However, in pantheism and animism this becomes synonymous with concepts of sacredness and transcendence." ], [ "Etymology", "The root of the word ''divinity'' is the Latin ''divus'' meaning of or belonging to a God (''deus'').", "The word entered English from Medieval Latin in the 14th century." ], [ "Usages", "Divinity as a quality has two distinct usages:Divine force or power – Powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacitiesDivinity applied to mortals – Qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine.Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godly entities are often identical with or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them — in many cases, a deity is merely a power or force personified — and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals.", "For instance, Jehovah is closely associated with storms and thunder throughout much of the Old Testament.", "He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of his anger.", "This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies.", "Divinity always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes.", "In monotheistic faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supernatural beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; ''demonic'' is often used instead.", "Polytheistic and animistic systems of belief make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even incomprehensible motivations for their acts.", "Note that while the terms ''demon'' and ''demonic'' are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to ''divine'', they are in fact derived from the Greek word ''daimón'' (δαίμων), which itself translates as ''divinity''.===Uses in religious discourse===There are three distinct usages of ''divinity'' and ''divine'' in religious discourse:====Entity====In monotheistic faiths, the word ''divinity'' is often used to refer to the singular God central to that faith.", "Often the word takes the definite article and is capitalized — ''\"the Divinity\"'' — as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific.", "''Divine'' — capitalized — may be used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g.", "\"basking in the Divine presence...\"The terms ''divinity'' and ''divine'' — uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article — are sometimes used to denote 'god(s) or certain other beings and entities which fall short of absolute Godhood but lie outside the human realm.====Divine force or power====As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them, so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently.", "This leads to the second usage of the word ''divine'' (and less common usage of ''divinity''): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world.In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention.", "For monotheistic and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events.", "In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms that blew Odysseus's craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a god-sent wind saved them from Mongol invasion.", "Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g.", "safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops.", "Many faiths around the world — from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs — hold that ancestral or household deities offer daily protection and blessings.", "In monotheistic religions, divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures.Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths.", "Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of divine providence, which acknowledges that the divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world.", "Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine', in deferences like the Muslim ''inshallah'' ('as God wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways'.", "Often such faiths hold out the possibility of divine retribution as well, where the divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood.", "Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of ''karma'' shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe.", "Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle — transliterated in English as ''tao'' or ''dao'', meaning 'the way' — which is neither an entity nor a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world.", "Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life.", "In these latter cases, the faiths do not promote deference, as happens in monotheisms; rather each suggests a path of action that will bring the practitioner into conformance with the divine law: ''ahimsa'' — 'no harm' — for Buddhist and Hindu faiths; ''de'' or ''te'' — 'virtuous action' — in Taoism; and any of numerous practices of peace and love in new age thinking.====Mortal====In the third usage, extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals.", "Political leaders are known to have claimed actual divinity in certain early societies — the ancient Egyptian Pharaohs being the premier case — taking a role as objects of worship and being credited with superhuman status and powers.", "More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, suggesting that their rule is in accordance with the will of God.", "The doctrine of the divine right of kings was introduced as late as the 17th century, proposing that kings rule by divine decree; Japanese Emperors ruled by divine mandate until the inception of the Japanese constitution after World War II.Less politically, most faiths have any number of people that are believed to have been touched by divine forces: saints, prophets, heroes, oracles, martyrs, and enlightened beings, among others.", "Saint Francis of Assisi, in Catholicism, is said to have received instruction directly from God and it is believed that he grants plenary indulgence to all who confess their sins and visit his chapel on the appropriate day.", "In Greek mythology, Achilles' mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and Hercules — as the son of Zeus — inherited near-godly powers.", "In religious Taoism, Laozi is venerated as a saint with his own powers.", "Various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious forms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers.", "Christ in the Bible is said to be God's Son and is said to have performed divine miracles.In general, mortals with divine qualities are carefully distinguished from the deity or deities in their religion's main pantheon.", "Even the Christian faith, which generally holds Christ to be identical to God, distinguishes between God the Father and Christ the begotten Son.", "There are, however, certain esoteric and mystical schools of thought, present in many faiths — Sufis in Islam, Gnostics in Christianity, Advaitan Hindus, Zen Buddhists, as well as several non-specific perspectives developed in new age philosophy — which hold that all humans are in essence divine, or unified with the Divine in a non-trivial way.", "Such divinity, in these faiths, would express itself naturally if it were not obscured by the social and physical worlds we live in; it needs to be brought to the fore through appropriate spiritual practices." ], [ "In religions", "===Christianity===In the New Testament the Greek word θεῖον (''theion'') in the Douay Version, is translated as \"divinity\".", "Examples are below:Acts 17:29:\"Being therefore the offspring of God, we must not suppose the divinity to be like unto gold, or silver, or stone, the graving of art, and device of man.", "\"Romans 1:20:\"For the invisible things of him, from the creation of the world, are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made; his eternal power also, and divinity: so that they are inexcusable.", "\"Revelation 5:12:\"Saying with a loud voice: The Lamb that was slain is worthy to receive power, and divinity, and wisdom, and strength, and honour, and glory, and benediction.", "\"The word translated as either \"deity\", \"Godhead\", or \"divinity\" in the Greek New Testament is also the Greek word θεότητος (''theotētos''), and the one verse that contains it is this:Colossians 2:9:\"Quia in ipso inhabitat omnis plenitudo divinitatis divinity corporaliter.\"", "(Vulgate):\"For in him dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily.\"", "(KJV):\"Because it is in him that all the fullness of the divine quality dwells bodily.\"", "(NWT):\"For in him all the fullness of deity lives in bodily form.\"", "(NET):\"For the full content of divine nature lives in Christ.\"", "(TEV)The word \"divine\" in the New Testament is the Greek word θείας (''theias''), and is the adjective form of \"divinity\".", "Biblical examples from the King James Bible are below:2 Peter 1:3:\"According as his divine power hath given unto us all things that pertain unto life and godliness, through the knowledge of him that hath called us to glory and virtue.", "\"2 Peter 1:4:\"Whereby are given unto us exceeding great and precious promises: that by these ye might be partakers of the divine nature, having escaped the corruption that is in the world through lust.", "\"====Latter-day Saints====The most prominent conception of divine entities in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the Godhead, a divine council of three distinct beings: Elohim (the Father), Jehovah (the Son, or Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.", "Joseph Smith described a nontrinitarian Godhead, with God the Father and Jesus Christ each having individual physical bodies, and the Holy Spirit as a distinct personage with a spirit body.", "Smith also introduced the existence of a Heavenly Mother in the King Follett Discourse, but very little is acknowledged or known beyond her existence.Mormons hold a belief in the divine potential of humanity; Smith taught a form of divinization where mortal men and women can become like god through salvation and exaltation.", "Lorenzo Snow succinctly summarized this using a couplet, which is often repeated within the LDS Church: \"As man now is, God once was: As God now is, man may be.", "\"===Wicca===Wiccan views of divinity are generally theistic, and revolve around a Goddess and a Horned God, thereby being generally dualistic.", "In traditional Wicca, as expressed in the writings of Gerald Gardner and Doreen Valiente, the emphasis is on the theme of divine gender polarity, and the God and Goddess are regarded as equal and opposite divine cosmic forces.", "In some newer forms of Wicca, such as feminist or Dianic Wicca, the Goddess is given primacy or even exclusivity.", "In some forms of traditional witchcraft that share a similar duotheistic theology, the Horned God is given precedence over the Goddess." ], [ "Epicureanism", "Epicurean philosophy admits the existence of gods, but since it does not accept the supernatural and teaches that all things are material, posits a theology where the Epicurean gods are physical beings whose bodies are made of atoms and who live in the region between the words (intermundia).", "Needless to say, these gods do not need our worship, are not creators or maintainers of the cosmos, nor do they answer prayers.", "Therefore, Epicurean theology belongs properly in the realm of speculation about super-evolved, intelligent extraterrestrial life.However, Epicurus of Samos (the founder of the School) recognized the utility of religiosity and its central, unifying symbols.", "He was adamant in his requirement that his disciples be pious, and established two taboos concerning their conception of the gods: they had to believe that their gods were immortal (that is, indestructible and fully self-sufficient) and blessed (happy, or blissful).", "Outside of that, Epicureans are free to speculate concerning the nature of the highest life forms in the cosmos." ], [ "See also", "ApotheosisChristologyDeityDivinization (Christian)Ho'oponopono (Morrnah section)List of deitiesSacred" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Depth of field" ], [ "Introduction", "macro photograph showing the defocused effect of a shallow depth of field on a tilted page of textThis photo was taken with an aperture of , creating a mostly in-focus background.The same scene as above with an aperture of .", "Notice how much blurrier the background appears in this photo.The '''depth of field''' ('''DOF''') is the distance between the nearest and the furthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in an image captured with a camera." ], [ "Factors affecting depth of field", "circles of confusion.", "Decreasing the aperture size ('''4''') reduces the size of the blur spots for points not in the focused plane, so that the blurring is imperceptible, and all points are within the .For cameras that can only focus on one object distance at a time, depth of field is the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus in the image.", "\"Acceptably sharp focus\" is defined using a property called the \"circle of confusion\".The depth of field can be determined by focal length, distance to subject (object to be imaged), the acceptable circle of confusion size, and aperture.", "Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with various techniques and equipment.", "The approximate depth of field can be given by:for a given maximum acceptable circle of confusion , focal length , f-number , and distance to subject .As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture (i.e., reducing ) or increasing the focal length reduces the depth of field.", "Depth of field changes linearly with and circle of confusion, but changes in proportion to the square of the distance to the subject and inversely in proportion to the square of the focal length.", "As a result, photos taken at extremely close range (i.e., so small ) have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.Rearranging the equation shows that it is the ratio between distance and focal length that affects ;Note that is the transverse magnification which is the ratio of the lateral image size to the lateral subject size.Image sensor size affects in counterintuitive ways.", "Because the circle of confusion is directly tied to the sensor size, decreasing the size of the sensor while holding focal length and aperture constant will the depth of field (by the crop factor).", "The resulting image however will have a different field of view.", "If the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, the change in focal length will counter the decrease of from the smaller sensor and the depth of field (also by the crop factor).===Effect of lens aperture===For a given subject framing and camera position, the is controlled by the lens aperture diameter, which is usually specified as the f-number (the ratio of lens focal length to aperture diameter).", "Reducing the aperture diameter (increasing the ) increases the because only the light travelling at shallower angles passes through the aperture so only cones of rays with shallower angles reach the image plane.", "In other words, the circles of confusion are reduced or increasing the .For a given size of the subject's image in the focal plane, the same on any focal length lens will give the same depth of field.", "This is evident from the above equation by noting that the ratio is constant for constant image size.", "For example, if the focal length is doubled, the subject distance is also doubled to keep the subject image size the same.", "This observation contrasts with the common notion that \"focal length is twice as important to defocus as f/stop\", which applies to a constant subject distance, as opposed to constant image size.Motion pictures make limited use of aperture control; to produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors (e.g., scenes inside a building) and another for exteriors (e.g., scenes in an area outside a building), and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels.", "Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.=== Effect of circle of confusion===Precise focus is only possible at an exact distance from a lens; at that distance, a point object will produce a small spot image.", "Otherwise, a point object will produce a larger or blur spot image that is typically and approximately a circle.", "When this circular spot is sufficiently small, it is visually indistinguishable from a point, and appears to be in focus.", "The diameter of the largest circle that is indistinguishable from a point is known as the acceptable circle of confusion, or informally, simply as the circle of confusion.The acceptable circle of confusion depends on how the final image will be used.", "The circle of confusion as 0.25 mm for an image viewed from 25 cm away is generally accepted.For 35mm motion pictures, the image area on the film is roughly 22 mm by 16 mm.", "The limit of tolerable error was traditionally set at diameter, while for 16 mm film, where the size is about half as large, the tolerance is stricter, .", "More modern practice for 35 mm productions set the circle of confusion limit at .===Camera movements===The term \"camera movements\" refers to swivel (swing and tilt, in modern terminology) and shift adjustments of the lens holder and the film holder.", "These features have been in use since the 1800s and are still in use today on view cameras, technical cameras, cameras with tilt/shift or perspective control lenses, etc.", "Swiveling the lens or sensor causes the plane of focus (POF) to swivel, and also causes the field of acceptable focus to swivel with the ; and depending on the criteria, to also change the shape of the field of acceptable focus.", "While calculations for of cameras with swivel set to zero have been discussed, formulated, and documented since before the 1940s, documenting calculations for cameras with non-zero swivel seem to have begun in 1990.More so than in the case of the zero swivel camera, there are various methods to form criteria and set up calculations for when swivel is non-zero.", "There is a gradual reduction of clarity in objects as they move away from the , and at some virtual flat or curved surface the reduced clarity becomes unacceptable.", "Some photographers do calculations or use tables, some use markings on their equipment, some judge by previewing the image.When the is rotated, the near and far limits of may be thought of as wedge-shaped, with the apex of the wedge nearest the camera; or they may be thought of as parallel to the ." ], [ "Object-field calculation methods", "Traditional depth-of-field formulas can be hard to use in practice.", "As an alternative, the same effective calculation can be done without regard to the focal length and .", "Moritz von Rohr and later Merklinger observe that the effective absolute aperture diameter can be used for similar formula in certain circumstances.Moreover, traditional depth-of-field formulas assume equal acceptable circles of confusion for near and far objects.", "Merklinger suggested that distant objects often need to be much sharper to be clearly recognizable, whereas closer objects, being larger on the film, do not need to be so sharp.", "The loss of detail in distant objects may be particularly noticeable with extreme enlargements.", "Achieving this additional sharpness in distant objects usually requires focusing beyond the hyperfocal distance, sometimes almost at infinity.", "For example, if photographing a cityscape with a traffic bollard in the foreground, this approach, termed the ''object field method'' by Merklinger, would recommend focusing very close to infinity, and stopping down to make the bollard sharp enough.", "With this approach, foreground objects cannot always be made perfectly sharp, but the loss of sharpness in near objects may be acceptable if recognizability of distant objects is paramount.Other authors such as Ansel Adams have taken the opposite position, maintaining that slight unsharpness in foreground objects is usually more disturbing than slight unsharpness in distant parts of a scene." ], [ "Overcoming DOF limitations", "Some methods and equipment allow altering the apparent , and some even allow the to be determined after the image is made.", "These are based or supported by computational imaging processes.", "For example, focus stacking combines multiple images focused on different planes, resulting in an image with a greater (or less, if so desired) apparent depth of field than any of the individual source images.", "Similarly, in order to reconstruct the 3-dimensional shape of an object, a depth map can be generated from multiple photographs with different depths of field.", "Xiong and Shafer concluded, in part, \"...the improvements on precisions of focus ranging and defocus ranging can lead to efficient shape recovery methods.", "\"Another approach is focus sweep.", "The focal plane is swept across the entire relevant range during a single exposure.", "This creates a blurred image, but with a convolution kernel that is nearly independent of object depth, so that the blur is almost entirely removed after computational deconvolution.", "This has the added benefit of dramatically reducing motion blur.Other technologies use a combination of lens design and post-processing: Wavefront coding is a method by which controlled aberrations are added to the optical system so that the focus and depth of field can be improved later in the process.The lens design can be changed even more: in colour apodization the lens is modified such that each colour channel has a different lens aperture.", "For example, the red channel may be , green may be , whilst the blue channel may be .", "Therefore, the blue channel will have a greater depth of field than the other colours.", "The image processing identifies blurred regions in the red and green channels and in these regions copies the sharper edge data from the blue channel.", "The result is an image that combines the best features from the different .At the extreme, a plenoptic camera captures 4D light field information about a scene, so the focus and depth of field can be altered after the photo is taken." ], [ "Diffraction and DOF", "Diffraction causes images to lose sharpness at high (i.e., narrow aperture stop opening sizes), and hence limits the potential depth of field.", "(This effect is not considered in the above formula giving approximate values.)", "In general photography this is rarely an issue; because large typically require long exposure times to acquire acceptable image brightness, motion blur may cause greater loss of sharpness than the loss from diffraction.", "However, diffraction is a greater issue in close-up photography, and the overall image sharpness can be degraded as photographers are trying to maximize depth of field with very small apertures.Hansma and Peterson have discussed determining the combined effects of defocus and diffraction using a root-square combination of the individual blur spots.", "Hansma's approach determines the that will give the maximum possible sharpness; Peterson's approach determines the minimum that will give the desired sharpness in the final image and yields a maximum depth of field for which the desired sharpness can be achieved.", "In combination, the two methods can be regarded as giving a maximum and minimum for a given situation, with the photographer free to choose any value within the range, as conditions (e.g., potential motion blur) permit.", "Gibson gives a similar discussion, additionally considering blurring effects of camera lens aberrations, enlarging lens diffraction and aberrations, the negative emulsion, and the printing paper.", "Couzin gave a formula essentially the same as Hansma's for optimal , but did not discuss its derivation.Hopkins, Stokseth, and Williams and Becklund have discussed the combined effects using the modulation transfer function." ], [ "DOF scales", "Detail from a lens set to .", "The point half-way between the 1 m and 2 m marks, the limits at , represents the focus distance of approximately 1.33 m (the reciprocal of the mean of the reciprocals of 1 and 2 being 4/3).", "scale on Tessina focusing dialMany lenses include scales that indicate the for a given focus distance and ; the 35 mm lens in the image is typical.", "That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance.", "The scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that correspond to .", "When the lens is set to a given , the extends between the distances that align with the markings.Photographers can use the lens scales to work backwards from the desired depth of field to find the necessary focus distance and aperture.", "For the 35 mm lens shown, if it were desired for the to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to .On a view camera, the focus and can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and performing simple calculations.", "Some view cameras include calculators that indicate focus and without the need for any calculations by the photographer." ], [ "Hyperfocal distance", "Zeiss Ikon Contessa with red marks for hyperfocal distance 20 ft at" ], [ "Near:far distribution", "The beyond the subject is always greater than the in front of the subject.", "When the subject is at the hyperfocal distance or beyond, the far is infinite, so the ratio is 1:∞; as the subject distance decreases, near:far ratio increases, approaching unity at high magnification.", "For large apertures at typical portrait distances, the ratio is still close to 1:1." ], [ "DOF formulae", "This section covers some additional formula for evaluating depth of field; however they are all subject to significant simplifying assumptions: for example, they assume the paraxial approximation of Gaussian optics.", "They are suitable for practical photography, lens designers would use significantly more complex ones.===Focus and f-number from DOF limits===For given near and far limits and , the required f-number is smallest when focus is set tothe harmonic mean of the near and far distances.", "In practice, this is equivalent to the arithmetic mean for shallow depths of field.", "Sometimes, view camera users refer to the difference as the ''focus spread''.===Foreground and background blur===If a subject is at distance and the foreground or background is at distance , let the distance between the subject and the foreground or background be indicated byThe blur disk diameter of a detail at distance from the subject can be expressed as a function of the subject magnification , focal length , f-number , or alternatively the aperture , according toThe minus sign applies to a foreground object, and the plus sign applies to a background object.The blur increases with the distance from the subject; when is less than the circle of confusion, the detail is within the depth of field." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * Available in PDF online.", "* * Available as GIF images on the Large Format page.", "* * * * * Available as GIF images on the Large Format page.", "* * * * * * * * * Reprinted 2002, Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press, .", "* * " ], [ "Further reading", "Hummel, Rob (editor).", "2001.", "''American Cinematographer Manual''.", "8th ed.", "Hollywood: ASC Press." ], [ "External links", "* Depth of Field in Photography - Beginner's Guide* Online Depth of Field Calculator Simple depth of field and hyperfocal distance calculator* photoskop: Interactive Photography Lessons – Interactive Depth of Field* Bokeh simulator and depth of field calculator Interactive depth of field calculator with background blur simulation feature* Lens Comparison: Nikon 50mm f/1.4D vs. 50mm f/1.4G Demonstration of varying apertures on Depth of Field* Depth Of Field For Beginners- A quick explainer video for DOF" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dumnonii" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dumnonii''' or '''Dumnones''' were a British tribe who inhabited Dumnonia, the area now known as Cornwall and Devon (and some areas of present-day Dorset and Somerset) in the further parts of the South West peninsula of Britain, from at least the Iron Age up to the early Saxon period.", "They were bordered to the east by the Durotriges tribe." ], [ "Etymology", "William Camden, in his 1607 edition of ''Britannia'', describes Cornwall and Devon as being two parts of the same 'country' which:Camden had learnt some Welsh during the course of his studies and it would appear that he is the origin of the interpretation of Dumnonii as \"deep valley dwellers\" from his understanding of the Welsh of his time.", "The modern Welsh term is ''Dyfnaint''.", "John Rhŷs later theorized that the tribal name was derived from the name of a goddess, ''Domnu'', probably meaning \"the goddess of the deep\".", "The proto-Celtic root dubno- or dumno- meaning \"the deep\" or \"the earth\" (or alternatively meaning \"dark\" or \"gloomy\") appears in personal names such as Dumnorix and Dubnovellaunus.", "Another group with a similar name but with no known links were the Fir Domnann of Connacht.The Roman name of the town of Exeter, ''Isca Dumnoniorum'' (\"Isca of the Dumnonii\"), contains the root ''iska-'' \"water\" for \"Water of the Dumnonii\".", "The Latin name suggests that the city was already an ''oppidum'', or walled town, on the banks on the River Exe before the foundation of the Roman city, in about AD 50.The Dumnonii gave their name to the English county of Devon, and their name is represented in Britain's two extant Brythonic languages as ''Dewnans'' in Cornish and ''Dyfnaint'' in Welsh.", "Amédée Thierry (''Histoire des Gaulois'', 1828), one of the inventors of the \"historic race\" of Gauls, could confidently equate them with the Cornish (\"les Cornouailles\").Victorian historians often referred to the tribe as the Damnonii, which is also the name of another people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations." ], [ "Language", "The people of Dumnonia spoke a Southwestern Brythonic dialect of Celtic similar to the forerunner of more recent Cornish and Breton.", "Irish immigrants, the Déisi, are evidenced by the Ogham-inscribed stones they have left behind, confirmed and supplemented by toponymical studies.", "The stones are sometimes inscribed in Latin, sometimes in both scripts.", "Tristram Risdon suggested the continuance of a Brythonic dialect in the South Hams, Devon, as late as the 14th century, in addition to its use in Cornwall." ], [ "Territory", "The location of the Dumnonii in what is now Cornwall and Devon.Ptolemy's 2nd century ''Geography'' places the Dumnonii to the west of the Durotriges.", "The name ''purocoronavium'' that appears in the Ravenna Cosmography implies the existence of a sub-tribe called the Cornavii or Cornovii, perhaps the ancestors of the Cornish people.Gaius Iulius Solinus, probably in the 3rd century, remarks: \"This turbid strait also divides the island Silura from the shore which is held by the Dumnonii, a British tribe.", "The men of this island even now preserve an old custom: they do not use coins.", "They give and accept, obtaining the necessities of life by exchange rather than by money.", "They reverence gods, and the men and women equally declare knowledge of the future.", "\"In the sub-Roman period a Brythonic kingdom called Dumnonia emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to have effectively been a collection of sub-kingdoms.A kingdom of Domnonée (and of Cornouaille alongside) was established in the province of Armorica directly across the English Channel, and has apparent links with the British population, suggesting an ancient connection of peoples along the western Atlantic seaboard." ], [ "Settlements", "===Isca Dumnoniorum===The Latin name for Exeter is Isca Dumnoniorum (\"Water of the Dumnonii\").", "This oppidum (a Latin term meaning an important town) on the banks of River Exe certainly existed prior to the foundation of the Roman city in about AD 50.", "''Isca'' is derived from the Brythonic word for flowing water, which was given to the River Exe.", "The Gaelic term for water is ''uisce/uisge''.", "This is reflected in the Welsh name for Exeter: ''Caerwysg'' meaning \"fortified settlement on the river Uisc\".Isca Dumnoniorum originated with a settlement that developed around the Roman fortress of the Legio II Augusta and is one of the four ''poleis'' (cities) attributed to the tribe by Ptolemy.", "It is also listed in two routes of the late 2nd century Antonine Itinerary.A legionary bath-house was built inside the fortress sometime between 55 and 60 and underwent renovation shortly afterwards (c. 60-65) but by c. 68 (perhaps even 66) the legion had transferred to a newer fortress at Gloucester.", "This saw the dismantling of the Isca fortress, and the site was then abandoned.", "Around AD 75, work on the ''civitas forum'' and ''basilica'' had commenced on the site of the former ''principia'' and by the late 2nd century the ''civitas'' walls had been completed.", "They were 3 metres thick and 6 metres high and enclosed exactly the same area as the earlier fortress.", "However, by the late 4th century the ''civitas'' was in decline.===Other settlements===As well as Isca Dumnoniorum, Ptolemy's 2nd century ''Geography'' names three other towns:Voliba, which remains unidentified,Uxella, possibly on the River Axe, or at Launceston, andTamara, generally considered to be somewhere on the River Tamar.The Ravenna Cosmography includes the last two names (in slightly different forms, as \"Tamaris\" and \"Uxelis\"), and adds several more names which may be settlements in the territory.", "These include:Nemetostatio, a name relating to ''nemeton'', signifying \"sanctuary' or \"sacred grove\".", "Probably to be identified with North Tawton in Devon where there is a Roman earthwork that may be military, or possibly a tax collection station.", "Purocoronavis, which may refer to an important native hill fort, such as Carn Brea or Tintagel.", "The name has led to speculation about the Cornish Cornovii.Other Romano-British sites in Dumnonia include:Topsham, Devon - a settlement and harbour that served Isca Dumnoniorum to which it was connected by road and river.", "Nanstallon (Cornwall) - a square military enclosure, seemingly associated with tin workings at nearby Boscarne.", "Mount Batten (Devon) - an Iron Age tin port that continued into Roman times.", "Plymouth (Devon) - evidence of a Roman settlement has been found on the north side of the harbour.", "Ictis - an ancient port trading in tin.New settlements continued to be built throughout the Roman period, including sites at Chysauster and Trevelgue Head.", "The style is native in form with no Romanised features.", "Near Padstow, a site of some importance that was inhabited from the late Bronze/early Iron Age to the mid 6th century now lies buried under the sands on the opposite side of the Camel estuary near St. Enodoc's Church, and may have been a western coastal equivalent of a Saxon Shore Fort.", "Byzantine and African pottery has been discovered at the site.", "At Magor Farm in Illogan, near Camborne, an archaeological site has been identified as being a villa." ], [ "Archaeology", "The Dumnonii are thought to have occupied relatively isolated territory in Cornwall, Devon, Somerset and possibly part of Dorset.", "Their cultural connections, as expressed in their ceramics, were with the peninsula of Armorica across the Channel, rather than with the southeast of Britain.", "They do not seem to have been politically centralised: coins are relatively rare, none of them locally minted, and the structure, distribution and construction of Bronze Age and Iron Age hill forts, ''Cornish rounds'', and defensible farmsteads in the south west point to a number of smaller tribal groups living alongside each other.Dumnonia is noteworthy for its many settlements that have survived from the Romano-British period, but also for its lack of a villa system.", "Local archaeology has revealed instead the isolated enclosed farmsteads known locally as ''rounds''.", "These seem to have survived the Roman abandonment of Britain, but were subsequently replaced, in the 6th and 7th centuries, by the unenclosed farms taking the Brythonic toponymic ''tre-''.As in most other Brythonic areas, Iron Age hill forts, such as Hembury Castle, were refortified for the use of chieftains or kings.", "Other high-status settlements such as Tintagel seem to have been reconstructed during this period.", "Post-Roman imported pottery has been excavated from many sites across the region, and the apparent surge in late 5th century Mediterranean and/or Byzantine imports is yet to be explained satisfactorily." ], [ "Industries", "Apart from fishing and agriculture, the main economic resource of the Dumnonii was tin mining.", "The area of Dumnonia had been mined since ancient times, and the tin was exported from the ancient trading port of Ictis (St Michael's Mount).", "Tin extraction (mainly by streaming) had existed here from the early Bronze Age around the 22nd century BC.", "West Cornwall, around Mount's Bay, was traditionally thought to have been visited by metal traders from the eastern MediterraneanDuring the first millennium BC trade became more organised, first with the Phoenicians, who settled Gades (Cadiz) around 1100 BC, and later with the Greeks, who had settled Massilia (Marseilles) and Narbo (Narbonne) around 600 BC.", "Smelted Cornish tin was collected at Ictis whence it was conveyed across the Bay of Biscay to the mouth of the Loire and then to Gades via the Loire and Rhone valleys.", "It went then through the Mediterranean Sea in ships to Gades.During the period c. 500-450 BC, the tin deposits seem to have become more important, and fortified settlements appear such as at Chun Castle and Kenidjack Castle, to protect both the tin smelters and mines.The earliest account of Cornish tin mining was written by Pytheas of Massilia late in the 4th century BC after his circumnavigation of the British Isles.", "Underground mining was described in this account, although it cannot be determined when it had started.", "Pytheas's account was noted later by other writers including Pliny the Elder and Diodorus Siculus.It is likely that tin trade with the Mediterranean was later on under the control of the Veneti.", "Britain was one of the places proposed for the ''Cassiterides'', that is Tin Islands.", "Tin working continued throughout Roman occupation although it appears that output declined because of new supplies brought in from the deposits discovered in Iberia (Spain and Portugal).", "However, when these supplies diminished, production in Dumnonia increased and appears to have reached a peak during the 3rd century AD." ], [ "Sub-Roman and post-Roman Dumnonia", "The Sub-Roman or Post-Roman history of Dumnonia comes from a variety of sources and is considered exceedingly difficult to interpret given that historical fact, legend and confused pseudo-history are compounded by a variety of sources in Middle Welsh and Latin.", "The main sources available for discussion of this period include Gildas's ''De Excidio Britanniae'' and Nennius's ''Historia Brittonum'', the ''Annales Cambriae'', ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', William of Malmesbury's ''Gesta Regum Anglorum'' and ''De Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecclesiae'', along with texts from the ''Black Book of Carmarthen'' and the ''Red Book of Hergest'', and Bede's ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum'' as well as \"The Descent of the Men of the North\" (''Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd'', in Peniarth MS 45 and elsewhere) and the ''Book of Baglan''." ], [ "See also", "Cornovii (details of the three tribes bearing the name)Damnonii (tribe in central Scotland)Dark Ages (historiography)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "Ptolemy.", "''Geography''Piguet, Marie-France.", "\"Observation et histoire: Race chez Amédée Thierry et William F. Edwards\" in ''L'Homme'' 153 (in French)Thierry, Amédée.", "''L'Histoire des Gaulois'' pt iii, chapter II (in French)Wacher, John.", "''The Towns of Roman Britain'', II ed.", "BCA, London, 1995, p. 335-343; fig.", "151Webster, Graham.", "''The Roman Invasion of Britain''.", "London, 1993, p. 159.", " Celtic Inscribed Stones Project (CISP) online databaseBede.", "''Ecclesiastical History of England'': Book I, Book II, Book III, Book IV, Book V===Annales Cambriae===Phillimore, Egerton, ed., \"The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies from Harleian MS. 3859\", ''Y Cymmrodor''; 9 (1888) pp. 141–183.", "Remfry, P. M., ''Annales Cambriae: a Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E'' ()Williams (ab Ithel), John, ed.", "(1860), ''Annales Cambriae (4441288)'', London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts." ], [ "External links", "http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100002/index.htmlBiographies of monarchs & other royalty from those little known kingdoms that existed in Britain during the Age of King Arthur at-https://web.archive.org/web/20090812235920/http://www.trevithick-society.org.uk/industry/cornish_history.htm Dumnonii at Roman-Britain.co.uk" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Declaration of independence" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''declaration of independence''', '''declaration of statehood''' or '''proclamation of independence''' is an assertion by a polity in a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state.", "Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another state or failed state, or are breakaway territories from within the larger state.", "In 2010, the UN's International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion in Kosovo that \"International law contains no prohibition on declarations of independence\", though the state from which the territory wishes to secede may regard the declaration as rebellion, which may lead to a war of independence or a constitutional settlement to resolve the crisis." ], [ "List of declarations of independence", "StateDeclarationDateAssociationSignatoriesFirst recognizing state(s) Albania Albanian Declaration of IndependenceAssembly of VlorëDeclaration of Independence of ArmeniaArmenian National Congress (1917), Armenian Revolutionary Federation Declaration of State Sovereignty of ArmeniaLevon Ter-Petrosyan and Supreme Council of Armenia secretary Ara SahakianProclamation of the Nagorno Karabakh RepublicNagorno-Karabakh Regional and Shahumyan District Councils of People's Deputies of the Azerbaijan SSRAzawadi Declaration of IndependenceNational Movement for the Liberation of AzawadDeclaration of Independence of AzerbaijanAzerbaijani National CouncilAct on Restoration of State Independence of AzerbaijanSupreme Council of AzerbaijanProclamation of Bangladeshi IndependenceConstituent Assembly of BangladeshThird Constituent CharterRada of the Belarusian Democratic RepublicAnnouncement of the Declaration of Independence of the Soviet Socialist Republic of ByelorussiaCommunist Party (Bolsheviks) of Byelorussia, trade unionsDeclaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist RepublicSupreme Soviet of the BSSRBelgian Declaration of IndependenceProvisional Government of BelgiumBosnian Declaration of Independence BougainvilleBougainville Declaration of IndependenceBougainville Interim GovernmentDeclaration of the Independence of Brazil Pedro I of BrazilBulgarian Declaration of Independence Ferdinand of Bulgaria and the Government of BulgariaBurmese Declaration of Independence Declaration of the Catalan Republic as a state of the Iberian Federation SpainFrancesc Macià, Generalitat Government of CataloniaDeclaration of the Catalan state within the Federal Republic of Spain SpainLluís Companys, Generalitat Government of CataloniaDeclaration from the representatives of Catalonia as the Catalan Republic (present day )Act of Independence of Central America Spain Chilean Declaration of Independence SpainNational CongressColombian Declaration of Independence Spain link= Comoros Comorian Declaration of Independence Declaration of Independence of the Republic of CrimeaSupreme Council of CrimeaDeclaration of the Establishment of the Sovereign and Independent Republic of Croatia Czechoslovak Declaration of Independence Czechoslovak National CouncilDominican Declaration of Independence Haiti East Timorese declaration of independence Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian IndependenceUnilateral grant of independence by the British governmentEstonian Declaration of IndependenceEstonian Salvation CommitteeFinnish Declaration of IndependenceParliament of Finland(present day )Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire(real independence)Supreme Provisional Governmental Board FloridaFlorida's Constitution of 1861Florida State Legislature GaliciaDeclaration of the Republic of Galicia Spain Georgian Declaration of Independence, 1918 Georgian National Council Act of Restoration of State Independence of Georgia Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia Georgia, State of Georgia's secession declaration Greek Declaration of Independence First National AssemblyGuinea-Bissau Declaration of Independence Haitian Declaration of IndependenceJean-Jacques Dessalines France HungaryHungarian Declaration of Independence Habsburgs\|Icelandic Declaration of Independence Declaration of the Independence of India Proclamation of Indonesian Independence Sukarno & Mohammad HattaIraq Declaration of Independence Proclamation of the Irish RepublicProvisional Government of the Irish Republic Irish RepublicIrish Declaration of IndependenceDáil ÉireannIsraeli Declaration of IndependenceJewish People's Council KatangaKatangan Declaration of Independence Congo-Léopoldville Korean Declaration of IndependenceProvisional Government of the Republic of KoreaProclamation of the Republic of KosovaAssembly of KosovoKosovo declaration of independence Administration \"Democratically elected leaders of our people\"Latvian Declaration of Independence People's Council of LatviaOn the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia Supreme Soviet of the Latvian SSRLiberian Declaration of Independence American Colonization SocietyLiberian Constitutional ConventionAct of Independence of Lithuania Council of LithuaniaAct of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania Supreme Council of Lithuania Lower CanadaDeclaration of Independence of Lower CanadaRobert Nelson MacedoniaIndependence of the Republic of Macedonia (present day Malaysia)Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957Tunku Abdul Rahman, Prime Minister of Malaysia MississippiA Declaration of the Immediate Causes which Induce and Justify the Secession of the State of Mississippi from the Federal Union Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Moldova Parliament of the Republic of MoldovaMontenegro declaration of independenceAssembly of the Republic of Montenegro Moroccan Declaration of Independence FranceIstiqlal PartyAct of AbjurationUnion of Utrecht Northern America (present day) Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern AmericaCongress of AnáhuacDeclaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus Northern EpirusNorthern Epirote Declaration of Independence AlbaniaProvisional Government of Northern Epirus North SolomonsDeclaration of Independence of the Republic of the North Solomons Territory of Papua and New Guinea (Australia)Unknown Declaration of Independence of Norway , and the Constitution of NorwayNorwegian Constituent AssemblyPadanian Declaration of Independence Italy Lahore ResolutionMuslim League (Pakistan)Palestinian Declaration of Independence Palestinian territories (claimed the West Bank until 1988)Palestinian National Council PeruAct of the Declaration of Independence of PeruJosé de San Martín PhilippinesPhilippine Declaration of Independence Spain98 representatives of Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (ratified on September 29, 1898 by the Malolos Congress) Provinces of the Río de la Plata(present-day )Argentine Declaration of Independence SpainCongress of TucumánRhodesian Unilateral Declaration of IndependenceIan Smith and the rest of the CabinetRomanian Declaration of IndependenceKing Carol IBelovezha AccordsSupreme Soviet of the Russian SFSRBir Lehlou DeclarationPolisario FrontDeclaration of ArbroathScottish leaders SerbiaThe Proclamation (Proglašenije/Проглашеније)Karađorđe Petrović and Serbian MPsProclamation of SingaporeLee Kuan Yew, Prime Minister of SingaporeMartin DeclarationSlovak National CouncilSlovak National Council's Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Nation Slovak National CouncilSlovenian Declaration of Independence Somaliland Declaration of Independence South CarolinaDeclaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal UnionSouth Carolinians in CharlestonDeclaration of Independence of Sri Lanka (Then known as \"Ceylon\") Texas Declaration of Independence Mexico Texas, State ofA Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal UnionTexas LegislatureTibet's Declaration of Independence China13th Dalai LamaAbout Independence and Bases of a State System of TurkmenistannoneIV UniversalCentral Council of UkraineDeclaration of Independence of UkraineVerkhovna RadaUnited States Declaration of Independence Second Continental Congress United Tribes of New ZealandDeclaration of the Independence of New Zealand —Māori chiefsDeclaration of IndependenceSupreme Council of UzbekistanVenezuelan Declaration of IndependenceNational CongressVermont Declaration of Independence British QuebecProclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of VietnamHồ Chí Minh" ], [ "See also", "* Independence referendum* List of national independence days* List of sovereign states by date of formation* Political history of the world* Separatism* Unilateral declaration of independence" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Drag racing" ], [ "Introduction", "The Christmas tree counting down at Saskatchewan International Raceway, outside Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.", "Note the blinder, to prevent the driver from being distracted by the lights for the other lane.", "'''Drag racing''' is a type of motor racing in which automobiles or motorcycles compete, usually two at a time, to be first to cross a set finish line.", "The race follows a short, straight course from a standing start over a measured distance, most commonly , with a shorter, distance becoming increasingly popular, as it has become the standard for Top Fuel dragsters and Funny Cars, where some major bracket races and other sanctioning bodies have adopted it as the standard.", "The is also popular in some circles.", "Electronic timing and speed sensing systems have been used to record race results since the 1960s.The history of automobiles and motorcycles being used for drag racing is nearly as long as the history of motorized vehicles themselves, and has taken the form of both illegal street racing and as a regulated motorsport.Top Fuel drag race between Don Prudhomme and Kenny Bernstein in 1991 in which Prudhomme's dragster caught fireDrag racing is a sport in which vehicles compete to see which can travel a specific distance the fastest from a standing start.", "To achieve high acceleration, drag racers have large tires, and the tires often \"burn rubber\" by friction with the pavement when starting.", "Tony Schumacher in 2006 race." ], [ "History", "Drag racing started in the 1940s.", "World War II veterans were prominently involved, and some early drag races were done at decommissioned aircraft bases with landing strips that made them an ideal place for the sport.", "In 1951, Wally Parks formed the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA).", "The organization banned the use of nitromethane in 1957, calling it unsafe, in part through the efforts of C. J. Hart; the ban would be lifted in 1963.Several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades, such as the Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA) founded in 2014.Thanks, in part, to the Discovery series Street Outlaws, fandom for drag racing has seen a resurgence in the past decade." ], [ "Basics of drag racing", "A drag race wheelie=== Starting ===Push starts to get engines running were necessary until the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) mandated self-starters in 1976.After burnouts, cars would be pushed back by crews; this persisted until NHRA required reversing systems in 1980.Don Garlits was the first to do burnouts across the starting line, which is now standard practice.", "Each driver then backs up to and stages at the starting line.=== Prerace preparations ===Before each race (commonly known as a pass), each driver is allowed to perform a burnout, which heats the driving tires and lays rubber down at the beginning of the track, improving traction.", "The cars run through a \"water box\" (formerly a \"bleach box\", before bleach was replaced by flammable traction compound, which produced spectacular, and dangerous, flame burnouts; the hazard led NHRA to mandate use of water in the 1970s).Modern races are started electronically by a system known as a ''Christmas tree'', which consists of a column of lights for each driver/lane, and two light beam sensors per lane on the track at the starting line.", "Current NHRA trees, for example, feature one blue light (split into halves), then three amber, one green, and one red.", "When the first light beam is broken by a vehicle's front tire(s), the vehicle is \"pre-staged\" (approximately from the starting line), and the pre-stage indicator on the tree is lit.", "When the second light beam is broken, the vehicle is \"staged\", and the stage indicator on the tree is lit.", "Vehicles may then leave the pre-stage beam, but must remain in the stage beam until the race starts.=== Staging ===Once one competitor is staged, their opponent has a set amount of time to stage or they will be instantly disqualified, indicated by a red light on the tree.", "Otherwise, once both drivers are staged, the system chooses a short delay at random (to prevent a driver being able to anticipate the start), then starts the race.", "The light sequence at this point varies slightly.", "For example, in NHRA Professional classes, three amber lights on the tree flash simultaneously, followed 0.4 seconds later by a green light (this is also known as a \"pro tree\").", "In NHRA Sportsman classes, the amber lights illuminate in sequence from top to bottom, 0.5 seconds apart, followed 0.5 seconds later by the green light (this is also known as a \"sportsman tree\" or \"full tree\").", "If a vehicle leaves the starting line before the green light illuminates, the red light for that lane illuminates instead, and the driver is disqualified (also known as ''red lighting'').", "In a handicap start, the green light automatically lights up for the first driver, and the red light is only lit in the proper lane after both cars have launched if one driver leaves early, or if both drivers left early, the driver whose reaction time is worse (if one lane has a -.015 and the other lane has a -.022, the lane of the driver who committed a 0.022 is given the red light after both cars have left), as a red light infraction is only assessed to the driver with the worse infraction, if both drivers leave early.", "Even if both drivers leave early, the green light is automatically lit for the driver that left last, and they still may win the pass (as in the 2014 NHRA Auto Club Pro Stock final, Erica Enders-Stevens and Jason Line both committed red light infractions; only Line was assessed with a red light, as he was -.011 versus Enders-Stevens' -.002).=== Measurements ===Several measurements are taken for each race: reaction time, elapsed time, and speed.", "Reaction time is the period from the green light illuminating to the vehicle leaving the staging beams or breaking the guard beam.", "Elapsed time is the period from the vehicle leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line.", "Speed is measured through a speed trap covering the final to the finish line, indicating average speed of the vehicle in that distance.Except where a breakout rule is in place, the winner is the first vehicle to cross the finish line, and therefore the driver with the lowest combined reaction time and elapsed time.", "Because these times are measured separately, a driver with a slower elapsed time can actually win if that driver's advantage in reaction time exceeds the elapsed time difference.", "In heads-up racing, this is known as a ''holeshot win''.", "In categories where a breakout rule is in effect (for example, NHRA Junior Dragster, Super Comp, Super Gas, Super Stock, and Stock classes, as well as some dial-in classes), if a competitor is faster than his or her predetermined time (a \"breakout\"), that competitor loses.", "If both competitors are faster than their predetermined times, the competitor who breaks out by less time wins.", "Regardless, a red light foul is worse than a breakout, except in Junior Dragster where exceeding the absolute limit is a cause for disqualification.=== Bracket system ===Most race events use a traditional bracket system, where the losing car and driver are eliminated from the event while the winner advances to the next round, until a champion is crowned.", "Events can range from 16 to over 100 car brackets.", "Drivers are typically seeded by elapsed times in qualifying.", "In bracket racing without a breakout (such as NHRA Competition Eliminator), pairings are based on times compared to their index (faster than index for class is better).", "In bracket racing with a breakout (Stock, Super Stock, but also the NHRA's Super classes), the closest to the index is favorable.A popular alternative to the standard eliminations format is the Chicago Style format (also called the Three Round format in Australia), named for the US 30 Dragstrip near Merrillville, Indiana where a midweek meet featured this format.", "All entered cars participate in one qualifying round, and then are paired for the elimination round.", "The two fastest times among winners from this round participate in the championship round.", "Depending on the organization, the next two fastest times may play for third, then fifth, and so forth, in consolation rounds.", "Currently, the National Drag Racing Championship in Australia uses the format for major categories.=== Distances ===The standard distance of a drag race is 1,320 feet, 402 m, or 1/4 mile (±0.2% FIA & NHRA rules).", "However, due to safety concerns, certain sanctioning bodies (notably the NHRA for its Top Fuel and Funny Car classes) have shortened races to 1,000 feet.", "Some drag strips are even shorter and run 660 feet, 201 m, or 1/8 mile.", "The 1,000 foot distance is now also popular with bracket racing, especially in meets where there are 1/8 mile cars and 1/4 mile cars racing together, and is used by the revived American Drag Racing League for its primary classes (not Jr Dragster).", "Some organizations that deal with Pro Modified and \"Mountain Motor\" Pro Stock cars (Professional Drag Racers Association) use the 1/8 mile distance, even if the tracks are 1/4 mile tracks.Fuel dragster (technically, a rail), on display at the California Automobile MuseumFunny Car with body up." ], [ "Racing organizations", "Chief Timer delivering timeslips to competitors after their passes.Interlake Dragways, Gimli, Manitoba.=== North America ===The National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in North America.", "The next largest organization is the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA).", "One of the major sanctioning bodies in drag racing.", "The World Drag Racing Alliance (WDRA) WDRA is the first fully functioning sanctioning body created (one that actually sanctions facilities) since 1970.Besides NHRA, IHRA, and WDRA, there are several other racing organizations were created over the past several decades.", "The Professional Drag Racers Association (PDRA), founded in 2014, races 1/8 mile with events throughout the US.", "The National Mustang Racers Association (NMRA), started in 1999, is considered the leader in Ford motorsports events.", "The National Muscle Car Association (NMCA), is the longest running major street-legal drag racing association.", "The NMCA provides competitive and organized national event competitions from grassroots drag racers all the way to the powerful and fast VP Racing Fuels Xtreme Pro Mod racers.There are also niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehicles.", "The Nostalgia Drag Racing League (NDRL) based in Brownsburg, IN, runs a series of 1/4 mile (402 m) drag races in the Midwest for 1979 and older nostalgic appearing cars, with four classes of competition running in an index system.", "Pro 7.0 and Pro 7.50 run heads up 200 mile per hour (320 kilometre per hour) passes, while Pro Comp and Pro Gas run 8.0 to 10.0 indices.", "NDRL competition vehicles typically include Front Engine Dragsters, Altereds, Funny Cars, early Pro Stock clones, Super Stocks and Gassers.", "The National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA) races electric vehicles against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as Dodge Vipers or classic muscle cars in 1/4 and 1/8 mile (402 m & 201 m) races.", "The current electric drag racing record is 6.940 seconds at 201.37 mph (324.0736 km/h) for a quarter mile (402 m).", "Another niche organization is the VWDRC which run a VW-only championship with vehicles running under 7 seconds.Prior to the founding of the NHRA and IHRA, smaller organizations sanctioned drag racing in the early years, which included the competing AHRA in the United States from 1955 to 2005.=== Australia ===The first Australian Nationals event was run in 1965 at Riverside raceway, near Melbourne.", "The Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA) was established in 1973, and today they claim they are the \"best in the world outside the United States\".", "ANDRA sanctions races throughout Australia and throughout the year at all levels, from Junior Dragster to Top Fuel.The ANDRA Drag Racing Series is for professional drivers and riders and includes Top Fuel, Top Alcohol, Top Doorslammer (similar to the USA Pro Modified class), Pro Stock (using 400 cubic inch engines (6.5 litres)), Top Bike and Pro Stock Motorcycle.The Summit Sportsman Series is for ANDRA sportsman drivers and riders and includes Competition, Super Stock, Super Compact, Competition Bike, Supercharged Outlaws, Top Sportsman, Modified, Super Sedan, Modified Bike, Super Street and Junior Dragster.In 2015, after a dispute with ANDRA, Sydney Dragway, Willowbank Raceway and the Perth Motorplex invited the International Hot Rod Association (IHRA) to sanction events at their tracks.", "Shortly thereafter the Perth Motorplex reverted to ANDRA sanction.", "Although greatly assisted by ANDRA priorto its construction, Springmount Raceway opted for IHRA sanction.", "The 400 Thunder Series targets professional racers to its races.", "Intended to be the premier Drag racing series in Australia it has never been ableto run a truly National series and has been on a steady decline since its inception.", "Most recently Top Fuel Australia (the organization that represents the Top Fuel owners) recently extracted itself from the 400 Thunder series.", "ANDRA recently launched a new National series that will initially cater for Top Doorslammer and Top Fue Motorcycle.", "This series will provide a greater National coverage than the 400 Thunder Series did and will soon add other Professional categories.In 2021 Heathcote Park Raceway in Victoria was sold to new ownership and has since been sanctioned by IHRA for small regional events.=== Europe ===Drag racing was imported to Europe by American NATO troops during the Cold War.", "Races were held in West Germany beginning in the 1960s at the airbases at Ramstein and Sembach and in the UK at various airstrips and racing circuits before the opening of Europe's first permanent drag strip at Santa Pod Raceway in 1966.The FIA organises a Europe-wide four wheeled championship for the Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock classes.", "FIM Europe organises a similar championship for bike classes.", "In addition, championships are run for sportsman classes in many countries throughout Europe by the various national motorsport governing bodies.=== New Zealand ===Drag racing in New Zealand started in the 1960s.", "The New Zealand Hot Rod Association (NZHRA) sanctioned what is believed to have been the first drag meeting at an open cut coal mine at Kopuku, south of Auckland, sometime in 1966.In 1973, the first and only purpose built drag strip opened in Meremere by the Pukekohe Hot Rod Club.", "In April 1993 the governance of drag racing was separated from the NZHRA and the New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA) was formed.", "In 2014, New Zealand's second purpose built drag strip – Masterton Motorplex – opened.The first New Zealand Drag Racing Nationals was held in the 1966/67 season at Kopuku, near Auckland.There are now two governing bodies operating drag racing in New Zealand with the Florida-based International Hot Rod Association sanctioning both of New Zealands major tracks at Ruapuna ( Pegasus Bay Drag Racing Association ) in the South Island and Meremere Dragway Inc in the North Island which is now become the best drag strip in NZ.", "However, the official ASN of the sport, per FIA regulations, is the New Zealand Drag Racing Association.=== South America ===Many countries in South America race 200 meters, unlike in the United States and Australia, where the quarter-mile, or, 400 meters, respectively, is typical.Organized drag racing in Colombia is the responsibility of Club G3, a private organization.", "The events take place at Autódromo de Tocancipá.=== Brazil ===Local \"muscles\" like Chevrolet Opala and Chevrolet Chevette (both models brought from Opel with increased motors from Detroit, US) are the show makers for brazilian dragstrips.=== Caribbean ==='''Curaçao'''On the island of Curaçao, organization of drag racing events is handled by the Curaçao Autosport Foundation (FAC)All racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at the Curaçao International Raceway.==== Aruba ====On the island of Aruba, all racing events, including street legal competitions, happen at Palomarga International Raceway.", "'''Barbados'''On the island of Barbados, organization of drag racing events is done by the Barbados Association of Dragsters and Drifters.", "Currently the drag racing is done at Bushy Park racing circuit over 1/8 mile, while \"acceleration tests\" of 1/4 mile are done at the Paragon military base.", "'''Saint Lucia'''On the Island of Saint Lucia, organization of drag racing events is done by no-one.", "All local groups are tie ups.", "Currently races are held at the US Old military base also known as the \"Ca Ca Beff\", \"The Base\" near the Hewanorra International Airport in Vieux Fort.", "'''Dominican Republic'''On Santo Domingo, organization of drag racing events is done by Autodromo Sunix and they happen at the Autodromo Sunix, close to the Airport SDQ.=== South Asia ===Organized drag racing is rapidly growing in India.", "The country's first drag race meet was organized by ''Autocar India'' in Mumbai in 2002.Since then there have been many drag racing events in India.", "The most popular event is Elite Octanes' Valley Run which is held at Ambey Valley air strip in Loanavla every year.The biggest drag series event was organized by India Speed Week with three different locations around India.", "After the series two riders were chosen to represent the country 2017 initiative to bring 11 times world drag racing champion Rickey Gadson to India.", "The initiative was executed during the Valley Run 2017 event, which gave the participants a platform to perform at the highest level globally.", "Rickey Gadson, as an extension of the initiative invited two of the top performing drag racers to visit USA to train and get an opportunity to represent India at the World Finals of drag racing held on 16-18 November 2018 in Valdosta GA, USA.", "As a result the two riders performed in their maiden event outside India.", "Also during the event, Amit Sharma, the fastest drag racer in Indian drag racing history, produced a time slip of 8.87 sec's – the fastest ever by any Indian.Drag racing is also gaining popularity in Pakistan, with private organizations sponsoring such events.", "The Bahria Town housing project recently organized a drag racing event in Rawalpindi with the help of some of the country's best drivers.Sri Lanka has seen an immense growth in drag racing due to legal meets held by the Ceylon Motor Sports Club, an FIA sanctioned body.", "In recent years, exotic cars and Japanese power houses have been taking part in these popular events.=== South Africa ===Drag racing is an established sport in South Africa, with a number of strips around the country including Tarlton International Raceway and ODI Raceway.", "Drag racing is controlled by Motorsport South Africa and all drivers are required to hold a valid Motorsport South Africa license.", "Drivers can compete in a number of categories including Top Eliminator, Senior Eliminator, Super Competition Eliminator, Competition Eliminator, Pro Street Bikes, Superbike Eliminator, Supersport Shootout (motorcycle), Street Modified, and Factory Stock.=== Russian Federation ===Drag racing in Russia started in 2004 in Moscow when the Russian Automotive Federation (RAF) sanctioned it as an official motorsport.", "Drag Racing became popular in Russia after \"The Fast and the Furious\" film in 2001, but competitions were illegal before 2004.The most outstanding drag racing event of the early years was \"DRAG BITVA\" (Drag Battle) which took place in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia from 2005 to 2008.Krasnoyarsk is located in the middle of Russia, so it was the best place to bring all the fastest cars from all over the country.", "Due to the financial situation \"DRAG BITVA\" was canceled in 2009 and never came back.", "It was difficult times for drag racing in Russia from 2009 to 2014, but it was supported by enthusiasts in every region.", "There were a lot of competitions but it was not as big as \"DRAG BITVA\".", "In 2014 Dragtimes company in partnership with SMP Racing became the Russian Drag Racing Championship (SMP RDRC) promoters, since then Drag Racing in Russia became more professional.", "From the very beginning to 2014 only streetcars were allowed to compete in Russia.", "Now it's also allowed to run promods and dragsters in SMP RDRC.", "Thanks to the efforts of SMP RDRC promoters in 2019 the first professional dragstrip in Russia \"RDRC Racepark\" was built.", "It's located near Moscow in 40 kilometers of downtown at the former airfield Bykovo.", "It gave many opportunities to test the cars and make new records.", "Before the track was built, competitions took place on straight parts of circuits, so it was not allowed to prepare the whole 1/4 mile, only 1/8 and the tracks were available for drag racers except racing weekends of local or national events.", "From the very beginning one of the main ideas of the promoters was to increase the quality and reach of live broadcasts, so SMP RDRC became the first racing series with its video production and remains so to this day.Russian Championship has four classes:* Pro ET (Bracket class) – most of the participants here are running streetcars (e. g. BMW M5, Audi RS6, Porsche 911, Nissan GT-R, Lamborghini Huracan, etc.).", "It's allowed to run the car without a roll cage.", "Breakout for the class is 9.6 sec.", "* Street – full-body streetcars.", "Roll cage and all FIA or SFI safety equipment is mandatory.", "The class includes a lot of different cars (e. g. Toyota Supra, Audi TT RS, Jeep Grand Cherokee SRT-8, Honda Civic, Porsche 911 Turbo S, VAZ 2110, etc.).", "Breakout for the class is 8.6 sec.", "* Pro Street – full-body streetcars and 3/4 chassis cars.", "Breakout for the class is 7.6 sec.", "* SuperPro Street – door slammers, promods, dragsters, 3/4 chassis cars.", "The only limitation in the class is breakout which is 6.8 sec.Regional Series also have four classes divided by ET:* Stock – Breakout 11.9 sec.", "* Super Stock – Breakout 10.9 sec.", "* Super Gas – Breakout 9.9 sec.", "* Super Comp – Breakout 8.9 sec.The national record belongs to 4-time national champion Dmitry Samorukov: 6.325 seconds at .", "It was set in a special record run in 2016 on Dodge Viper Doorslammer in Grozny, Chechen Republic at \"Fort Grozny\" racetrack.Dmitry Samorukov was the first Russian participant of the FIA European Championship on a newly built Chevrolet Camaro in the most competitive Promod class in 2019.After six stages of the competition, he took 10th of 38 places overall.Russian driver Dmitry Kapustin on Nissan Skyline GT-R R32 is holding the European record of AWD streetcars: 7.182 seconds at .", "The record was set in a qualifying run in Grozny, Chechen Republic at \"Fort Grozny\" racetrack in 2018.1/2 mile races are also popular in Russia.", "\"Unlim 500+\" is the main 1/2 mile race in Russia.", "It's a supercar and sportscar festival where only 500+ hp cars are allowed (e. g. Nissan GT-R, McLaren 720S, Lamborghini Aventador, Porsche 911, Ferrari 488, etc.).", "The national record on 1/2 mile distance also belongs to Dmitry Samorukov on Nissan GT-R R 35: 13.305 seconds at .", "The record was set on a test and tune day at the \"RDRC Racepark\" track in 2020." ], [ "Classes", "Caterpillar-sponsored dragster.", "Note wide slicks and high-mounted wing, to assist traction.There are hundreds of classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others.", "NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other.", "The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer.", "Some IHRA classes have multiple sub-classes in them to differentiate by engine components and other features.", "There is even a class for aspiring youngsters, Junior Dragster, which typically uses an eighth-mile track, also favored by VW racers.In 1997, the FIA (cars) and UEM (bikes) began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation (and rules compliance) with NHRA.", "The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England; Alastaro Circuit, Finland; Mantorp Park, Sweden; Gardermoen Raceway, Norway and the Hockenheimring in Germany.", "''Pain Killer'' J/D.", "Note the driver, helmet off, is still in the car, which is under tow on the return road, headed for the pits.There is a somewhat arbitrary definition of what constitutes a \"professional\" class.", "The NHRA includes 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Funny Car, Pro Stock, Pro Modified and Pro Stock Motorcycle.", "The FIA features a different set of 5 pro classes; Top Fuel, Top Methanol Dragster, Top Methanol Funny Car, Pro Modified and Pro Stock.", "Other sanctioning bodies have similarly different definitions.", "A partial list of classes includes:Top Fuel dragsters* Top Fuel Dragster (TF/D).", "The dragsters, or \"diggers\", are the fastest class.", "Among the fastest-accelerating machines in the world, these cars can cover the dragstrip in less than 3.7 seconds and record trap speeds over .", "Under current rules, Modern Top Fuel dragsters are long and weigh in race-ready trim.", "Methanol mixed with up to 90% nitromethane is used as fuel.", "Typical Funny Cars* Top Fuel Funny Car (TF/FC).", "Similar to their dragster counterparts but with a shorter wheelbase and a carbon-fiber body that loosely resembles a production automobile, Funny Cars, or \"floppers\", routinely run in the 4.0s and can exceed 315 mph.", "In 2017, NHRA driver Robert Hight ran a career-best ET of 3.793 and speed of 339.87 mph.A typical Pro Stock car.", "* Pro Stock (NHRA, IHRA/MMPSA).", "Often called \"factory hot rods\" because of their resemblance to production-based cars (and because they must maintain a relatively stock appearance), and commonly known as \"doorslammers\", Pro Stockers can record quarter-mile times in the 6.4 second range, and speeds over .", "They can rev to more than 10,500 rpm and make in excess of .", "NHRA engines can be no more than displacement while MMPSA cars can run a maximum of (called \"Mountain Motors\").", "IHRA engines can be no more than .", "Both classes require the motors to be naturally aspirated.", "* Pro Stock Motorcycle (NHRA and IHRA).", "These highly modified vehicles, which can run under 6.8 seconds at more than 195 mph, feature a purpose-built tube chassis and a lightweight, aerodynamically enhanced replica of original bodywork.", "* Pro Modified (Pro Mod).", "Known as Top Doorslammer in Australia.", "Some engine restrictions, very high power.", "Cars can run superchargers, turbochargers, or nitrous oxide.", "Cars running blowers are limited to while cars with nitrous can run up to .", "This class is globally recognised, although the name differs between North America and Australia.", "* Top Alcohol Dragster (TA/D).", "Known as Top Methanol Dragster in FIA competition.", "Top Alcohol Dragsters resemble Top Fuelers, but have significant differences.", "They may use a supercharged methanol-burning engine or an injected nitromethane combination.", "They can run in the 5.1s at more than 280 mph.", "* Top Alcohol Funny Car (TA/FC).", "Known as Top Methanol Funny Car in FIA competition.", "Similar in physical appearance to their nitro-burning Funny Car counterparts, Top Alcohol Funny Cars are restricted to the use of methanol fuel and have three-speed transmissions.", "They can run in the 5.4s at more than 265 mph.", "In the IHRA, Alcohol Funny Car is the fifth pro category, replacing NHRA's Pro Stock Bike.A typical Comp car.", "* Competition Eliminator.", "This is the NHRA class with the most variety.", "Each of its 88 sections is assigned an index based on what a well-built car should run, and races are handicapped according to those indexes.", "* Outlaw Series* Pro FWD* Sport Front-Wheel-Drive (SFWD).", "This is a class that is dedicated to solely front wheel drive vehicles.", "One of the motivations behind the creation of this class was to keep cars as original looking as they could possibly be.", "SFWD is one of the most common and popular import drag racing classes.", "The two most common vehicles in this class are the Honda Civic and the Acura Integra.", "In this class, the number one restriction is that each vehicle must retain its original chassis.", "No modification to the OEM floorboard or Firewall is permitted.", "In addition, at least one headlight and both brake lights must be fully functional.", "Suspension and brake modifications are allowed to a certain extent.", "Aftermarket components are permitted as long as the original mounting points are not modified.", "All four brakes must be retained and parachutes are permitted.", "The stock dashboard and windshield must be retained along with the car's original interior from the front seats forward, while rear seats as well as passenger-side seat may be removed.", "Racing gas or E85 may be used; methanol may not.", "Internal engine modifications of all types, aftermarket engine blocks, and engine swaps are permitted.", "Engines may use nitrous oxide or be turbocharged.", "Tires may be a maximum of tall and in tread width.", "All cars must meet a minimum weight requirement of , plus any weight penalties teams may incur for having certain equipment installed that would have given them too much of an advantage over the competition.", "* Stick Shift.", "Reserved for vehicles with a manual transmission.", "The rising popularity of automatic transmissions in drag racing created the demand for these classes.", "Popular sanctioning bodies include United Manual Transmission Racers, Pro Stick Racing, Rocky Mountain Stick Shifters, and Ozark Mountain Super Shifters.", "* Super Comp/Quick Rod.", "The quickest of the heads-up Super classes (8.90 index) is composed primarily of dragsters.", "Most cars are capable of running well under the index but use electronic aids to run close to it without breaking out.Super Gas Probe.", "* Super Gas/Super Rod.", "Super Gas entries, which run on a 9.90 index, are primarily full-bodied cars and street roadsters.", "No dragsters or altereds are permitted.", "As in Super Comp, competitors use electronic aids to run as close to the class standard without going under.", "* Super Street/Hot Rod.", "Racers compete on a fixed 10.90 index.", "All vehicles must be full-bodied cars and weigh no less than 2,800 pounds except for six-cylinder cars (2,000) and four-cylinder and rotary-powered cars (1,200).", "Engine and chassis modifications are virtually unlimited.Super Street MustangA typical Super Stock car* Super Stock.", "Super Stock vehicles resemble ordinary passenger cars, but are actually heavily modified.", "Entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower and compete on indexes.", "The breakout rule is enforced.", "* Stock.", "Stock cars are similar to Super Stockers, but rules regarding everything from engine modifications to body alterations are much stricter.", "Virtually any car is eligible to compete, and entries are classified using factory shipping weight and horsepower.", "* Sport Compact* Top Sportsman (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA).", "Competitors in these full-bodied entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.99 seconds.", "Full Tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced.", "Cars can run in the sixes at more than .Blown Top Dragster* Top Dragster (T/D) (NHRA, IHRA, ANDRA).", "Competitors in these open-wheel entries may choose their own dial-in for eliminations, generally from 6.00 to 7.70 seconds.", "Full tree starts are used, and the breakout rule is enforced.", "Cars can run in the sixes at more than .", "Cars can run any combination of motor: blown, turbo, nitrous or just all motor.", "* Top Fuel Funny Bike (high performance 5 second bikes)* Nostalgia Super Stock* NHRA and ANDRA Summit Racing series Super Pro, Pro, and bike.", "* Junior Dragster (racers between the ages of 8 and 18 may race a half scale version of the sport's fastest car, Top Fuel Dragster.", "Juniors run as follows: 12.90-slower for 8-9 year olds, 10-12 year olds at 8.90, and 13-18 year olds 7.90 and slower at a top speed of 85 mph).", "These cars race at 1/8 mile or 1/16 mile.", "* NHRA new class for Juniors is JR COMP running 6.90s at a top speed of (1/8 mile or 1/16 mile).A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites.Dragster engine with dual-plug heads, dual ignition magnetos, and intake snorkelThe UEM also has a different structure of professional categories with Top Fuel Bike, Super Twin Top Fuel Bike, and Pro Stock Bike contested, leaving the entire European series with a total of 8 professional categories.To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the starting line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car.", "This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen \"dial-in\" in bracket racing.For a list of drag racing world records in each class, see Dragstrip#Quarter mile times." ], [ "Dial-in", "A 'dial-in' is a time the driver estimates it will take their car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the tree accordingly.", "The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even.", "If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lower elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins.", "However, if a driver had jump-started (red light) or crossed a boundary line, both violations override any break out (except in some classes with an absolute break out rule such as Junior classes).The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow.", "This in turn makes victory much less dependent on budget, and more dependent on skill, making it popular with casual weekend racers.Blazing Angel Jet Dragster" ], [ "Historic cars", "''Smokin' White Owl'', built by \"Ollie\" Morris in 1954* 1954 — first slingshot, built by Mickey Thompson; ''Smokin' White Owl'' built by \"Ollie\" Morris, first purpose-built rear-engined dragster and first to use a Chevrolet V8 engine.", "* 1962 — the Greer–Black–Prudhomme dragster, with the best win record in NHRA history.", "* 1966 — Don Nicholson's ''Eliminator I'', the first true Funny Car, built by Logghe Brothers.", "* 1971 — ''Swamp Rat XIV'' (or ''Swamp Rat 1-R''), first successful rear-engined dragster, built by Don Garlits; Ed Donovan introduces the 417 Donovan hemi, an aluminum copy of the Chrysler.", "* 1974 — first tube chassis Pro Stock car, Bill Jenkins' 1972 Chevrolet Vega.", "* 1979 — ''Vanishing Point'', rocket-powered funny car built by Sammy Miller, set current standing world record for fastest quarter-mile time (3.58 seconds) in 1984." ], [ "Glossary", "* Back half – the second half of a track, e.g.", "from the 1/8 mile to mark to the 1,000 foot or 1/4 mile mark for a standard track* Beam – electronic device (e.g.", "an optical beam) at the starting line to detect a car's staging position* Big tire – Car with a set of rear tires taller than 28.5 inches tall and or wider than 12.5 inches of tread.", "Car may have modifications to the rear frame rails and suspension system to allow the large tires to fit under the car.", "Compare Small tire.", "* Bottle – nitrous system; also known as the jug.", "* Blanket – a ballistic cover, typically over the supercharged intake manifold assembly to contain shrapnel, in the case of an explosion.", "* Blow – see Blown.", "* Blower – supercharger (occasionally turbocharger); in '90s, generally grouped as \"power adder\" with turbocharger and nitrous* Blown – supercharged, when describing a functioning engine; wrecked, when describing an engine failure.", "* Blowover – flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels* Breakout – in bracket racing, running quicker than dial-in; also \"breaking out\".", "* Bulb(ed) – synonym for \"redlight\"* Bump – (also called on the bump or in the bubble) a driver is ranked by qualifying order if they are ranked 15 or 16 in most skill classes they are placed \"on the bump\" if the next driver improves and gets a better score that driver is eliminated and has to do another run to requalify.", "If they mess up on all qualification days, do not make it to elimination, or lose the first or second round that driver is eliminated and \"placed on the trailer\" and sent home.", "* Burnout – intentionally spinning and smoking the tires to build heat for better traction* Christmas tree (or \"tree\") – device at the starting line containing signal lights, used to start a race in addition to showing starting violations* DA – density altitude; a reference to qualities in the air.", "* Dial-in (bracket racing) – a car's pre-estimated ET for a pass, used for handicapping the start* Diaper – an absorbent containment blanket under the engine to prevent/reduce oil contact with the track, in the event of parts breakage* Dope (Southern U.S.) – nitrous or propane injection in a diesel engine* Doped – a car with a hidden nitrous system.", "* Digger – dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)* ET – Elapsed time.", "Time from a car leaving the starting line to crossing the finish line.", "* First or worst – if both drivers commit a foul, the driver who commits the foul first loses, unless it is two separate fouls, where the loser is the driver who committed the worse foul (lane violation is worse than foul start, and failure to participate in a post-run inspection is worst).", "* Flopper commonly, Funny Car any flip-top car Coined by dragster crews in the late 1960s to separate Funny Cars, which had fiberglass bodies with fenders, from dragsters.", "* Fuel – shorthand for \"top fuel\", a mix of methanol and nitromethane (\"pop\", nitro)* Fueler – any car running top fuel or in a top fuel class (most often, TFD or TF/FC)* Grenade – an engine destroyed (the engine \"grenaded\") due to internal failure.", "Distinct from \"popping a blower\".", "* Heads-up racing – a non-handicapped racing style where both drivers are started at the same time.", "Used in all professional (\"pro\") classes.", "* Holeshot – gaining an advantage by a faster reaction time at the start.", "The other driver gets \"holeshotted\" or \"left at the tree\".", "** Holeshot win – a race won by a driver with a slower elapsed time but a faster reaction time.", "* Hooked up – good traction between tires and track resulting in increased acceleration and reduced slipping or smoking of tires.", "* James Bond – when a driver's reaction time is seven thousandths of a second after the green light (.007).", "A \"James Bond Red\" is a reaction time of -.007 seconds (red light), which is disqualification unless the opponent commits a more serious violation.", "* Kit – turbo or nitrous kit* Lit the tires – lost traction, causing burning rubber* Meth – methanol injection used in conjunction with gasoline (non-leaded pump) (Not to be confused with Methamphetamine)* Mill – any internal combustion engine used in a drag car, or hot rod* Nitro – nitromethane* Nitrous – nitrous oxide system; the gas used in such a system* No prep – a style of racing where the track has not been pre-treated to improve traction* Overdrive – ratio between the revolutions of the supercharger drive to the revolutions of the engine, controlling amount of boost; see underdrive* Oildown – when a car's engine or lubrication breaks during a run, leaving a streak of oil and other fluids on the track.", "This is punishable by fines, point penalties, and/or suspension.", "* Pedalfest – race won by pedalling; or poor track conditions that necessitate pedalling* Pedalling – working the throttle to maintain traction, or as a way to sandbag; \"pedalled\" it, had to \"pedal\" it* Pro tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turn green.", "Compare to \"Standard tree\".", "* Put on the trailer – lost (got \"put on the trailer\") or won (put the other driver on the trailer)* Quick 8 (Q8) – quickest eight cars in a defined race* Rail – dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper).", "From the exposed frame rails of early cars.", "* Redlight(ed) – jump(ed) the start, left before tree turned green.", "This is a loss unless the opponent commits a more serious foul (boundary lines or failed inspection).", "* Red Cherry – red light* Sandbagging – releasing the throttle or using the brakes at the end of the track during a bracket race after dialing a purposely slow time.", "Considered a dirty trick or tantamount to cheating in amateur classes.", "* Scattershield – metal sheet protecting driver in case of transmission failure* Slapper bar – traction bar* Slicks – rear tires with no tread pattern and softer rubber compound, for increased traction* Slingshot – early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed).", "* Small Tire – Class of car where rear tires are shorter than or equal to 28.5 in and or equal 12.5 in of tread.", "This type of racing usually assumes that the rear frame rails and suspension are not radically modified.", "* Standard tree – style of starting a race where the timing lights flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green.", "Original starting method before introduction of pro tree.", "* Struck the tires – (also called hazing the tires, smoking the tires, or smoking out) loss of traction, causing them to smoke* Throw a belt – losing the drive belt connecting the engine's crankshaft to the supercharger* Top end – finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band.", "* Traction bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle to keep rear axle from twisting, causing wheel hop and loss of traction; slapper bars.", "* Trap(s) – the speed trap near the finish line to measure speed & E.T.", "* Trap speed – the speed measured by the 60 foot speed trap near the finish line, indicating maximum speed reached in a run.", "* Tire shake – violent shaking of the car as the tires lose and regain traction in quick succession.", "* Wheelie bars – rear struts fixed to rear axle, which protrude out to rear of car to help prevent car's front from raising too high or flipping over on launch." ], [ "See also", "* Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA)* Electric dragbike* Electric dragster* Fremont Dragstrip* Jet dragster* Land speed racing* National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)* Nostalgia drag racing* Rocket dragster* Santa Ana Drags* Drag boat racing" ], [ "References", "* Robert C. Post.", "''High Performance: The Culture and Technology of Drag Racing, 1950–2000''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press, revised edition 2001." ], [ "External links", "* Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA)* European Championship Drag Racing (FIA/UEM)* International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)* International Hot Rod Association (IHRA Australia)* International Hot Rod Association (IHRA New Zealand)* National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)* New Zealand Drag Racing Association (NZDRA)* No Prep Racing* Pro Racing Association – Championship Volkswagen Drag Racing * Drag Racing's Internet Magazine * Drag Racing Forum, Race Cars & Racing Events from around the world* EuroDragster – European Drag Racing News and Events* DragTimes – Database of Drag Racing Timeslips* Dragbike.com – Motorcycle Drag Racing News* Drag News Australia – Australian Drag Racing News* Race Pages" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Draugr" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''draugr''' or '''draug''' (, plural ; modern , , and Danish, Swedish, and ) is an undead creature from the Scandinavian saga literature and folktales.Commentators extend the term ''draugr'' to the undead in medieval literature, even if it is never explicitly referred to as such in the text, and designated them rather as a (\"'''barrow-dweller'''\") or an , literally \"again-walker\" ()." ], [ "Overview", "Draugar live in their graves or royal palaces, often guarding treasure buried with them in their burial mound.", "They are revenants, or animated corpses with a corporeal body, rather than ghosts which possess intangible spiritual bodies." ], [ "Terminology", "Old Norse '''' is defined as \"a ghost, spirit, esp.", "the dead inhabitant of a cairn\".", "Often the ''draugr'' is regarded not so much as a ghost but a revenant, i.e., the reanimated corpse of the deceased inside the burial mound (as in the example of Kárr inn gamli in ''Grettis saga'').The ''draugr'' was referred to as \"barrow-wight\" in the 1869 translation of ''Grettis saga'', long before J. R. R. Tolkien employed this term in his novels, though \"barrow-wight\" is actually a rendering of (literally the ‘howe-dweller’), otherwise translated as \"barrow-dweller\".=== Cognates and etymology ===In Old Norse, the term ''draugr'' also meant a tree trunk or dry dead wood, or in poetry could refer to a man or warrior, since Old Norse poetry often used terms for trees to represent humans, especially in kennings, referencing the myth that the god Odin and his brothers created the first humans Ask and Embla from trees.", "There was thus a connection between the idea of a felled tree's trunk and that of a dead man's corpse.In Swedish, ''draug'' is a modern loanword from West Norse, as the native Swedish form ''drög'' has acquired the meaning of \"a pale, ineffectual, and slow-minded person that drags himself along\".", "The word is hypothetically traced to Proto-Indo European stem '''' \"phantom\", from '''' \"deceive\" (see also Avestan \"druj\").Beings in British folklore such as \"shag-boys\" and \"hogboons\" derive their names from .=== Broadened usage ===Unlike Kárr inn gamli (Kar the Old) in ''Grettis saga'', who is specifically called a ''draugr'', Glámr the ghost in the same saga is never explicitly called a ''draugr'' in the text, though called a \"troll\" in it.", "Yet Glámr is still routinely referred to as a ''draugr'' by modern scholars.Beings not specifically called , but actually only referred to as (‘revenants’, pl.", "of ) and (‘haunting’) in these medieval sagas are still commonly discussed as a in various scholarly works, or the ''draugar'' and the '''''haugbúar''''' are lumped into one.A further caveat is that the application of the term ''draugr'' may not necessarily follow what the term might have meant in the strict sense during medieval times, but rather follow a modern definition or notion of ''draugr'', specifically such ghostly beings (by whatever names they are called) that occur in Icelandic folktales categorized as \"Draugasögur\" in Jón Árnason's collection, based on the classification groundwork laid by Konrad Maurer." ], [ "Overall classification", ";Ghost with physical bodyThe draugr is a \"corporeal ghost\" with a physical tangible body and not an \"imago\", and in tales it is often delivered a \"second death\" by destruction of the enlivened corpse.", ";VampireThe draugr has also been conceived of as a type of \"vampire\" by folktale anthologist Andrew Lang in late 1897, with the idea further pursued by more modern commentators.", "The focus here is not on blood-sucking, which is not attested for the ''draugr'', but rather, contagiousness or transmittable nature of vampirism, that is to say, how a vampire begets another by turning his or her attack victim into one of his own kind.", "Sometimes the chain of contagion becomes an outbreak, e.g., the case of Þórólfr bægifótr (Thorolf Lame-foot or Twist-Foot), and even called an \"epidemic\" regarding Þórgunna (Thorgunna).A more speculative case of vampirism is that of Glámr, who was asked to tend sheep for a haunted farmstead and was subsequently found dead with his neck and every bone in his body broken.", "It has been surmised by commentators that Glámr by \"contamination\" was turned into an undead (''draugr'') by whatever being was haunting the farm." ], [ "Physical traits", "Draugar usually possessed superhuman strength, and were \"generally hideous to look at\", bearing a necrotic black or blue color, and were associated with a \"reek of decay\" or more precisely inhabited haunts that often issued foul stench.", "The draugar were said to be either ''hel-blár'' (\"death-blue\") or ''nár-fölr'' (\"corpse-pale\").", "Glámr when found dead was described as \"''blár sem Hel en digr sem naut'' (black as hell and bloated to the size of a bull)\".", "Þórólfr Lame-foot, when lying dormant, looked \"uncorrupted\" and also \"was black as death i.e., bruised black and blue and swollen to the size of an ox\".", "The close similarity of these descriptions have been noted.", "''Laxdæla saga'' describes how bones were dug up belonging to a dead sorceress who had appeared in dreams, and they were \"blue and evil looking\".Þráinn (Thrain) the berserker of Valland \"turned himself into a troll\" in ''Hrómundar saga Gripssonar'' was a fiend (''dólgr'') which was \"black and huge.. roaring loudly and blowing fire\", and moreover, possessed long scratching claws, and the claws stuck in the neck, prompting the hero Hrómundr to refer to the ''dragur'' as a sort of cat ().", "The possession of long claws features also in the case of another revenant, Ásviðr (Aswitus) who came to life in the night and attacked his foster-brother Ásmundr (Asmundus) with them, scratching his face and tearing one of his ears.Draugrs often give off a morbid stench, not unlike the smell of a decaying body.", "The mound where Kárr the Old was entombed reeked horribly.", "In ''Harðar saga'' Hörðr Grímkelsson’s two underlings die even before entering Sóti the Viking's mound, due to the \"gust and stink ()\" wafting out of it.", "When enraged Þráinn filled the barrow with an \"evil reek.\"" ], [ "Magical abilities", "Draugar are noted for having numerous magical abilities (referred to as ''trollskap'') resembling those of living witches and wizards, such as shape-shifting, controlling the weather, and seeing into the future.=== Shape-shifting ===The undead Víga-Hrappr Sumarliðason (Killer-Hrapp) of ''Laxdaela saga'', unlike the typical guardian of a treasure hoard, does not stay put in his burial place but roams around his farmstead of Hrappstaðir, menacing the living.", "Víga-Hrappr's ghost, it has been suggested, was capable of transforming into the seal with human-like eyes which appeared before Þorsteinn svarti/surt (Thorsteinn the Black) sailing by ship, and was responsible for the sinking of the ship to prevent the family from reaching Hrappstaðir.", "The ability to shape-shift has been ascribed to Icelandic ghosts generally, particularly into the shape of a seal.A draugr in Icelandic folktales collected in the modern age can also change into a great flayed bull, a grey horse with a broken back but no ears or tail, and a cat that would sit upon a sleeper's chest and grow steadily heavier until their victim suffocated.=== Other magical abilities ===Draugar have the ability to enter into the dreams of the living, and they will frequently leave a gift behind so that \"the living person may be assured of the tangible nature of the visit\".", "Draugar also have the ability to curse a victim, as shown in the Grettis saga, where Grettir is cursed to be unable to become any stronger.", "Draugar also brought disease to a village and could create temporary darkness in daylight hours.", "They preferred to be active during the night, although they did not appear to be vulnerable to sunlight like some other revenants.", "Draugr can also kill people with bad luck.A draugr's presence might be shown by a great light that glowed from the mound like foxfire.", "This fire would form a barrier between the land of the living and the land of the dead.", "The undead Víga-Hrappr exhibited the ability to sink into the ground to escape from Óláfr Hǫskuldsson the Peacock.Some draugar are immune to weapons, and only a hero has the strength and courage needed to stand up to so formidable an opponent.", "In legends, the hero would often have to wrestle the draugr back to his grave, thereby defeating him, since weapons would do no good.", "A good example of this is found in ''Hrómundar saga Gripssonar''.", "Iron could injure a draugr, as is the case with many supernatural creatures, although it would not be sufficient to stop it.", "Sometimes the hero is required to dispose of the body in unconventional ways.", "The preferred method is to cut off the draugr's head, burn the body, and dump the ashes in the sea—the emphasis being on making absolutely sure that the draugr was dead and gone." ], [ "Behaviour and character", "Any mean, nasty, or greedy person can become a draugr.", "As Ármann Jakobsson notes, \"most medieval Icelandic ghosts are evil or marginal people.", "If not dissatisfied or evil, they are unpopular\".=== Greed ===The draugr's motivation was primarily envy and greed.", "Greed causes it to viciously attack any would-be grave robbers, but the draugr also expresses an innate envy of the living stemming from a longing for the things of life which it once had.", "They also exhibit an immense and nearly insatiable appetite, as shown in the encounter of Aran and Asmund, sword brothers who made an oath that, if one should die, the other would sit vigil with him for three days inside the burial mound.", "When Aran died, Asmund brought his own possessions into the barrow—banners, armor, hawk, hound, and horse—then set himself to wait the three days:=== Bloodthirst ===The draugr's victims were not limited to trespassers in its home.", "The roaming undead devastated livestock by running the animals to death either by riding them or pursuing them in some hideous, half-flayed form.", "Shepherds' duties kept them outdoors at night, and they were particular targets for the hunger and hatred of the undead:Animals feeding near the grave of a draugr might be driven mad by the creature's influence.", "They may also die from being driven mad.", "Thorolf, for example, caused birds to drop dead when they flew over his bowl barrow.=== Sitting posture and evil eye ===The main indication that a deceased person will become a draugr is that the corpse is not in a horizontal position but is found standing upright (Víga-Hrappr), or in a sitting position (Þórólfr), indicating that the dead might return.", "Ármann Jakobsson suggests further that breaking the draugr's posture is a necessary or helpful step in destroying the ''draugr'', but this is fraught with the risk of being inflicted with the evil eye, whether this is explicitly told in the case of Grettir who receives the curse from Glámr, or only implied in the case of Þórólfr, whose son warns the others to beware while they unbend Þórólfr's seated posture.", "=== Annihilating ===The revenant ''draugr'' needing to be decapitated in order to incapacitate them from further hauntings is a common theme in the family sagas.=== Means of prevention ===The Nørre Nærå Runestone is interpreted as having a \"grave binding inscription\" used to keep the deceased in its grave.Traditionally, a pair of open iron scissors was placed on the chest of the recently deceased, and straws or twigs might be hidden among their clothes.", "The big toes were tied together or needles were driven through the soles of the feet in order to keep the dead from being able to walk.", "Tradition also held that the coffin should be lifted and lowered in three different directions as it was carried from the house to confuse a possible draugr's sense of direction.The most effective means of preventing the return of the dead was believed to be a corpse door, a special door through which the corpse was carried feet-first with people surrounding it so that the corpse couldn't see where it was going.", "The door was then bricked up to prevent a return.", "It is speculated that this belief began in Denmark and spread throughout the Norse culture, founded on the idea that the dead could only leave through the way they entered.In ''Eyrbyggja saga'', draugar are driven off by holding a \"door-doom\".", "One by one, they are summoned to the door-doom and given judgment and forced out of the home by this legal method.", "The home was then purified with holy water to ensure that they never came back." ], [ "Similar beings", "A variation of the draugr is the ''haugbui'' (from Old Norse ''haugr''' \"howe, barrow, tumulus\") which was a mound-dweller, the dead body living on within its tomb.", "The notable difference between the two was that the haugbui is unable to leave its grave site and only attacks those who trespass upon their territory.The haugbui was rarely found far from its burial place and is a type of undead commonly found in Norse sagas.", "The creature is said to either swim alongside boats or sail around them in a partially submerged vessel, always on their own.", "In some accounts, witnesses portray them as shapeshifters who take on the appearance of seaweed or moss-covered stones on the shoreline." ], [ "Folklore", "===Icelandic sagas===One of the best-known draugar is ''Glámr'', who is defeated by the hero in ''Grettis saga''.", "After Glámr dies on Christmas Eve, \"people became aware that Glámr was not resting in peace.", "He wrought such havoc that some people fainted at the sight of him, while others went out of their minds\".", "After a battle, Grettir eventually gets Glámr on his back.", "Just before Grettir kills him, Glámr curses Grettir because \"Glámr was endowed with more evil force than most other ghosts\", and thus he was able to speak and leave Grettir with his curse after his death.A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is presented by the example of Gunnar Hámundarson in ''Njáls saga'': \"It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon.", "They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen.", "Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face.", "\"In the ''Eyrbyggja saga'', a shepherd is assaulted by a blue-black draugr.", "The shepherd's neck is broken during the ensuing scuffle.", "The shepherd rises the next night as a draugr.===Recent===A \"draug\" from modern Scandinavian folklore aboard a ship, in sub-human form, wearing oilskinsIn more recent Scandinavian folklore, the draug (the modern spelling used in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) is a supernatural being that occurs in legends along the coast of Norway.", "Draugen was originally a dead person who either lived in the mound (in Norse called haugbúi) or went out to haunt the living.", "In later folklore, it became common to limit the figure to a ghost of a dead fisherman who had drifted at sea, and who was not buried in Christian soil.", "It was said that he wore a leather jacket or was dressed in oilskin, but had a seaweed vase for his head.", "He sailed in a half-boat with blocked sails (the Norwegian municipality of Bø, Nordland has the half-boat in its coat-of-arms) and announced death for those who saw him or even wanted to pull them down.", "This trait is common in the northernmost part of Norway, where life and culture was based on fishing more than anywhere else.", "The reason for this may be that the fishermen often drowned in great numbers, and the stories of restless dead coming in from sea were more common in the north than any other region of the country.A recorded legend from Trøndelag tells how a cadaver lying on a beach became the object of a quarrel between the two types of draug (headless and seaweed-headed).", "A similar source even tells of a third type, the ''gleip'', known to hitch themselves to sailors walking ashore and make them slip on the wet rocks.But, though the draug usually presages death, there is an amusing account in Northern Norway of a northerner who managed to outwit him:===Use in popular culture===The modern and popular connection between the draug and the sea can be traced back to authors like Jonas Lie and Regine Nordmann, whose works include several books of fairy tales, as well as the drawings of Theodor Kittelsen, who spent some years living in Svolvær.", "Up north, the tradition of sea-draugs is especially vivid.Arne Garborg describes land-draugs coming fresh from the graveyards, and the term ''draug'' is even used of vampires.", "The notion of draugs who live in the mountains is present in the poetic works of Henrik Ibsen (''Peer Gynt''), and Aasmund Olavsson Vinje.", "The Nynorsk translation of ''The Lord of the Rings'' used the term for both Nazgûl and the dead men of Dunharrow.", "Tolkien's barrow-wights bear obvious similarity to, and were inspired by the haugbúi.In ''The Elder Scrolls'' video game series, draugr are the undead mummified corpses of fallen warriors that inhabit the ancient burial sites of a Nordic-inspired race of man.", "These draugr behave more like haugbúi than traditional draugr.", "They first appeared in the Bloodmoon expansion to ''The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind'', and would later go on to appear all throughout ''The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim''.", "Draugr are a common enemy, the first encountered by the player, in the 2018 video game ''God of War'', with a variety of different powers and abilities.", "In 2019, a spaceship named ''Draugur'' was added to the game ''Eve Online'', as the command destroyer of the Triglavian faction.", "Draugr appear as an enemies in the 2021 early access game ''Valheim'', where they take the more recent, seaweed version of the Draug.In ''Draug (film)'', a group of Viking warriors encounter the draugr while searching for a missing person inside a huge forest.", "The draugr are depicted as blue-black animated corpses wielding many magical abilities.In the movie ''The Northman'', Amleth enters a burial mound, in search of a magical sword named \"Draugr\".", "Inside the grave chamber Amleth encounters an undead Mound Dweller (draugr), who he has to fight in order to obtain the blade.Season two episode two of ''Hilda'', entitled \"The Draugen,\" involved draugen as the ghosts of sailors who died at sea.", "While their form was ghostly, the captain was able to wear a coat, and had a shock of seaweed for hair.The exoplanet PSR B1257+12 A has been named \"Draugr\"." ], [ "See also", "* Gjenganger* Norse funeral* Selkolla* Spriggan* Wiedergänger" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ======= Primary sources ====* * * * * * * ==== Secondary sources ====* * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!--" ], [ "External links", "DELETED FROM COMMONS (copyright viol) -->" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Day" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''day''' is the time period of a full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun.", "On average, this is 24 hours (86,400 seconds).", "As a day passes at a given location it experiences morning, noon, afternoon, evening, and night.", "This daily cycle drives circadian rhythms in many organisms, which are vital to many life processes.A collection of sequential days is organized into calendars as dates, almost always into weeks, months and years.", "A solar calendar organizes dates based on the Sun's annual cycle, giving consistent start dates for the four seasons from year to year.", "A lunar calendar organizes dates based on the Moon's lunar phase.", "In common usage, a day starts at midnight, written as 00:00 or 12:00 am in 24- or 12-hour clocks, respectively.", "Because the time of midnight varies between locations, time zones are set up to facilitate the use of a uniform standard time.", "Other conventions are sometimes used, for example the Jewish religious calendar counts days from sunset to sunset, so the Jewish Sabbath begins at sundown on Friday.", "In astronomy, a day begins at noon so that observations throughout a single night are recorded as happening on the same day.In specific applications, the definition of a day is slightly modified, such as in the SI day (exactly 86,400 seconds) used for computers and standards keeping, local mean time accounting of the Earth's natural fluctuation of a solar day, and stellar day and sidereal day (using the celestial sphere) used for astronomy.", "In most countries outside of the tropics, daylight saving time is practiced, and each year there will be one 23-hour civil day and one 25-hour civil day.", "Due to slight variations in the rotation of the Earth, there are rare times when a leap second will get inserted at the end of a UTC day, and so while almost all days have a duration of 86,400 seconds, there are these exceptional cases of a day with 86,401 seconds (in the half-century spanning 1972 through 2022, there have been a total of 27 leap seconds that have been inserted, so roughly once every other year)." ], [ "Etymology", "The term comes from the Old English term ''dæġ'' (), with its cognates such as ''dagur'' in Icelandic, ''Tag'' in German, and ''dag'' in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Dutch – all stemming from a Proto-Germanic root ''dagaz''.", ", ''day'' is the 205th most common word in US English, and the 210th most common in UK English." ], [ "Definitions", "=== Apparent and mean solar day ===Earth's rotation imaged by Deep Space Climate Observatory, showing axis tiltSeveral definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need, and convenience.", "Besides the day of 24 hours (86,400 seconds), the word ''day'' is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis.", "An important one is the ''solar day'', the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point (its highest point in the sky).", "Due to an orbit's eccentricity, the Sun resides in one of the orbit's foci instead of the middle.", "Consequently, due to Kepler's second law, the planet travels at different speeds at various positions in its orbit, and thus a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year.", "Because the Earth moves along an eccentric orbit around the Sun while the Earth spins on an inclined axis, this period can be up to 7.9 seconds more than (or less than) 24 hours.", "In recent decades, the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86,400.002 seconds (24.000 000 6 hours).", "There are currently about 365.2421875 solar days in one mean tropical year.Ancient custom has a new day starting at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example, being 24 hours from sunset, old style).", "The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude and latitude, as well as altitude), and the time of year (as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials).A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination).", "The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year.", "The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds).", "This is the time as indicated by modern sundials.A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt).In terms of Earth's rotation, the average day length is about 360.9856°.", "A day lasts for more than 360° of rotation because of the Earth's revolution around the Sun.", "With a full year being slightly more than 360 days, the Earth's daily orbit around the Sun is slightly less than 1°, so the day is slightly less than 361° of rotation.Elsewhere in the Solar System or other parts of the universe, a day is a full rotation of other large astronomical objects with respect to its star.==== Civil day ====For civil purposes, a common clock time is typically defined for an entire region based on the local mean solar time at a central meridian.", "Such '' time zones'' began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regularly occurring schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929.As of 2015, throughout the world, 40 such zones are now in use: the central zone, from which all others are defined as offsets, is known as UTC±00, which uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone.", "Such a day may be called a calendar day.A day is commonly divided into 24 hours, with each hour being made up of 60 minutes, and each minute composed of 60 seconds.=== Sidereal day ===CeresA sidereal day or stellar day is the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star (assumed to be fixed).", "Measuring a day as such is used in astronomy.", "A sidereal day is about 4 minutes less than a solar day of 24 hours (23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds), or 0.99726968 of a solar day of 24 hours.", "There are about 366.2422 stellar days in one mean tropical year (one stellar day more than the number of solar days).Besides a stellar day on Earth, other bodies in the Solar System have day times, the durations of these being:NameDaylength (hours)MercuryVenusEarth's Moon708.7Mars24.7Ceres9–9.1Jupiter9.9Saturn10.7Uranus17.2Neptune16.1Pluto153.3=== In the International System of Units ===In the International System of Units (SI), a day not an official unit, but is accepted for use with SI.", "A day, with symbol d, is defined using SI units as 86,400 seconds; the second is the base unit of time in SI units.", "In 1967–68, during the 13th CGPM (Resolution 1), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) redefined a second as \"... the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom.\"", "This makes the SI-based day last exactly 794,243,384,928,000 of those periods.=== In decimal and metric time ===Decimal clock face, made in around the start of the 19th centuryVarious decimal or metric time proposals have been made, but do not redefine the day, and use the day or sidereal day as a base unit.", "Metric time uses metric prefixes to keep time.", "It uses the day as the base unit, and smaller units being fractions of a day: a metric hour (''deci'') is of a day; a metric minute (''milli'') is of a day; etc.", "Similarly, in decimal time, the length of a day is static to normal time.", "A day is also split into 10 hours, and 10 days comprise a ''décade –'' the equivalent of a week.", "3 ''décades'' make a month.", "Various decimal time proposals which do not redefine the day: Henri de Sarrauton's proposal kept days, and subdivided hours into 100 minutes; in Mendizábal y Tamborel's proposal, the sidereal day was the basic unit, with subdivisions made upon it; and Rey-Pailhade's proposal divided the day 100 ''cés.", "''=== Other definitions ===The word refers to various similarly defined ideas, such as:; Full day 24 hours (exactly) (a nychthemeron)* A day counting approximation, for example \"See you in three days.\"", "or \"the following day\"* The full day covering both the dark and light periods, beginning from the start of the dark period or from a point near the middle of the dark period* A full dark and light period, sometimes called a ''nychthemeron'' in English, from the Greek for ''night-day''; or more colloquially the term .", "In other languages, is also often used.", "Other languages also have a separate word for a full day.", "* Part of a date: the day of the year (''doy'') in ordinal dates, day of the month (''dom'') in calendar dates or day of the week (''dow'') in week dates.", "* Time regularly spend at paid work on a single work day, cf.", "man-day and workweek.", "; Daytime* The period of light when the Sun is above the local horizon (that is, the time period from sunrise to sunset)* The time period from 06:00–18:00 (6:00 am – 6:00 pm) or 21:00 (9:00 pm) or another fixed clock period overlapping or offset from other time periods such as \"morning\", \"afternoon\", or \"evening\".", "* The time period from first-light \"dawn\" to last-light \"dusk\".", "; Other* A specific period of the day, which may vary by context, such as \"the school day\" or \"the work day\"." ], [ "Variations in length", "Mainly due to tidal deceleration – the Moon's gravitational pull slowing down the Earth's rotation – the Earth's rotational period is slowing.", "Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a solar day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 2 milliseconds per century.Since the rotation rate of the Earth is slowing, the length of a second fell out of sync with a second derived from the rotational period.", "This arose the need for leap seconds, which insert extra seconds into Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).", "Although typically 86,400 seconds in duration, a civil day can be either 86,401 or 86,399 SI seconds long on such a day.", "Other than the two-millisecond variation from tidal deceleration, other factors minutely affect the day's length, which creates an irregularity in the placement of leap seconds.", "Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary.=== Geological day lengths ===Discovered by paleontologist John W. Wells, the day lengths of geological periods have been estimated by measuring sedimentation rings in coral fossils, due to some biological systems being affected by the tide.", "The length of a day at the Earth's formation is estimated at 6 hours.", "Arbab I. Arbab plotted day lengths over time and found a curved line.", "Arbab attributed this to the change of water volume present affecting Earth's rotation.", "'''Date''' '''Geological period''' '''Number of days per year''' '''Duration of the day''' Present Current 365 24 hours −100 million years Cretaceous 380 23 hours and 20 minutes −200 million years Triassic 390 22 hours and 40 minutes −300 million years Carboniferous 400 22 hours −400 million years Devonian 410 21 hours and 20 minutes −500 million years Cambrian 425 20 hours and 40 minutes" ], [ "Boundaries", "Sun and Moon, Hartmann Schedel's ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset.", "Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day's boundaries.", "In the Hebrew Bible, Genesis 1:5 defines a day in terms of \"evening\" and \"morning\" before recounting the creation of the Sun to illuminate it: \"And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night.", "And the evening and the morning were the first day.", "\"The Jewish day begins at either sunset or nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear).Medieval Europe also followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: In this system, a reference like \"two hours into the day\" meant ''two hours after sunset'' and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning.", "Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween (“All Hallows’ Eve”), and the Eve of Saint Agnes are remnants of the older pattern when holidays began during the prior evening.", "The common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e.", "00:00, and to last a full 24 hours until 24:00, i.e.", "00:00 of the next day.In ancient Egypt the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise.", "Prior to 1926, Turkey had two time systems: ''Turkish'', counting the hours from sunset, and ''French'', counting the hours from midnight." ], [ "Parts", "Humans have divided the day in rough periods, which can have cultural implications, and other effects on humans' biological processes.", "The parts of the day do not have set times; they can vary by lifestyle or hours of daylight in a given place.=== Daytime ===Daytime is the part of the day during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no obstacles.", "The length of daytime averages slightly more than half of the 24-hour day.", "Two effects make daytime on average longer than night.", "The Sun is not a point but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc.", "Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc.", "So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc.", "Thus, daytime is on average around 7 minutes longer than 12 hours.Daytime is further divided into morning, afternoon, and evening.", "Morning occurs between sunrise and noon.", "Afternoon occurs between noon and sunset, or between noon and the start of evening.", "This period of time sees human's highest body temperature, an increase of traffic collisions, and a decrease of productivity.", "Evening begins around 5 or 6 pm, or when the sun sets, and ends when one goes to bed.=== Twilight ===rightTwilight is the period before sunrise and after sunset in which there is natural light but no direct sunlight.", "The morning twilight begins at dawn and ends at sunrise, while the evening twilight begins at sunset and ends at dusk.", "Both periods of twilight can be divided into civil twilight, nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight.", "Civil twilight is when the sun is up to 6 degrees below the horizon; nautical when it is up to 12 degrees below, and astronomical when it is up to 18 degrees below.Night in art=== Night ===Night is the period in which the sky is dark; the period between dusk and dawn where no light from the sun is visible.", "Light pollution during night can impact human and animal life, for example by disrupting sleep." ], [ "See also", "* Determination of the day of the week* Holiday* ISO 8601* Season, for a discussion of daylight and darkness at various latitudes* Synodic day* World Meteorological day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Database" ], [ "Introduction", "An upright=1.35In computing, a '''database''' is an organized collection of data or a type of data store based on the use of a '''database management system''' ('''DBMS'''), the software that interacts with end users, applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze the data.", "The DBMS additionally encompasses the core facilities provided to administer the database.", "The sum total of the database, the DBMS and the associated applications can be referred to as a '''database system'''.", "Often the term \"database\" is also used loosely to refer to any of the DBMS, the database system or an application associated with the database.Small databases can be stored on a file system, while large databases are hosted on computer clusters or cloud storage.", "The design of databases spans formal techniques and practical considerations, including data modeling, efficient data representation and storage, query languages, security and privacy of sensitive data, and distributed computing issues, including supporting concurrent access and fault tolerance.Computer scientists may classify database management systems according to the database models that they support.", "Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s.", "These model data as rows and columns in a series of tables, and the vast majority use SQL for writing and querying data.", "In the 2000s, non-relational databases became popular, collectively referred to as NoSQL, because they use different query languages." ], [ "Terminology and overview", "Formally, a \"database\" refers to a set of related data accessed through the use of a \"database management system\" (DBMS), which is an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data).", "The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.Because of the close relationship between them, the term \"database\" is often used casually to refer to both a database and the DBMS used to manipulate it.Outside the world of professional information technology, the term ''database'' is often used to refer to any collection of related data (such as a spreadsheet or a card index) as size and usage requirements typically necessitate use of a database management system.Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups:* '''Data definition''' – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the organization of the data.", "* '''Update''' – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.", "* '''Retrieval''' – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications.", "The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database.", "* '''Administration''' – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.Both a database and its DBMS conform to the principles of a particular database model.", "\"Database system\" refers collectively to the database model, database management system, and database.Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software.", "Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage.", "Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large-volume transaction processing environments.", "DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications.", "DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions.Since DBMSs comprise a significant market, computer and storage vendors often take into account DBMS requirements in their own development plans.Databases and DBMSs can be categorized according to the database model(s) that they support (such as relational or XML), the type(s) of computer they run on (from a server cluster to a mobile phone), the query language(s) used to access the database (such as SQL or XQuery), and their internal engineering, which affects performance, scalability, resilience, and security." ], [ "History", "The sizes, capabilities, and performance of databases and their respective DBMSs have grown in orders of magnitude.", "These performance increases were enabled by the technology progress in the areas of processors, computer memory, computer storage, and computer networks.", "The concept of a database was made possible by the emergence of direct access storage media such as magnetic disks, which became widely available in the mid-1960s; earlier systems relied on sequential storage of data on magnetic tape.", "The subsequent development of database technology can be divided into three eras based on data model or structure: navigational, SQL/relational, and post-relational.The two main early navigational data models were the hierarchical model and the CODASYL model (network model).", "These were characterized by the use of pointers (often physical disk addresses) to follow relationships from one record to another.The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links.", "The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity.", "Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications).", "By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and they remain dominant: IBM Db2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft SQL Server are the most searched DBMS.", "The dominant database language, standardized SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.Object databases were developed in the 1980s to overcome the inconvenience of object–relational impedance mismatch, which led to the coining of the term \"post-relational\" and also the development of hybrid object–relational databases.The next generation of post-relational databases in the late 2000s became known as NoSQL databases, introducing fast key–value stores and document-oriented databases.", "A competing \"next generation\" known as NewSQL databases attempted new implementations that retained the relational/SQL model while aiming to match the high performance of NoSQL compared to commercially available relational DBMSs.===1960s, navigational DBMS===Basic structure of navigational CODASYL database modelThe introduction of the term ''database'' coincided with the availability of direct-access storage (disks and drums) from the mid-1960s onwards.", "The term represented a contrast with the tape-based systems of the past, allowing shared interactive use rather than daily batch processing.", "The Oxford English Dictionary cites a 1962 report by the System Development Corporation of California as the first to use the term \"data-base\" in a specific technical sense.As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use.", "Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the Database Task Group within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL.", "In 1971, the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the ''CODASYL approach'', and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.The CODASYL approach offered applications the ability to navigate around a linked data set which was formed into a large network.", "Applications could find records by one of three methods:#Use of a primary key (known as a CALC key, typically implemented by hashing)#Navigating relationships (called ''sets'') from one record to another#Scanning all the records in a sequential orderLater systems added B-trees to provide alternate access paths.", "Many CODASYL databases also added a declarative query language for end users (as distinct from the navigational API).", "However, CODASYL databases were complex and required significant training and effort to produce useful applications.IBM also had its own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS).", "IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360.IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model.", "Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed: the term was popularized by Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation ''The Programmer as Navigator''.", "IMS is classified by IBM as a hierarchical database.", "IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL databases are classified as network databases.", "IMS remains in use .===1970s, relational DBMS===Edgar F. Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that were primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems.", "He was unhappy with the navigational model of the CODASYL approach, notably the lack of a \"search\" facility.", "In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking ''A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks''.In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases.", "Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to organize the data as a number of \"tables\", each table being used for a different type of entity.", "Each table would contain a fixed number of columns containing the attributes of the entity.", "One or more columns of each table were designated as a primary key by which the rows of the table could be uniquely identified; cross-references between tables always used these primary keys, rather than disk addresses, and queries would join tables based on these key relationships, using a set of operations based on the mathematical system of relational calculus (from which the model takes its name).", "Splitting the data into a set of normalized tables (or ''relations'') aimed to ensure that each \"fact\" was only stored once, thus simplifying update operations.", "Virtual tables called ''views'' could present the data in different ways for different users, but views could not be directly updated.Codd used mathematical terms to define the model: relations, tuples, and domains rather than tables, rows, and columns.", "The terminology that is now familiar came from early implementations.", "Codd would later criticize the tendency for practical implementations to depart from the mathematical foundations on which the model was based.In the relational model, records are \"linked\" using virtual keys not stored in the database but defined as needed between the data contained in the records.", "The use of primary keys (user-oriented identifiers) to represent cross-table relationships, rather than disk addresses, had two primary motivations.", "From an engineering perspective, it enabled tables to be relocated and resized without expensive database reorganization.", "But Codd was more interested in the difference in semantics: the use of explicit identifiers made it easier to define update operations with clean mathematical definitions, and it also enabled query operations to be defined in terms of the established discipline of first-order predicate calculus; because these operations have clean mathematical properties, it becomes possible to rewrite queries in provably correct ways, which is the basis of query optimization.", "There is no loss of expressiveness compared with the hierarchic or network models, though the connections between tables are no longer so explicit.In the hierarchic and network models, records were allowed to have a complex internal structure.", "For example, the salary history of an employee might be represented as a \"repeating group\" within the employee record.", "In the relational model, the process of normalization led to such internal structures being replaced by data held in multiple tables, connected only by logical keys.For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers.", "In the navigational approach, all of this data would be placed in a single variable-length record.", "In the relational approach, the data would be ''normalized'' into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance).", "Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.As well as identifying rows/records using logical identifiers rather than disk addresses, Codd changed the way in which applications assembled data from multiple records.", "Rather than requiring applications to gather data one record at a time by navigating the links, they would use a declarative query language that expressed what data was required, rather than the access path by which it should be found.", "Finding an efficient access path to the data became the responsibility of the database management system, rather than the application programmer.", "This process, called query optimization, depended on the fact that queries were expressed in terms of mathematical logic.Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker.", "They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code.", "Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979.INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a \"language\" for data access, known as QUEL.", "Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.IBM itself did one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production one, Business System 12, both now discontinued.", "Honeywell wrote MRDS for Multics, and now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel.", "Most other DBMS implementations usually called ''relational'' are actually SQL DBMSs.In 1970, the University of Michigan began development of the MICRO Information Management System based on D.L.", "Childs' Set-Theoretic Data model.", "MICRO was used to manage very large data sets by the US Department of Labor, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and researchers from the University of Alberta, the University of Michigan, and Wayne State University.", "It ran on IBM mainframe computers using the Michigan Terminal System.", "The system remained in production until 1998.===Integrated approach===In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to build database systems with integrated hardware and software.", "The underlying philosophy was that such integration would provide higher performance at a lower cost.", "Examples were IBM System/38, the early offering of Teradata, and the Britton Lee, Inc. database machine.Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities.", "In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers.", "Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage.", "However, this idea is still pursued in certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).===Late 1970s, SQL DBMS===IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as ''System R'' in the early 1970s.", "The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large \"chunk\".", "Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL – had been added.", "Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as ''SQL/DS'', and, later, ''Database 2'' (IBM Db2).Larry Ellison's Oracle Database (or more simply, Oracle) started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R. Though Oracle V1 implementations were completed in 1978, it was not until Oracle Version 2 when Ellison beat IBM to market in 1979.Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, which is now known as PostgreSQL.", "PostgreSQL is often used for global mission-critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions).In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed in the mid-1970s at Uppsala University.", "In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise.Another data model, the entity–relationship model, emerged in 1976 and gained popularity for database design as it emphasized a more familiar description than the earlier relational model.", "Later on, entity–relationship constructs were retrofitted as a data modeling construct for the relational model, and the difference between the two has become irrelevant.===1980s, on the desktop===The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing.", "The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE.", "The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box.", "C. Wayne Ratliff, the creator of dBASE, stated: \"dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done.", "The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation.\"", "dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.===1990s, object-oriented===The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled.", "Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects.", "That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data.", "This allows for relations between data to be related to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields.", "The term \"object–relational impedance mismatch\" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables.", "Object databases and object–relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL.", "On the programming side, libraries known as object–relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.===2000s, NoSQL and NewSQL===XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes.", "XML databases are mostly used in applications where the data is conveniently viewed as a collection of documents, with a structure that can vary from the very flexible to the highly rigid: examples include scientific articles, patents, tax filings, and personnel records.NoSQL databases are often very fast, do not require fixed table schemas, avoid join operations by storing denormalized data, and are designed to scale horizontally.In recent years, there has been a strong demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance, but according to the CAP theorem, it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance guarantees.", "A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three.", "For that reason, many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.NewSQL is a class of modern relational databases that aims to provide the same scalable performance of NoSQL systems for online transaction processing (read-write) workloads while still using SQL and maintaining the ACID guarantees of a traditional database system." ], [ "Use cases", "Databases are used to support internal operations of organizations and to underpin online interactions with customers and suppliers (see Enterprise software).Databases are used to hold administrative information and more specialized data, such as engineering data or economic models.", "Examples include computerized library systems, flight reservation systems, computerized parts inventory systems, and many content management systems that store websites as collections of webpages in a database." ], [ "Classification", "One way to classify databases involves the type of their contents, for example: bibliographic, document-text, statistical, or multimedia objects.", "Another way is by their application area, for example: accounting, music compositions, movies, banking, manufacturing, or insurance.", "A third way is by some technical aspect, such as the database structure or interface type.", "This section lists a few of the adjectives used to characterize different kinds of databases.", "* An in-memory database is a database that primarily resides in main memory, but is typically backed-up by non-volatile computer data storage.", "Main memory databases are faster than disk databases, and so are often used where response time is critical, such as in telecommunications network equipment.", "* An active database includes an event-driven architecture which can respond to conditions both inside and outside the database.", "Possible uses include security monitoring, alerting, statistics gathering and authorization.", "Many databases provide active database features in the form of database triggers.", "* A cloud database relies on cloud technology.", "Both the database and most of its DBMS reside remotely, \"in the cloud\", while its applications are both developed by programmers and later maintained and used by end-users through a web browser and Open APIs.", "* Data warehouses archive data from operational databases and often from external sources such as market research firms.", "The warehouse becomes the central source of data for use by managers and other end-users who may not have access to operational data.", "For example, sales data might be aggregated to weekly totals and converted from internal product codes to use UPCs so that they can be compared with ACNielsen data.", "Some basic and essential components of data warehousing include extracting, analyzing, and mining data, transforming, loading, and managing data so as to make them available for further use.", "* A deductive database combines logic programming with a relational database.", "* A distributed database is one in which both the data and the DBMS span multiple computers.", "* A document-oriented database is designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented, or semi structured, information.", "Document-oriented databases are one of the main categories of NoSQL databases.", "* An embedded database system is a DBMS which is tightly integrated with an application software that requires access to stored data in such a way that the DBMS is hidden from the application's end-users and requires little or no ongoing maintenance.", "End-user databases consist of data developed by individual end-users.", "Examples of these are collections of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, multimedia, and other files.", "Several products exist to support such databases.", " A federated database system comprises several distinct databases, each with its own DBMS.", "It is handled as a single database by a federated database management system (FDBMS), which transparently integrates multiple autonomous DBMSs, possibly of different types (in which case it would also be a heterogeneous database system), and provides them with an integrated conceptual view.", "* Sometimes the term ''multi-database'' is used as a synonym for federated database, though it may refer to a less integrated (e.g., without an FDBMS and a managed integrated schema) group of databases that cooperate in a single application.", "In this case, typically middleware is used for distribution, which typically includes an atomic commit protocol (ACP), e.g., the two-phase commit protocol, to allow distributed (global) transactions across the participating databases.", "* A graph database is a kind of NoSQL database that uses graph structures with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store information.", "General graph databases that can store any graph are distinct from specialized graph databases such as triplestores and network databases.", "* An array DBMS is a kind of NoSQL DBMS that allows modeling, storage, and retrieval of (usually large) multi-dimensional arrays such as satellite images and climate simulation output.", "* In a hypertext or hypermedia database, any word or a piece of text representing an object, e.g., another piece of text, an article, a picture, or a film, can be hyperlinked to that object.", "Hypertext databases are particularly useful for organizing large amounts of disparate information.", "For example, they are useful for organizing online encyclopedias, where users can conveniently jump around the text.", "The World Wide Web is thus a large distributed hypertext database.", "* A knowledge base (abbreviated '''KB''', '''kb''' or Δ) is a special kind of database for knowledge management, providing the means for the computerized collection, organization, and retrieval of knowledge.", "Also a collection of data representing problems with their solutions and related experiences.", "* A mobile database can be carried on or synchronized from a mobile computing device.", "* Operational databases store detailed data about the operations of an organization.", "They typically process relatively high volumes of updates using transactions.", "Examples include customer databases that record contact, credit, and demographic information about a business's customers, personnel databases that hold information such as salary, benefits, skills data about employees, enterprise resource planning systems that record details about product components, parts inventory, and financial databases that keep track of the organization's money, accounting and financial dealings.", "* A parallel database seeks to improve performance through parallelization for tasks such as loading data, building indexes and evaluating queries.", "::The major parallel DBMS architectures which are induced by the underlying hardware architecture are:::* '''Shared memory architecture''', where multiple processors share the main memory space, as well as other data storage.", "::* '''Shared disk architecture''', where each processing unit (typically consisting of multiple processors) has its own main memory, but all units share the other storage.", "::* '''Shared-nothing architecture''', where each processing unit has its own main memory and other storage.", "* Probabilistic databases employ fuzzy logic to draw inferences from imprecise data.", "* Real-time databases process transactions fast enough for the result to come back and be acted on right away.", "* A spatial database can store the data with multidimensional features.", "The queries on such data include location-based queries, like \"Where is the closest hotel in my area?\".", "* A temporal database has built-in time aspects, for example a temporal data model and a temporal version of SQL.", "More specifically the temporal aspects usually include valid-time and transaction-time.", "* A terminology-oriented database builds upon an object-oriented database, often customized for a specific field.", "* An unstructured data database is intended to store in a manageable and protected way diverse objects that do not fit naturally and conveniently in common databases.", "It may include email messages, documents, journals, multimedia objects, etc.", "The name may be misleading since some objects can be highly structured.", "However, the entire possible object collection does not fit into a predefined structured framework.", "Most established DBMSs now support unstructured data in various ways, and new dedicated DBMSs are emerging." ], [ "Database management system", "Connolly and Begg define database management system (DBMS) as a \"software system that enables users to define, create, maintain and control access to the database\".", "Examples of DBMS's include MySQL, MariaDB, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle Database, and Microsoft Access.The DBMS acronym is sometimes extended to indicate the underlying database model, with RDBMS for the relational, OODBMS for the object (oriented) and ORDBMS for the object–relational model.", "Other extensions can indicate some other characteristics, such as DDBMS for a distributed database management systems.The functionality provided by a DBMS can vary enormously.", "The core functionality is the storage, retrieval and update of data.", "Codd proposed the following functions and services a fully-fledged general purpose DBMS should provide:* Data storage, retrieval and update* User accessible catalog or data dictionary describing the metadata* Support for transactions and concurrency* Facilities for recovering the database should it become damaged* Support for authorization of access and update of data* Access support from remote locations* Enforcing constraints to ensure data in the database abides by certain rulesIt is also generally to be expected the DBMS will provide a set of utilities for such purposes as may be necessary to administer the database effectively, including import, export, monitoring, defragmentation and analysis utilities.", "The core part of the DBMS interacting between the database and the application interface sometimes referred to as the database engine.Often DBMSs will have configuration parameters that can be statically and dynamically tuned, for example the maximum amount of main memory on a server the database can use.", "The trend is to minimize the amount of manual configuration, and for cases such as embedded databases the need to target zero-administration is paramount.The large major enterprise DBMSs have tended to increase in size and functionality and have involved up to thousands of human years of development effort throughout their lifetime.Early multi-user DBMS typically only allowed for the application to reside on the same computer with access via terminals or terminal emulation software.", "The client–server architecture was a development where the application resided on a client desktop and the database on a server allowing the processing to be distributed.", "This evolved into a multitier architecture incorporating application servers and web servers with the end user interface via a web browser with the database only directly connected to the adjacent tier.A general-purpose DBMS will provide public application programming interfaces (API) and optionally a processor for database languages such as SQL to allow applications to be written to interact with and manipulate the database.", "A special purpose DBMS may use a private API and be specifically customized and linked to a single application.", "For example, an email system performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as message insertion, message deletion, attachment handling, blocklist lookup, associating messages an email address and so forth however these functions are limited to what is required to handle email." ], [ "Application", "External interaction with the database will be via an application program that interfaces with the DBMS.", "This can range from a database tool that allows users to execute SQL queries textually or graphically, to a website that happens to use a database to store and search information.===Application program interface===A programmer will code interactions to the database (sometimes referred to as a datasource) via an application program interface (API) or via a database language.", "The particular API or language chosen will need to be supported by DBMS, possibly indirectly via a preprocessor or a bridging API.", "Some API's aim to be database independent, ODBC being a commonly known example.", "Other common API's include JDBC and ADO.NET." ], [ "Database languages", "Database languages are special-purpose languages, which allow one or more of the following tasks, sometimes distinguished as sublanguages:* Data control language (DCL) – controls access to data;* Data definition language (DDL) – defines data types such as creating, altering, or dropping tables and the relationships among them;* Data manipulation language (DML) – performs tasks such as inserting, updating, or deleting data occurrences;* Data query language (DQL) – allows searching for information and computing derived information.Database languages are specific to a particular data model.", "Notable examples include:* SQL combines the roles of data definition, data manipulation, and query in a single language.", "It was one of the first commercial languages for the relational model, although it departs in some respects from the relational model as described by Codd (for example, the rows and columns of a table can be ordered).", "SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987.The standards have been regularly enhanced since and are supported (with varying degrees of conformance) by all mainstream commercial relational DBMSs.", "* OQL is an object model language standard (from the Object Data Management Group).", "It has influenced the design of some of the newer query languages like JDOQL and EJB QL.", "* XQuery is a standard XML query language implemented by XML database systems such as MarkLogic and eXist, by relational databases with XML capability such as Oracle and Db2, and also by in-memory XML processors such as Saxon.", "* SQL/XML combines XQuery with SQL.A database language may also incorporate features like:* DBMS-specific configuration and storage engine management* Computations to modify query results, like counting, summing, averaging, sorting, grouping, and cross-referencing* Constraint enforcement (e.g.", "in an automotive database, only allowing one engine type per car)* Application programming interface version of the query language, for programmer convenience" ], [ "Storage", "Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database.", "It comprises the ''internal'' (physical) ''level'' in the database architecture.", "It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, \"data about the data\", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the ''conceptual level'' and ''external level'' from the internal level when needed.", "Databases as digital objects contain three layers of information which must be stored: the data, the structure, and the semantics.", "Proper storage of all three layers is needed for future preservation and longevity of the database.", "Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a.", "\"storage engine\".", "Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often using the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration settings are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators.", "A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage).", "The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits.", "Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look at the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).Some DBMSs support specifying which character encoding was used to store data, so multiple encodings can be used in the same database.Various low-level database storage structures are used by the storage engine to serialize the data model so it can be written to the medium of choice.", "Techniques such as indexing may be used to improve performance.", "Conventional storage is row-oriented, but there are also column-oriented and correlation databases.===Materialized views===Often storage redundancy is employed to increase performance.", "A common example is storing ''materialized views'', which consist of frequently needed ''external views'' or query results.", "Storing such views saves the expensive computing them each time they are needed.", "The downsides of materialized views are the overhead incurred when updating them to keep them synchronized with their original updated database data, and the cost of storage redundancy.===Replication===Occasionally a database employs storage redundancy by database objects replication (with one or more copies) to increase data availability (both to improve performance of simultaneous multiple end-user accesses to the same database object, and to provide resiliency in a case of partial failure of a distributed database).", "Updates of a replicated object need to be synchronized across the object copies.", "In many cases, the entire database is replicated.===Virtualization===With data virtualization, the data used remains in its original locations and real-time access is established to allow analytics across multiple sources.", "This can aid in resolving some technical difficulties such as compatibility problems when combining data from various platforms, lowering the risk of error caused by faulty data, and guaranteeing that the newest data is used.", "Furthermore, avoiding the creation of a new database containing personal information can make it easier to comply with privacy regulations.", "However, with data virtualization, the connection to all necessary data sources must be operational as there is no local copy of the data, which is one of the main drawbacks of the approach." ], [ "Security", "Database security deals with all various aspects of protecting the database content, its owners, and its users.", "It ranges from protection from intentional unauthorized database uses to unintentional database accesses by unauthorized entities (e.g., a person or a computer program).Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) are allowed to access what information in the database.", "The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or using specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information).", "Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.This may be managed directly on an individual basis, or by the assignment of individuals and privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements.", "Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database.", "Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called \"subschemas\".", "For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.", "If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases.Data security in general deals with protecting specific chunks of data, both physically (i.e., from corruption, or destruction, or removal; e.g., see physical security), or the interpretation of them, or parts of them to meaningful information (e.g., by looking at the strings of bits that they comprise, concluding specific valid credit-card numbers; e.g., see data encryption).Change and access logging records who accessed which attributes, what was changed, and when it was changed.", "Logging services allow for a forensic database audit later by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes.", "Sometimes application-level code is used to record changes rather than leaving this in the database.", "Monitoring can be set up to attempt to detect security breaches.", "Therefore, organizations must take database security seriously because of the many benefits it provides.", "Organizations will be safeguarded from security breaches and hacking activities like firewall intrusion, virus spread, and ransom ware.", "This helps in protecting the company's essential information, which cannot be shared with outsiders at any cause." ], [ "Transactions and concurrency", "Database transactions can be used to introduce some level of fault tolerance and data integrity after recovery from a crash.", "A database transaction is a unit of work, typically encapsulating a number of operations over a database (e.g., reading a database object, writing, acquiring or releasing a lock, etc.", "), an abstraction supported in database and also other systems.", "Each transaction has well defined boundaries in terms of which program/code executions are included in that transaction (determined by the transaction's programmer via special transaction commands).The acronym ACID describes some ideal properties of a database transaction: atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability." ], [ "Migration", "A database built with one DBMS is not portable to another DBMS (i.e., the other DBMS cannot run it).", "However, in some situations, it is desirable to migrate a database from one DBMS to another.", "The reasons are primarily economical (different DBMSs may have different total costs of ownership or TCOs), functional, and operational (different DBMSs may have different capabilities).", "The migration involves the database's transformation from one DBMS type to another.", "The transformation should maintain (if possible) the database related application (i.e., all related application programs) intact.", "Thus, the database's conceptual and external architectural levels should be maintained in the transformation.", "It may be desired that also some aspects of the architecture internal level are maintained.", "A complex or large database migration may be a complicated and costly (one-time) project by itself, which should be factored into the decision to migrate.", "This is in spite of the fact that tools may exist to help migration between specific DBMSs.", "Typically, a DBMS vendor provides tools to help import databases from other popular DBMSs." ], [ "Building, maintaining, and tuning", "After designing a database for an application, the next stage is building the database.", "Typically, an appropriate general-purpose DBMS can be selected to be used for this purpose.", "A DBMS provides the needed user interfaces to be used by database administrators to define the needed application's data structures within the DBMS's respective data model.", "Other user interfaces are used to select needed DBMS parameters (like security related, storage allocation parameters, etc.", ").When the database is ready (all its data structures and other needed components are defined), it is typically populated with initial application's data (database initialization, which is typically a distinct project; in many cases using specialized DBMS interfaces that support bulk insertion) before making it operational.", "In some cases, the database becomes operational while empty of application data, and data are accumulated during its operation.After the database is created, initialized and populated it needs to be maintained.", "Various database parameters may need changing and the database may need to be tuned (tuning) for better performance; application's data structures may be changed or added, new related application programs may be written to add to the application's functionality, etc." ], [ "Backup and restore", "Sometimes it is desired to bring a database back to a previous state (for many reasons, e.g., cases when the database is found corrupted due to a software error, or if it has been updated with erroneous data).", "To achieve this, a backup operation is done occasionally or continuously, where each desired database state (i.e., the values of its data and their embedding in database's data structures) is kept within dedicated backup files (many techniques exist to do this effectively).", "When it is decided by a database administrator to bring the database back to this state (e.g., by specifying this state by a desired point in time when the database was in this state), these files are used to restore that state." ], [ "Static analysis", "Static analysis techniques for software verification can be applied also in the scenario of query languages.", "In particular, the Abstract interpretation framework has been extended to the field of query languages for relational databases as a way to support sound approximation techniques.", "The semantics of query languages can be tuned according to suitable abstractions of the concrete domain of data.", "The abstraction of relational database systems has many interesting applications, in particular, for security purposes, such as fine-grained access control, watermarking, etc." ], [ "Miscellaneous features", "Other DBMS features might include: Database logs – This helps in keeping a history of the executed functions.", "* Graphics component for producing graphs and charts, especially in a data warehouse system.", "* Query optimizer – Performs query optimization on every query to choose an efficient ''query plan'' (a partial order (tree) of operations) to be executed to compute the query result.", "May be specific to a particular storage engine.", "* Tools or hooks for database design, application programming, application program maintenance, database performance analysis and monitoring, database configuration monitoring, DBMS hardware configuration (a DBMS and related database may span computers, networks, and storage units) and related database mapping (especially for a distributed DBMS), storage allocation and database layout monitoring, storage migration, etc.Increasingly, there are calls for a single system that incorporates all of these core functionalities into the same build, test, and deployment framework for database management and source control.", "Borrowing from other developments in the software industry, some market such offerings as \"DevOps for database\"." ], [ "Design and modeling", "thumbThe first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database.", "A common approach to this is to develop an entity–relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools.", "Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language.", "A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured.", "Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organization, like \"can a customer also be a supplier?", "\", or \"if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", "\", or \"if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?\".", "The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes.Producing the conceptual data model sometimes involves input from business processes, or the analysis of workflow in the organization.", "This can help to establish what information is needed in the database, and what can be left out.", "For example, it can help when deciding whether the database needs to hold historic data as well as current data.Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database.", "This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema.", "Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS.", "(The terms ''data model'' and ''database model'' are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use ''data model'' for the design of a specific database, and ''database model'' for the modeling notation used to express that design).The most popular database model for general-purpose databases is the relational model, or more precisely, the relational model as represented by the SQL language.", "The process of creating a logical database design using this model uses a methodical approach known as normalization.", "The goal of normalization is to ensure that each elementary \"fact\" is only recorded in one place, so that insertions, updates, and deletions automatically maintain consistency.The final stage of database design is to make the decisions that affect performance, scalability, recovery, security, and the like, which depend on the particular DBMS.", "This is often called ''physical database design'', and the output is the physical data model.", "A key goal during this stage is data independence, meaning that the decisions made for performance optimization purposes should be invisible to end-users and applications.", "There are two types of data independence: Physical data independence and logical data independence.", "Physical design is driven mainly by performance requirements, and requires a good knowledge of the expected workload and access patterns, and a deep understanding of the features offered by the chosen DBMS.Another aspect of physical database design is security.", "It involves both defining access control to database objects as well as defining security levels and methods for the data itself.===Models===Collage of five types of database modelsA database model is a type of data model that determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally determines in which manner data can be stored, organized, and manipulated.", "The most popular example of a database model is the relational model (or the SQL approximation of relational), which uses a table-based format.Common logical data models for databases include:Navigational databasesHierarchical database modelNetwork modelGraph databaseRelational modelEntity–relationship modelEnhanced entity–relationship modelObject modelDocument modelEntity–attribute–value modelStar schemaAn object–relational database combines the two related structures.Physical data models include:Inverted indexFlat fileOther models include:Multidimensional modelArray modelMultivalue modelSpecialized models are optimized for particular types of data:XML databaseSemantic modelContent storeEvent storeTime series model===External, conceptual, and internal views===Traditional view of dataA database management system provides three views of the database data: The '''external level''' defines how each group of end-users sees the organization of data in the database.", "A single database can have any number of views at the external level.", "* The '''conceptual level''' (or ''logical level'') unifies the various external views into a compatible global view.", "It provides the synthesis of all the external views.", "It is out of the scope of the various database end-users, and is rather of interest to database application developers and database administrators.", "* The '''internal level''' (or ''physical level'') is the internal organization of data inside a DBMS.", "It is concerned with cost, performance, scalability and other operational matters.", "It deals with storage layout of the data, using storage structures such as indexes to enhance performance.", "Occasionally it stores data of individual views (materialized views), computed from generic data, if performance justification exists for such redundancy.", "It balances all the external views' performance requirements, possibly conflicting, in an attempt to optimize overall performance across all activities.While there is typically only one conceptual and internal view of the data, there can be any number of different external views.", "This allows users to see database information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint.", "For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are in the interest of the human resources department.", "Thus different departments need different ''views'' of the company's database.The three-level database architecture relates to the concept of ''data independence'' which was one of the major initial driving forces of the relational model.", "The idea is that changes made at a certain level do not affect the view at a higher level.", "For example, changes in the internal level do not affect application programs written using conceptual level interfaces, which reduces the impact of making physical changes to improve performance.The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external.", "On the one hand it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level).", "In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data model.", "In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model).", "The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types." ], [ "Research", "Database technology has been an active research topic since the 1960s, both in academia and in the research and development groups of companies (for example IBM Research).", "Research activity includes theory and development of prototypes.", "Notable research topics have included models, the atomic transaction concept, related concurrency control techniques, query languages and query optimization methods, RAID, and more.The database research area has several dedicated academic journals (for example, ''ACM Transactions on Database Systems''-TODS, ''Data and Knowledge Engineering''-DKE) and annual conferences (e.g., ACM SIGMOD, ACM PODS, VLDB, IEEE ICDE)." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of database tools* Comparison of object database management systems* Comparison of object–relational database management systems* Comparison of relational database management systems* Data hierarchy* Data bank* Data store* Database theory* Database testing* Database-centric architecture* Flat-file database* INP (database)* Journal of Database Management* Question-focused dataset" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "Further reading", " Ling Liu and Tamer M. Özsu (Eds.)", "(2009). \"", "Encyclopedia of Database Systems, 4100 p. 60 illus.", ".", "* Gray, J. and Reuter, A.", "''Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques'', 1st edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1992.", "* Kroenke, David M. and David J. Auer.", "''Database Concepts.''", "3rd ed.", "New York: Prentice, 2007.", "* Raghu Ramakrishnan and Johannes Gehrke, '' Database Management Systems''.", "* Abraham Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth, S. Sudarshan, '' Database System Concepts''.", "* * Teorey, T.; Lightstone, S. and Nadeau, T. ''Database Modeling & Design: Logical Design'', 4th edition, Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2005..* '' CMU Database courses playlist''* '' MIT OCW 6.830 \| Fall 2010 \| Database Systems''* '' Berkeley CS W186''" ], [ "External links", "* DB File extension – information about files with the DB extension" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dipole" ], [ "Introduction", "Earth has a ''south'' magnetic pole near its north geographic pole and a ''north'' magnetic pole near its south pole.In physics, a '''dipole''' () is an electromagnetic phenomenon which occurs in two ways:An electric dipole deals with the separation of the positive and negative electric charges found in any electromagnetic system.", "A simple example of this system is a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign separated by some typically small distance.", "(A permanent electric dipole is called an electret.", ")A magnetic dipole is the closed circulation of an electric current system.", "A simple example is a single loop of wire with constant current through it.", "A bar magnet is an example of a magnet with a permanent magnetic dipole moment.Dipoles, whether electric or magnetic, can be characterized by their dipole moment, a vector quantity.", "For the simple electric dipole, the electric dipole moment points from the negative charge towards the positive charge, and has a magnitude equal to the strength of each charge times the separation between the charges.", "(To be precise: for the definition of the dipole moment, one should always consider the \"dipole limit\", where, for example, the distance of the generating charges should ''converge'' to 0 while simultaneously, the charge strength should ''diverge'' to infinity in such a way that the product remains a positive constant.", ")For the magnetic (dipole) current loop, the magnetic dipole moment points through the loop (according to the right hand grip rule), with a magnitude equal to the current in the loop times the area of the loop.Similar to magnetic current loops, the electron particle and some other fundamental particles have magnetic dipole moments, as an electron generates a magnetic field identical to that generated by a very small current loop.", "However, an electron's magnetic dipole moment is not due to a current loop, but to an intrinsic property of the electron.", "The electron may also have an ''electric'' dipole moment though such has yet to be observed (see electron electric dipole moment).electrostatic potential of a horizontally oriented electrical dipole of infinitesimal size.", "Strong colors indicate highest and lowest potential (where the opposing charges of the dipole are located).A permanent magnet, such as a bar magnet, owes its magnetism to the intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of the electron.", "The two ends of a bar magnet are referred to as poles (not to be confused with monopoles, see Classification below) and may be labeled \"north\" and \"south\".", "In terms of the Earth's magnetic field, they are respectively \"north-seeking\" and \"south-seeking\" poles: if the magnet were freely suspended in the Earth's magnetic field, the north-seeking pole would point towards the north and the south-seeking pole would point towards the south.", "The dipole moment of the bar magnet points from its magnetic south to its magnetic north pole.", "In a magnetic compass, the north pole of a bar magnet points north.", "However, that means that Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the ''south'' pole (south-seeking pole) of its dipole moment and vice versa.The only known mechanisms for the creation of magnetic dipoles are by current loops or quantum-mechanical spin since the existence of magnetic monopoles has never been experimentally demonstrated." ], [ "Classification", "Electric field lines of two opposing charges separated by a finite distance.Magnetic field lines of a ring current of finite diameter.Field lines of a point dipole of any type, electric, magnetic, acoustic, etc.A ''physical dipole'' consists of two equal and opposite point charges: in the literal sense, two poles.", "Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above.", "A ''point (electric) dipole'' is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed.", "The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the multipole expansion is precisely the point dipole field.Although there are no known magnetic monopoles in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical spin associated with particles such as electrons (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism).", "A theoretical magnetic ''point dipole'' has a magnetic field of exactly the same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole.", "A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration.", "This is simply one term in the multipole expansion when the total charge (\"monopole moment\") is 0—as it ''always'' is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles.", "The dipole term is the dominant one at large distances: Its field falls off in proportion to , as compared to for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of for higher terms, or for the monopole term.==Molecular dipoles==Many molecules have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms.", "Such is the case with polar compounds like hydrogen fluoride (HF), where electron density is shared unequally between atoms.", "Therefore, a molecule's dipole is an electric dipole with an inherent electric field that should not be confused with a magnetic dipole, which generates a magnetic field.The physical chemist Peter J. W. Debye was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and, as a consequence, dipole moments are measured in the non-SI unit named ''debye'' in his honor.For molecules there are three types of dipoles:; Permanent dipoles: These occur when two atoms in a molecule have substantially different electronegativity: One atom attracts electrons more than another, becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive.", "A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a ''polar'' molecule.", "See dipole–dipole attractions.", "; Instantaneous dipoles:These occur due to chance when electrons happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a molecule, creating a temporary dipole.", "These dipoles are smaller in magnitude than permanent dipoles, but still play a large role in chemistry and biochemistry due to their prevalence.", "See instantaneous dipole.", "; Induced dipoles: These can occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, ''inducing'' a dipole moment in that molecule.", "A molecule is ''polarized'' when it carries an induced dipole.", "See induced-dipole attraction.More generally, an induced dipole of ''any'' polarizable charge distribution ''ρ'' (remember that a molecule has a charge distribution) is caused by an electric field external to ''ρ''.", "This field may, for instance, originate from an ion or polar molecule in the vicinity of ''ρ'' or may be macroscopic (e.g., a molecule between the plates of a charged capacitor).", "The size of the induced dipole moment is equal to the product of the strength of the external field and the dipole polarizability of ''ρ''.Dipole moment values can be obtained from measurement of the dielectric constant.", "Some typical gas phase values in debye units are:* carbon dioxide: 0* carbon monoxide: 0.112 D* ozone: 0.53 D* phosgene: 1.17 D* NH3 has a dipole moment of 1.42 D* water vapor: 1.85 D* hydrogen cyanide: 2.98 D* cyanamide: 4.27 D* potassium bromide: 10.41 DThe linear molecule CO2 has a zero dipole as the two bond dipoles cancel.Potassium bromide (KBr) has one of the highest dipole moments because it is an ionic compound that exists as a molecule in the gas phase.The bent molecule H2O has a net dipole.", "The two bond dipoles do not cancel.The overall dipole moment of a molecule may be approximated as a vector sum of bond dipole moments.", "As a vector sum it depends on the relative orientation of the bonds, so that from the dipole moment information can be deduced about the molecular geometry.For example, the zero dipole of CO2 implies that the two C=O bond dipole moments cancel so that the molecule must be linear.", "For H2O the O−H bond moments do not cancel because the molecule is bent.", "For ozone (O3) which is also a bent molecule, the bond dipole moments are not zero even though the O−O bonds are between similar atoms.", "This agrees with the Lewis structures for the resonance forms of ozone which show a positive charge on the central oxygen atom.Resonance Lewis structures of the ozone moleculeAn example in organic chemistry of the role of geometry in determining dipole moment is the ''cis'' and ''trans'' isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene.", "In the ''cis'' isomer the two polar C−Cl bonds are on the same side of the C=C double bond and the molecular dipole moment is 1.90 D. In the ''trans'' isomer, the dipole moment is zero because the two C−Cl bonds are on opposite sides of the C=C and cancel (and the two bond moments for the much less polar C−H bonds also cancel).Another example of the role of molecular geometry is boron trifluoride, which has three polar bonds with a difference in electronegativity greater than the traditionally cited threshold of 1.7 for ionic bonding.", "However, due to the equilateral triangular distribution of the fluoride ions centered on and in the same plane as the boron cation, the symmetry of the molecule results in its dipole moment being zero." ], [ "Quantum mechanical dipole operator", "Consider a collection of ''N'' particles with charges ''qi'' and position vectors '''r'''''i''.", "For instance, this collection may be a molecule consisting of electrons, all with charge −''e'', and nuclei with charge ''eZi'', where ''Zi'' is the atomic number of the ''i'' th nucleus.The dipole observable (physical quantity) has the quantum mechanical '''dipole operator'''::Notice that this definition is valid only for neutral atoms or molecules, i.e.", "total charge equal to zero.", "In the ionized case, we have:where is the center of mass of the molecule/group of particles.==Atomic dipoles==A non-degenerate (''S''-state) atom can have only a zero permanent dipole.", "This fact follows quantum mechanically from the inversion symmetry of atoms.", "All 3 components of the dipole operator are antisymmetric under inversion with respect to the nucleus,:where is the dipole operator and is the inversion operator.The permanent dipole moment of an atom in a non-degenerate state (see degenerate energy level) is given as the expectation (average) value of the dipole operator,:where is an ''S''-state, non-degenerate, wavefunction, which is symmetric or antisymmetric under inversion: .", "Since the product of the wavefunction (in the ket) and its complex conjugate (in the bra) is always symmetric under inversion and its inverse,:it follows that the expectation value changes sign under inversion.", "We used here the fact that , being a symmetry operator, is unitary: and by definition the Hermitian adjoint may be moved from bra to ket and then becomes .", "Since the only quantity that is equal to minus itself is the zero, the expectation value vanishes,:In the case of open-shell atoms with degenerate energy levels, one could define a dipole moment by the aid of the first-order Stark effect.", "This gives a non-vanishing dipole (by definition proportional to a non-vanishing first-order Stark shift) only if some of the wavefunctions belonging to the degenerate energies have opposite parity; i.e., have different behavior under inversion.", "This is a rare occurrence, but happens for the excited H-atom, where 2s and 2p states are \"accidentally\" degenerate (see article Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector for the origin of this degeneracy) and have opposite parity (2s is even and 2p is odd)." ], [ "Field of a static magnetic dipole", "===Magnitude===The far-field strength, ''B'', of a dipole magnetic field is given by:where:''B'' is the strength of the field, measured in teslas:''r'' is the distance from the center, measured in metres:''λ'' is the magnetic latitude (equal to 90° − ''θ'') where ''θ'' is the magnetic colatitude, measured in radians or degrees from the dipole axis:''m'' is the dipole moment, measured in ampere-square metres or joules per tesla:''μ''0 is the permeability of free space, measured in henries per metre.Conversion to cylindrical coordinates is achieved using and:where ''ρ'' is the perpendicular distance from the ''z''-axis.", "Then,:===Vector form===The field itself is a vector quantity::where:'''B''' is the field:'''r''' is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured:''r'' is the absolute value of '''r''': the distance from the dipole:'''r̂''' = is the unit vector parallel to '''r''';:'''m''' is the (vector) dipole moment:''μ''0 is the permeability of free space:This is ''exactly'' the field of a point dipole, ''exactly'' the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and ''approximately'' the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.===Magnetic vector potential===The vector potential '''A''' of a magnetic dipole is:with the same definitions as above.==Field from an electric dipole==The electrostatic potential at position '''r''' due to an electric dipole at the origin is given by::where '''p''' is the (vector) dipole moment, and ''є''0 is the permittivity of free space.This term appears as the second term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary electrostatic potential Φ('''r''').", "If the source of Φ('''r''') is a dipole, as it is assumed here, this term is the only non-vanishing term in the multipole expansion of Φ('''r''').", "The electric field from a dipole can be found from the gradient of this potential::This is of the same form of the expression for the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole, ignoring the delta function.", "In a real electric dipole, however, the charges are physically separate and the electric field diverges or converges at the point charges.", "This is different to the magnetic field of a real magnetic dipole which is continuous everywhere.", "The delta function represents the strong field pointing in the opposite direction between the point charges, which is often omitted since one is rarely interested in the field at the dipole's position.", "For further discussions about the internal field of dipoles, see or Magnetic moment#Internal magnetic field of a dipole." ], [ "Torque on a dipole", "Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.When placed in a homogeneous electric or magnetic field, equal but opposite forces arise on each side of the dipole creating a torque }::for an electric dipole moment '''p''' (in coulomb-meters), or:for a magnetic dipole moment '''m''' (in ampere-square meters).The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field, which in the case of an electric dipole, yields a potential energy of:.The energy of a magnetic dipole is similarly:." ], [ "Dipole radiation", "Modulus of the Poynting vector for an oscillating electric dipole (exact solution).", "The two charges are shown as two small black dots.In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time.", "It is an extension, or a more physical next-step, to spherical wave radiation.In particular, consider a harmonically oscillating electric dipole, with angular frequency ''ω'' and a dipole moment ''p''0 along the '''ẑ''' direction of the form:In vacuum, the exact field produced by this oscillating dipole can be derived using the retarded potential formulation as::For ≫ 1, the far-field takes the simpler form of a radiating \"spherical\" wave, but with angular dependence embedded in the cross-product::The time-averaged Poynting vector:is not distributed isotropically, but concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment, as a result of the non-spherical electric and magnetic waves.", "In fact, the spherical harmonic function (sin ''θ'') responsible for such toroidal angular distribution is precisely the ''l'' = 1 \"p\" wave.The total time-average power radiated by the field can then be derived from the Poynting vector as:Notice that the dependence of the power on the fourth power of the frequency of the radiation is in accordance with the Rayleigh scattering, and the underlying effects why the sky consists of mainly blue colour.A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles." ], [ "See also", "* Polarization density* Magnetic dipole models* Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field* Electret* Indian Ocean Dipole and Subtropical Indian Ocean Dipole, two oceanographic phenomena* Magnetic dipole-dipole interaction* Spin magnetic moment* Monopole* Solid harmonics* Axial multipole moments* Cylindrical multipole moments* Spherical multipole moments* Laplace expansion* Molecular solidMagnetic moment#Internal magnetic field of a dipole" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " USGS Geomagnetism Program* Fields of Force : a chapter from an online textbook* Electric Dipole Potential by Stephen Wolfram and Energy Density of a Magnetic Dipole by Franz Krafft.", "Wolfram Demonstrations Project." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dynamics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dynamics''' (from Greek δυναμικός ''dynamikos'' \"powerful\", from δύναμις ''dynamis'' \"power\") or '''dynamic''' may refer to:" ], [ "Physics and engineering", "* Dynamics (mechanics) Aerodynamics, the study of the motion of air Analytical dynamics, the motion of bodies as induced by external forces Brownian dynamics, the occurrence of Langevin dynamics in the motion of particles in solution File dynamics, stochastic motion of particles in a channel Flight dynamics, the science of aircraft and spacecraft design Fluid dynamics or ''hydrodynamics'', the study of fluid flow* Computational fluid dynamics, a way of studying fluid dynamics using numerical methods Fractional dynamics, dynamics with integrations and differentiations of fractional orders Molecular dynamics, the study of motion on the molecular level Langevin dynamics, a mathematical model for stochastic dynamics Orbital dynamics, the study of the motion of rockets and spacecraft Quantum chromodynamics, a theory of the strong interaction (color force) Quantum electrodynamics, a description of how matter and light interact Relativistic dynamics, a combination of relativistic and quantum concepts Stellar dynamics, a description of the collective motion of stars System dynamics, the study of the behavior of complex systems Thermodynamics, the study of the relationships between heat and mechanical energy Vehicle dynamics" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* Dynamic (record label), an Italian record label in Genoa* Arrow Dynamics, roller coaster designer* Boston Dynamics, robot designer* Crystal Dynamics, video game developer* General Dynamics, defence contractor* Microsoft Dynamics, a line of business software" ], [ "Computer science and mathematics", "* Dynamical energy analysis, a numerical method modelling structure borne sound and vibration in complex structures* Dynamic program analysis, a set of methods for analyzing computer software* Dynamic programming, a mathematical optimization method, and a computer programming paradigm'''Internet'''* Dynamic HTML, technologies for creating interactive and animated web sites* Dynamic IP, an IP address that changes every time the computer is turned on* Dynamic web page, a web page with content that varies'''Mathematics'''* Dynamical system, a concept describing a point's time dependency** Topological dynamics, the study of dynamical systems from the viewpoint of general topology* Symbolic dynamics, a method to model dynamical systems" ], [ "Social science", "* Group dynamics, the study of social group processes especially * Population dynamics, in life sciences, the changes in the composition of a population* Psychodynamics, the study of psychological forces driving human behavior* Social dynamics, the ability of a society to react to changes* Spiral Dynamics, a social development theory" ], [ "Other uses", "* Dynamics (music), the softness or loudness of a sound or note* DTA Dynamic, a French ultralight trike wing design* Dynamic microphone, a type of microphone* Force dynamics, a semantic concept about how entities interact with reference to force* Ice-sheet dynamics, the motion within large bodies of ice* Neural oscillation in neurodynamics, a rhythmic pattern in the brain* Sol Dynamic, a Brazilian paraglider design* ''Dynamics'' (album)* The Dynamics, American R&B group" ], [ "See also", "* * * Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol* Kinetics (disambiguation)* Power (disambiguation)* Static (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Draught beer" ], [ "Introduction", "Draught beer fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels'''Draught beer''', also spelt '''draft''', is beer served from a cask or keg rather than from a bottle or can.", "Draught beer served from a pressurised keg is also known as" ], [ "Name", "Until Joseph Bramah patented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served directly from the barrel and carried to the customer.", "The Old English '''' (\"carry; pull\") developed into a series of related words including ''drag'', ''draw'', and ''draught''.", "By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular, the use of the term ''draught'' to refer to the acts of serving or drinking beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps.", "In time, the word came to be restricted to only such beer.", "The usual spelling is now \"draught\" in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand and more commonly \"draft\" in North America, although it can be spelt either way.", "Regardless of spelling, the word is pronounced or depending on the region the speaker is from.", "'''Canned draught''' is beer served from a pressurised container featuring a widget.", "'''Smooth flow''' (also known as '''cream flow''', '''nitrokeg''', or '''smooth''') is the name brewers give to draught beers pressurised with a partial nitrogen gas blend." ], [ "History", "In 1691, an article in the ''London Gazette'' mentioned John Lofting, who held a patent for a fire engine: \"The said patentee has also projected a very useful engine for starting of beer, and other liquors which will draw from 20 to 30 barrels an hour, which are completely fixed with brass joints and screws at reasonable rates\".In the early 20th century, draught beer started to be served from pressurised containers.", "Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney's experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel.", "Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the UK until the late 1950s, it did become the favored method in the rest of Europe, where it is known by such terms as ''en pression''.", "The carbonation method of serving beer subsequently spread to the rest of the world; by the early 1970s the term \"draught beer\" almost exclusively referred to beer served under pressure as opposed to the traditional cask or barrel beer.In Britain, the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded in 1971 to protect traditional—unpressurised—beer and brewing methods.", "The group devised the term ''real ale'' to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure.", "The term ''real ale'' has since been expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer." ], [ "Keg beer", "A typical keg with single opening in the centre of the top endKeg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurised, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive.In brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask.", "A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer.", "A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached.", "Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas or especially in Czech Republic solely compressed air.", "''Keg'' has become a term of contempt used by some, particularly in the UK, since the 1960s when pasteurised draught beers started replacing traditional cask beers.Keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle.", "Since 1971, CAMRA has conducted a consumer campaign on behalf of those who prefer traditional cask beer.", "CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament to ensure support for cask ale and microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer.Pressurised CO2 in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer.", "The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer and the keg storage temperature.", "Occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with nitrogen gas.", "CO2 / nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispensing systems.Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) form a rich tight head and a less carbonated taste.", "This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance.", "Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% nitrogen and 25% CO2.This premixed gas, which only works well with creamy beers, is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal (an Air Liquide brand name).", "Using \"Beer Gas\" with other beer styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless.", "In the UK, the term ''keg beer'' would imply the beer is pasteurised, in contrast to unpasteurised cask ale.", "Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised." ], [ "Storage and serving temperature", "Cask beer should be stored and served at a cellar temperature of .", "Once a cask is opened, it should be consumed within three days.", "Keg beer is given additional cooling just prior to being served either by flash coolers or a remote cooler in the cellar.", "This chills the beer to temperatures between ." ], [ "Canned and bottled \"draught\"", "The words \"draft\" and \"draught\" have been used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers, implying that they taste and appear like beers from a cask or keg.", "Commercial brewers use this as a marketing tool although it is incorrect to call any beer not drawn from a cask or keg \"draught\".", "Two examples are Miller Genuine Draft, a pale lager which is produced using a cold filtering system, and Guinness stout in patented \"Draught-flow\" cans and bottles.", "Guinness is an example of beers that use a nitrogen widget to create a smooth beer with a dense head.", "Guinness has recently replaced the widget system from their bottled \"draught\" beer with a coating of cellulose fibres on the inside of the bottle.", "Statements indicate a new development in bottling technology that enables the mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide to be present in the beer without using a widget, making it according to Guinness \"more drinkable\" from the bottle.In East Asian countries, such as China and Japan, the term \"draft beer\" () applied to canned or bottled beer indicates that the beer is not pasteurised (though it may be filtered), giving it a fresher taste but shorter shelf-life than conventional packaged beers." ], [ "See also", "* Cask ale* Beer tap* Cask breather* Growler (jug)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Draught Beer Information: Much information regarding draught beer storage and equipment.", "* Irish Specification: PDF version of The Irish Draught Beer Specification* Serving a draught beer - Information about how to use properly a draught beer dispensing device" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Director" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Director''' may refer to:" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Director'' (magazine), a British magazine* ''The Director'' (novel), a 1971 novel by Henry Denker* ''The Director'' (play), a 2000 play by Nancy Hasty" ], [ "Music", "* Director (band), an Irish rock band* ''Director'' (Avant album) (2006)* ''Director'' (Yonatan Gat album)" ], [ "Occupations and positions", "===Arts and design===* Animation director* Artistic director* Creative director* Design director* Film director* Music director* Music video director* Sports director* Television director* Theatre director===Positions in other fields===* Director (business), a senior-level management position* Director (colonial), head of chartered company's colonial administration for a territory* Director (education), head of a university or other educational body* Company director, a member of (for example) a board of directors* Cruise director* Executive director, senior operating officer or manager of an organization or corporation, usually at a nonprofit* Finance director or chief financial officer* Funeral director* Managing director* Non-executive director* Technical director* Tournament director" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Director (military), a device that continuously calculates firing data* ''Adobe Director'', multimedia authoring software* Fibre Channel director, a large switch for computer storage networks* Director telephone system, or Director exchange* GCR Class 11E or Directors, a class of locomotive* Director, the spatial and temporal average of the orientation of the long molecular axis within a small volume element of liquid crystal" ], [ "Other uses", "* ''Director'' (1969 film), a Soviet film directed by Alexey Saltykov* ''Director'' (2009 film), an American film directed by Aleks Rosenberg* The Director, an artificial intelligence system in the video game ''Left 4 Dead''* HMS ''Director'' (1784), a ship of the British Royal Navy* Directors beer, by Courage Brewery" ], [ "People with the surname", "* Aaron Director (1901–2004), professor at the University of Chicago Law School* Kim Director (born 1974), American actress" ], [ "See also", "* Deputy Director (disambiguation)* ''Directeur sportif'', a person directing a cycling team during a road bicycle racing event* Director-general* Director string, a way of tracking free variables in computation* French Directory, the executive committee of the French Revolutionary government between 1795 and 1799" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Major depressive disorder" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Major depressive disorder''' ('''MDD'''), also known as '''clinical depression''', is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood, low self-esteem, and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities.", "Introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s, the term was adopted by the American Psychiatric Association for this symptom cluster under mood disorders in the 1980 version of the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM-III), and has become widely used since.The diagnosis of major depressive disorder is based on the person's reported experiences, behavior reported by relatives or friends, and a mental status examination.", "There is no laboratory test for the disorder, but testing may be done to rule out physical conditions that can cause similar symptoms.", "The most common time of onset is in a person's 20s, with females affected about twice as often as males.", "The course of the disorder varies widely, from one episode lasting months to a lifelong disorder with recurrent major depressive episodes.Those with major depressive disorder are typically treated with psychotherapy and antidepressant medication.", "Medication appears to be effective, but the effect may be significant only in the most severely depressed.", "Hospitalization (which may be involuntary) may be necessary in cases with associated self-neglect or a significant risk of harm to self or others.", "Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may be considered if other measures are not effective.Major depressive disorder is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic, environmental, and psychological factors, with about 40% of the risk being genetic.", "Risk factors include a family history of the condition, major life changes, certain medications, chronic health problems, and substance use disorders.", "It can negatively affect a person's personal life, work life, or education, and cause issues with a person's sleeping habits, eating habits, and general health.", "Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people (2% of the world's population) in 2017.The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France.", "Lifetime rates are higher in the developed world (15%) compared to the developing world (11%).", "The disorder causes the second-most years lived with disability, after lower back pain." ], [ "Symptoms and signs", "An 1892 lithograph of a woman diagnosed with melancholiaMajor depression significantly affects a person's family and personal relationships, work or school life, sleeping and eating habits, and general health.", "A person having a major depressive episode usually exhibits a low mood, which pervades all aspects of life, and an inability to experience pleasure in previously enjoyable activities.", "Depressed people may be preoccupied with—or ruminate over—thoughts and feelings of worthlessness, inappropriate guilt or regret, helplessness or hopelessness.Other symptoms of depression include poor concentration and memory, withdrawal from social situations and activities, reduced sex drive, irritability, and thoughts of death or suicide.", "Insomnia is common; in the typical pattern, a person wakes very early and cannot get back to sleep.", "Hypersomnia, or oversleeping, can also happen, as well as day-night rhythm disturbances, such as diurnal mood variation.", "Some antidepressants may also cause insomnia due to their stimulating effect.", "In severe cases, depressed people may have psychotic symptoms.", "These symptoms include delusions or, less commonly, hallucinations, usually unpleasant.", "People who have had previous episodes with psychotic symptoms are more likely to have them with future episodes.A depressed person may report multiple physical symptoms such as fatigue, headaches, or digestive problems; physical complaints are the most common presenting problem in developing countries, according to the World Health Organization's criteria for depression.", "Appetite often decreases, resulting in weight loss, although increased appetite and weight gain occasionally occur.", "Family and friends may notice agitation or lethargy.", "Older depressed people may have cognitive symptoms of recent onset, such as forgetfulness, and a more noticeable slowing of movements.Depressed children may often display an irritable rather than a depressed mood; most lose interest in school and show a steep decline in academic performance.", "Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when symptoms are interpreted as \"normal moodiness.\"", "Elderly people may not present with classical depressive symptoms.", "Diagnosis and treatment is further complicated in that the elderly are often simultaneously treated with a number of other drugs, and often have other concurrent diseases." ], [ "Cause", "A cup analogy demonstrating the diathesis–stress model that under the same amount of stressors, person 2 is more vulnerable than person 1, because of their predispositionThe etiology of depression is not yet fully understood.", "The biopsychosocial model proposes that biological, psychological, and social factors all play a role in causing depression.", "The diathesis–stress model specifies that depression results when a preexisting vulnerability, or diathesis, is activated by stressful life events.", "The preexisting vulnerability can be either genetic, implying an interaction between nature and nurture, or schematic, resulting from views of the world learned in childhood.", "American psychiatrist Aaron Beck suggested that a triad of automatic and spontaneous negative thoughts about the self, the world or environment, and the future may lead to other depressive signs and symptoms.===Genetics===Genes play a major role in the development of depression.", "Family and twin studies find that nearly 40% of individual differences in risk for major depressive disorder can be explained by genetic factors.", "Like most psychiatric disorders, major depressive disorder is likely influenced by many individual genetic changes.", "In 2018, a genome-wide association study discovered 44 genetic variants linked to risk for major depression; a 2019 study found 102 variants in the genome linked to depression.", "However, it appears that major depression is less heritable compared to bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.", "Research focusing on specific candidate genes has been criticized for its tendency to generate false positive findings.", "There are also other efforts to examine interactions between life stress and polygenic risk for depression.===Other health problems===Depression can also arise after a chronic or terminal medical condition, such as HIV/AIDS or asthma, and may be labeled \"secondary depression.\"", "It is unknown whether the underlying diseases induce depression through effect on quality of life, or through shared etiologies (such as degeneration of the basal ganglia in Parkinson's disease or immune dysregulation in asthma).", "Depression may also be iatrogenic (the result of healthcare), such as drug-induced depression.", "Therapies associated with depression include interferons, beta-blockers, isotretinoin, contraceptives, cardiac agents, anticonvulsants, antimigraine drugs, antipsychotics, and hormonal agents such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist (GnRH agonist).", "Celiac disease is another possible contributing factor.Substance use in early age is associated with increased risk of developing depression later in life.", "Depression occurring after giving birth is called postpartum depression and is thought to be the result of hormonal changes associated with pregnancy.", "Seasonal affective disorder, a type of depression associated with seasonal changes in sunlight, is thought to be triggered by decreased sunlight.Vitamin B2, B6 and B12 deficiency may cause depression in females.===Environmental===Adverse childhood experiences (incorporating childhood abuse, neglect and family dysfunction) markedly increase the risk of major depression, especially if more than one type.", "Childhood trauma also correlates with severity of depression, poor responsiveness to treatment and length of illness.", "Some are more susceptible than others to developing mental illness such as depression after trauma, and various genes have been suggested to control susceptibility.", "Couples in unhappy marriages have a higher risk of developing clinical depression.There appears to be a link between air pollution and depression and suicide.", "There may be an association between long-term PM2.5 exposure and depression, and a possible association between short-term PM10 exposure and suicide." ], [ "Pathophysiology", "The pathophysiology of depression is not completely understood, but current theories center around monoaminergic systems, the circadian rhythm, immunological dysfunction, HPA-axis dysfunction and structural or functional abnormalities of emotional circuits.Derived from the effectiveness of monoaminergic drugs in treating depression, the monoamine theory posits that insufficient activity of monoamine neurotransmitters is the primary cause of depression.", "Evidence for the monoamine theory comes from multiple areas.", "First, acute depletion of tryptophan—a necessary precursor of serotonin and a monoamine—can cause depression in those in remission or relatives of people who are depressed, suggesting that decreased serotonergic neurotransmission is important in depression.", "Second, the correlation between depression risk and polymorphisms in the 5-HTTLPR gene, which codes for serotonin receptors, suggests a link.", "Third, decreased size of the locus coeruleus, decreased activity of tyrosine hydroxylase, increased density of alpha-2 adrenergic receptor, and evidence from rat models suggest decreased adrenergic neurotransmission in depression.", "Furthermore, decreased levels of homovanillic acid, altered response to dextroamphetamine, responses of depressive symptoms to dopamine receptor agonists, decreased dopamine receptor D1 binding in the striatum, and polymorphism of dopamine receptor genes implicate dopamine, another monoamine, in depression.", "Lastly, increased activity of monoamine oxidase, which degrades monoamines, has been associated with depression.", "However, the monoamine theory is inconsistent with observations that serotonin depletion does not cause depression in healthy persons, that antidepressants instantly increase levels of monoamines but take weeks to work, and the existence of atypical antidepressants which can be effective despite not targeting this pathway.One proposed explanation for the therapeutic lag, and further support for the deficiency of monoamines, is a desensitization of self-inhibition in raphe nuclei by the increased serotonin mediated by antidepressants.", "However, disinhibition of the dorsal raphe has been proposed to occur as a result of ''decreased'' serotonergic activity in tryptophan depletion, resulting in a depressed state mediated by increased serotonin.", "Further countering the monoamine hypothesis is the fact that rats with lesions of the dorsal raphe are not more depressive than controls, the finding of increased jugular 5-HIAA in people who are depressed that normalized with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) treatment, and the preference for carbohydrates in people who are depressed.", "Already limited, the monoamine hypothesis has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public.", "A 2022 review found no consistent evidence supporting the serotonin hypothesis, linking serotonin levels and depression.Immune system abnormalities have been observed, including increased levels of cytokines involved in generating sickness behavior (which shares overlap with depression).", "The effectiveness of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cytokine inhibitors in treating depression, and normalization of cytokine levels after successful treatment further suggest immune system abnormalities in depression.HPA-axis abnormalities have been suggested in depression given the association of CRHR1 with depression and the increased frequency of dexamethasone test non-suppression in people who are depressed.", "However, this abnormality is not adequate as a diagnosis tool, because its sensitivity is only 44%.", "These stress-related abnormalities are thought to be the cause of hippocampal volume reductions seen in people who are depressed.", "Furthermore, a meta-analysis yielded decreased dexamethasone suppression, and increased response to psychological stressors.", "Further abnormal results have been obscured with the cortisol awakening response, with increased response being associated with depression.Theories unifying neuroimaging findings have been proposed.", "The first model proposed is the limbic-cortical model, which involves hyperactivity of the ventral paralimbic regions and hypoactivity of frontal regulatory regions in emotional processing.", "Another model, the cortico-striatal model, suggests that abnormalities of the prefrontal cortex in regulating striatal and subcortical structures result in depression.", "Another model proposes hyperactivity of salience structures in identifying negative stimuli, and hypoactivity of cortical regulatory structures resulting in a negative emotional bias and depression, consistent with emotional bias studies." ], [ "Diagnosis", "===Clinical assessment===Caricature of a man with depressionA diagnostic assessment may be conducted by a suitably trained general practitioner, or by a psychiatrist or psychologist, who records the person's current circumstances, biographical history, current symptoms, family history, and alcohol and drug use.", "The assessment also includes a mental state examination, which is an assessment of the person's current mood and thought content, in particular the presence of themes of hopelessness or pessimism, self-harm or suicide, and an absence of positive thoughts or plans.", "Specialist mental health services are rare in rural areas, and thus diagnosis and management is left largely to primary-care clinicians.", "This issue is even more marked in developing countries.", "Rating scales are not used to diagnose depression, but they provide an indication of the severity of symptoms for a time period, so a person who scores above a given cut-off point can be more thoroughly evaluated for a depressive disorder diagnosis.", "Several rating scales are used for this purpose; these include the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, the Beck Depression Inventory or the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised.Primary-care physicians have more difficulty with underrecognition and undertreatment of depression compared to psychiatrists.", "These cases may be missed because for some people with depression, physical symptoms often accompany depression.", "In addition, there may also be barriers related to the person, provider, and/or the medical system.", "Non-psychiatrist physicians have been shown to miss about two-thirds of cases, although there is some evidence of improvement in the number of missed cases.A doctor generally performs a medical examination and selected investigations to rule out other causes of depressive symptoms.", "These include blood tests measuring TSH and thyroxine to exclude hypothyroidism; basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance; and a full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease.", "Adverse affective reactions to medications or alcohol misuse may be ruled out, as well.", "Testosterone levels may be evaluated to diagnose hypogonadism, a cause of depression in men.", "Vitamin D levels might be evaluated, as low levels of vitamin D have been associated with greater risk for depression.", "Subjective cognitive complaints appear in older depressed people, but they can also be indicative of the onset of a dementing disorder, such as Alzheimer's disease.", "Cognitive testing and brain imaging can help distinguish depression from dementia.", "A CT scan can exclude brain pathology in those with psychotic, rapid-onset or otherwise unusual symptoms.", "No biological tests confirm major depression.", "In general, investigations are not repeated for a subsequent episode unless there is a medical indication.===DSM and ICD criteria===The most widely used criteria for diagnosing depressive conditions are found in the American Psychiatric Association's ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM) and the World Health Organization's ''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems'' (ICD).", "The latter system is typically used in European countries, while the former is used in the US and many other non-European nations, and the authors of both have worked towards conforming one with the other.", "Both DSM and ICD mark out typical (main) depressive symptoms.", "The most recent edition of the DSM is the Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), and the most recent edition of the ICD is the Eleventh Edition (ICD-11).Under mood disorders, ICD-11 classifies major depressive disorder as either ''single episode depressive disorder'' (where there is no history of depressive episodes, or of mania) or ''recurrent depressive disorder'' (where there is a history of prior episodes, with no history of mania).", "ICD-11 symptoms, present nearly every day for at least two weeks, are a depressed mood or anhedonia, accompanied by other symptoms such as \"difficulty concentrating, feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, recurrent thoughts of death or suicide, changes in appetite or sleep, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and reduced energy or fatigue.\"", "These symptoms must affect work, social, or domestic activities.", "The ICD-11 system allows further specifiers for the current depressive episode: the severity (mild, moderate, severe, unspecified); the presence of psychotic symptoms (with or without psychotic symptoms); and the degree of remission if relevant (currently in partial remission, currently in full remission).", "These two disorders are classified as \"Depressive disorders\", in the category of \"Mood disorders\".According to DSM-5, there are two main depressive symptoms: a depressed mood, and loss of interest/pleasure in activities (anhedonia).", "These symptoms, as well as five out of the nine more specific symptoms listed, must frequently occur for more than two weeks (to the extent in which it impairs functioning) for the diagnosis.", "Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in the DSM-5.The diagnosis hinges on the presence of single or recurrent major depressive episodes.", "Further qualifiers are used to classify both the episode itself and the course of the disorder.", "The category Unspecified Depressive Disorder is diagnosed if the depressive episode's manifestation does not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode.====Major depressive episode====A major depressive episode is characterized by the presence of a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks.", "Episodes may be isolated or recurrent and are categorized as mild (few symptoms in excess of minimum criteria), moderate, or severe (marked impact on social or occupational functioning).", "An episode with psychotic features—commonly referred to as ''psychotic depression''—is automatically rated as severe.", "If the person has had an episode of mania or markedly elevated mood, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder is made instead.", "Depression without mania is sometimes referred to as ''unipolar'' because the mood remains at one emotional state or \"pole\".Bereavement is not an exclusion criterion in the DSM-5, and it is up to the clinician to distinguish between normal reactions to a loss and MDD.", "Excluded are a range of related diagnoses, including dysthymia, which involves a chronic but milder mood disturbance; recurrent brief depression, consisting of briefer depressive episodes; minor depressive disorder, whereby only some symptoms of major depression are present; and adjustment disorder with depressed mood, which denotes low mood resulting from a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor.====Subtypes====The DSM-5 recognizes six further subtypes of MDD, called ''specifiers'', in addition to noting the length, severity and presence of psychotic features:* \"Melancholic depression\" is characterized by a loss of pleasure in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early-morning waking, psychomotor retardation, excessive weight loss (not to be confused with anorexia nervosa), or excessive guilt.", "* \"Atypical depression\" is characterized by mood reactivity (paradoxical anhedonia) and positivity, significant weight gain or increased appetite (comfort eating), excessive sleep or sleepiness (hypersomnia), a sensation of heaviness in limbs known as leaden paralysis, and significant long-term social impairment as a consequence of hypersensitivity to perceived interpersonal rejection.", "* \"Catatonic depression\" is a rare and severe form of major depression involving disturbances of motor behavior and other symptoms.", "Here, the person is mute and almost stuporous, and either remains immobile or exhibits purposeless or even bizarre movements.", "Catatonic symptoms also occur in schizophrenia or in manic episodes, or may be caused by neuroleptic malignant syndrome.", "* \"Depression with anxious distress\" was added into the DSM-5 as a means to emphasize the common co-occurrence between depression or mania and anxiety, as well as the risk of suicide of depressed individuals with anxiety.", "Specifying in such a way can also help with the prognosis of those diagnosed with a depressive or bipolar disorder.", "* \"Depression with peri-partum onset\" refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth or while a woman is pregnant.", "DSM-IV-TR used the classification \"postpartum depression,\" but this was changed to not exclude cases of depressed woman during pregnancy.", "Depression with peripartum onset has an incidence rate of 3–6% among new mothers.", "The DSM-5 mandates that to qualify as depression with peripartum onset, onset occurs during pregnancy or within one month of delivery.", "* \"Seasonal affective disorder\" (SAD) is a form of depression in which depressive episodes come on in the autumn or winter, and resolve in spring.", "The diagnosis is made if at least two episodes have occurred in colder months with none at other times, over a two-year period or longer.===Differential diagnoses===To confirm major depressive disorder as the most likely diagnosis, other potential diagnoses must be considered, including dysthymia, adjustment disorder with depressed mood, or bipolar disorder.", "Dysthymia is a chronic, milder mood disturbance in which a person reports a low mood almost daily over a span of at least two years.", "The symptoms are not as severe as those for major depression, although people with dysthymia are vulnerable to secondary episodes of major depression (sometimes referred to as ''double depression'').", "Adjustment disorder with depressed mood is a mood disturbance appearing as a psychological response to an identifiable event or stressor, in which the resulting emotional or behavioral symptoms are significant but do not meet the criteria for a major depressive episode.Other disorders need to be ruled out before diagnosing major depressive disorder.", "They include depressions due to physical illness, medications, and substance use disorders.", "Depression due to physical illness is diagnosed as a mood disorder due to a general medical condition.", "This condition is determined based on history, laboratory findings, or physical examination.", "When the depression is caused by a medication, non-medical use of a psychoactive substance, or exposure to a toxin, it is then diagnosed as a specific mood disorder (previously called ''substance-induced mood disorder'')." ], [ "Screening and prevention", "Preventive efforts may result in decreases in rates of the condition of between 22 and 38%.", "Since 2016, the United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) has recommended screening for depression among those over the age 12; though a 2005 Cochrane review found that the routine use of screening questionnaires has little effect on detection or treatment.", "Screening the general population is not recommended by authorities in the UK or Canada.Behavioral interventions, such as interpersonal therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy, are effective at preventing new onset depression.", "Because such interventions appear to be most effective when delivered to individuals or small groups, it has been suggested that they may be able to reach their large target audience most efficiently through the Internet.The Netherlands mental health care system provides preventive interventions, such as the \"Coping with Depression\" course (CWD) for people with sub-threshold depression.", "The course is claimed to be the most successful of psychoeducational interventions for the treatment and prevention of depression (both for its adaptability to various populations and its results), with a risk reduction of 38% in major depression and an efficacy as a treatment comparing favorably to other psychotherapies." ], [ "Management", "The most common and effective treatments for depression are psychotherapy, medication, and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT); a combination of treatments is the most effective approach when depression is resistant to treatment.", "American Psychiatric Association treatment guidelines recommend that initial treatment should be individually tailored based on factors including severity of symptoms, co-existing disorders, prior treatment experience, and personal preference.", "Options may include pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, exercise, ECT, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or light therapy.", "Antidepressant medication is recommended as an initial treatment choice in people with mild, moderate, or severe major depression, and should be given to all people with severe depression unless ECT is planned.", "There is evidence that collaborative care by a team of health care practitioners produces better results than routine single-practitioner care.Psychotherapy is the treatment of choice (over medication) for people under 18, and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), third wave CBT and interpersonal therapy may help prevent depression.", "The UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) 2004 guidelines indicate that antidepressants should not be used for the initial treatment of mild depression because the risk-benefit ratio is poor.", "The guidelines recommend that antidepressants treatment in combination with psychosocial interventions should be considered for::* People with a history of moderate or severe depression:* Those with mild depression that has been present for a long period:* As a second line treatment for mild depression that persists after other interventions:* As a first line treatment for moderate or severe depression.The guidelines further note that antidepressant treatment should be continued for at least six months to reduce the risk of relapse, and that SSRIs are better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressants.Treatment options are more limited in developing countries, where access to mental health staff, medication, and psychotherapy is often difficult.", "Development of mental health services is minimal in many countries; depression is viewed as a phenomenon of the developed world despite evidence to the contrary, and not as an inherently life-threatening condition.", "There is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of psychological versus medical therapy in children.===Lifestyle===Physical exercise is one recommended way to manage mild depression.Physical exercise has been found to be effective for major depression, and may be recommended to people who are willing, motivated, and healthy enough to participate in an exercise program as treatment.", "It is equivalent to the use of medications or psychological therapies in most people.", "In older people it does appear to decrease depression.", "Sleep and diet may also play a role in depression, and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to conventional methods.", "In observational studies, smoking cessation has benefits in depression as large as or larger than those of medications.===Talking therapies===Talking therapy (psychotherapy) can be delivered to individuals, groups, or families by mental health professionals, including psychotherapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social workers, counselors, and psychiatric nurses.", "A 2012 review found psychotherapy to be better than no treatment but not other treatments.", "With more complex and chronic forms of depression, a combination of medication and psychotherapy may be used.", "There is moderate-quality evidence that psychological therapies are a useful addition to standard antidepressant treatment of treatment-resistant depression in the short term.", "Psychotherapy has been shown to be effective in older people.", "Successful psychotherapy appears to reduce the recurrence of depression even after it has been stopped or replaced by occasional booster sessions.The most-studied form of psychotherapy for depression is CBT, which teaches clients to challenge self-defeating, but enduring ways of thinking (cognitions) and change counter-productive behaviors.", "CBT can perform as well as antidepressants in people with major depression.", "CBT has the most research evidence for the treatment of depression in children and adolescents, and CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) are preferred therapies for adolescent depression.", "In people under 18, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, medication should be offered only in conjunction with a psychological therapy, such as CBT, interpersonal therapy, or family therapy.", "Several variables predict success for cognitive behavioral therapy in adolescents: higher levels of rational thoughts, less hopelessness, fewer negative thoughts, and fewer cognitive distortions.", "CBT is particularly beneficial in preventing relapse.", "Cognitive behavioral therapy and occupational programs (including modification of work activities and assistance) have been shown to be effective in reducing sick days taken by workers with depression.", "Several variants of cognitive behavior therapy have been used in those with depression, the most notable being rational emotive behavior therapy, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.", "Mindfulness-based stress reduction programs may reduce depression symptoms.", "Mindfulness programs also appear to be a promising intervention in youth.", "Problem solving therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and interpersonal therapy are effective interventions in the elderly.Psychoanalysis is a school of thought, founded by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes the resolution of unconscious mental conflicts.", "Psychoanalytic techniques are used by some practitioners to treat clients presenting with major depression.", "A more widely practiced therapy, called psychodynamic psychotherapy, is in the tradition of psychoanalysis but less intensive, meeting once or twice a week.", "It also tends to focus more on the person's immediate problems, and has an additional social and interpersonal focus.", "In a meta-analysis of three controlled trials of Short Psychodynamic Supportive Psychotherapy, this modification was found to be as effective as medication for mild to moderate depression.===Antidepressants===Sertraline (Zoloft) is used primarily to treat major depression in adults.Conflicting results have arisen from studies that look at the effectiveness of antidepressants in people with acute, mild to moderate depression.", "A review commissioned by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) concluded that there is strong evidence that SSRIs, such as escitalopram, paroxetine, and sertraline, have greater efficacy than placebo on achieving a 50% reduction in depression scores in moderate and severe major depression, and that there is some evidence for a similar effect in mild depression.", "Similarly, a Cochrane systematic review of clinical trials of the generic tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline concluded that there is strong evidence that its efficacy is superior to placebo.", "Antidepressants work less well for the elderly than for younger individuals with depression.To find the most effective antidepressant medication with minimal side-effects, the dosages can be adjusted, and if necessary, combinations of different classes of antidepressants can be tried.", "Response rates to the first antidepressant administered range from 50 to 75%, and it can take at least six to eight weeks from the start of medication to improvement.", "Antidepressant medication treatment is usually continued for 16 to 20 weeks after remission, to minimize the chance of recurrence, and even up to one year of continuation is recommended.", "People with chronic depression may need to take medication indefinitely to avoid relapse.SSRIs are the primary medications prescribed, owing to their relatively mild side-effects, and because they are less toxic in overdose than other antidepressants.", "People who do not respond to one SSRI can be switched to another antidepressant, and this results in improvement in almost 50% of cases.", "Another option is to augment the atypical antidepressant bupropion to the SSRI as an adjunctive treatment.", "Venlafaxine, an antidepressant with a different mechanism of action, may be modestly more effective than SSRIs.", "However, venlafaxine is not recommended in the UK as a first-line treatment because of evidence suggesting its risks may outweigh benefits, and it is specifically discouraged in children and adolescents as it increases the risk of suicidal thoughts or attempts.For children and adolescents with moderate-to-severe depressive disorder, fluoxetine seems to be the best treatment (either with or without cognitive behavioural therapy) but more research is needed to be certain.", "Sertraline, escitalopram, duloxetine might also help in reducing symptoms.", "Some antidepressants have not been shown to be effective.", "Medications are not recommended in children with mild disease.There is also insufficient evidence to determine effectiveness in those with depression complicated by dementia.", "Any antidepressant can cause low blood sodium levels; nevertheless, it has been reported more often with SSRIs.", "It is not uncommon for SSRIs to cause or worsen insomnia; the sedating atypical antidepressant mirtazapine can be used in such cases.Irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, an older class of antidepressants, have been plagued by potentially life-threatening dietary and drug interactions.", "They are still used only rarely, although newer and better-tolerated agents of this class have been developed.", "The safety profile is different with reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as moclobemide, where the risk of serious dietary interactions is negligible and dietary restrictions are less strict.It is unclear whether antidepressants affect a person's risk of suicide.", "For children, adolescents, and probably young adults between 18 and 24 years old, there is a higher risk of both suicidal ideations and suicidal behavior in those treated with SSRIs.", "For adults, it is unclear whether SSRIs affect the risk of suicidality.", "One review found no connection; another an increased risk; and a third no risk in those 25–65 years old and a decreased risk in those more than 65.A black box warning was introduced in the United States in 2007 on SSRIs and other antidepressant medications due to the increased risk of suicide in people younger than 24 years old.", "Similar precautionary notice revisions were implemented by the Japanese Ministry of Health.===Other medications and supplements===The combined use of antidepressants plus benzodiazepines demonstrates improved effectiveness when compared to antidepressants alone, but these effects may not endure.", "The addition of a benzodiazepine is balanced against possible harms and other alternative treatment strategies when antidepressant mono-therapy is considered inadequate.For treatment-resistant depression, adding on the atypical antipsychotic brexpiprazole for short-term or acute management may be considered.", "Brexpiprazole may be effective for some people, however, the evidence as of 2023 supporting its use is weak and this medication has potential adverse effects including weight gain and akathisia.", "Brexpiprazole has not been sufficiently studied in older people or children and the use and effectiveness of this adjunctive therapy for longer term management is not clear.Ketamine may have a rapid antidepressant effect lasting less than two weeks; there is limited evidence of any effect after that, common acute side effects, and longer-term studies of safety and adverse effects are needed.", "A nasal spray form of esketamine was approved by the FDA in March 2019 for use in treatment-resistant depression when combined with an oral antidepressant; risk of substance use disorder and concerns about its safety, serious adverse effects, tolerability, effect on suicidality, lack of information about dosage, whether the studies on it adequately represent broad populations, and escalating use of the product have been raised by an international panel of experts.There is insufficient high quality evidence to suggest omega-3 fatty acids are effective in depression.", "There is limited evidence that vitamin D supplementation is of value in alleviating the symptoms of depression in individuals who are vitamin D-deficient.", "Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk of suicide in those with bipolar disorder and unipolar depression to nearly the same levels as the general population.", "There is a narrow range of effective and safe dosages of lithium thus close monitoring may be needed.", "Low-dose thyroid hormone may be added to existing antidepressants to treat persistent depression symptoms in people who have tried multiple courses of medication.", "Limited evidence suggests stimulants, such as amphetamine and modafinil, may be effective in the short term, or as adjuvant therapy.", "Also, it is suggested that folate supplements may have a role in depression management.", "There is tentative evidence for benefit from testosterone in males.===Electroconvulsive therapy===Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a standard psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in a person with depression to provide relief from psychiatric illnesses.", "ECT is used with informed consent as a last line of intervention for major depressive disorder.", "A round of ECT is effective for about 50% of people with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, whether it is unipolar or bipolar.", "Follow-up treatment is still poorly studied, but about half of people who respond relapse within twelve months.", "Aside from effects in the brain, the general physical risks of ECT are similar to those of brief general anesthesia.", "Immediately following treatment, the most common adverse effects are confusion and memory loss.", "ECT is considered one of the least harmful treatment options available for severely depressed pregnant women.A usual course of ECT involves multiple administrations, typically given two or three times per week, until the person no longer has symptoms.", "ECT is administered under anesthesia with a muscle relaxant.", "Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus.", "These three forms of application have significant differences in both adverse side effects and symptom remission.", "After treatment, drug therapy is usually continued, and some people receive maintenance ECT.ECT appears to work in the short term via an anticonvulsant effect mostly in the frontal lobes, and longer term via neurotrophic effects primarily in the medial temporal lobe.===Other===Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) or deep transcranial magnetic stimulation is a noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain.", "TMS was approved by the FDA for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (trMDD) in 2008 and as of 2014 evidence supports that it is probably effective.", "The American Psychiatric Association, the Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Disorders, and the Royal Australia and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists have endorsed TMS for trMDD.", "Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is another noninvasive method used to stimulate small regions of the brain with a weak electric current.", "Several meta-analyses have concluded that active tDCS was useful for treating depression.There is a small amount of evidence that sleep deprivation may improve depressive symptoms in some individuals, with the effects usually showing up within a day.", "This effect is usually temporary.", "Besides sleepiness, this method can cause a side effect of mania or hypomania.", "There is insufficient evidence for Reiki and dance movement therapy in depression.", "Cannabis is specifically not recommended as a treatment." ], [ "Prognosis", "Studies have shown that 80% of those with a first major depressive episode will have at least one more during their life, with a lifetime average of four episodes.", "Other general population studies indicate that around half those who have an episode recover (whether treated or not) and remain well, while the other half will have at least one more, and around 15% of those experience chronic recurrence.", "Studies recruiting from selective inpatient sources suggest lower recovery and higher chronicity, while studies of mostly outpatients show that nearly all recover, with a median episode duration of 11 months.", "Around 90% of those with severe or psychotic depression, most of whom also meet criteria for other mental disorders, experience recurrence.", "Cases when outcome is poor are associated with inappropriate treatment, severe initial symptoms including psychosis, early age of onset, previous episodes, incomplete recovery after one year of treatment, pre-existing severe mental or medical disorder, and family dysfunction.A high proportion of people who experience full symptomatic remission still have at least one not fully resolved symptom after treatment.", "Recurrence or chronicity is more likely if symptoms have not fully resolved with treatment.", "Current guidelines recommend continuing antidepressants for four to six months after remission to prevent relapse.", "Evidence from many randomized controlled trials indicates continuing antidepressant medications after recovery can reduce the chance of relapse by 70% (41% on placebo vs. 18% on antidepressant).", "The preventive effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use.Major depressive episodes often resolve over time, whether or not they are treated.", "Outpatients on a waiting list show a 10–15% reduction in symptoms within a few months, with approximately 20% no longer meeting the full criteria for a depressive disorder.", "The median duration of an episode has been estimated to be 23 weeks, with the highest rate of recovery in the first three months.", "According to a 2013 review, 23% of untreated adults with mild to moderate depression will remit within 3 months, 32% within 6 months and 53% within 12 months.===Ability to work===Depression may affect people's ability to work.", "The combination of usual clinical care and support with return to work (like working less hours or changing tasks) probably reduces sick leave by 15%, and leads to fewer depressive symptoms and improved work capacity, reducing sick leave by an annual average of 25 days per year.", "Helping depressed people return to work without a connection to clinical care has not been shown to have an effect on sick leave days.", "Additional psychological interventions (such as online cognitive behavioral therapy) lead to fewer sick days compared to standard management only.", "Streamlining care or adding specific providers for depression care may help to reduce sick leave.===Life expectancy and the risk of suicide===Depressed individuals have a shorter life expectancy than those without depression, in part because people who are depressed are at risk of dying of suicide.", "About 50% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression, and the risk is especially high if a person has a marked sense of hopelessness or has both depression and borderline personality disorder.", "About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide.", "In the US, the lifetime risk of suicide associated with a diagnosis of major depression is estimated at 7% for men and 1% for women, even though suicide attempts are more frequent in women.Depressed people have a higher rate of dying from other causes.", "There is a 1.5- to 2-fold increased risk of cardiovascular disease, independent of other known risk factors, and is itself linked directly or indirectly to risk factors such as smoking and obesity.", "People with major depression are less likely to follow medical recommendations for treating and preventing cardiovascular disorders, further increasing their risk of medical complications.", "Cardiologists may not recognize underlying depression that complicates a cardiovascular problem under their care." ], [ "Epidemiology", "Disability-adjusted life year for unipolar depressive disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004:Major depressive disorder affected approximately 163 million people in 2017 (2% of the global population).", "The percentage of people who are affected at one point in their life varies from 7% in Japan to 21% in France.", "In most countries the number of people who have depression during their lives falls within an 8–18% range.In the United States, 8.4% of adults (21 million individuals) have at least one episode within a year-long period; the probability of having a major depressive episode is higher for females than males (10.5% to 6.2%), and highest for those aged 18 to 25 (17%).", "Among adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17, 17% of the U.S. population (4.1 million individuals) had a major depressive episode in 2020 (females 25.2%, males 9.2%).", "Among individuals reporting two or more races, the US prevalence is highest.Major depression is about twice as common in women as in men, although it is unclear why this is so, and whether factors unaccounted for are contributing to this.", "The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors.", "In 2019, major depressive disorder was identified (using either the DSM-IV-TR or ICD-10) in the Global Burden of Disease Study as the fifth most common cause of years lived with disability and the 18th most common for disability-adjusted life years.People are most likely to develop their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60.The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis, and during the first year after childbirth.", "It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related more to those with a poor cardiac disease outcome than to a better one.", "Depressive disorders are more common in urban populations than in rural ones and the prevalence is increased in groups with poorer socioeconomic factors, e.g., homelessness.", "Depression is common among those over 65 years of age and increases in frequency beyond this age.", "The risk of depression increases in relation to the frailty of the individual.", "Depression is one of the most important factors which negatively impact quality of life in adults, as well as the elderly.", "Both symptoms and treatment among the elderly differ from those of the rest of the population.Major depression was the leading cause of disease burden in North America and other high-income countries, and the fourth-leading cause worldwide as of 2006.In the year 2030, it is predicted to be the second-leading cause of disease burden worldwide after HIV, according to the WHO.", "Delay or failure in seeking treatment after relapse and the failure of health professionals to provide treatment are two barriers to reducing disability.===Comorbidity===Major depression frequently co-occurs with other psychiatric problems.", "The 1990–92 ''National Comorbidity Survey'' (US) reported that half of those with major depression also have lifetime anxiety and its associated disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder.", "Anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, with delayed recovery, increased risk of relapse, greater disability and increased suicidal behavior.", "Depressed people have increased rates of alcohol and substance use, particularly dependence, and around a third of individuals diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) develop comorbid depression.", "Post-traumatic stress disorder and depression often co-occur.", "Depression may also coexist with ADHD, complicating the diagnosis and treatment of both.", "Depression is also frequently comorbid with alcohol use disorder and personality disorders.", "Depression can also be exacerbated during particular months (usually winter) in those with seasonal affective disorder.", "While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, using digital media may also improve mood in some situations.Depression and pain often co-occur.", "One or more pain symptoms are present in 65% of people who have depression, and anywhere from 5 to 85% of people who are experiencing pain will also have depression, depending on the setting—a lower prevalence in general practice, and higher in specialty clinics.", "Depression is often underrecognized, and therefore undertreated, in patients presenting with pain.", "Depression often coexists with physical disorders common among the elderly, such as stroke, other cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson's disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease." ], [ "History", "The Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates described a syndrome of melancholia (, ) as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical symptoms; he characterized all \"fears and despondencies, if they last a long time\" as being symptomatic of the ailment.", "It was a similar but far broader concept than today's depression; prominence was given to a clustering of the symptoms of sadness, dejection, and despondency, and often fear, anger, delusions and obsessions were included.Diagnoses of depression go back at least as far as Hippocrates.The term ''depression'' itself was derived from the Latin verb , meaning \"to press down\".", "From the 14th century, \"to depress\" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits.", "It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's ''Chronicle'' to refer to someone having \"a great depression of spirit\", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753.The term also came into use in physiology and economics.", "An early usage referring to a psychiatric symptom was by French psychiatrist Louis Delasiauve in 1856, and by the 1860s it was appearing in medical dictionaries to refer to a physiological and metaphorical lowering of emotional function.", "Since Aristotle, melancholia had been associated with men of learning and intellectual brilliance, a hazard of contemplation and creativity.", "However, by the 19th century, this association has largely shifted and melancholia became more commonly linked with women.Although ''melancholia'' remained the dominant diagnostic term, ''depression'' gained increasing currency in medical treatises and was a synonym by the end of the century; German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin may have been the first to use it as the overarching term, referring to different kinds of melancholia as ''depressive states''.", "Freud likened the state of melancholia to mourning in his 1917 paper ''Mourning and Melancholia''.", "He theorized that objective loss, such as the loss of a valued relationship through death or a romantic break-up, results in subjective loss as well; the depressed individual has identified with the object of affection through an unconscious, narcissistic process called the ''libidinal cathexis'' of the ego.", "Such loss results in severe melancholic symptoms more profound than mourning; not only is the outside world viewed negatively but the ego itself is compromised.", "The person's decline of self-perception is revealed in his belief of his own blame, inferiority, and unworthiness.", "He also emphasized early life experiences as a predisposing factor.", "Adolf Meyer put forward a mixed social and biological framework emphasizing ''reactions'' in the context of an individual's life, and argued that the term ''depression'' should be used instead of ''melancholia''.", "The first version of the ''DSM'' (''DSM-I'', 1952) contained ''depressive reaction'' and the ''DSM-II'' (1968) ''depressive neurosis'', defined as an excessive reaction to internal conflict or an identifiable event, and also included a depressive type of manic-depressive psychosis within Major affective disorders.The term ''unipolar'' (along with the related term ''bipolar'') was coined by the neurologist and psychiatrist Karl Kleist, and subsequently used by his disciples Edda Neele and Karl Leonhard.The term ''Major depressive disorder'' was introduced by a group of US clinicians in the mid-1970s as part of proposals for diagnostic criteria based on patterns of symptoms (called the \"Research Diagnostic Criteria\", building on earlier Feighner Criteria), and was incorporated into the ''DSM-III'' in 1980.The American Psychiatric Association added \"major depressive disorder\" to the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (''DSM-III''), as a split of the previous depressive neurosis in the ''DSM-II'', which also encompassed the conditions now known as dysthymia and adjustment disorder with depressed mood.", "To maintain consistency the ICD-10 used the same criteria, with only minor alterations, but using the ''DSM'' diagnostic threshold to mark a ''mild depressive episode'', adding higher threshold categories for moderate and severe episodes.", "The ancient idea of ''melancholia'' still survives in the notion of a melancholic subtype.The new definitions of depression were widely accepted, albeit with some conflicting findings and views.", "There have been some continued empirically based arguments for a return to the diagnosis of melancholia.", "There has been some criticism of the expansion of coverage of the diagnosis, related to the development and promotion of antidepressants and the biological model since the late 1950s." ], [ "Society and culture", "===Terminology===American president, Abraham Lincoln, had \"melancholy\", a condition that now may be referred to as clinical depression.The term \"depression\" is used in a number of different ways.", "It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood.", "People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures.", "\"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language.", "What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\"", "There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.===Stigma===Historical figures were often reluctant to discuss or seek treatment for depression due to social stigma about the condition, or due to ignorance of diagnosis or treatments.", "Nevertheless, analysis or interpretation of letters, journals, artwork, writings, or statements of family and friends of some historical personalities has led to the presumption that they may have had some form of depression.", "People who may have had depression include English author Mary Shelley, American-British writer Henry James, and American president Abraham Lincoln.", "Some well-known contemporary people with possible depression include Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen and American playwright and novelist Tennessee Williams.", "Some pioneering psychologists, such as Americans William James and John B. Watson, dealt with their own depression.There has been a continuing discussion of whether neurological disorders and mood disorders may be linked to creativity, a discussion that goes back to Aristotelian times.", "British literature gives many examples of reflections on depression.", "English philosopher John Stuart Mill experienced a several-months-long period of what he called \"a dull state of nerves\", when one is \"unsusceptible to enjoyment or pleasurable excitement; one of those moods when what is pleasure at other times, becomes insipid or indifferent\".", "He quoted English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge's \"Dejection\" as a perfect description of his case: \"A grief without a pang, void, dark and drear, / A drowsy, stifled, unimpassioned grief, / Which finds no natural outlet or relief / In word, or sigh, or tear.\"", "English writer Samuel Johnson used the term \"the black dog\" in the 1780s to describe his own depression, and it was subsequently popularized by British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, who also had the disorder.", "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in his ''Faust, Part I'', published in 1808, has Mephistopheles assume the form of a black dog, specifically a poodle.In 1998, the Norwegian PM Kjell Magne Bondevik publicly announced he will take a break in order to recover from a depressive episode.Social stigma of major depression is widespread, and contact with mental health services reduces this only slightly.", "Public opinions on treatment differ markedly to those of health professionals; alternative treatments are held to be more helpful than pharmacological ones, which are viewed poorly.", "In the UK, the Royal College of Psychiatrists and the Royal College of General Practitioners conducted a joint Five-year Defeat Depression campaign to educate and reduce stigma from 1992 to 1996; a MORI study conducted afterwards showed a small positive change in public attitudes to depression and treatment.While serving his first term as Prime Minister of Norway, Kjell Magne Bondevik attracted international attention in August 1998 when he announced that he was suffering from a depressive episode, becoming the highest ranking world leader to admit to suffering from a mental illness while in office.", "Upon this revelation, Anne Enger became acting Prime Minister for three weeks, from 30 August to 23 September, while he recovered from the depressive episode.", "Bondevik then returned to office.", "Bondevik received thousands of supportive letters, and said that the experience had been positive overall, both for himself and because it made mental illness more publicly acceptable." ], [ "References", "===Cited works===* * * * * * * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diana (mythology)" ], [ "Introduction", "Statue of Diana-Artemis, fresco from Pompeii, 50–1 BCE'''Diana''' is a goddess in Roman and Hellenistic religion, primarily considered a patroness of the countryside and nature, hunters, wildlife, childbirth, crossroads, the night, and the Moon.", "She is equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, and absorbed much of Artemis' mythology early in Roman history, including a birth on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona, and a twin brother, Apollo, though she had an independent origin in Italy.Diana is considered a virgin goddess and protector of childbirth.", "Historically, Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.Diana is revered in modern neopagan religions including Roman neopaganism, Stregheria, and Wicca.", "In the ancient, medieval, and modern periods, Diana has been considered a triple deity, merged with a goddess of the moon (Luna/Selene) and the underworld (usually Hecate)." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Dīāna'' probably derives from Latin ''dīus'' ('godly'), ultimately from Proto-Italic ''dīwī'', meaning 'divine, heavenly'.", "It stems from Proto-Indo-European ''diwyós'' ('divine, heavenly'), formed with the stem ''dyew-'' ('daylight sky') attached the thematic suffix -''yós''.", "Cognates appear in Myceanean Greek ''di-wi-ja'', in Ancient Greek ''dîos'' (δῖος; 'belonging to heaven, godlike'), and in Sanskrit ''divyá'' ('heavenly' or 'celestial').The ancient Latin writers Varro and Cicero considered the etymology of Dīāna as allied to that of ''dies'' and connected to the shine of the Moon, noting that one of her titles is Diana Lucifera (\"light-bearer\").... people regard Diana and the moon as one and the same.", "... the moon ''(luna)'' is so called from the verb to shine ''(lucere)''.", "Lucina is identified with it, which is why in our country they invoke Juno Lucina in childbirth, just as the Greeks call on Diana the Light-bearer.", "Diana also has the name ''Omnivaga'' (\"wandering everywhere\"), not because of her hunting but because she is numbered as one of the seven planets; her name Diana derives from the fact that she turns darkness into daylight ''(dies)''.", "She is invoked at childbirth because children are born occasionally after seven, or usually after nine, lunar revolutions ...:--Quintus Lucilius Balbus as recorded by Marcus Tullius Cicero and translated by P.G.", "Walsh. ''", "De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods)'', Book II, Part ii, Section c" ], [ "Description", "===As a goddess of the countryside===''Diana Hunting'', Guillaume SeignacThe persona of Diana is complex, and contains a number of archaic features.", "Diana was originally considered to be a goddess of the wilderness and of the hunt, a central sport in both Roman and Greek culture.", "Early Roman inscriptions to Diana celebrated her primarily as a huntress and patron of hunters.", "Later, in the Hellenistic period, Diana came to be equally or more revered as a goddess not of the wild woodland but of the \"tame\" countryside, or ''villa rustica'', the idealization of which was common in Greek thought and poetry.", "This dual role as goddess of both civilization and the wild, and therefore the civilized countryside, first applied to the Greek goddess Artemis (for example, in the 3rd century BCE poetry of Anacreon).", "By the 3rd century CE, after Greek influence had a profound impact on Roman religion, Diana had been almost fully combined with Artemis and took on many of her attributes, both in her spiritual domains and in the description of her appearance.", "The Roman poet Nemesianus wrote a typical description of Diana: She carried a bow and a quiver full of golden arrows, wore a golden cloak, purple half-boots, and a belt with a jeweled buckle to hold her tunic together, and wore her hair gathered in a ribbon.", "By the 5th century CE, almost a millennia after her cult's entry into Rome, the philosopher Proclus could still characterize Diana as \"the inspective guardian of every thing rural, who represses every thing rustic and uncultivated.", "\"===As a triple goddess===Diana was often considered an aspect of a triple goddess, known as ''Diana triformis'': Diana, Luna, and Hecate.", "According to historian C.M.", "Green, \"these were neither different goddesses nor an amalgamation of different goddesses.", "They were Diana...Diana as huntress, Diana as the moon, Diana of the underworld.\"", "At her sacred grove on the shores of Lake Nemi, Diana was venerated as a triple goddess beginning in the late 6th century BCE.Andreas Alföldi interpreted an image on a late Republican coin as the Latin Diana \"conceived as a threefold unity of the divine huntress, the Moon goddess and the goddess of the nether world, Hekate\".", "This coin, minted by P. Accoleius Lariscolus in 43 BCE, has been acknowledged as representing an archaic statue of Diana Nemorensis.", "It represents Artemis with the bow at one extremity, Luna-Selene with flowers at the other and a central deity not immediately identifiable, all united by a horizontal bar.", "The iconographical analysis allows the dating of this image to the 6th century at which time there are Etruscan models.", "The coin shows that the triple goddess cult image still stood in the ''lucus'' of Nemi in 43 BCE.", "Lake Nemi was called ''Triviae lacus'' by Virgil (''Aeneid'' 7.516), while Horace called Diana ''montium custos nemoremque virgo'' (\"keeper of the mountains and virgin of Nemi\") and ''diva triformis'' (\"three-form goddess\").Two heads found in the sanctuary and the Roman theatre at Nemi, which have a hollow on their back, lend support to this interpretation of an archaic triple Diana.===As goddess of crossroads and the underworld===The earliest epithet of Diana was ''Trivia'', and she was addressed with that title by Virgil, Catullus, and many others.", "\"Trivia\" comes from the Latin ''trivium'', \"triple way\", and refers to Diana's guardianship over roadways, particularly Y-junctions or three-way crossroads.", "This role carried a somewhat dark and dangerous connotation, as it metaphorically pointed the way to the underworld.", "In the 1st-century CE play ''Medea'', Seneca's titular sorceress calls on Trivia to cast a magic spell.", "She evokes the triple goddess of Diana, Selene, and Hecate, and specifies that she requires the powers of the latter.", "The 1st century poet Horace similarly wrote of a magic incantation invoking the power of both Diana and Proserpina.", "The symbol of the crossroads is relevant to several aspects of Diana's domain.", "It can symbolize the paths hunters may encounter in the forest, lit only by the full moon; this symbolizes making choices \"in the dark\" without the light of guidance.Diana's role as a goddess of the underworld, or at least of ushering people between life and death, caused her early on to be conflated with Hecate (and occasionally also with Proserpina).", "However, her role as an underworld goddess appears to pre-date strong Greek influence (though the early Greek colony of Cumae had a cult of Hekate and certainly had contacts with the Latins).", "A theater in her sanctuary at Lake Nemi included a pit and tunnel that would have allowed actors to easily descend on one side of the stage and ascend on the other, indicating a connection between the phases of the moon and a descent by the moon goddess into the underworld.", "It is likely that her underworld aspect in her original Latin worship did not have a distinct name, like Luna was for her moon aspect.", "This is due to a seeming reluctance or taboo by the early Latins to name underworld deities, and the fact that they believed the underworld to be silent, precluding naming.", "Hekate, a Greek goddess also associated with the boundary between the earth and the underworld, became attached to Diana as a name for her underworld aspect following Greek influence.===As goddess of childbirth===Diana was often considered to be a goddess associated with fertility and childbirth, and the protection of women during labor.", "This probably arose as an extension of her association with the moon, whose cycles were believed to parallel the menstrual cycle, and which was used to track the months during pregnancy.", "At her shrine in Aricia, worshipers left votive terracotta offerings for the goddess in the shapes of babies and wombs, and the temple there also offered care of pups and pregnant dogs.", "This care of infants also extended to the training of both young people and dogs, especially for hunting.", "In her role as a protector of childbirth, Diana was called ''Diana Lucina'', ''Diana Lucifera'' or even ''Juno Lucina'', because her domain overlapped with that of the goddess Juno.", "The title of Juno may also have had an independent origin as it applied to Diana, with the literal meaning of \"helper\" – Diana as ''Juno Lucina'' would be the \"helper of childbirth\".===As a \"frame god\"===''Diana as Personification of the Night''.", "Anton Raphael Mengs, c. 1765.According to a theory proposed by Georges Dumézil, Diana falls into a particular subset of celestial gods, referred to in histories of religion as ''frame gods''.", "Such gods, while keeping the original features of celestial divinities (i.e.", "transcendent heavenly power and abstention from direct rule in worldly matters), did not share the fate of other celestial gods in Indoeuropean religions – that of becoming ''dei otiosi'', or gods without practical purpose, since they did retain a particular sort of influence over the world and mankind.", "The celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with inaccessibility, virginity, light, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods.", "Diana, therefore, reflects the heavenly world in its sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility, and indifference towards such secular matters as the fates of mortals and states.", "At the same time, however, she is seen as active in ensuring the succession of kings and in the preservation of humankind through the protection of childbirth.", "These functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess:# The legend of the rex Nemorensis, Diana's ''sacerdos'' (priest) in the Arician wood, who held the position until someone else challenged and killed him in a duel, after breaking a branch from a certain tree of the wood.", "This ever open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantor of kingly status through successive generations.", "Her function as bestower of authority to rule is also attested in the story related by Livy in which a Sabine man who sacrifices a heifer to Diana wins for his country the seat of the Roman empire.# Diana was also worshiped by women who wanted to be pregnant or who, once pregnant, prayed for an easy delivery.", "This form of worship is attested in archaeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as in ancient sources, e.g.", "Ovid.According to Dumezil, the forerunner of all ''frame gods'' is an Indian epic hero who was the image (avatar) of the Vedic god Dyaus.", "Having renounced the world, in his roles of father and king, he attained the status of an immortal being while retaining the duty of ensuring that his dynasty is preserved and that there is always a new king for each generation.", "The Scandinavian god Heimdallr performs an analogous function: he is born first and will die last.", "He too gives origin to kingship and the first king, bestowing on him regal prerogatives.Diana, although a female deity, has exactly the same functions, preserving mankind through childbirth and royal succession.F.", "H. Pairault, in her essay on Diana, qualified Dumézil's theory as \"''impossible to verify''\"." ], [ "Mythology", "Mosaic depicting Diana and her nymph surprised by Actaeon.", "Ruins of Volubilis, 2nd century CE.Unlike the Greek gods, Roman gods were originally considered to be numina: divine powers of presence and will that did not necessarily have physical form.", "At the time Rome was founded, Diana and the other major Roman gods probably did not have much mythology per se, or any depictions in human form.", "The idea of gods as having anthropomorphic qualities and human-like personalities and actions developed later, under the influence of Greek and Etruscan religion.By the 3rd century BCE, Diana is found listed among the twelve major gods of the Roman pantheon by the poet Ennius.", "Though the Capitoline Triad were the primary state gods of Rome, early Roman myth did not assign a strict hierarchy to the gods the way Greek mythology did, though the Greek hierarchy would eventually be adopted by Roman religion as well.Once Greek influence had caused Diana to be considered identical to the Greek goddess Artemis, Diana acquired Artemis's physical description, attributes, and variants of her myths as well.", "Like Artemis, Diana is usually depicted in art wearing a women’s chiton, shortened in the kolpos style to facilitate mobility during hunting, with a hunting bow and quiver, and often accompanied by hunting dogs.", "A 1st-century BCE Roman coin (see above) depicted her with a unique, short hairstyle, and in triple form, with one form holding a bow and another holding a poppy.===Family===When worship of Apollo was first introduced to Rome, Diana became conflated with Apollo's sister Artemis as in the earlier Greek myths, and as such she became identified as the daughter of Apollo's parents Latona and Jupiter.", "Though Diana was usually considered to be a virgin goddess like Artemis, later authors sometimes attributed consorts and children to her.", "According to Cicero and Ennius, Trivia (an epithet of Diana) and Caelus were the parents of Janus, as well as of Saturn and Ops.According to Macrobius (who cited Nigidius Figulus and Cicero), Janus and Jana (Diana) are a pair of divinities, worshiped as the sun and moon.", "Janus was said to receive sacrifices before all the others because, through him, the way of access to the desired deity is made apparent.===Myth of Actaeon===Diana's mythology incorporated stories which were variants of earlier stories about Artemis.", "Possibly the most well-known of these is the myth of Actaeon.", "In Ovid's version of this myth, part of his poem ''Metamorphoses'', he tells of a pool or grotto hidden in the wooded valley of Gargaphie.", "There, Diana, the goddess of the woods, would bathe and rest after a hunt.", "Actaeon, a young hunter, stumbled across the grotto and accidentally witnessed the goddess bathing without invitation.", "In retaliation, Diana splashed him with water from the pool, cursing him, and he transformed into a deer.", "His own hunting dogs caught his scent, and tore him apart.Ovid's version of the myth of Actaeon differs from most earlier sources.", "Unlike earlier myths about Artemis, Actaeon is killed for an innocent mistake, glimpsing Diana bathing.", "An earlier variant of this myth, known as the Bath of Pallas, had the hunter intentionally spy on the bathing goddess Pallas (Athena), and earlier versions of the myth involving Artemis did not involve the bath at all." ], [ "Worship in the classical period", "Fourth-Pompeian-Style Roman wall painting depicting a scene of sacrifice in honor of the goddess Diana; she is seen here accompanied by a deer.", "The fresco was discovered in the triclinium of House of the Vettii in Pompeii, Italy.Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes.", "Therefore, many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins.", "Her primary sanctuary was a woodland grove overlooking Lake Nemi, a body of water also known as \"Diana's Mirror\", where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or \"Diana of the Wood\".", "In Rome, the cult of Diana may have been almost as old as the city itself.", "Varro mentions her in the list of deities to whom king Titus Tatius promised to build a shrine.", "His list included Luna and Diana Lucina as separate entities.", "Another testimony to the antiquity of her cult is to be found in the ''lex regia'' of King Tullus Hostilius that condemns those guilty of incest to the ''sacratio'' to Diana.", "She had a temple in Rome on the Aventine Hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius.", "Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, i.e.", "original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans.", "Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the ''pomerium'', meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a ''foreign'' one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially ''transferred'' to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii.Other known sanctuaries and temples to Diana include Colle di Corne near Tusculum, where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of ''deva Cornisca'' and where existed a collegium of worshippers; at Évora, Portugal; Mount Algidus, also near Tusculum; at Lavinium; and at Tibur (Tivoli), where she is referred to as ''Diana Opifera Nemorensis''.", "Diana was also worshiped at a sacred wood mentioned by Livy – ''ad compitum Anagninum'' (near Anagni), and on Mount Tifata in Campania.According to Plutarch, men and women alike were worshipers of Diana and were welcomed into all of her temples.", "The one exception seems to have been a temple on the Vicus Patricius, which men either did not enter due to tradition, or were not allowed to enter.", "Plutarch related a legend that a man had attempted to assault a woman worshiping in this temple and was killed by a pack of dogs (echoing the myth of Diana and Actaeon), which resulted in a superstition against men entering the temple.A feature common to nearly all of Diana's temples and shrines by the second century AD was the hanging up of stag antlers.", "Plutarch noted that the only exception to this was the temple on the Aventine Hill, in which bull horns had been hung up instead.", "Plutarch explains this by way of reference to a legend surrounding the sacrifice of an impressive Sabine bull by King Servius at the founding of the Aventine temple.===Sanctuary at Lake Nemi===An 18th-century depiction of Lake Nemi as painted by John Robert CozensDiana's worship may have originated at an open-air sanctuary overlooking Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills near Aricia, where she was worshiped as Diana Nemorensis, or (\"Diana of the Sylvan Glade\").", "According to legendary accounts, the sanctuary was founded by Orestes and Iphigenia after they fled from the Tauri.", "In this tradition, the Nemi sanctuary was supposedly built on the pattern of an earlier Temple of Artemis Tauropolos, and the first cult statue at Nemi was said to have been stolen from the Tauri and brought to Nemi by Orestes.", "Historical evidence suggests that worship of Diana at Nemi flourished from at least the 6th century BCE until the 2nd century CE.", "Her cult there was first attested in Latin literature by Cato the Elder, in a surviving quote by the late grammarian Priscian.", "By the 4th century BCE, the simple shrine at Nemi had been joined by a temple complex.", "The sanctuary served an important political role as it was held in common by the Latin League.A festival to Diana, the Nemoralia, was held yearly at Nemi on the Ides of August (August 13–15).", "Worshipers traveled to Nemi carrying torches and garlands, and once at the lake, they left pieces of thread tied to fences and tablets inscribed with prayers.", "Diana's festival eventually became widely celebrated throughout Italy, which was unusual given the provincial nature of Diana's cult.", "The poet Statius wrote of the festival::''\"It is the season when the most scorching region of the heavens takes over the land and the keen dog-star Sirius, so often struck by Hyperion's sun, burns the gasping fields.", "Now is the day when Trivia's Arician grove, convenient for fugitive kings, grows smoky, and the lake, having guilty knowledge of Hippolytus, glitters with the reflection of a multitude of torches; Diana herself garlands the deserving hunting dogs and polishes the arrowheads and allows the wild animals to go in safety, and at virtuous hearths all Italy celebrates the Hecatean Ides.\"''", "(Statius ''Silv.''", "3.I.52–60)Statius describes the triple nature of the goddess by invoking heavenly (the stars), earthly (the grove itself) and underworld (Hecate) imagery.", "He also suggests by the garlanding of the dogs and polishing of the spears that no hunting was allowed during the festival.Legend has it that Diana's high priest at Nemi, known as the Rex Nemorensis, was always an escaped slave who could only obtain the position by defeating his predecessor in a fight to the death.", "Sir James George Frazer wrote of this sacred grove in ''The Golden Bough'', basing his interpretation on brief remarks in Strabo (5.3.12), Pausanias (2,27.24) and Servius' commentary on the ''Aeneid'' (6.136).", "The legend tells of a tree that stood in the center of the grove and was heavily guarded.", "No one was allowed to break off its limbs, with the exception of a runaway slave, who was allowed, if he could, to break off one of the boughs.", "He was then in turn granted the privilege to engage the Rex Nemorensis, the current king and priest of Diana, in a fight to the death.", "If the slave prevailed, he became the next king for as long as he could defeat his challengers.", "However, Joseph Fontenrose criticised Frazer's assumption that a rite of this sort actually occurred at the sanctuary, and no contemporary records exist that support the historical existence of the ''Rex Nemorensis''.===Spread and conflation with Artemis===A Roman fresco depicting Diana hunting, 4th century AD, from the Via Livenza hypogeum in Rome.Rome hoped to unify into and control the Latin tribes around Nemi, so Diana's worship was imported to Rome as a show of political solidarity.", "Diana soon afterwards became Hellenized, and combined with the Greek goddess Artemis, \"a process which culminated with the appearance of Diana beside Apollo the brother of Artemis in the first ''lectisternium'' at Rome\" in 399 BCE.", "The process of identification between the two goddesses probably began when artists who were commissioned to create new cult statues for Diana's temples outside Nemi were struck by the similar attributes between Diana and the more familiar Artemis, and sculpted Diana in a manner inspired by previous depictions of Artemis.", "Sibyllene influence and trade with Massilia, where similar cult statues of Artemis existed, would have completed the process.According to Françoise Hélène Pairault's study, historical and archaeological evidence point to the fact that the characteristics given to both Diana of the Aventine Hill and Diana Nemorensis were the product of the direct or indirect influence of the cult of Artemis, which was spread by the Phoceans among the Greek towns of Campania Cuma and Capua, who in turn had passed it over to the Etruscans and the Latins by the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.Evidence suggests that a confrontation occurred between two groups of Etruscans who fought for supremacy, those from Tarquinia, Vulci and Caere (allied with the Greeks of Capua) and those of Clusium.", "This is reflected in the legend of the coming of Orestes to Nemi and of the inhumation of his bones in the Roman Forum near the temple of Saturn.", "The cult introduced by Orestes at Nemi is apparently that of the Artemis Tauropolos.", "The literary amplification reveals a confused religious background: different versions of Artemis were conflated under the epithet.", "As far as Nemi's Diana is concerned there are two different versions, by Strabo and Servius Honoratus.", "Strabo's version looks to be the most authoritative as he had access to first-hand primary sources on the sanctuaries of Artemis, i.e.", "the priest of Artemis Artemidoros of Ephesus.", "The meaning of ''Tauropolos'' denotes an Asiatic goddess with lunar attributes, lady of the herds.", "The only possible ''interpretatio graeca'' of high antiquity concerning ''Diana Nemorensis'' could have been the one based on this ancient aspect of a deity of light, master of wildlife.", "''Tauropolos'' is an ancient epithet attached to Artemis, Hecate, and even Athena.", "According to the legend Orestes founded Nemi together with Iphigenia.", "At Cuma the Sybil is the priestess of both Phoibos and Trivia.", "Hesiod and Stesichorus tell the story according to which after her death Iphigenia was divinised under the name of Hecate, a fact which would support the assumption that Artemis Tauropolos had a real ancient alliance with the heroine, who was her priestess in Taurid and her human paragon.", "This religious complex is in turn supported by the triple statue of Artemis-Hecate.In Rome, Diana was regarded with great reverence and was a patroness of lower-class citizens, called plebeians, as well as slaves, who could receive asylum in her temples.", "Georg Wissowa proposed that this might be because the first slaves of the Romans were Latins of the neighboring tribes.", "However, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus had the same custom of the asylum.===In Rome===''Diana of Versailles'', a 2nd-century Roman version in the Greek tradition of iconography (Louvre Museum, Paris).Worship of Diana probably spread into the city of Rome beginning around 550 BCE, during her Hellenization and combination with the Greek goddess Artemis.", "Diana was first worshiped along with her brother and mother, Apollo and Latona, in their temple in the Campus Martius, and later in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus.The first major temple dedicated primarily to Diana in the vicinity of Rome was the Temple of Diana Aventina (Diana of the Aventine Hill).", "According to the Roman historian Livy, the construction of this temple began in the 6th century BCE and was inspired by stories of the massive Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, which was said to have been built through the combined efforts of all the cities of Asia Minor.", "Legend has it that Servius Tullius was impressed with this act of massive political and economic cooperation, and convinced the cities of the Latin League to work with the Romans to build their own temple to the goddess.", "However, there is no compelling evidence for such an early construction of the temple, and it is more likely that it was built in the 3rd century BCE, following the influence of the temple at Nemi, and probably about the same time the first temples to Vertumnus (who was associated with Diana) were built in Rome (264 BCE).", "The misconception that the Aventine Temple was inspired by the Ephesian Temple might originate in the fact that the cult images and statues used at the former were based heavily on those found in the latter.", "Whatever its initial construction date, records show that the Avantine Temple was rebuilt by Lucius Cornificius in 32 BCE.", "If it was still in use by the 4th century CE, the Aventine temple would have been permanently closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.", "Today, a short street named the ''Via del Tempio di Diana'' and an associated plaza, ''Piazza del Tempio di Diana'', commemorates the site of the temple.", "Part of its wall is located within one of the halls of the Apuleius restaurant.Later temple dedications often were based on the model for ritual formulas and regulations of the Temple of Diana.", "Roman politicians built several minor temples to Diana elsewhere in Rome to secure public support.", "One of these was built in the Campus Martius in 187 BCE; no Imperial period records of this temple have been found, and it is possible it was one of the temples demolished around 55 BCE in order to build a theater.", "Diana also had a public temple on the Quirinal Hill, the sanctuary of Diana Planciana.", "It was dedicated by Plancius in 55 BCE, though it is unclear which Plancius.In their worship of Artemis, Greeks filled their temples with sculptures of the goddess created by well-known sculptors, and many were adapted for use in the worship of Diana by the Romans, beginning around the 2nd century BCE (the beginning of a period of strong Hellenistic influence on Roman religion).", "The earliest depictions of the Artemis of Ephesus are found on Ephesian coins from this period.", "By the Imperial period, small marble statues of the Ephesian Artemis were being produced in the Western region of the Mediterranean and were often bought by Roman patrons.", "The Romans obtained a large copy of an Ephesian Artemis statue for their temple on the Aventine Hill.", "Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise.", "If she was shown accompanied by a deer, as in the ''Diana of Versailles'', this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting.", "The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked.", "Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him.===At Mount Tifata===Diana and her hound, In Campania, Diana had a major temple at Mount Tifata, near Capua.", "She was worshiped there as ''Diana Tifatina''.", "This was one of the oldest sanctuaries in Campania.", "As a rural sanctuary, it included lands and estates that would have been worked by slaves following the Roman conquest of Campania, and records show that expansion and renovation projects at her temple were funded in part by other conquests by Roman military campaigns.", "The modern Christian church of Sant'Angelo in Formis was built on the ruins of the Tifata temple.===Roman provinces===In the Roman provinces, Diana was widely worshiped alongside local deities.", "Over 100 inscriptions to Diana have been cataloged in the provinces, mainly from Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia.", "Diana was commonly invoked alongside another forest god, Silvanus, as well as other \"mountain gods\".", "In the provinces, she was occasionally conflated with local goddesses such as Abnoba, and was given high status, with ''Augusta'' and ''regina'' (\"queen\") being common epithets.===Household worship===Diana was not only regarded as a goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, but was often worshiped as a patroness of families.", "She served a similar function to the hearth goddess Vesta, and was sometimes considered to be a member of the Penates, the deities most often invoked in household rituals.", "In this role, she was often given a name reflecting the tribe of family who worshiped her and asked for her protection.", "For example, in what is now Wiesbaden, Diana was worshiped as ''Diana Mattiaca'' by the Mattiaci tribe.", "Other family-derived named attested in the ancient literature include ''Diana Cariciana'', ''Diana Valeriana'', and ''Diana Plancia''.", "As a house goddess, Diana often became reduced in stature compared to her official worship by the Roman state religion.", "In personal or family worship, Diana was brought to the level of other household spirits, and was believed to have a vested interest in the prosperity of the household and the continuation of the family.", "The Roman poet Horace regarded Diana as a household goddess in his ''Odes'', and had an altar dedicated to her in his villa where household worship could be conducted.", "In his poetry, Horace deliberately contrasted the kinds of grand, elevated hymns to Diana on behalf of the entire Roman state, the kind of worship that would have been typical at her Aventine temple, with a more personal form of devotion.Images of Diana and her associated myths have been found on sarcophagi of wealthy Romans.", "They often included scenes depicting sacrifices to the goddess, and on at least one example, the deceased man is shown joining Diana's hunt." ], [ "Theology", "Since ancient times, philosophers and theologians have examined the nature of Diana in light of her worship traditions, attributes, mythology, and identification with other gods.===Conflation with other goddesses===Wooden statue of Diana Abnoba, Museum for Prehistory in ThuringiaDiana was initially a hunting goddess and goddess of the local woodland at Nemi, but as her worship spread, she acquired attributes of other similar goddesses.", "As she became conflated with Artemis, she became a moon goddess, identified with the other lunar goddesses goddess Luna and Hekate.", "She also became the goddess of childbirth and ruled over the countryside.", "Catullus wrote a poem to Diana in which she has more than one alias: Latonia, Lucina, Juno, Trivia, Luna.Along with Mars, Diana was often venerated at games held in Roman amphitheaters, and some inscriptions from the Danubian provinces show that she was conflated with Nemesis in this role, as ''Diana Nemesis''.Outside of Italy, Diana had important centers of worship where she was syncretised with similar local deities in Gaul, Upper Germania, and Britannia.", "Diana was particularly important in the region in and around the Black Forest, where she was conflated with the local goddess Abnoba and worshiped as ''Diana Abnoba''.Some late antique sources went even further, syncretizing many local \"great goddesses\" into a single \"Queen of Heaven\".", "The Platonist philosopher Apuleius, writing in the late 2nd century, depicted the goddess declaring:\"I come, Lucius, moved by your entreaties: I, mother of the universe, mistress of all the elements, first-born of the ages, highest of the gods, queen of the shades, first of those who dwell in heaven, representing in one shape all gods and goddesses.", "My will controls the shining heights of heaven, the health-giving sea-winds, and the mournful silences of hell; the entire world worships my single godhead in a thousand shapes, with divers rites, and under many a different name.", "The Phrygians, first-born of mankind, call me the Pessinuntian Mother of the gods; the native Athenians the Cecropian Minerva; the island-dwelling Cypriots Paphian Venus; the archer Cretans Dictynnan Diana; the triple-tongued Sicilians Stygian Proserpine; the ancient Eleusinians Actaean Ceres; some call me Juno, some Bellona, others Hecate, others Rhamnusia; but both races of Ethiopians, those on whom the rising and those on whom the setting sun shines, and the Egyptians who excel in ancient learning, honour me with the worship which is truly mine and call me by my true name: Queen Isis.", "\":--Apuleius, translated by E. J. Kenny.", "''The Golden Ass''Later poets and historians looked to Diana's identity as a triple goddess to merge her with triads heavenly, earthly, and underworld (cthonic) goddesses.", "Maurus Servius Honoratus said that the same goddess was called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpina in hell.", "Michael Drayton praises the Triple Diana in poem ''The Man in the Moone'' (1606): \"So these great three most powerful of the rest, Phoebe, Diana, Hecate, do tell.", "Her sovereignty in Heaven, in Earth and Hell\".===In Platonism===Based on the earlier writings of Plato, the Neoplatonist philosophers of late antiquity united the various major gods of Hellenic tradition into a series of monads containing within them triads, with some creating the world, some animating it or bringing it to life, and others harmonizing it.", "Within this system, Proclus considered Diana to be one of the primary animating, or life-giving, deities.", "Proclus, citing Orphic tradition, concludes that Diana \"presides over all the generation in nature, and is the midwife of physical productive principles\" and that she \"extends these genitals, distributing as far as to subterranean natures the prolific power of Bacchus.\"", "Specifically, Proclus considered the life-generating principle of the highest order, within the Intellectual realm, to be Rhea, whom he identified with Ceres.", "Within her divinity was produced the cause of the basic principle of life.", "Projecting this principle into the lower, Hypercosmic realm of reality generated a lower monad, Kore, who could therefore be understood as Ceres' \"daughter\".", "Kore embodied the \"maidenly\" principle of generation that, more importantly, included a principle of division – where Demeter generates life indiscriminately, Kore distributes it individually.", "This division results in another triad or trinity, known as the Maidenly trinity, within the monad of Kore: namely, Diana, Proserpine, and Minerva, through whom individual living beings are given life and perfected.", "Specifically, according to a commentary by scholar Spyridon Rangos, Diana (equated with Hecate) gives existence, Proserpine (equated with \"Soul\") gives form, and Minerva (equated with \"Virtue\") gives intellect.In his commentary on Proclus, the 19th century Platonist scholar Thomas Taylor expanded upon the theology of the classical philosophers, further interpreting the nature and roles of the gods in light of the whole body of Neoplatonist philosophy.", "He cites Plato in giving a three-form aspect to her central characteristic of virginity: the undefiled, the mundane, and the anagogic.", "Through the first form, Diana is regarded as a \"lover of virginity\".", "Through the second, she is the guardian of virtue.", "Through the third, she is considered to \"hate the impulses arising from generation.\"", "Through the principle of the undefiled, Taylor suggests that she is given supremacy in Proclus' triad of life-giving or animating deities, and in this role the theurgists called her Hekate.", "In this role, Diana is granted undefiled power (''Amilieti'') from the other gods.", "This generative power does not proceed forth from the goddess (according to a statement by the Oracle of Delphi) but rather resides with her, giving her unparalleled virtue, and in this way she can be said to embody virginity.", "Later commentators on Proclus have clarified that the virginity of Diana is not an absence of sexual drive, but a renunciation of sexuality.", "Diana embodies virginity because she generates but precedes active fertility (within Neoplatonism, an important maxim is that \"every productive cause is superior to the nature of the produced effect\").Using the ancient Neoplatonists as a basis, Taylor also commented on the triadic nature of Diana and related goddesses, and the ways in which they subsist within one another, partaking unevenly in each other's powers and attributes.", "For example, Kore is said to embody both Diana/Hecate and Minerva, who create the virtuous or virgin power within her, but also Proserpine (her sole traditional identification), through whom the generative power of the Kore as a whole is able to proceed forth into the world, where it joins with the demiurge to produce further deities, including Bacchus and \"nine azure-eyed, flower-producing daughters\".Proclus also included Artemis/Diana in a second triad of deities, along with Ceres and Juno.", "According to Proclus::\"The life-generating triad begins with Demeter who engenders the entire encosmic life, namely intellectual life, psychic life and the life that is inseparable from body; Hera who brings forth the birth of soul occupies the cohering middle position (for the intellectual goddess outpours from herself all the processions of the psychic kinds); finally, Artemis has been assigned to the end of the trinity because she activates all the natural formative principles and perfects the self-completeness of matter; it is for this reason, namely because she supervises natural development and natural birth, that the theologians and Socrates in the ''Theaetetus'' call her Lochia.", "\"Proclus pointed to the conflict between Hera and Artemis in the ''Illiad'' as a representation of the two kinds of human souls.", "Where Hera creates the higher, more cultured, or \"worthy\" souls, Artemis brings light to and perfects the \"less worthy\" or less rational.", "As explained by Ragnos (2000), \"The aspect of reality which Artemis and Hera share, and because of which they engage in a symbolic conflict, is the engendering of life.\"", "Hera elevates rational living beings up to intellectual rational existence, whereas Artemis's power pertains to human life as far as its physical existence as a living thing.", "\"Artemis deals with the most elementary forms of life or the most elementary part of all life, whereas Hera operates in the most elevated forms of life or the most elevated part of all life." ], [ "Worship in post-Roman Europe", "Gallo-Roman bronze statuette of Diana (latter 1st century)Sermons and other religious documents have provided evidence for the worship of Diana during the Middle Ages.", "Though few details have been recorded, enough references to Diana worship during the early Christian period exist to give some indication that it may have been relatively widespread among remote and rural communities throughout Europe, and that such beliefs persisted into the Merovingian period.", "References to contemporary Diana worship exist from the 6th century on the Iberian peninsula and what is now southern France, though more detailed accounts of Dianic cults were given for the Low Countries, and southern Belgium in particular.", "Many of these were probably local goddesses, and wood nymphs or dryads, which had been conflated with Diana by Christian writers Latinizing local names and traditions.===In the Low Countries===The 6th century bishop Gregory of Tours reported meeting with a deacon named Vulfilaic (also known as Saint Wulflaicus or Walfroy the Stylite), who founded a hermitage on a hill in what is now Margut, France.", "On the same hill, he found \"an image of Diana which the unbelieving people worshiped as a god.\"", "According to Gregory's report, worshipers would also sing chants in Diana's honor as they drank and feasted.", "Vulfilaic destroyed a number of smaller pagan statues in the area, but the statue of Diana was too large.", "After converting some of the local population to Christianity, Vulfilaic and a group of local residents attempted to pull the large statue down the mountain in order to destroy it, but failed, as it was too large to be moved.", "In Vulfilaic's account, after praying for a miracle, he was then able to single-handedly pull down the statue, at which point he and his group smashed it to dust with their hammers.", "According to Vulfilaic, this incident was quickly followed by an outbreak of pimples or sores that covered his entire body, which he attributed to demonic activity and similarly cured via what he described as a miracle.", "Vulfilaic would later found a church on the site, which is today known as Mont Saint-Walfroy.Additional evidence for surviving pagan practices in the Low Countries region comes from the ''Vita Eligii'', or \"Life of Saint Eligius\", written by Audoin in the 7th century.", "Audoin drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders.", "In his sermons, he denounced \"pagan customs\" that the people continued to follow.", "In particular, he denounced several Roman gods and goddesses alongside Druidic mythological beliefs and objects:\"I denounce and contest, that you shall observe no sacrilegious pagan customs.", "For no cause or infirmity should you consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators.", "..Do not observe auguries ... No influence attaches to the first work of the day or the phase of the moon.", "... Do not make vetulas, little deer or iotticos or set tables at night or exchange New Year gifts or supply superfluous drinks... No Christian... performs solestitia or dancing or leaping or diabolical chants.", "No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not Neptune or Orcus or Diana or Minerva or Geniscus... No one should observe Jove's day in idleness.", "... No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners.", "None should presume to hang any phylacteries from the neck of man nor beast.", "..None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to pass cattle through a hollow tree or ditch ... No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck or call upon Minerva or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing.", ".. None should call the sun or moon lord or swear by them.", ".. No one should tell fate or fortune or horoscopes by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be.", "\"Legends from medieval Belgium concern a natural spring which came to be known as the \"Fons Remacli\", a location which may have been home to late-surviving worship of Diana.", "Remacle was a monk appointed by Eligius to head a monastery at Solignac, and he is reported to have encountered Diana worship in the area around the river Warche.", "The population in this region was said to have been involved in the worship of \"Diana of the Ardennes\" (a syncretism of Diana and the Celtic goddess Arduinna), with effigies and \"stones of Diana\" used as evidence of pagan practices.", "Remacle believed that demonic entities were present in the spring, and had caused it to run dry.", "He performed and exorcism of the water source, and installed a lead pipe, which allowed the water to flow again.===The \"Society of Diana\"===Diana is the only pagan goddess mentioned by name in the New Testament (only in some Bible versions of Acts 19; many other Bibles refer to her as Artemis instead).", "As a result, she became associated with many folk beliefs involving goddess-like supernatural figures that Catholic clergy wished to demonize.", "In the Middle Ages, legends of night-time processions of spirits led by a female figure are recorded in the church records of Northern Italy, western Germany, and southern France.", "The spirits were said to enter houses and consume food which then miraculously re-appeared.", "They would sing and dance, and dispense advice regarding healing herbs and the whereabouts of lost objects.", "If the house was in good order, they would bring fertility and plenty.", "If not, they would bring curses to the family.", "Some women reported participating in these processions while their bodies still lay in bed.", "Historian Carlo Ginzburg has referred to these legendary spirit gatherings as \"The Society of Diana\".Local clergy complained that women believed they were following Diana or Herodias, riding out on appointed nights to join the processions or carry out instructions from the goddess.", "The earliest reports of these legends appear in the writings of Regino of Prüm in the year 899, followed by many additional reports and variants of the legend in documents by Ratherius and others.", "By 1310, the names of the goddess figures attached to the legend were sometimes combined as '''Herodiana'''.", "It is likely that the clergy of this time used the identification of the procession's leader as Diana or Herodias in order to fit an older folk belief into a Biblical framework, as both are featured and demonized in the New Testament.", "Herodias was often conflated with her daughter Salome in legend, which also holds that, upon being presented with the severed head of John the Baptist, she was blown into the air by wind from the saint's mouth, through which she continued to wander for eternity.", "Diana was often conflated with Hecate, a goddess associated with the spirits of the dead and with witchcraft.", "These associations, and the fact that both figures are attested to in the Bible, made them a natural fit for the leader of the ghostly procession.", "Clergy used this identification to assert that the spirits were evil, and that the women who followed them were inspired by demons.", "As was typical of this time period, though pagan beliefs and practices were near totally eliminated from Europe, the clergy and other authorities still treated paganism as a real threat, in part thanks to biblical influence; much of the Bible had been written when various forms of paganism were still active if not dominant, so medieval clergy applied the same kinds of warnings and admonitions for any non-standard folk beliefs and practices they encountered.", "Based on analysis of church documents and parishioner confessions, it is likely that the spirit identified by the Church as Diana or Herodias was called by names of pre-Christian figures like Holda (a Germanic goddess of the winter solstice), or with names referencing her bringing of prosperity, like the Latin '''Abundia''' (meaning \"plenty\"), '''Satia''' (meaning \"full\" or \"plentiful\") and the Italian Richella (meaning \"rich\").", "Some of the local titles for her, such as ''bonae res'' (meaning \"good things\"), are similar to late classical titles for Hecate, like ''bona dea''.", "This might indicate a cultural mixture of medieval folk ideas with holdovers from earlier pagan belief systems.", "Whatever her true origin, by the 13th century, the leader of the legendary spirit procession had come to be firmly identified with Diana and Herodias through the influence of the Church." ], [ "Modern development and folklore", "===''The Golden Bough''===J.", "M. W. Turner's 1834 painting of the Golden Bough incident in the ''Aeneid''In his wide-ranging, comparative study of mythology and religion, ''The Golden Bough'', anthropologist James George Frazer drew on various lines of evidence to re-interpret the legendary rituals associated with Diana at Nemi, particularly that of the ''rex Nemorensis''.", "Frazer developed his ideas in relation to J. M. W. Turner's painting, also titled ''The Golden Bough'', depicting a dream-like vision of the woodland lake of Nemi.", "According to Frazer, the ''rex Nemorensis'' or king at Nemi was the incarnation of a dying and reviving god, a solar deity who participated in a mystical marriage to a goddess.", "He died at the harvest and was reincarnated in the spring.", "Frazer claimed that this motif of death and rebirth is central to nearly all of the world's religions and mythologies.", "In Frazer's theory, Diana functioned as a goddess of fertility and childbirth, who, assisted by the sacred king, ritually returned life to the land in spring.", "The king in this scheme served not only as a high priest but as a god of the grove.", "Frazer identifies this figure with Virbius, of which little is known, but also with Jupiter via an association with sacred oak trees.", "Frazer argued furthermore that Jupiter and Juno were simply duplicate names of Jana and Janus; that is, Diana and Dianus, all of whom had identical functions and origins.Frazer's speculatively reconstructed folklore of Diana's origins and the nature of her cult at Nemi were not well received even by his contemporaries.", "Godfrey Lienhardt noted that even during Frazer's lifetime, other anthropologists had \"for the most part distanced themselves from his theories and opinions\", and that the lasting influence of ''The Golden Bough'' and Frazer's wider body of work \"has been in the literary rather than the academic world.\"", "Robert Ackerman wrote that, for anthropologists, Frazer is \"an embarrassment\" for being \"the most famous of them all\" and that most distance themselves from his work.", "While ''The Golden Bough'' achieved wide \"popular appeal\" and exerted a \"disproportionate\" influence \"on so many 20th century creative writers\", Frazer's ideas played \"a much smaller part\" in the history of academic social anthropology.===''The Gospel of the Witches''===Praxitelean bronze head of a goddess wearing a lunate crown, found at Issa (Vis, Croatia)Folk legends like the Society of Diana, which linked the goddess to forbidden gatherings of women with spirits, may have influenced later works of folklore.", "One of these is Charles Godfrey Leland's ''Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches'', which prominently featured Diana at the center of an Italian witch-cult.", "In Leland's interpretation of supposed Italian folk witchcraft, Diana is considered Queen of the Witches.", "In this belief system, Diana is said to have created the world of her own being having in herself the seeds of all creation yet to come.", "It was said that out of herself she divided the darkness and the light, keeping for herself the darkness of creation and creating her brother Lucifer.", "Diana was believed to have loved and ruled with her brother, and with him bore a daughter, Aradia (a name likely derived from Herodias), who leads and teaches the witches on earth.Leland's claim that ''Aradia'' represented an authentic tradition from an underground witch-cult, which had secretly worshiped Diana since ancient times has been dismissed by most scholars of folklore, religion, and medieval history.", "After the 1921 publication of Margaret Murray's ''The Witch-cult in Western Europe'', which hypothesized that the European witch trials were actually a persecution of a pagan religious survival, American sensationalist author Theda Kenyon's 1929 book ''Witches Still Live'' connected Murray's thesis with the witchcraft religion in ''Aradia''.", "Arguments against Murray's thesis would eventually include arguments against Leland.", "Witchcraft scholar Jeffrey Russell devoted some of his 1980 book ''A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics and Pagans'' to arguing against the claims Leland presented in ''Aradia''.", "Historian Elliot Rose's ''A Razor for a Goat'' dismissed ''Aradia'' as a collection of incantations unsuccessfully attempting to portray a religion.", "In his book ''Triumph of the Moon'', historian Ronald Hutton doubted not only of the existence of the religion that ''Aradia'' claimed to represent, and that the traditions Leland presented were unlike anything found in actual medieval literature, but also of the existence of Leland's sources, arguing that it is more likely that Leland created the entire story than that Leland could be so easily \"duped\".", "Religious scholar Chas S. Clifton took exception to Hutton's position, writing that it amounted to an accusation of \"serious literary fraud\" made by an \"argument from absence\".Building on the work of Frazer, Murray, and others, some 20th- and 21st-century authors have attempted to identify links between Diana and more localized deities.", "R. Lowe Thompson, for example, in his 2013 book ''The History of the Devil'', speculated that Diana may have been linked as an occasional \"spouse\" to the Gaulish horned god Cernunnos.", "Thompson suggested that Diana in her role as wild goddess of the hunt would have made a fitting consort for Cernunnos in Western Europe, and further noted the link between Diana as Proserpina with Pluto, the Greek god associated with the riches of the earth who served a similar role to the Gaulish Cernunnos.===Modern worship===Because Leland's claims about an Italian witch-cult are questionable, the first verifiable worship of Diana in the modern age was probably begun by Wicca.", "The earliest known practitioners of Neopagan witchcraft were members of a tradition begun by Gerald Gardner.", "Published versions of the devotional materials used by Gardner's group, dated to 1949, are heavily focused on the worship of Aradia, the daughter of Diana in Leland's folklore.", "Diana herself was recognized as an aspect of a single \"great goddess\" in the tradition of Apuleius, as described in the Wiccan Charge of the Goddess (itself adapted from Leland's text).", "Some later Wiccans, such as Scott Cunningham, would replace Aradia with Diana as the central focus of worship.In the early 1960s, Victor Henry Anderson founded the Feri Tradition, a form of Wicca that draws from both Charles Leland's folklore and the Gardnerian tradition.", "Anderson claimed that he had first been initiated into a witchcraft tradition as a child in 1926, and that he had been told the name of the goddess worshiped by witches was Tana.", "The name Tana originated in Leland's ''Aradia'', where he claimed it was an old Etruscan name for Diana.", "The Feri Tradition founded by Anderson continues to recognize Tana/Diana as an aspect of the Star Goddess related to the element of fire, and representing \"the fiery womb that gives birth to and transforms all matter.\"", "(In ''Aradia'', Diana is also credited as the creatrix of the material world and Queen of Faeries).A few Wiccan traditions would elevate Diana to a more prominent position of worship, and there are two distinct modern branches of Wicca focused primarily on Diana.", "The first, founded during the early 1970s in the United States by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts, has a feminist theology and only occasionally accepts male participants, and leadership is limited to female priestesses.", "McFarland Dianic Wiccans base their tradition primarily on the work of Robert Graves and his book ''The White Goddess'', and were inspired by references to the existence of medieval European \"Dianic cults\" in Margaret Murray's book ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe''.", "The second Dianic tradition, founded by Zsuzsanna Budapest in the mid 1970s, is characterized by an exclusive focus on the feminine aspect of the divine, and as a result is exclusively female.", "This tradition combines elements from British Traditional Wicca, Italian folk-magic based on the work of Charles Leland, feminist values, and healing practices drawn from a variety of different cultures.A third Neopagan tradition heavily inspired by the worship of Diana through the lens of Italian folklore is Stregheria, founded in the 1980s.", "It centers around a pair of deities regarded as divine lovers, who are known by several variant names including Diana and Dianus, alternately given as Tana and Tanus or Jana and Janus (the later two deity names were mentioned by James Frazer in ''The Golden Bough'' as later corruptions of Diana and Dianus, which themselves were alternate and possibly older names for Juno and Jupiter).", "The tradition was founded by author Raven Grimassi, and influenced by Italian folktales he was told by his mother.", "One such folktale describes the moon being impregnated by her lover the morning star, a parallel to Leland's mythology of Diana and her lover Lucifer.Diana was also a subject of worship in certain Feraferian rites, particularly those surrounding the autumnal equinox, beginning in 1967." ], [ "Legacy", "===In language===Both the Romanian words for \"fairy\" ''Zână'' and Sânziană, the Leonese and Portuguese word for \"water nymph\" ''xana'', and the Spanish word for \"shooting target\" and \"morning call\" (''diana'') seem to come from the name of Diana.===In the arts===''Diana Reposing'' by Paul-Jacques-Aimé Baudry.", "The nude goddess, identified by the crescent moon in her hair and the bow and quiver at her side, reclines on a blue drapery.Since the Renaissance, Diana's myths have often been represented in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera ''L'arbore di Diana''.", "In the 16th century, Diana's image figured prominently at the châteaus of Fontainebleau, Chenonceau, and at Anet, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henri of France.", "At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like \"Sun King\" liked to surround himself.", "Diana is also a character in the 1876 Léo Delibes ballet ''Sylvia''.", "The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana's nymphs and sworn to chastity, and Diana's assault on Sylvia's affections for the shepherd Amyntas.====In literature==== Diana Soren, the main character in Carlos Fuentes' novel ''Diana o la cazadora soltera'' (''Diana, or The Lone Huntress''), is described as having the same personality as the goddess.", "* In Jonathan Swift's poem: \"The Progress of Beauty\", as goddess of the moon, Diana is used in comparison to the 17th/early 18th century everyday woman Swift satirically writes about.", "Starts: 'When first Diana leaves her bed...'* In Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' (\"History of the Kings of Britain\"), Diana leads the Trojan Brutus to Britain, where he and his people settle.", "* The character of Diana is the principal character in the children's novel ''The Moon Stallion'' by Brian Hayles (1978) and the BBC Television series of the same name ''Diana'' is played by the actress Sarah Sutton.", "* In Rick Riordan's ''Camp Half-Blood Chronicles'', Diana acts as the Roman incarnation of Artemis, although she doesn't appear until ''The Tyrant's Tomb''.", "Throughout ''The Heroes of Olympus'', along with the other gods, Artemis is split between her Greek and Roman incarnations.", "In ''The Tyrant's Tomb'', Apollo summons his sister for help against Tarquin and his undead army.", "Diana appears with the Hunters of Artemis to slay Tarquin and his army and she heals Apollo's wounds before departing again.", ";In ShakespeareDiana as the Huntress, by Giampietrino* In Shakespeare's ''Pericles, Prince of Tyre'' Diana appears to Pericles in a vision, telling him to go to her temple and tell his story to her followers.", "* In ''All's Well That Ends Well'' Diana appears as a figure in the play and Helena makes multiple allusions to her, such as, \"Now, Dian, from thy altar do I fly...\" and \"...wish chastely and love dearly, that your Dian/was both herself and love...\" The Steward also says, \"...; Dian no queen of virgins,/ that would suffer her poor knight surprised, without/ rescue in the first assault or ransom afterward.\"", "It can be assumed that 'Dian' is simply a shortening of 'Diana' since later in the play when Parolles' letter to Diana is read aloud it reads 'Dian'.", ";In games and comics* The character of Diana from the video game ''League of Legends'' is largely based on the goddess.", "* William Moulton Marston drew from the Diana archetype as an allegorical basis for Wonder Woman's proper name, Princess Diana for DC Comics.", "Most versions of Wonder Woman's origin story state that she is given the name Diana because her mother Hippolyte was inspired by the goddess of the moon that Diana was born under.", "* Diana also is one of the primary gods in the video game ''Ryse''.", "* In the manga and anime series ''Sailor Moon'', Diana is the feline companion to Chibiusa, Usagi's daughter.", "Diana is the daughter of Artemis and Luna.", "All of these characters are advisers to rulers of the kingdom of the moon and therefore have moon-associated names.====In painting and sculpture====Fuente de la Diana Cazadora (1938–1942) in bronze at Paseo de la Reforma, Mexico City.", "''Diana'' (1892–93), Augustus Saint-Gaudens.", "Bronze, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.", "''Diana Wounded'', bronze statue by Sir Edgar Bertram Mackennal, housed in Tate Gallery of London Diana has been one of the most popular themes in art.", "Painters like Titian, Peter Paul Rubens, François Boucher, Nicolas Poussin and made use of her myth as a major theme.", "Most depictions of Diana in art featured the stories of Diana and Actaeon, or Callisto, or depicted her resting after hunting.", "Some famous work of arts with a Diana theme are:* ''Diana and Actaeon'', ''Diana and Callisto'', and ''Death of Actaeon'' by Titian.", "* ''Diana and Callisto'', ''Diana Returning from the Hunt'', ''Diana Resting After a Bath'', and ''Diana Getting Out of Bath'' by François Boucher.", "* ''Diana Bathing With Her Nymphs'' by Rembrandt.", "* ''Diana and Endymion'' by Poussin.", "* ''Diana and Callisto'', ''Diana and Her Nymph Departing From Hunt'', ''Diana and Her Nymphs Surprised By A Faun'' by Rubens.", "* ''Diana and Endymion'' by Johann Michael Rottmayr.", "* ''Diana Wounded'', bronze statue by Sir Edgar Bertram Mackennal, housed in Tate Gallery of London (purchased 1908).", "* The famous fountain at Palace of Caserta, Italy, created by Paolo Persico, Brunelli, Pietro Solari, depicting Diana being surprised by Acteon.", "* A sculpture by Christophe-Gabriel Allegrain can be seen at the Musée du Louvre.", "* ''Diana of the Tower'' a copper statue by Augustus Saint-Gaudens was created as the weather vane for the second Madison Square Garden in 1893.It now is on display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art* A sculpture by French sculptor François-Léon Sicard in the Archibald Fountain, Sydney, NSW Australia * In Parma at the convent of San Paolo, Antonio Allegri da Correggio painted the chamber of the Abbess Giovanna Piacenza's apartment.", "He was commissioned in 1519 to paint the ceiling and mantel of the fireplace.", "On the mantel he painted an image of Diana riding in a chariot possibly pulled by a stag.", "* Diana the Huntress Fountain\|''Fuente de la Diana Cazadora'' Fountain of the Huntress Diana, a fountain sculpture of huntress Diana with arrow pointing skyward, stands in the roundabout at Paseo de la Reforma, Zona Rosa, Mexico City's Mexican Federal District.", "* Beaux Arts architecture and garden design (late 19th and early 20th centuries) used classic references in a modernized form.", "Two of the most popular of the period were of Pomona (goddess of orchards) as a metaphor for Agriculture, and Diana, representing Commerce, which is a perpetual hunt for advantage and profits.Pomona (left, symbolizing agriculture), and Diana (symbolizing commerce) as building decorationThere are many statues of Diana the Huntress in Yambol, Bulgaria.====In film====In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film ''Beauty and the Beast'', it is Diana's power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast.", "Diana/Artemis appears at the end of the 'Pastoral Symphony' segment of ''Fantasia''.", "In his 1968 film ''La Mariée était en noir'' François Truffaut plays on this mythological symbol.", "Julie Kohler, played by Jeanne Moreau, poses as Diana/Artemis for the artist Fergus.", "This choice seems fitting for Julie, a character beset by revenge, of which Fergus becomes the fourth victim.", "She poses with a bow and arrow, while wearing white.", " In the 1995 comedy ''Four Rooms'', a coven of witches resurrects a petrified Diana on New Year's Eve.", "* French based collective LFKs and his film/theatre director, writer and visual artist Jean Michel Bruyere produced a series of 600 shorts and \"medium\" film, an interactive audiovisual 360° installation (''Si poteris narrare licet'' (\"if you are able to speak of it, then you may do so\" ...... ) in 2002, and a 3D 360° audiovisual installation ''La Dispersion du Fils'' from 2008 to 2016 as well as an outdoor performance, \"Une Brutalité pastorale\" (2000), all about the myth of Diana and Actaeon.==== In music ====* Diana is a character in ''Hippolytus and Aricia'', an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau.", "* For the album art of progressive metal band Protest the Hero's second studio album ''Fortress'', Diana is depicted protected by rams and other animals.", "The theme of Diana is carried throughout the album.", "* The Norwegian classical composer Martin Romberg wrote a mass for mixed choir in seven parts after a selection of poems from Leland's text ''Aradia'', in which Diana features heavily.", "The ''Witch Mass'' was premiered at the Vestfold International Festival in 2012 with Grex Vocalis.", "In order to create the right atmosphere for the music, the festival blocked of an entire road tunnel in Tønsberg to use it as a venue.", "The work was released on CD through Lawo Classics in 2014.", "* Artemis, and subsequently Diana, is used as focal point in \"Artemis\", track twelve of AURORA’s 2022 album \"The Gods We Can Touch\"===Other===In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister – \"the most hunted person of the modern age\".", "DIANA Mayer & Grammelspacher GmbH & Co.KG, an airgun company, is named after Diana, the goddess of hunting.", "* The Royal Netherlands Air Force 323rd Squadron is named Diana and uses a depiction of Diana with her bow in its badge.", "* In Ciudad Juárez in Mexico a woman calling herself \"Diana Huntress of Bus Drivers\" was responsible for the shooting of two bus drivers in 2013 in what may have been vigilante attacks.", "Diana is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of coral snake, ''Micrurus diana''." ], [ "See also", " Dianic Wicca* Janus* Domus de Janas* Pachamama* List of lunar deities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===****A. Alföldi \"Diana Nemorensis\" in ''American Journal of Archaeology'' '''64''' 1960 p. 137-144.A.", "Alföldi ''Early Rome and the Latins'' Ann Arbor 1964 p. 47-100.E.", "Paribeni \"A note on Diana Nemorensis\" in ''American Journal of Archaeology'' '''65''' 1961 p. 55.P.", "J. Riis \"The Cult Image of Diana Nemorensis\" in ''Acta Archaeologica'' Kopenhagen '''37''' 1966 p. 69 ff.J.", "Heurgon in ''Magna Graecia'' 1969 Jan. Feb. 1969 p. 12 ff.", "; March Apr.", "p. 1ff.J.G.", "Frazer ''Balder the Beautiful'' II London 1913 p. 95 ff.", "; 302 ff.L.", "Morpurgo \"Nemus Aricinum\" in ''MonAntLincei'' '''13''' 1903 c. 300 ff.A.", "Merlin \"L'Aventin dans l'antiquité\" Paris BÉFAR '''97''' 1906.G.", "Wissowa ''Religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912 p. 198 ff.F.", "Altheim ''Griechischen Götter im alten Rom'' Giessen 1930 p. 93–172.A.E.", "Gordon \"On the Origin of Diana\" in ''Transactions of the AMerican Philological Association'' '''63''' 1932 p. 177ff.A.E.", "Gordon ''Local Cults in Aricia'' University of California Publications in Classical Archaeology 2 1934 p. 1ff.J.", "Heurgon \"Recherhes sur... Capoue préromaine\" in BÉFAR '''154''' Paris 1942 p. 307 ff.J.", "Gagé \"Apollon Romain\" in BÉFAR '''182''' Paris 1955.J.", "Bayet ''Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine'' Paris 1957 p. 20 ff., 39ff.K.", "Latte ''Römische Religionsgeschichte'' Munich 1960 p. 169–173.R.", "Schilling \"Une victime des vicissitudes politiques, la Diane latine\" in ''Hommages á Jean Bayet, Collection Latomus'' '''45''' Bruxelles 1960 p. 650 ff.A.", "Momigliano \"Sul dies natalis del santuario federale di Diana sull' Aventino\" in ''RAL'' '''17''' 1962 p. 387 ff.G.", "Dumézil ''La religion romaine archaïque'' Paris 1966 p. 398 ff." ], [ "External links", " ''Landscape with Diana and Callisto'' painting page* ''Diana and her Nymphs'' painting description* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1150 images of Diana)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 11" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 220 – Emperor Xian of Han is forced to abdicate the throne by Cao Cao's son Cao Pi, ending the Han dynasty.", "* 361 – Julian enters Constantinople as sole Roman Emperor.", "* 861 – Assassination of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil by the Turkish guard, who raise al-Muntasir to the throne, start of the \"Anarchy at Samarra\".", "* 969 – Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas is assassinated by his wife Theophano and her lover, the later Emperor John I Tzimiskes.", "1041 – Michael V, adoptive son of Empress Zoë of Byzantium, is proclaimed emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.", "1282 – Battle of Orewin Bridge: Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the last native Prince of Wales, is killed at Cilmeri near Builth Wells in mid-Wales.===1601–1900===1602 – A surprise attack by forces under the command of Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and his brother-in-law, Philip III of Spain, is repelled by the citizens of Geneva.", "(Commemorated annually by the ''Fête de l'Escalade''.", ")1640 – The Root and Branch petition, signed by 15,000 Londoners calling for the abolition of the episcopacy, is presented to the Long Parliament.", "1675 – Antonio de Vea expedition enters San Rafael Lake in western Patagonia.", "1688 – Glorious Revolution: James II of England, while trying to flee to France, throws the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames.", "1792 – French Revolution: King Louis XVI of France is put on trial for treason by the National Convention.", "1815 – The U.S. Senate creates a select committee on finance and a uniform national currency, predecessor of the United States Senate Committee on Finance.", "1816 – Indiana becomes the 19th U.S.", "state.", "1868 – Paraguayan War: Brazilian troops defeat the Paraguayan Army at the Battle of Avay.", "1899 – Second Boer War: In the Battle of Magersfontein the Boers commanded by general Piet Cronjé inflict a defeat on the forces of the British Empire commanded by Lord Methuen trying to relieve the Siege of Kimberley.===1901–present===1901 – Guglielmo Marconi transmits the first transatlantic radio signal from Poldhu, Cornwall, England to Saint John's, Newfoundland.", "1905 – A workers' uprising occurs in Kyiv, Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire), and establishes the Shuliavka Republic.", "1907 – The New Zealand Parliament Buildings are almost completely destroyed by fire.", "1913 – More than two years after it was stolen from the Louvre, Leonardo da Vinci's painting ''Mona Lisa'' is recovered in Florence, Italy.", "The thief, Vincenzo Peruggia, is immediately arrested.", "1917 – World War I: British General Edmund Allenby enters Jerusalem on foot and declares martial law.", "1920 – Irish War of Independence: In retaliation for a recent IRA ambush, British forces burn and loot numerous buildings in Cork city.", "Many civilians report being beaten, shot at, robbed and verbally abused by British forces.", "1925 – Roman Catholic papal encyclical ''Quas primas'' introduces the Feast of Christ the King.", "1927 – Guangzhou Uprising: Communist Red Guards launch an uprising in Guangzhou, China, taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou Soviet.", "1931 – Statute of Westminster 1931: The British Parliament establishes legislative equality between the UK and the Dominions of the Commonwealth—Australia, Canada, Newfoundland, New Zealand, South Africa, and Ireland.", "1934 – Bill Wilson, co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous, takes his last drink and enters treatment for the final time.", "1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII's abdication as King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and Emperor of India, becomes effective.", "1937 – Second Italo-Ethiopian War: Italy leaves the League of Nations.", "1941 – World War II: Germany and Italy declare war on the United States, following the Americans' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor.", "The United States, in turn, declares war on them.", "* 1941 – World War II: Poland declares war on the Empire of Japan.", "* 1941 – World War II: The Imperial Japanese Navy suffers its first loss of surface vessels during the Battle of Wake Island.", "1946 – The United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is established.", "1948 – Arab–Israeli War: The United Nations passes General Assembly Resolution 194, creating a Conciliation Commission to mediate the conflict.", "1958 – French Upper Volta and French Dahomey gain self-government from France, becoming the Republic of Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and the Republic of Dahomey (now Benin), respectively, and joining the French Community.", "1960 – French forces crack down in a violent clash with protesters in French Algeria during a visit by French President Charles de Gaulle.", "1962 – Arthur Lucas, convicted of murder, is the last person to be executed in Canada.", "1964 – Che Guevara speaks at the United Nations General Assembly in New York City.", "1972 – Apollo 17 becomes the sixth and final Apollo mission to land on the Moon.", "1978 – The Lufthansa heist is committed by a group led by Lucchese family associate Jimmy Burke.", "It was the largest cash robbery ever committed on American soil, at that time.", "1980 – The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (Superfund) is enacted by the U.S.", "Congress.", "1981 – El Mozote massacre: Armed forces in El Salvador kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the Salvadoran Civil War.", "1988 – A Soviet Air Force Il-76 aircraft crashes while participating in the Armenian earthquake relief, killing 78 people.", "1990 – Demonstrations by students and workers across Albania begin, which eventually trigger the fall of communism in Albania.", "* 1990 – Several fatal collisions in the 1990 Interstate 75 fog disaster result in a total of 12 deaths and 42 being injured1993 – A block of the Highland Towers condominium complex collapses following a landslide caused by heavy rain and water flowing from a construction site at Ampang district in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "48 of its residents die, including one who died in hospital after being rescued alive, leaving only two survivors.", "1994 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin orders Russian troops into Chechnya.", "* 1994 – A bomb explodes on Philippine Airlines Flight 434, en route from Manila, Philippines, to Tokyo, Japan, killing one.", "The captain is able to land the plane safely.", "1997 – The Kyoto Protocol opens for signature.", "1998 – Thai Airways Flight 261 crashes near Surat Thani Airport, killing 101.The pilot flying the Airbus A310-200 is thought to have suffered spatial disorientation.", "1999 – SATA Air Açores Flight 530M crashes into Pico da Esperança on São Jorge Island in the Azores, killing 35.", "2001 – China joins the World Trade Organization (WTO).", "2005 – The Buncefield Oil Depot catches fire in Hemel Hempstead, England.", " 2005 – Cronulla riots: Thousands of White Australians demonstrate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be Lebanese in Cronulla, New South Wales; these are followed up by retaliatory ethnic attacks on Cronulla.", "2006 – The International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust is opened in Tehran, Iran, by then-president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; nations such as Israel and the United States express concern.", " 2006 – Felipe Calderón, the President of Mexico, launches a military-led offensive to put down the drug cartel violence in the state of Michoacán.", "This effort is often regarded as the first event in the Mexican Drug War.", "2007 – Insurgency in the Maghreb: Two car bombs explode in Algiers, Algeria, one near the Supreme Constitutional Court and the other near the offices of the United Nations.", "2008 – Bernie Madoff is arrested and charged with securities fraud in a $50 billion Ponzi scheme.", "2009 – Finnish game developer Rovio Entertainment releases the hit mobile game ''Angry Birds'' internationally on iOS.", "2012 – At least 125 people are killed and up to 200 injured in bombings in the Alawite village of Aqrab, Syria.", "2017 – New York City Subway bombing: A pipe bomb partially detonates in the New York City Subway, in the Times Square–42nd Street/Port Authority Bus Terminal.", "Four people are injured, including the perpetrator.", "2019 – The results of the 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum are announced.", "The results are overwhelmingly one-sided.", "Over 98% of voters vote for Bougainville's independence.", "2020 – The Food and Drug Administration issues an Emergency Use Authorization on the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved by the agency." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1445 – Eberhard I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1496)1465 – Ashikaga Yoshihisa, Japanese shogun (d. 1489)1475 – Pope Leo X (d. 1521)1566 – Manuel Cardoso, Portuguese organist and composer (d. 1650)1595 – Heo Mok, Korean politician, poet and scholar (d. 1682)===1601–1900===1613 – Amar Singh Rathore, Rajput nobleman (d. 1644)1712 – Francesco Algarotti, Italian poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1764)1725 – George Mason, American lawyer and politician (d. 1792)1758 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, German composer, conductor, and educator (d. 1832)1761 – Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian physicist, economist, and jurist (d. 1835)1781 – David Brewster, Scottish physicist, mathematician, and astronomer (d. 1868)1801 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German poet and playwright (d. 1836)1803 – Hector Berlioz, French composer, conductor, and critic (d. 1869)1810 – Alfred de Musset, French dramatist, poet, and novelist (d. 1857)1830 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (d. 1872)1837 – Webster Paulson, English civil engineer (d. 1887)1838 – John Labatt, Canadian brewer and businessman (d. 1915)1843 – Robert Koch, German microbiologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1910)1856 – Georgi Plekhanov, Russian philosopher, theorist, and author (d. 1918)1858 – Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Russian director, producer, and playwright (d. 1943)1861 – Frederick Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry, British Army officer and Anglo-Irish peer (d. 1923)1863 – Annie Jump Cannon, American astronomer and academic (d. 1941)1872 – René Bull, British illustrator and photographer (d. 1942)1873 – Josip Plemelj, Slovenian mathematician and academic (d. 1967)1875 – Yehuda Leib Maimon, Moldovan-Israeli rabbi and politician (d. 1962)1880 – Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer and umpire (d. 1951)1882 – Subramania Bharati, Indian journalist and poet (d. 1921)* 1882 – Max Born, German physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)* 1882 – Fiorello H. La Guardia, American lawyer and politician, 99th Mayor of New York City (d. 1947)1884 – Piet Ooms, Dutch swimmer and water polo player (d. 1961)1889 – Walter Knott, American farmer and businessman, founded Knott's Berry Farm (d. 1981)1890 – Carlos Gardel, French-Argentinian singer-songwriter and actor (d. 1935) 1890 – Mark Tobey, American-Swiss painter and educator (d. 1976)1892 – Arnold Majewski, Finnish military hero of Polish descent (d. 1942)1893 – Leo Ornstein, Russian-American pianist and composer (d. 2002)1897 – Ronald Skirth, English soldier (d. 1977)1899 – Julio de Caro, Argentinian violinist, composer, and conductor (d. 1980)1900 – Hermína Týrlová, Czechoslovakian animator, screenwriter, and film director (d. 1993) 1900 – Gerd Arntz, German Modernist artist, co-creator of Isotype (d. 1988)===1901–present===1904 – Marge, American cartoonist (d. 1993)1905 – Robert Henriques, English farmer, author, and broadcaster (d. 1967)* 1905 – Gilbert Roland, Mexican-American actor and singer (d. 1994)1908 – Elliott Carter, American composer and academic (d. 2012) 1908 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)* 1908 – Hákun Djurhuus, Faroese educator and politician, fourth Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands (d. 1987)* 1908 – Amon Göth, Austrian Nazi war criminal (d. 1946)1909 – Ronald McKie, Australian soldier, journalist, and author (d. 1991)1910 – Mildred Cleghorn, Native American chairwoman and educator (d. 1997)1911 – Val Guest, English-American director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (d. 2006) 1911 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian author, playwright, and screenwriter, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2006)* 1911 – Qian Xuesen, Chinese aerodynamicist and academic (d. 2009)1912 – Carlo Ponti, Italian-Swiss film producer (d. 2007)1913 – Jean Marais, French actor and director (d. 1998)1916 – Elena Garro, Mexican author and playwright (d. 1998) 1916 – Pérez Prado, Cuban-Mexican singer-songwriter, pianist, and bandleader (d. 1989)1918 – Clinton Adams, American painter and historian (d. 2002) 1918 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, historian, and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2008)1919 – Cliff Michelmore, English television host and producer (d. 2016) 1919 – Marie Windsor, American actress (d. 2000)1920 – Mary Ivy Burks, American environmental activist (d. 2007) 1920 – Denis Jenkinson, English motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 1996)1921 – Ilmar Laaban, Estonian poet and publicist (d. 2000) 1921 – Liz Smith, English actress (d. 2016)1922 – Grigoris Bithikotsis, Greek singer-songwriter (d. 2005) 1922 – Dilip Kumar, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2021)* 1922 – Maila Nurmi, Finnish-American actress, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)* 1922 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (d. 2007)1923 – Betsy Blair, American actress and dancer (d. 2009) 1923 – Lillian Cahn, Hungarian-born American businesswoman, co-founded Coach, Inc. (d. 2013)* 1923 – Morrie Turner, American comics creator (d. 2014)1924 – Doc Blanchard, American football player and colonel (d. 2009)1925 – Aaron Feuerstein, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2021)* 1925 – Paul Greengard, American neuroscientist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2019)* 1925 – James Sullivan, American politician (d. 2012) 1926 – Big Mama Thornton, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984)1927 – John Buscema, American illustrator (d. 2002)1929 – Axel Anderson, German actor and production manager (d. 2012) 1929 – Subhash Gupte, Indian cricketer (d. 2002)1930 – Chus Lampreave, Spanish actress (d. 2016) 1930 – Jean-Louis Trintignant, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2022)1931 – Ernie Beck, American basketball player 1931 – Ronald Dworkin, American philosopher and scholar (d. 2013)* 1931 – Rita Moreno, Puerto Rican actress, singer, and dancer* 1931 – Pierre Pilote, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)* 1931 – Rajneesh, Indian guru, mystic, and educator (d. 1990)1932 – Enrique Bermúdez, Nicaraguan colonel and engineer (d. 1991) 1932 – Keith Waldrop, American author and poet (d. 2023)1933 – Aquilino Pimentel, Jr., Filipino civil servant and politician, 23rd President of the Senate of the Philippines (d. 2019)1934 – Salim Durani, Afghan-Indian cricketer (d. 2023)1935 – Pranab Mukherjee, Indian journalist and politician, 13th President of India (d. 2020) 1935 – Elmer Vasko, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1998)1936 – Hans van den Broek, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs 1936 – Taku Yamasaki, Japanese politician1937 – Jim Harrison, American novelist, essayist, and poet (d. 2016)1938 – Enrico Macias, Algerian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1938 – McCoy Tyner, American jazz musician (d. 2020)1939 – Tom Hayden, American activist and politician (d. 2016) 1939 – Thomas McGuane, American novelist, short story writer, and screenwriter1940 – David Gates, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1940 – Donna Mills, American actress and producer1941 – Max Baucus, American lawyer, politician, and diplomat, 11th United States Ambassador to China 1941 – J. P. Parisé, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2015)* 1941 – Rogier van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1988)* 1941 – J. Frank Wilson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1991)1942 – Anna Carteret, English actress1943 – John Kerry, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 68th United States Secretary of State1944 – Teri Garr, American actress and comedian 1944 – Jon Garrison, American tenor and educator* 1944 – Lynda Day George, American actress* 1944 – Michael Lang, American concert promoter and producer (d. 2022)* 1944 – Brenda Lee, American singer-songwriter1946 – Rhoma Irama, Indonesian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor 1946 – Rick McCosker, Australian cricketer* 1946 – Diana Palmer, American journalist and author1948 – Stamatis Spanoudakis, Greek guitarist and composer 1948 – Shinji Tanimura, Japanese singer-songwriter (d. 2023)1949 – Christina Onassis, Greek-Argentine businesswoman, socialite, and heiress (d. 1988)1951 – Mazlan Othman, Malaysian astrophysicist and astronomer* 1951 – Ria Stalman, Dutch discus thrower and shot putter1953 – Bess Armstrong, American actress1954 – Brad Bryant, American golfer* 1954 – Sylvester Clarke, Barbadian cricketer (d. 1999)* 1954 – Santiago Creel, Mexican lawyer and politician, Mexican Secretary of the Interior* 1954 – Jermaine Jackson, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer* 1954 – Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson, Icelandic guitarist, mathematician, and engineer1955 – Gene Grossman, American economist and academic 1955 – Stu Jackson, American basketball player, coach, and manager* 1955 – Ray Kelvin, British fashion designer* 1955 – Christian Sackewitz, German footballer and manager1956 – Lani Brockman, American actress and director 1956 – Andrew Lansley, English politician, Secretary of State for Health1957 – Peter Bagge, American author and illustrator1958 – Chris Hughton, English-born Irish footballer and manager* 1958 – Tom Shadyac, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1958 – Nikki Sixx, American bass player, songwriter, and producer 1960 – Anders Eldebrink, Swedish ice hockey player and coach1961 – Dave King, Irish-American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1961 – Steve Nicol, Scottish footballer and manager* 1961 – Macky Sall, Senegalese engineer and politician, fourth President of Senegal* 1961 – Marco Pierre White, English chef and mentor1962 – Ben Browder, American actor1963 – Mario Been, Dutch footballer and manager* 1963 – Mark Greatbatch, New Zealand cricketer* 1963 – Claudia Kohde-Kilsch, German tennis player* 1963 – John Lammers, Dutch footballer and manager* 1963 – Nigel Winterburn, English footballer and coach1964 – Justin Currie, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Dave Schools, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer * 1964 – Carolyn Waldo, Canadian swimmer and sportscaster1965 – Jay Bell, American baseball player and coach 1965 – Gavin Hill, New Zealand rugby player* 1965 – Glenn Lazarus, Australian rugby league player and politician* 1965 – Giannis Ragousis, Greek economist and politician, Greek Minister for National Defence1966 – Gary Dourdan, American actor 1966 – Erik Honoré, Norwegian guitarist and producer* 1966 – Göran Kropp, Swedish race car driver and mountaineer (d. 2002)* 1966 – Leon Lai, Hong Kong singer and actor1967 – Peter Kelamis, Australian voice actor 1967 – Mo'Nique, American comedian, actress, and producer* 1967 – Chris Shepherd, English animator, director, producer, and screenwriter* 1967 – Katy Steding, American basketball player and coach1968 – Emmanuelle Charpentier, French researcher in microbiology, genetics and biochemistry, and Nobel laureate 1968 – Fabrizio Ravanelli, Italian footballer and manager1969 – Viswanathan Anand, Indian chess player 1969 – Stig Inge Bjørnebye, Norwegian footballer and manager* 1969 – Max Martini, American actor, director, and screenwriter* 1969 – Alessandro Melli, Italian footballer and manager1970 – Victoria Fuller, American model and actress1971 – Willie McGinest, American football player and sportscaster1972 – Daniel Alfredsson, Swedish ice hockey player 1972 – Sami Al-Jaber, Saudi Arabian footballer and manager* 1972 – Murray Goodwin, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1972 – Andriy Husin, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014)1973 – Mos Def, American rapper 1974 – Maarten Lafeber, Dutch golfer* 1974 – Rey Mysterio, American wrestler * 1974 – Lisa Ortiz, American theatre and voice actress* 1974 – Ben Shephard, English journalist and television host* 1974 – Gete Wami, Ethiopian runner1975 – Gerben de Knegt, Dutch cyclist1976 – Shareef Abdur-Rahim, American basketball player, coach, and manager* 1976 – Yujiro Shirakawa, Japanese actor1977 – Mark Streit, Swiss ice hockey player1978 – Roy Wood, Jr., American comedian, actor, and radio host1979 – Colleen Hoover, American author 1979 – Valdis Mintals, Estonian figure skater* 1979 – Rider Strong, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter1980 – Adi Keissar, Israeli poet 1980 – Kristjan Kitsing, Estonian basketball player1981 – Rebekkah Brunson, American basketball player and coach 1981 – Jason Kennedy, American journalist* 1981 – Jeff McComsey, American author and illustrator* 1981 – Paul Medhurst, Australian footballer* 1981 – Javier Saviola, Argentine footballer1982 – Roman Harper, American football player 1982 – Pablo Pérez Companc, Argentine race car driver1984 – Leighton Baines, English footballer 1984 – Sandra Echeverría, Mexican actress and singer* 1984 – James Ellsworth, American wrestler * 1984 – Xosha Roquemore, American actress1985 – Karla Souza, Mexican actress1986 – Roy Hibbert, American basketball player1987 – Clifton Geathers, American football player 1987 – Alex Russell, Australian actor* 1987 – Miranda Tapsell, Australian actress1988 – Tim Southee, New Zealand cricketer1989 – Kellie Harrington, Irish boxer1990 – Alexa Demie, American actress and singer1992 – Tiffany Alvord, American singer-songwriter* 1992 – Malcolm Brogdon, American basketball player1993 – Yalitza Aparicio, Mexican actress1995 – Abbi Grant, Scottish footballer1996 – Hailee Steinfeld, American actress, singer and songwriter1997 – Matthew Tkachuk, American ice hockey player2000 – Onyeka Okongwu, American basketball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600=== 384 – Pope Damasus I (b. c.304)* 861 – Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, chief confidant and councillor to al-Mutawakkil* 969 – Nikephoros II Phokas, Byzantine emperor (b.", "912)1121 – Al-Afdal Shahanshah, Egyptian political adviser (b.", "1066)1198 – Averroes, Spanish astronomer, physicist, and philosopher (b.", "1126)1241 – Ögedei Khan, Mongolian emperor (b.", "1186)1282 – Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Welsh prince (b.", "1223)* 1282 – Michael VIII Palaiologos, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1225)1474 – Henry IV of Castile, King of the Crown of Castile (b.", "1425)1532 – Pietro Accolti, Italian cardinal (b.", "1455)1582 – Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Spanish general and politician, 12th Constable of Portugal (b.", "1508)===1601–1900===1610 – Adam Elsheimer, German artist working in Rome (b.", "1578)1686 – Louis, Grand Condé, French general (b.", "1621)1694 – Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma (b.", "1630)1737 – John Strype, English priest, historian, and author (b.", "1643)1747 – Edmund Curll, English bookseller and publisher (b.", "1675)1797 – Richard Brocklesby, English physician (b.", "1722)1826 – Maria Leopoldina of Austria (b.", "1797)1840 – Emperor Kōkaku of Japan (b.", "1771)1872 – Kamehameha V of Hawaii (b.", "1830)1880 – Oliver Winchester, American businessman, founded the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (b.", "1810)1892 – William Milligan, Scottish theologian and scholar (b.", "1821)===1901–present===1906 – Charles Townsend, American fencer, engineer, and academic (b.", "1872)1909 – Ludwig Mond, German-born chemist and British industrialist who discovered the metal carbonyls (b.", "1839)1913 – Carl von In der Maur, Governor of Liechtenstein (b.", "1852)1918 – Ivan Cankar, Slovenian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1876)1920 – Olive Schreiner, South African author and activist (b.", "1855)1936 – Myron Grimshaw, American baseball player (b.", "1875)1937 – Jaan Anvelt, Estonian theorist and politician (b.", "1884) 1937 – Hugh Thackeray Turner, English architect and painter (b.", "1853)1938 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian historian and educator, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1869)1941 – John Gillespie Magee, Jr., American pilot and poet (b.", "1922)* 1941 – Émile Picard, French mathematician and academic (b.", "1856)1945 – Charles Fabry, French physicist and academic (b.", "1867)1950 – Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and author (b.", "1893)1951 – Mustafa Muğlalı, Turkish general (b.", "1882) 1951 – Hijri Dede, Iraqi Turkmen poet and writer (b.", "1881)1953 – Sedat Simavi, Turkish journalist and director (b.", "1896)1957 – Musidora, French actress, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1889)1959 – Jim Bottomley, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1900)1964 – Sam Cooke, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1931)* 1964 – Percy Kilbride, American actor (b.", "1888)1966 – Augusta Fox Bronner, American psychologist, specialist in juvenile psychology (b.", "1881)1968 – Richard Sagrits, Estonian painter and author (b.", "1910)* 1968 – Arthur Hays Sulzberger, American publisher (b.", "1891)1971 – Maurice McDonald, American businessman, co-founded McDonald's (b.", "1902)1975 – Lee Wiley, American singer (b.", "1908)* 1975 – Nihal Atsız, Turkish philosopher, author, and poet (b.", "1905)1978 – Vincent du Vigneaud, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1901) 1978 – Paul O'Dea, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1920)1979 – James J. Gibson, American psychologist and author (b.", "1904)1983 – Neil Ritchie, Guyanese-English general (b.", "1897)1984 – Oskar Seidlin, German-American author, poet, and scholar (b.", "1911) 1984 – George Waggner, American director, producer and actor (b.", "1894)1987 – G. A. Kulkarni, Indian author and academic (b.", "1923)1989 – Louise Dahl-Wolfe, American photographer (b.", "1895)1991 – Robert Q. Lewis, American actor, comedian, game show host/panelist, and television personality (b.", "1921) 1991 – Artur Lundkvist, Swedish author and critic (b.", "1906)1994 – Philip Phillips, American archaeologist and scholar (b.", "1900)1995 – Greg Bahnsen, American minister and philosopher (b.", "1948)1996 – Willie Rushton, English cartoonist, author, and publisher, co-founded ''Private Eye'' (b.", "1937)1997 – Eddie Chapman, English spy (b.", "1914)* 1997 – Simon Jeffes, English guitarist and composer (b.", "1949)1998 – André Lichnerowicz, French physicist and mathematician (b.", "1915) 1998 – Lynn Strait, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1968)2000 – Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Pakistani politician and diplomat (b.", "1915) 2000 – David Lewis, American actor (b.", "1916)2001 – Mainza Chona, Zambian lawyer and politician, first Prime Minister of Zambia (b.", "1930)2003 – Ahmadou Kourouma, Ivorian author and playwright (b.", "1927)2004 – José Luis Cuciuffo, Argentinian footballer (b.", "1962) 2004 – Arthur Lydiard, New Zealand runner and coach (b.", "1917)2008 – Bettie Page, American model (b.", "1923)2010 – Dick Hoerner, American football player (b.", "1922)2011 – John Patrick Foley, American cardinal (b.", "1935)2012 – Galina Vishnevskaya, Russian soprano and actress (b.", "1926)* 2012 – Mendel Weinbach, Polish-Israeli rabbi and scholar (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Ravi Shankar, Indian-American sitar player and composer (b.", "1920)2013 – Nadir Afonso, Portuguese painter and architect (b.", "1920) 2013 – Barbara Branden, Canadian-American author and academic (b.", "1929)* 2013 – Javier Jáuregui (boxer), Mexican boxer (b.", "1973)* 2013 – Sheikh Mussa Shariefi, Indian philosopher and scholar (b.", "1942)2014 – Hans Wallat, German conductor and director (b.", "1929)2015 – Abish Kekilbayev, Kazakh academic and politician (b.", "1939)* 2015 – H. Arnold Steinberg, Canadian businessman, philanthropist, and academic (b.", "1933)* 2015 – Hema Upadhyay, Indian painter and sculptor (b.", "1972)* 2015 – John \"Hot Rod\" Williams, American basketball player (b.", "1962)* 2015 – Ken Woolley, Australian architect (b.", "1933)2017 – Keith Chegwin, British TV presenter (b.", "1957)2020 – James Flynn, New Zealand intelligence researcher.", "(b.", "1934)2021 – Anne Rice, American author (b.", "1941)2023 – Andre Braugher, American actor (b.", "1962)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "Christian feast day:CianDaniel the StyliteMaría de las Maravillas de JesúsPope Damasus ISabinus of PiacenzaVictoricus, Fuscian, and GentianDecember 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)Establishment of Kurdish Women's Union (Iraqi Kurdistan)Indiana Day (United States)International Mountain DayNational Tango Day (Argentina)Pampanga Day (Pampanga province, Philippines)Republic Day, the day when Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French Community in 1958.", "(Burkina Faso)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 11" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Danny Elfman" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Robert Elfman''' (born May 29, 1953) is an American film composer, singer, songwriter, and musician.", "He came to prominence as the lead singer and primary songwriter for the new wave band Oingo Boingo in the early 1980s.", "Since scoring his first studio film in 1985, Elfman has garnered international recognition for composing over 100 feature film scores, as well as compositions for television, stage productions, and the concert hall.Elfman has frequently worked with directors Tim Burton, Sam Raimi, and Gus Van Sant, contributing music to nearly 20 Burton projects, including ''Pee-Wee's Big Adventure, ''Beetlejuice'', Batman'', ''Edward Scissorhands, '' and ''Wednesday'', as well as scoring Raimi's ''Darkman'', ''A Simple Plan'', ''Spider-Man'', ''Spider-Man 2'' and ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness'', and Van Sant's Academy Award-winning films ''Good Will Hunting'' and ''Milk''.", "He wrote music for all of the ''Men in Black'' and ''Fifty Shades of Grey'' franchise films, the songs and score for Henry Selick's animated musical ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'', and the themes for the popular television series ''Desperate Housewives'' and ''The Simpsons''.Among his honors are four Oscar nominations, two Emmy Awards, a Grammy, seven Saturn Awards for Best Music, the 2002 Richard Kirk Award, the 2015 Disney Legend Award, the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award in 2017, and the Society of Composers & Lyricists Lifetime Achievement Award in 2022." ], [ "Early life", "Elfman was born on May 29, 1953, in Los Angeles, California, to a Jewish family of Polish and Russian descent.", "He is a son of Blossom Elfman (née Bernstein), a writer and teacher, and Milton Elfman, a teacher, and the brother of actor, musician, and journalist Richard Elfman.", "Elfman was raised in a racially mixed affluent community in Baldwin Hills, California, where he spent much of his time at the local movie theater discovering classic sci-fi, fantasy and horror films and first noticed the music of such film composers as Bernard Herrmann and Franz Waxman.", "Elfman has admitted to fabricating stories about his past out of boredom, including a false birthplace of Amarillo, Texas, and parents in the United States Air Force.In his early school days, Elfman exhibited an aptitude for science with almost no interest in music, and was even rejected from elementary school orchestra \"for having no propensity for music.\"", "This would change when he switched high schools in the late 1960s and fell in with a musical crowd, who introduced him to early jazz and the work of Stravinsky and his 20th-century contemporaries.After finishing high school early with plans to travel the world, Elfman followed his brother Richard to France, where he performed violin with Jérôme Savary's Le Grand Magic Circus, an avant-garde musical theater group.", "He then embarked on a ten-month, self-guided tour through Africa, busking and collecting a range of West African percussion instruments until a series of illnesses forced him to return home.", "At this time, Richard was forming a new musical theater group in Los Angeles." ], [ "Career", "===Oingo Boingo===After returning to Los Angeles from Africa in the early 1970s, Elfman was asked by his brother Richard to serve as musical director of his street theatre performance art troupe The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo.", "Elfman was tasked with adapting and arranging 1920s and 1930s jazz and big band music by artists such as Cab Calloway, Duke Ellington, Django Reinhardt and Josephine Baker for the ensemble, which consisted of up to 15 performers playing upwards of 30 instruments.", "He also composed original pieces and helped build instruments unique for the group, including an aluminum gamelan, the 'Schlitz celeste' made from tuned beer cans, and a \"junkyard orchestra\" built from car parts and trash cans.The Mystic Knights performed on the street and in theaters, and later in nightclubs throughout Los Angeles until Richard left in 1976 to pursue filmmaking.", "As a send-off to the group's original concept, Richard produced the film ''Forbidden Zone'' based on the Mystic Knights' stage performances.", "Elfman composed the songs and his first score for the film, and appeared as the character Satan, who performs a reworked version of Calloway's \"Minnie the Moocher.", "\"Before the release of ''Forbidden Zone'', Elfman took over the Mystic Knights as lead singer-songwriter in 1976.In 1979, he pared the group down to eight players to record and tour as a ska-influenced new wave band.", "That summer, the group's name would change to Oingo Boingo.", "Their biggest success among eight studio albums penned by Elfman was 1985's ''Dead Man's Party'', featuring the hit song \"Weird Science\" from the movie of the same name.", "The band also appeared performing their single \"Dead Man's Party\" in the 1986 movie ''Back to School'', for which Elfman also composed the score.", "Elfman shifted the band to a more guitar-oriented rock sound in the late 1980s, which continued through their last album ''Boingo'' in 1994.Citing permanent hearing damage from performing live and conflicts with his film-scoring career, Elfman retired Oingo Boingo in 1995 with a series of five sold-out final concerts at the Universal Amphitheatre ending on Halloween night.", "On October 31, 2015, Elfman and Oingo Boingo guitarist Steve Bartek performed the song \"Dead Man's Party\" with an orchestra as an encore to a live-to-film concert of ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' score at the Hollywood Bowl.", "Elfman told the audience the performance was \"20 years to the day\" of Oingo Boingo's retirement.===Film scoring===As fans of Oingo Boingo, Tim Burton and Paul Reubens invited Elfman to write the score for their first feature film ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'' in 1985.Elfman was initially apprehensive because of his lack of formal training and having never scored a studio feature, but after Burton accepted his initial demo of the title music, and with orchestration assistance from Oingo Boingo guitarist and arranger Steve Bartek, Elfman completed the score to great effect, paying homage to influential film composers Nino Rota and Bernard Herrmann.", "Elfman described the first time he heard his music played by a full orchestra as one of the most thrilling experiences of his life.Following ''Pee Wee's Big Adventure'', Elfman scored a string of comedies in the late 1980s, including ''Back to School'' starring Rodney Dangerfield, Burton's ''Beetlejuice'' and the Bill Murray film ''Scrooged''.", "Non-comedy work included the all-synth score to Emilio Estevez's crime drama ''Wisdom'' and the big band, blues-infused music for Martin Brest's buddy cop action film ''Midnight Run''.In 1989, Elfman's influential, Grammy-winning score for Burton's ''Batman'' marked a major stylistic shift to dark, densely orchestrated music in the romantic idiom.", "This continued in his scores for Warren Beatty's ''Dick Tracy'', Sam Raimi's ''Darkman'' and Clive Barker's ''Nightbreed'', all released in 1990.With ''Batman'', Elfman firmly established a career-spanning relationship with Burton, scoring all but three of the director's major studio releases.", "Highlights include ''Edward Scissorhands'' (1990), ''Batman Returns'' (1992), ''Sleepy Hollow'' (1999), ''Big Fish'' (2003) and ''Alice in Wonderland'' (2010).", "In 1993, Elfman wrote the score and ten songs for the Burton-produced stop motion animated film ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'', directed by Henry Selick, and also provided the singing voice for main character Jack Skellington, as well as the voices for secondary characters Barrel, the Clown with the Tear-Away Face and others.", "In 2005, he wrote the score and songs for Burton's ''Corpse Bride'' and provided the voice of the character of Bonejangles, and provided the score, songs and Oompa-Loompa vocals for Burton's ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' that same year.In addition to frequent collaborations with Burton, Raimi and Gus Van Sant, Elfman has worked with directors such as Brian De Palma, Peter Jackson, Joss Whedon, Errol Morris, Ang Lee, Richard Donner, Guillermo del Toro, David O. Russell, Taylor Hackford, Jon Amiel, Joe Johnston, and Barry Sonnenfeld.", "His scores for Sonnenfeld's ''Men in Black'', Van Sant's ''Good Will Hunting'' and ''Milk'', and Burton's ''Big Fish'' all received Academy Award nominations.Since the mid-1990s, Elfman expanded his craft to a range of genres, including thrillers (''Dolores Claiborne'', ''A Simple Plan'', ''The Kingdom, The Girl on the Train, The Woman in the Window''), dramas (''Sommersby'', ''A Civil Action'', ''Hitchcock''), indies (''Freeway'', ''Silver Linings Playbook'', ''Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot, White Noise''), family (''Flubber'', ''Charlotte's Web'', ''Frankenweenie'', ''Goosebumps, Dolittle''), documentary (''Standard Operating Procedure'', ''The Unknown Known''), and horror (''Red Dragon'', ''The Wolfman''), as well as entries in his well-established areas of horror comedy (''The Frighteners'', ''Mars Attacks!", "'', ''Dark Shadows'') and comic book-inspired action films (''Hulk'', ''Wanted'', ''Hellboy II: The Golden Army'').Among his franchise work, Elfman composed the scores for four ''Men in Black'' films (1997–2019) and three ''Fifty Shades'' films (2015–2018).", "In 1996, he scored the first film in the ''Mission: Impossible'' series, adapting themes for the original television series by Lalo Schifrin as well as composing his own.", "Elfman scored Raimi's ''Spider-Man'' in 2002 and ''Spider-Man 2'' in 2004, themes and selections from which were used for Raimi's ''Spider-Man 3'', scored by Christopher Young.", "Elfman's ''Spider-Man'' theme was incorporated into the MCU film ''Spider-Man: No Way Home'' composed by Michael Giacchino.Elfman entered the Marvel Cinematic Universe by providing additional music an 2015's ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'', receiving composer credit with Brian Tyler.", "Elfman also scored MCU's ''Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness'' in 2022, utilizing Giacchino's theme to the original ''Doctor Strange'' film, as well as themes from WandaVision and X-Men: The Animated Series, and music from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony and Bach's Toccata and Fugue.For several high-profile sequel and reboot projects in the 2010s, Elfman incorporated established musical themes with his own original thematic material, including the DC Extended Universe's ''Justice League'', ''The Grinch,'' ''Dumbo'' and ''Men in Black International''.Elfman was featured in the 2016 documentary ''Score'', in which he appeared among over 50 film composers to discuss the craft of movie music and influential figures in the business.===Concert and stage music===Elfman's first piece of original concert music, ''Serenada Schizophrana'', was commissioned by the American Composers Orchestra, who premiered the piece on February 23, 2005, at Carnegie Hall.", "Subsequent concert works include his first ''Violin Concerto \"Eleven Eleven\"'', co-commissioned by the Czech National Symphony Orchestra, Stanford Live at Stanford University, and the Royal Scottish National Orchestra, which premiered at Smetana Hall in Prague on June 21, 2017, with Sandy Cameron on violin and John Mauceri conducting the Czech National Symphony Orchestra; the ''Piano Quartet'', co-commissioned by the Lied Center for Performing Arts University of Nebraska and the Berlin Philharmonic Piano Quartet, which premiered February 6, 2018, in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the ''Percussion Quartet'', commissioned by Third Coast Percussion and premiered at the Philip Glass Days And Nights Festival in Big Sur on October 10, 2019.2022 saw the first performances of three concert works.", "Elfman's Cello Concerto composed Gautier Capucon premiered by the Vienna Symphony in March, with subsequent performances by the Orchestre Philharmonique de Radio France in May and The San Francisco Symphony US premiere in November Elfman's Percussion Concerto for Colin Currie premiered at London's Royal Festival Hall with London Philharmonic Orchestra, and was later performed at Soka University of America in California, with Pacific Symphony.", "His ''Wunderkammer'', a commission from the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, toured the UK in summer 2022, culminating in a performance in London's Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms, with national radio and TV broadcasts.In 2008, Elfman accepted his first commission for the stage, composing the music for Twyla Tharp's ''Rabbit and Rogue'' ballet, co-commissioned by American Ballet Theatre and Orange County Performing Arts Center and premiering on June 3, 2008, at the Metropolitan Opera House, Lincoln Center.", "Other works for stage include the music for Cirque Du Soleil's ''Iris'' in 2011, and incidental music for the Broadway production of Taylor Mac's ''Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus'' in 2019.Elfman's ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' live at the Hollywood Bowl.In October 2013, Elfman returned to the stage for the first time since his band Oingo Boingo disbanded to sing a handful of ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' songs as part of the concert ''Danny Elfman's Music from the Films of Tim Burton'', featuring suites of music from 15 Tim Burton films newly arranged by Elfman.", "The concert has since toured internationally and has played in Japan, Australia, Mexico and throughout Europe and the United States.", "Since 2015, Elfman has appeared regularly in a Hollywood Bowl Halloween concert featuring full orchestra performing the ''Nightmare Before Christmas'' score live to the film projection.Elfman made his Coachella debut on April 16, 2022, with ''Danny Elfman: From Boingo to ''Batman'' to ''Big Mess'' to Beyond!''", "The concert, postponed from Coachella 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, featured Elfman's film and television music arranged for band, orchestra and choir, as well as songs from his solo album ''Big Mess'' and new arrangements of songs from his Oingo Boingo catalogue.", "Conducted by Steve Bartek, and featuring Elfman (vocals, guitar, percussion), Wes Borland (guitar), Stu Brooks (bass), Nili Brosh (guitar), and Josh Freese (drums), the concert was expanded for two shows Halloween weekend 2022 at the Hollywood Bowl.===Television and other projects===In addition to his music for film, Elfman also penned themes for the television series ''The Simpsons'', ''Tales from the Crypt'', ''The Flash'' and ''Desperate Housewives'', which won Elfman his first Emmy.", "He also adapted his original themes for the animated versions of ''Batman'' and ''Beetlejuice''.", "Occasional forays into serial television include episodes of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'', ''Amazing Stories'' and Pee-wee's Playhouse, the miniseries ''When We Rise'' co-composed with Chris Bacon, and themes for the Netflix series Wednesday.He has composed music for animated shorts, including Sally Cruikshank's ''Face Like A Frog'' and Tim Burton's \"Stainboy\" internet series.Elfman provided background music for Luigi Serafini's solo exhibition ''il Teatro della Pittura'' at the Fondazione Mudima di Milano in Milan, Italy in 1998 and for the ''Tim Burton'' exhibition at MoMA in 2009.In the 1990s, Elfman composed music for advertising campaigns for Nike, Nissan and Lincoln-Mercury, and in 2002 wrote the music for Honda's \"Power of Dreams\" advertising campaign, which was the first cinema commercial to be shot in the IMAX format.In 2013 he composed the music and provided the English-language vocals for the Hong Kong Disneyland attraction Mystic Manor.On October 31, 2019, the MasterClass online educational series released \"Making Music out of Chaos,\" presenting 21 compositional and career lessons from Elfman's four decades of experience primarily in the film industry.Elfman scored the 10-minute video \"Joe Biden,\" which introduced Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential candidacy nomination at the 2020 Democratic National Convention.On November 16, 2021, Disney Branded Television announced that Elfman would compose score and songs of the upcoming Disney Television Animation and 20th Television Animation stop-motion animated comedy series ''Rhona Who Lives by the River'' created by Emily Kapnek, Elfman also serves as executive producer for the series.===Solo===In October 2020, Elfman released the single, \"Happy,\" on Anti- Records and Epitaph Records.", "From January 2021 on the eleventh day of each month, he released five subsequent singles \"Sorry\", \"Love in the Time of COVID\", \"Kick Me\", \"True\", and a reworking the Oingo Boingo song \"Insects\" from the album ''Nothing to Fear''.", "This culminated with the release of the double album ''Big Mess'' on June 11.Featuring 18 original songs this was Elfman's first solo studio album since 1984's ''So-Lo''.On August 11, 2021, Elfman released a remix of \"True\" with lead vocals shared between Elfman and Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor.", "A year later, Elfman released ''Bigger Messier'', a compilation of 23 remixes of songs on the album ''Big Mess'' by artists including Reznor, Iggy Pop, Blixa Bargeld, Squarepusher, Boy Harsher and more." ], [ "Influences and style", "Elfman has said his major influences are composers from Hollywood's Golden Age, such as Bernard Herrmann, Dimitri Tiomkin, Max Steiner, David Tamkin, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, and Carl Stalling; 20th century classical composers Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Carl Orff; and jazz, experimental and minimalist composers Kurt Weill, Duke Ellington, Harry Partch, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Terry Riley, and Steve Reich.", "Influences on specific scores include Erik Satie (''Forbidden Zone''), Nino Rota (''Pee-wee's Big Adventure''), George Gershwin (''Dick Tracy''), Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (''Edward Scissorhands''), and Jimi Hendrix (''Dead Presidents'').", "Though not considered direct influences ''per se'', Elfman has discussed his respect and admiration for film composers Jerry Goldsmith, Ennio Morricone, Thomas Newman, Alexandre Desplat and John Williams, as well as classical composer John Adams.Though many believe Richard Wagner informed his influential score to ''Batman'', Elfman has said it was more likely from Wagner's influence on classic film composers such as Herrmann, Steiner, Waxman and Korngold, as he was unfamiliar with Wagner's work at the time.Elfman counts Herrmann as his biggest influence, and has said hearing Herrmann's score to ''The Day the Earth Stood Still'' when he was a child was the first time he recognized film music as a cinematic art form and realized the powerful contribution a composer makes to the movies.", "Pastiche of Herrmann's music can be heard in Elfman's ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'', especially the cues \"Stolen Bike\" and \"Clown Dream\", which directly reference Herrmann's music from ''Psycho'' and ''The 7th Voyage of Sinbad'' respectively.", "His score to ''Batman'' makes more subtle nods to Herrmann's ''Journey to the Center of the Earth'' and ''Vertigo'', and more integral homage can be heard in later scores for ''Mars Attacks!''", "and ''Hitchcock'', as well as the \"Blue Strings\" movement of his first concert work ''Serenada Schizophrana''.While Elfman is primarily known for writing large-scale orchestral works in the romantic, 20th century and Hollywood Golden Age film score traditions, his compositions have used a wide range of idioms, including rock and blues (''Midnight Run, Hot to Trot''), big band and jazz (''Dick Tracy'', ''Chicago''), operetta (''The Nightmare Before Christmas'', ''Corpse Bride''), funk and hip hop (''Dead Presidents'', ''Notorious''), folk and indie rock (''Taking Woodstock'', ''Silver Linings Playbook''), Americana (''Article 99'', ''Sommersby'', ''Big Fish),'' minimalism (''Good Will Hunting'', ''Standard Operating Procedure'', ''The Unknown Known''), and atonal or experimental (''Freeway'', ''A Simple Plan, The Girl on the Train'').Given his appreciation and study of world music and his vast collection of instruments from non-Western cultures, Elfman will often use traditional instruments in his scores when there is an international setting, such as African percussion for ''Instinct'', the oud for ''The Kingdom'' set in Saudi Arabia, and pan flute for ''Proof of Life'' set in South America.When working on films with established musical identifiers, Elfman will often incorporate original themes in addition to his own thematic material.", "Examples include Lalo Schifrin's main theme and \"The Plot\" from the original Mission Impossible TV Series for ''Mission: Impossible''; John Williams' theme for ''Superman'', the Hans Zimmer/Junkie XL theme for ''Wonder Woman'' and his own original ''Batman'' theme for ''Justice League;'' the \"Welcome Christmas\" song from the 1966 ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "for ''The Grinch''; and \"Casey Junior,\" \"Pink Elephants on Parade,\" and \"When I See an Elephant Fly\" from Disney's original 1941 animated film for ''Dumbo''.The songs for ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' and ''Corpse Bride'' were influenced by Kurt Weill, Gilbert and Sullivan and early Rodgers and Hammerstein.", "At the request of Tim Burton, ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' songs drew inspiration from Bollywood, the Mamas and the Papas, ABBA, and Earth, Wind & Fire individually.Elfman's work in pop music and specifically as songwriter for Oingo Boingo was influenced by the Specials, Madness, the Selecter, Devo, Fun Boy Three, and XTC." ], [ "Methods", "Elfman in 2010===Film music===For his film scores, Elfman draws musical inspiration almost exclusively from viewing a cut of the film, and occasionally from visits to the set while the film is in production (he wrote and orchestrated his theme for ''Batman'' on an airplane to Los Angeles after visiting the set in London).", "While he prefers not to work from script, story or concept, exceptions include ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'', for which ten songs needed to be written in advance of filmmaking, and ''Dumbo'', for which he composed the main theme before filming began.Once a rough cut of the film is ready, Elfman and the director have a spotting session to decide where to place music in the film, the emotional undercurrents of each scene, and overall tone.", "Elfman then spends a few weeks of free composition and experimentation to begin working out thematic material and to develop sounds and the harmonic palette.When he has received approval on initial material from the filmmakers, Elfman begins to compose anywhere from 60 to 120 minutes of music cue-by-cue.", "He says two of the most important things to capture at this point are the tone of each scene and editorial rhythm.", "Next to thematic development, action set pieces tend to take Elfman the most time given the complexity of timing music to action.", "One element where Elfman's compositional process deviates from most film composers is that he will often compose three or more often radically different versions of a single cue to give the director more options for musicalizing a scene.Early in his career, he wrote out his scores using pencil, but has composed largely digitally since the mid-1990s.Before recording the score, he demos each cue by mocking orchestral and choral parts on synthesizer to get approval from the director.", "Once approved, he provides a detailed, multi-line sketch of his composition to his lead orchestrator Steve Bartek, who ensures the sketches are appropriately broken down for sections of the orchestra (i.e.", "string, brass woodwind, some percussion), choir (SATB) and individual players.Elfman also typically samples or records his own percussion and guitar playing to overlay with live orchestra.", "More than half of some scores feature Elfman's performance, including ''Dead Presidents'', ''Mission: Impossible'', ''Planet of the Apes'', ''The Kingdom'', ''The Girl on the Train'' and ''The Circle.", "''To produce the score, Elfman rents a recording studio and hires a conductor and orchestra/choir.", "He oversees the recording from the control booth so that he can troubleshoot with the film's director and recording engineers.", "The final recording is given to the film's sound department to mix with dialogue and sound effects for the film's complete soundtrack.", "Elfman will usually do a separate mix of select cues for an album presentation of the score, and has produced nearly 100 to date.On the occasion that there are compressed deadlines or in the event he is not available to rescore or adapt his music if there are major edits to the film after the score's completion, Elfman will hire additional composers to work on small cues or sections of cues, adapting his existing material or themes.", "Examples include Jonathan Sheffer on ''Darkman'', David Buckley on the ''Fifty Shades'' films, and Pinar Toprak on ''Justice League''.", "Since the 1990s, Elfman has occasionally co-composed music or shared music writing credit (e.g.", "''When We Rise'', ''Spy Kids'', ''Avengers: Age of Ultron'', ''Men in Black International''), or written themes that are then used or adapted by other composers, including Jonathan Sheffer (''Pure Luck''), Steve Bartek (''Novacaine''), John Debney (''Heartbreakers''), Deborah Lurie (''9''), and the Newton Brothers (''Before I Wake'').During all his career, Elfman only once collaborated with another artist – meaning writing music together: it was with Siouxsie and the Banshees on the song \"Face to Face\" for ''Batman Returns'' in 1992.She created the foundation of the song, \"and then I would take it and I would add stuff.", "And send it back to her\".", "It was a long-distance collaboration as the studio needed the song very quickly.", "Elfman literally saw himself as a non-collaborator.", "\"I'm not used to collaborating at all with anybody.", "I did one track with Siouxsie and the Banshees but that's it.", "I've always been in my own bubble, and that bubble has been very fertile\".===Concert music===In the liner notes for the 2006 CD recording of his first concert work ''Serenada Schizophrana'', Elfman wrote: \"I began composing several dozen short improvisational compositions, maybe a minute each.", "Slowly, some of them began to develop themselves until finally I had six separate movements that, in some abstract, absurd way, felt connected.", "\"To create the cadenzas for his violin concerto ''Eleven Eleven'', Elfman collaborated with soloist Sandy Cameron, for whom the piece was written.===Vocals===Elfman often incorporates choral or vocal arrangements into his film scores, notably the use of women's and children's choirs (''Scrooged'', ''Nightbreed'', ''Edward Scissorhands'', ''Batman Returns'', ''Sleepy Hollow'', ''Alice in Wonderland'', ''The Grinch''), and solo voice or vocal effects (''Beetlejuice'', ''Mars Attacks!", "'', ''Men in Black II'', ''Flubber'', ''Nacho Libre'', ''Iris'', ''Dark Shadows'', ''The Girl on the Train'').", "Evoking the \"O Fortuna\" from Carl Orff's ''Carmina Burana'', he set made-up, Latin-sounding text for SATB choir in standout cue \"Descent into Mystery\" from ''Batman''.Elfman also adds his own vocals into compositions in much the same way he mixes his percussion and guitar performances into orchestral arrangements.", "Prominent use can be heard in the scores for ''To Die For'' (sung with director Gus Van Sant, credited to \"Little Gus and the Suzettes\"), ''Silver Linings Playbook'', and his music for the Hong Kong Disneyland ride Mystic Manor.", "He provided the singing voice for characters in ''The Nightmare Before Christmas'' and ''Corpse Bride'' in addition to composing the scores and songs, and can be heard singing the \"Day-O\" call in the style of Harry Belafonte's \"Banana Boat Song\" in the first bars of the ''Beetlejuice'' main title.For Tim Burton's ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'', Elfman set Roald Dahl's text for the Oompa-Loompa characters as four stylistically distinct songs: the Bollywood-influenced \"Augustus Gloop\", the funk-infused \"Violet Beauregarde\", the psychedelic pop stylings of \"Veruca Salt\" and the baroque rock of \"Mike Teavee\".", "For all songs in the film, Elfman sang, manipulated and mixed several layers of his vocals to create the singing voices and harmonies of the Oompa Loompas, and incorporated his vocals into non-song score tracks that featured the characters, including \"Loompa Land\", \"Chocolate River\", \"The Boat Arrives\" and \"The River Cruise\".===Lyrics===Elfman typically writes the lyrics to songs he has composed for movies.", "He employs song structures from Tin Pan Alley and early musical theatre composers (32-bar form), and pop and rock of the 1950s and 1960s (verse-chorus).", "As his songs serve to advance the plot and develop characters, lyrics reflect storylines and imagery specific to the film and express the inner life of characters.He wrote the lyrics and music for ten songs featured in the stop-motion musical ''The Nightmare Before Christmas''.", "Drawing from Tim Burton's parody poem of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'' and concept drawings, Elfman wrote each song in consultation with Burton before the film even had a script.", "These include the full-cast songs \"This Is Halloween\", \"Town Meeting Song\" and \"Making Christmas\"; four songs for the main character Jack Skellington, \"Jack's Lament\", \"What's This?", "\", \"Jack's Obsession\" and \"Poor Jack\", all sung by Elfman; and the other character songs \"Kidnap the Sandy Claws\", \"Oogie Boogie's Song\" and \"Sally's Song\".", "An eleventh song, \"Finale/Reprise\", reworks lyrics from the songs \"This Is Halloween\", \"What's This?\"", "and \"Sally's Song\" for the film's ending.", "Though uncredited, Burton contributed some lyrics to ''Nightmare'', including the line \"Perhaps it's the head that I found in the lake\" in \"Town Meeting Song\".Elfman composed five songs for Burton's ''Corpse Bride'': \"According to Plan\", with lyrics co-written by screenwriter John August; \"Remains of the Day\" (which he sung as the character Bonejangles) and \"Tears to Shed\", both with additional lyrics by August; and \"The Wedding Song\", credited solely to Elfman.", "The song \"Erased\" was not used in the final film.He wrote the lyrics to \"Lullaby\" from ''Charlotte's Web'', the rock track \"The Little Things\" from ''Wanted'' which he also sang in English and Russian, and \"Alice's Theme\" from ''Alice in Wonderland''.", "Elfman co-wrote the lyrics to \"Twice the Love\" from ''Big Fish'' and the \"Wonka's Welcome Song\" for ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' with John August.Elfman wrote the lyrics to all of Oingo Boingo's original songs 1979–1994 and has made residuals on the titular two-word opening phrase sung in his ''The Simpsons'' theme since the series first aired in 1989." ], [ "Personal life", "As a teenager, Elfman dated his classmate Kim Gordon, who would later become one of the members of the rock band Sonic Youth.", "He has two daughters, Lola and Mali, from his marriage to Geri Eisenmenger.", "Mali is a film producer and actress.", "Elfman and Mali collaborated on her 2011 film ''Do Not Disturb''.On November 29, 2003, Elfman married actress Bridget Fonda.", "They have a son, Oliver.", "In 1998, Elfman scored ''A Simple Plan'', starring Fonda.", "He is the uncle of actor Bodhi Elfman, who is married to actress Jenna Elfman.Elfman has been an atheist since the age of 11 or 12.In an interview with the New York Post, he referred to himself as a \"cynic-ologist\".Describing his politics during the 1980s, Elfman said, \"I'm not a doomist.", "My attitude is always to be critical of what's around you, but not ever to forget how lucky we are.", "I've traveled around the world.", "I left thinking I was a revolutionary.", "I came back real right-wing patriotic.", "Since then, I've kind of mellowed in between.\"", "Several of his songs written for Oingo Boingo during this period satirized social politics, although Elfman stated his message was to \"question, resist, challenge\" and that his songs were not aligned to any one political agenda.In 2008, Elfman expressed support for Barack Obama.", "For the 2020 Democratic National Convention, he scored the biographical video played ahead of Joe Biden's acceptance of the presidential nomination in the 2020 United States elections.", "In a series of posts on his Instagram page discussing the video, Elfman criticized Donald Trump, Richard Nixon, and the electoral college, and linked to several voter resources.During his 18 years with Oingo Boingo, Elfman developed significant hearing damage as a result of the continuous exposure to the high noise levels involved in performing in a rock band.", "Afraid of worsening his condition, he decided to leave the band, saying that he would never return to that kind of performance.", "His impairment was so bad that he could not \"even sit in a loud restaurant or bar anymore.\"", "However, he found performing in front of orchestras more tolerable, and returned several times to reprise his live performance of Jack Skellington.===Sexual harassment lawsuits===In July 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' reported that composer Nomi Abadi had accused Elfman of sexually harassing her between 2015 and 2017.According to the magazine's reporting, Abadi and Elfman signed a non-disclosure agreement in 2018, with Elfman agreeing to pay Abadi $830,000 in installments if she did not publicize her allegations against him.", "Abadi stipulated that part of the settlement would help establish a nonprofit foundation, the Female Composer Safety League.", "When Elfman defaulted on payments to the League, Abadi filed a breach of contract suit in Los Angeles Superior Court, leading to the matter becoming public.After ''Rolling Stone'' revealed the existence of this agreement, Elfman denied the allegations, and said that he only agreed to the settlement because he feared that his \"50-year career may be destroyed in one news cycle\" if the claims had been published.", "Elfman stated Abadi had a \"childhood crush\" on him and intended to break up his marriage to pursue him romantically, but that he rejected her advances, leading to the allegations.", "Elfman's lawyer was quoted saying \"accusations alone should not and do not equate to guilt, and Danny will defend himself and clear his name with the volume of evidence and the other party's own words — her words speak for themselves.", "\"In response, Abadi's attorney Jeff Anderson stated \"It is ironic that Mr. Elfman’s current statements are directly contrary to the position he maintained in the underlying dispute and to the evidentiary record.\"", "Anderson further told ''Variety'' that \"Elfman has said that his relationship to Nomi Abadi was platonic and consensual.", "His account is as bizarre as his conduct towards her was years ago.", "It was not platonic.", "It was bizarre.", "\"In October 2023, a Maryland woman filed suit against Elfman for \"sexual assault, gender violence, intentional infliction of emotional distress, sexual harassment and negligence.\"", "The woman, using the pseudonym Jane Doe XX, alleged that between 1997 and 2002 Elfman groomed and sexually abused her in a similar fashion to Abadi's claims." ], [ "In popular culture", "Since ''The Simpsons''' second annual ''Treehouse of Horror'' episode aired in 1991, launching \"scary names\" tradition in the opening and closing titles, Elfman has been alternately credited for the theme music as \"Red Wolf Elfman\", \"Danny Skellingelfman\", \"Li'l Leakin Brain Elfman\", \"Boris Elfmonivich\", \"Danny Elfblood\", \"Danny 'Hell'fman\", \"The Bloody Elf\", \"Danny Elfbones\" \"Elfmunster\" and \"Daniel Beilzebelsman\".Elfman's composition \"Clown Dream\" from ''Pee-wee's Big Adventure'' is used in the video game ''Grand Theft Auto V'' and has often been used as the opening music for Primus concerts.In the 2007 sixth season ''Star Wars'' parody \"Blue Harvest\", ''Family Guy'' lampooned Elfman's orchestral style.", "A scene shows Elfman replacing an incinerated John Williams to conduct a full orchestra playing the score, only to be decapitated by a lightsaber after conducting a few bars of oom-pah music.Episode five of the 14th season of ''South Park'' in 2010 criticized Tim Burton for using the \"same\" music in all his films, referring to Elfman's scores.In October 2016, Elfman produced a video clip for Funny or Die with original \"horror\" music composed to footage of Donald Trump pacing around Hillary Clinton at the second United States presidential election debates, 2016.In 2019, selections from Elfman's ''Midnight Run'' score were used in the third season of Netflix's ''Stranger Things'', including \"Stairway Chase\" in episodes 5 and 6, and \"Wild Ride\" and \"Package Deal\" in episode 6.Christina Aguilera revealed that Elfman's music inspired her Las Vegas concert residency The Xperience." ], [ "List of compositions" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "+ '''Danny Elfman awards and nominations''' Award Wins Nominations;Academy Awards;Annie Awards;BMI Film & Television Awards;British Academy Film Awards;Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards;Chicago Film Critics Association Awards;Emmy Awards;Golden Globe Awards;Grammy Awards;Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards;Satellite Awards;Saturn Awards;Sierra Awards;World Soundtrack Awards '''Totals''' ===American Film Institute===Elfman's scores for ''Batman'' and ''Edward Scissorhands'' were nominated for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores." ], [ "Discography", "Including commercial recordings of his film scores and the Oingo Boingo discography, Elfman has produced over 100 albums as of 2019." ], [ "Appearances in film and television" ], [ "See also", "Music of the Marvel Cinematic Universe''Batman'' music" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Danny Elfman at Faber Music* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dimension" ], [ "Introduction", "square, a cube and a tesseract.", "The square is two-dimensional (2D) and bounded by one-dimensional line segments; the cube is three-dimensional (3D) and bounded by two-dimensional squares; the tesseract is four-dimensional (4D) and bounded by three-dimensional cubes.", "The first four spatial dimensions, represented in a two-dimensional picture.", "In physics and mathematics, the '''dimension''' of a mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any point within it.", "Thus, a line has a dimension of one (1D) because only one coordinate is needed to specify a point on itfor example, the point at 5 on a number line.", "A surface, such as the boundary of a cylinder or sphere, has a dimension of two (2D) because two coordinates are needed to specify a point on itfor example, both a latitude and longitude are required to locate a point on the surface of a sphere.", "A two-dimensional Euclidean space is a two-dimensional space on the plane.", "The inside of a cube, a cylinder or a sphere is three-dimensional (3D) because three coordinates are needed to locate a point within these spaces.In classical mechanics, space and time are different categories and refer to absolute space and time.", "That conception of the world is a four-dimensional space but not the one that was found necessary to describe electromagnetism.", "The four dimensions (4D) of spacetime consist of events that are not absolutely defined spatially and temporally, but rather are known relative to the motion of an observer.", "Minkowski space first approximates the universe without gravity; the pseudo-Riemannian manifolds of general relativity describe spacetime with matter and gravity.", "10 dimensions are used to describe superstring theory (6D hyperspace + 4D), 11 dimensions can describe supergravity and M-theory (7D hyperspace + 4D), and the state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space.The concept of dimension is not restricted to physical objects.", "'''s''' frequently occur in mathematics and the sciences.", "They may be Euclidean spaces or more general parameter spaces or configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics; these are abstract spaces, independent of the physical space." ], [ "In mathematics", "In mathematics, the dimension of an object is, roughly speaking, the number of degrees of freedom of a point that moves on this object.", "In other words, the dimension is the number of independent parameters or coordinates that are needed for defining the position of a point that is constrained to be on the object.", "For example, the dimension of a point is zero; the dimension of a line is one, as a point can move on a line in only one direction (or its opposite); the dimension of a plane is two etc.The dimension is an intrinsic property of an object, in the sense that it is independent of the dimension of the space in which the object is or can be embedded.", "For example, a curve, such as a circle, is of dimension one, because the position of a point on a curve is determined by its signed distance along the curve to a fixed point on the curve.", "This is independent from the fact that a curve cannot be embedded in a Euclidean space of dimension lower than two, unless it is a line.The dimension of Euclidean -space is .", "When trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question \"what makes -dimensional?\"", "One answer is that to cover a fixed ball in by small balls of radius , one needs on the order of such small balls.", "This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension, but there are also other answers to that question.", "For example, the boundary of a ball in looks locally like and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension.", "While these notions agree on , they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces.A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object.", "Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term \"dimension\" is as in: \"A tesseract ''has four dimensions''\", mathematicians usually express this as: \"The tesseract ''has dimension 4''\", or: \"The dimension of the tesseract ''is'' 4\" or: 4D.Although the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton, Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann.", "Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schläfli's 1852 ''Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuität'', and Hamilton's discovery of the quaternions and John T. Graves' discovery of the octonions in 1843 marked the beginning of higher-dimensional geometry.The rest of this section examines some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.===Vector spaces===The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any basis for the space, i.e.", "the number of coordinates necessary to specify any vector.", "This notion of dimension (the cardinality of a basis) is often referred to as the ''Hamel dimension'' or ''algebraic dimension'' to distinguish it from other notions of dimension.For the non-free case, this generalizes to the notion of the length of a module.===Manifolds===The uniquely defined dimension of every connected topological manifold can be calculated.", "A connected topological manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean -space, in which the number is the manifold's dimension.For connected differentiable manifolds, the dimension is also the dimension of the tangent vector space at any point.In geometric topology, the theory of manifolds is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the '''high-dimensional''' cases are simplified by having extra space in which to \"work\"; and the cases and are in some senses the most difficult.", "This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the Poincaré conjecture, in which four different proof methods are applied.====Complex dimension====The dimension of a manifold depends on the base field with respect to which Euclidean space is defined.", "While analysis usually assumes a manifold to be over the real numbers, it is sometimes useful in the study of complex manifolds and algebraic varieties to work over the complex numbers instead.", "A complex number (''x'' + ''iy'') has a real part ''x'' and an imaginary part ''y'', in which x and y are both real numbers; hence, the complex dimension is half the real dimension.Conversely, in algebraically unconstrained contexts, a single complex coordinate system may be applied to an object having two real dimensions.", "For example, an ordinary two-dimensional spherical surface, when given a complex metric, becomes a Riemann sphere of one complex dimension.===Varieties===The dimension of an algebraic variety may be defined in various equivalent ways.", "The most intuitive way is probably the dimension of the tangent space at any Regular point of an algebraic variety.", "Another intuitive way is to define the dimension as the number of hyperplanes that are needed in order to have an intersection with the variety that is reduced to a finite number of points (dimension zero).", "This definition is based on the fact that the intersection of a variety with a hyperplane reduces the dimension by one unless if the hyperplane contains the variety.An algebraic set being a finite union of algebraic varieties, its dimension is the maximum of the dimensions of its components.", "It is equal to the maximal length of the chains of sub-varieties of the given algebraic set (the length of such a chain is the number of \"\").Each variety can be considered as an algebraic stack, and its dimension as variety agrees with its dimension as stack.", "There are however many stacks which do not correspond to varieties, and some of these have negative dimension.", "Specifically, if ''V'' is a variety of dimension ''m'' and ''G'' is an algebraic group of dimension ''n'' acting on ''V'', then the quotient stack ''V''/''G'' has dimension ''m'' − ''n''.===Krull dimension===The Krull dimension of a commutative ring is the maximal length of chains of prime ideals in it, a chain of length ''n'' being a sequence of prime ideals related by inclusion.", "It is strongly related to the dimension of an algebraic variety, because of the natural correspondence between sub-varieties and prime ideals of the ring of the polynomials on the variety.For an algebra over a field, the dimension as vector space is finite if and only if its Krull dimension is 0.===Topological spaces===For any normal topological space , the Lebesgue covering dimension of is defined to be the smallest integer ''n'' for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover in which each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than elements.", "In this case dim .", "For a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above.", "If no such integer exists, then the dimension of is said to be infinite, and one writes dim .", "Moreover, has dimension −1, i.e.", "dim if and only if is empty.", "This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term \"open\" in the definition by the term \"'''functionally open'''\".An inductive dimension may be defined inductively as follows.", "Consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional.", "By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object.", "By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a ''new direction'', one obtains a 2-dimensional object.", "In general one obtains an ()-dimensional object by dragging an -dimensional object in a ''new'' direction.", "The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the ''small inductive dimension'' or the ''large inductive dimension'', and is based on the analogy that, in the case of metric spaces, balls have -dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets.", "Moreover, the boundary of a discrete set of points is the empty set, and therefore the empty set can be taken to have dimension -1.Similarly, for the class of CW complexes, the dimension of an object is the largest for which the -skeleton is nontrivial.", "Intuitively, this can be described as follows: if the original space can be continuously deformed into a collection of higher-dimensional triangles joined at their faces with a complicated surface, then the dimension of the object is the dimension of those triangles.===Hausdorff dimension===The Hausdorff dimension is useful for studying structurally complicated sets, especially fractals.", "The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the dimensions considered above, can also have non-integer real values.", "The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea.", "In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values.", "===Hilbert spaces===Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality.", "This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space.", "This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide." ], [ "In physics", "===Spatial dimensions===Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward.", "Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three.", "Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance.", "Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; ''i.e.", "'', moving in a linear combination of up and forward.", "In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions.", "(See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.)", "Example co-ordinate systems 1 Number lineNumber line AngleAngle 2 200x200pxCartesian (two-dimensional) Polar systemPolar Geographic systemLatitude and longitude 3 Cartesian system (3d)Cartesian (three-dimensional) Cylindrical systemCylindrical Spherical systemSpherical===Time===A '''temporal dimension''', or '''time dimension''', is a dimension of time.", "Time is often referred to as the \"fourth dimension\" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension.", "A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change.", "It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans commonly perceive it.", "The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed.", "In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy).The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space.", "Time is different from other spatial dimensions as time operates in all spatial dimensions.", "Time operates in the first, second and third as well as theoretical spatial dimensions such as a fourth spatial dimension.", "Time is not however present in a single point of absolute infinite singularity as defined as a geometric point, as an infinitely small point can have no change and therefore no time.", "Just as when an object moves through positions in space, it also moves through positions in time.", "In this sense the force moving any object to change is ''time''.===Additional dimensions===In physics, three dimensions of space and one of time is the accepted norm.", "However, there are theories that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces by introducing extra dimensions/hyperspace.", "Most notably, superstring theory requires 10 spacetime dimensions, and originates from a more fundamental 11-dimensional theory tentatively called M-theory which subsumes five previously distinct superstring theories.", "Supergravity theory also promotes 11D spacetime = 7D hyperspace + 4 common dimensions.", "To date, no direct experimental or observational evidence is available to support the existence of these extra dimensions.", "If hyperspace exists, it must be hidden from us by some physical mechanism.", "One well-studied possibility is that the extra dimensions may be \"curled up\" at such tiny scales as to be effectively invisible to current experiments.In 1921, Kaluza–Klein theory presented 5D including an extra dimension of space.", "At the level of quantum field theory, Kaluza–Klein theory unifies gravity with gauge interactions, based on the realization that gravity propagating in small, compact extra dimensions is equivalent to gauge interactions at long distances.", "In particular when the geometry of the extra dimensions is trivial, it reproduces electromagnetism.", "However at sufficiently high energies or short distances, this setup still suffers from the same pathologies that famously obstruct direct attempts to describe quantum gravity.", "Therefore, these models still require a UV completion, of the kind that string theory is intended to provide.", "In particular, superstring theory requires six compact dimensions (6D hyperspace) forming a Calabi–Yau manifold.", "Thus Kaluza-Klein theory may be considered either as an incomplete description on its own, or as a subset of string theory model building.In addition to small and curled up extra dimensions, there may be extra dimensions that instead are not apparent because the matter associated with our visible universe is localized on a subspace.", "Thus the extra dimensions need not be small and compact but may be large extra dimensions.", "D-branes are dynamical extended objects of various dimensionalities predicted by string theory that could play this role.", "They have the property that open string excitations, which are associated with gauge interactions, are confined to the brane by their endpoints, whereas the closed strings that mediate the gravitational interaction are free to propagate into the whole spacetime, or \"the bulk\".", "This could be related to why gravity is exponentially weaker than the other forces, as it effectively dilutes itself as it propagates into a higher-dimensional volume.Some aspects of brane physics have been applied to cosmology.", "For example, brane gas cosmology attempts to explain why there are three dimensions of space using topological and thermodynamic considerations.", "According to this idea it would be since three is the largest number of spatial dimensions in which strings can generically intersect.", "If initially there are many windings of strings around compact dimensions, space could only expand to macroscopic sizes once these windings are eliminated, which requires oppositely wound strings to find each other and annihilate.", "But strings can only find each other to annihilate at a meaningful rate in three dimensions, so it follows that only three dimensions of space are allowed to grow large given this kind of initial configuration.Extra dimensions are said to be universal if all fields are equally free to propagate within them." ], [ "In computer graphics and spatial data", "Several types of digital systems are based on the storage, analysis, and visualization of geometric shapes, including illustration software, Computer-aided design, and Geographic information systems.", "Different vector systems use a wide variety of data structures to represent shapes, but almost all are fundamentally based on a set of geometric primitives corresponding to the spatial dimensions:* '''Point''' (0-dimensional), a single coordinate in a Cartesian coordinate system.", "* '''Line''' or '''Polyline''' (1-dimensional), usually represented as an ordered list of points sampled from a continuous line, whereupon the software is expected to interpolate the intervening shape of the line as straight or curved line segments.", "* '''Polygon''' (2-dimensional), usually represented as a line that closes at its endpoints, representing the boundary of a two-dimensional region.", "The software is expected to use this boundary to partition 2-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.", "* '''Surface''' (3-dimensional), represented using a variety of strategies, such as a polyhedron consisting of connected polygon faces.", "The software is expected to use this surface to partition 3-dimensional space into an interior and exterior.Frequently in these systems, especially GIS and Cartography, a representation of a real-world phenomena may have a different (usually lower) dimension than the phenomenon being represented.", "For example, a city (a two-dimensional region) may be represented as a point, or a road (a three-dimensional volume of material) may be represented as a line.", "This ''dimensional generalization'' correlates with tendencies in spatial cognition.", "For example, asking the distance between two cities presumes a conceptual model of the cities as points, while giving directions involving travel \"up,\" \"down,\" or \"along\" a road imply a one-dimensional conceptual model.", "This is frequently done for purposes of data efficiency, visual simplicity, or cognitive efficiency, and is acceptable if the distinction between the representation and the represented is understood, but can cause confusion if information users assume that the digital shape is a perfect representation of reality (i.e., believing that roads really are lines)." ], [ "More dimensions" ], [ "List of topics by dimension" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "********* Google preview* " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dissolve" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dissolve''' may refer to:* Dissolve (filmmaking), in film and video editing, a transition between scenes* ''Dissolve'' (2019 film), a film by Kim Ki-duk* ''The Dissolve'', a web magazine property of Pitchfork, covering movies* Dissolve (band), collaborative musical project between experimental guitarists Chris Heaphy and Roy Montgomery* \"Dissolve\", a song by Absofacto * ‘’Dissolve’’ a song by Joji from Smithereens* \"Dissolve\", a song by Daniel Johns from the album ''Talk''* \"Dissolve\", a song by Hundred Reasons on the 2002 album ''Ideas Above Our Station''" ], [ "See also", "* Dissolution (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Duodecimal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''duodecimal''' system, also known as '''base 12''' or '''dozenal''', is a positional numeral system using twelve as its base.", "In duodecimal, the number twelve is denoted \"10\", meaning 1 twelve and 0 units; in the decimal system, this number is instead written as \"12\" meaning 1 ten and 2 units, and the string \"10\" means ten.", "In duodecimal, \"100\" means twelve squared, \"1000\" means twelve cubed, and \"0.1\" means a twelfth.Various symbols have been used to stand for ten and eleven in duodecimal notation; this page uses and , as in hexadecimal, which make a duodecimal count from zero to twelve read 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, , , 10.The Dozenal Societies of America and Great Britain (organisations promoting the use of duodecimal) use turned digits in their published material: (a turned 2) for ten and (a turned 3) for eleven.The number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest number with four non-trivial factors (2, 3, 4, 6), and the smallest to include as factors all four numbers (1 to 4) within the subitizing range, and the smallest abundant number.", "All multiples of reciprocals of 3-smooth numbers ( where are integers) have a terminating representation in duodecimal.", "In particular, (0.3), (0.4), (0.6), (0.8), and (0.9) all have a short terminating representation in duodecimal.", "There is also higher regularity observable in the duodecimal multiplication table.", "As a result, duodecimal has been described as the optimal number system.In these respects, duodecimal is considered superior to decimal, which has only 2 and 5 as factors, and other proposed bases like octal or hexadecimal.", "Sexagesimal (base sixty) does even better in this respect (the reciprocals of all 5-smooth numbers terminate), but at the cost of unwieldy multiplication tables and a much larger number of symbols to memorize." ], [ "Origin", ":''In this section, numerals are in decimal.", "For example, \"10\" means 9+1, and \"12\" means 9+3.", "''Georges Ifrah speculatively traced the origin of the duodecimal system to a system of finger counting based on the knuckle bones of the four larger fingers.", "Using the thumb as a pointer, it is possible to count to 12 by touching each finger bone, starting with the farthest bone on the fifth finger, and counting on.", "In this system, one hand counts repeatedly to 12, while the other displays the number of iterations, until five dozens, i.e.", "the 60, are full.", "This system is still in use in many regions of Asia.Languages using duodecimal number systems are uncommon.", "Languages in the Nigerian Middle Belt such as Janji, Gbiri-Niragu (Gure-Kahugu), Piti, and the Nimbia dialect of Gwandara; and the Chepang language of Nepal are known to use duodecimal numerals.Germanic languages have special words for 11 and 12, such as ''eleven'' and ''twelve'' in English.", "They come from Proto-Germanic ''ainlif'' and ''twalif'' (meaning, respectively, ''one left'' and ''two left''), suggesting a decimal rather than duodecimal origin.", "However, Old Norse used a hybrid decimal–duodecimal counting system, with its words for \"one hundred and eighty\" meaning 200 and \"two hundred\" meaning 240.On the British Isles, this style of counting survived well into the Middle Ages as the long hundred.Historically, units of time in many civilizations are duodecimal.", "There are twelve signs of the zodiac, twelve months in a year, and the Babylonians had twelve hours in a day (although at some point, this was changed to 24).", "Traditional Chinese calendars, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve Earthly Branches or 24 (12×2) Solar terms.", "There are 12 inches in an imperial foot, 12 troy ounces in a troy pound, 12 old British pence in a shilling, 24 (12×2) hours in a day; many other items are counted by the dozen, gross (144, square of 12), or great gross (1728, cube of 12).", "The Romans used a fraction system based on 12, including the uncia, which became both the English words ''ounce'' and ''inch''.", "Pre-decimalisation, Ireland and the United Kingdom used a mixed duodecimal-vigesimal currency system (12 pence = 1 shilling, 20 shillings or 240 pence to the pound sterling or Irish pound), and Charlemagne established a monetary system that also had a mixed base of twelve and twenty, the remnants of which persist in many places.Table of units from a base of 12 Relativevalue French unitof length English unitof length English(Troy) unitof weight Roman unitof weight English unitof mass120piedfootpoundlibra12−1pouceinchounceunciaslinch12−2ligneline2 scruples2 scrupulaslug12−3pointpointseedsiliqua" ], [ "Notations and pronunciations", "In a numbering system, the base (twelve for duodecimal) must be written as 10, but there are numerous proposals for how to write the quantities (counting values) \"ten\" and \"eleven\".", "Notation Background Note Bykeyboard By dedicated characters As in hexadecimal To allow entry on typewriters.", "Initials of ''Ten'' and ''Eleven'' from the Roman numeral for ten; from English ''Eleven''.", "from Roman numeral; origin of unknown Attributed to \"D'Alambert & Buffon\" by the Dozenal Society of America (DSA).", "Greek δ, ε, from \"ten\" and \"eleven\" Greek τ, ε comes from doubling the Roman numeral for five; is based on a pendulum Silvio Ferrari in ''Calcolo Decidozzinale'' (1854).", "italic ''X'' pronounced \"dec\"; rounded italic ''Ɛ'', similar in appearance to , pronounced \"elf\" Frank Emerson Andrews in ''New Numbers'' (1935); Andrews used italic ''0''–''9'' for the other duodecimal numerals.", "sextile or six-pointed asterisk,hash or octothorpe Edna Kramer in ''The Main Stream of Mathematics'' (1951).Used in publications of the Dozenal Society of America (DSA) from 1974 to 2008, also on push-button telephones.", "Pronounced \"dek\", \"el\" By base notation duodecimal ⇔ decimal Background Note Bykeyboard In italicsUse semicolon instead of a decimal point ''Humphrey point'' – Asterisked for whole numbers, Humphrey points for others Used by DSGB.", "– Subscript \"z\" From \"dozenal\".", "Used by DSA since 2015.Subscript base number Common usage by mathematicians and mathematics textbooks Subscript base spelt out Variation of the above sometimes found in school textbooks === Transdecimal symbols ===To allow entry on typewriters, letters such as (as in hexadecimal), (initials of ''Ten'' and ''Eleven''), , or (X from the Roman numeral for ten) are used.", "Some employ Greek letters, such as (from Greek \"ten\" and \"eleven\") or .", "Frank Emerson Andrews, an early American advocate for duodecimal, suggested and used in his 1935 book ''New Numbers'' (italic capital X and a rounded italic capital E similar to open E), along with italic numerals –.Edna Kramer in her 1951 book ''The Main Stream of Mathematics'' used a (sextile or six-pointed asterisk, hash or octothorpe).", "The symbols were chosen because they were available on some typewriters; they are also on push-button telephones.", "This notation was used in publications of the Dozenal Society of America (DSA) from 1974 to 2008.From 2008 to 2015, the DSA used , the symbols devised by William Addison Dwiggins.The Dozenal Society of Great Britain (DSGB) proposed symbols .", "This notation, derived from Arabic digits by 180° rotation, was introduced by Isaac Pitman in 1857.In March 2013, a proposal was submitted to include the digit forms for ten and eleven propagated by the Dozenal Societies in the Unicode Standard.", "Of these, the British/Pitman forms were accepted for encoding as characters at code points and .", "They were included in Unicode 8.0 (2015).After the Pitman digits were added to Unicode, the DSA took a vote and then began publishing content using the Pitman digits instead.", "They still use the letters X and E in ASCII text.", "As the Unicode characters are poorly supported, this page uses and .Other proposals are more creative or aesthetic; for example, many do not use any Arabic numerals under the principle of \"separate identity.", "\"===Base notation===There are also varying proposals of how to distinguish a duodecimal number from a decimal one.", "They include italicizing duodecimal numbers \"''54'' = 64\", adding a \"Humphrey point\" (a semicolon instead of a decimal point) to duodecimal numbers \"54;6 = 64.5\", or some combination of the two.", "Others use subscript or affixed labels to indicate the base, allowing for more than decimal and duodecimal to be represented (for single letters, \"z\" from \"do'''z'''enal\" is used, as \"d\" would mean decimal), such as \"54z = 64d,\" \"5412 = 6410\" or \"doz 54 = dec 64.", "\"=== Pronunciation ===The Dozenal Society of America suggested the pronunciation of ten and eleven as \"dek\" and \"el\".", "For the names of powers of twelve, there are two prominent systems.==== Duodecimal numbers ====In this system, the prefix ''e''- is added for fractions.", "Duodecimal NumberNumber NameDuodecimal Number FractionFraction Name1;one10;0;1edo100;0;01egro1,000;0;001emo10,000;do-mo0;000,1edo-mo100,000;gro-mo0;000,01egro-mo1,000,000;bi-mo0;000,001ebi-mo10,000,000;do-bi-mo0;000,000,1edo-bi-mo100,000,000;gro-bi-mo0;000,000,01egro-bi-mo1,000,000,000;tri-mo0;000,000,001etri-mo10,000,000,000;do-tri-mo0;000,000,000,1edo-tri-mo100,000,000,000;gro-tri-mo0;000,000,000,01egro-tri-mo1,000,000,000,000;quad-mo0;000,000,000,001equad-mo10,000,000,000,000;do-quad-mo0;000,000,000,000,1edo-quad-mo100,000,000,000,000;gro-quad-mo0;000,000,000,000,01egro-quad-mo1,000,000,000,000,000;penta-mo0;000,000,000,000,001epenta-mo10,000,000,000,000,000;do-penta-mo0;000,000,000,000,000,1edo-penta-mo100,000,000,000,000,000;gro-penta-mo0;000,000,000,000,000,01egro-penta-mo1,000,000,000,000,000,000;hexa-mo0;000,000,000,000,000,001ehexa-moMultiple digits in this series are pronounced differently: 12 is \"do two\"; 30 is \"three do\"; 100 is \"gro\"; 9 is \"el gro dek do nine\"; 86 is \"el gro eight do six\"; 8,15 is \"eight gro el do el, one gro five do dek\"; ABA is \"dek gro el do dek\"; BBB is \"el gro el do el\"; 0.06 is \"six egro\"; and so on.==== Systematic Dozenal Nomenclature (SDN) ====This system uses \"-qua\" ending for the positive powers of 12 and \"-cia\" ending for the negative powers of 12, and an extension of the IUPAC systematic element names (with syllables '''dec''' and '''lev''' for the two extra digits needed for duodecimal) to express which power is meant.", "DuodecimalNameDecimalDuodecimal fractionName1;one110;unqua120;1uncia100;biqua1440;01bicia1,000;triqua1,7280;001tricia10,000;quadqua20,7360;000,1quadcia100,000;pentqua248,8320;000,01pentcia1,000,000;hexqua2,985,9840;000,001hexcia10,000,000;septqua35,831,8080;000,000,1septcia100,000,000;octqua429,981,6960;000,000,01octcia1,000,000,000;ennqua5,159,780,3520;000,000,001enncia10,000,000,000;decqua61,917,364,2240;000,000,000,1deccia100,000,000,000;levqua743,008,370,6880;000,000,000,01levcia1,000,000,000,000;unnilqua8,916,100,448,2560;000,000,000,001unnilcia10,000,000,000,000;ununqua106,993,205,379,0720;000,000,000,000,1ununcia" ], [ "Advocacy and \"dozenalism\"", "William James Sidis used 12 as the base for his constructed language Vendergood in 1906, noting it being the smallest number with four factors and its prevalence in commerce.The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in Frank Emerson Andrews' 1935 book ''New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics''.", "Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized ''either'' by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure ''or'' by the adoption of the duodecimal number system.musical keysBoth the Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the duodecimal system.", "They use the word \"dozenal\" instead of \"duodecimal\" to avoid the more overtly decimal terminology.", "However, the etymology of \"dozenal\" itself is also an expression based on decimal terminology since \"dozen\" is a direct derivation of the French word ''douzaine'', which is a derivative of the French word for twelve, ''douze'', descended from Latin ''duodecim''.Mathematician and mental calculator Alexander Craig Aitken was an outspoken advocate of duodecimal:=== In media ===In \"Little Twelvetoes\", American television series ''Schoolhouse Rock!''", "portrayed an alien being with twelve fingers and twelve toes using duodecimal arithmetic, using \"dek\" and \"el\" as names for ten and eleven, and Andrews' script-X and script-E for the digit symbols.=== Duodecimal systems of measurements ===Systems of measurement proposed by dozenalists include:* Tom Pendlebury's TGM system* Takashi Suga's Universal Unit System* John Volan's Primel system" ], [ "Comparison to other number systems", ":''In this section, numerals are in decimal.", "For example, \"10\" means 9+1, and \"12\" means 6×2.", "''The Dozenal Society of America argues that if a base is too small, significantly longer expansions are needed for numbers; if a base is too large, one must memorise a large multiplication table to perform arithmetic.", "Thus, it presumes that \"a number base will need to be between about 7 or 8 through about 16, possibly including 18 and 20\".The number 12 has six factors, which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, of which 2 and 3 are prime.", "It is the smallest number to have six factors, the largest number to have at least half of the numbers below it as divisors, and is only slightly larger than 10.", "(The numbers 18 and 20 also have six factors but are much larger.)", "Ten, in contrast, only has four factors, which are 1, 2, 5, and 10, of which 2 and 5 are prime.", "Six shares the prime factors 2 and 3 with twelve; however, like ten, six only has four factors (1, 2, 3, and 6) instead of six.", "Its corresponding base, senary, is below the DSA's stated threshold.Eight and Sixteen only have 2 as a prime factor.", "Therefore, in octal and hexadecimal, the only terminating fractions are those whose denominator is a power of two.Thirty is the smallest number that has three different prime factors (2, 3, and 5, the first three primes), and it has eight factors in total (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30).", "Sexagesimal was actually used by the ancient Sumerians and Babylonians, among others; its base, sixty, adds the four convenient factors 4, 12, 20, and 60 to 30 but no new prime factors.", "The smallest number that has four different prime factors is 210; the pattern follows the primorials.", "However, these numbers are quite large to use as bases, and are far beyond the DSA's stated threshold.In all base systems, there are similarities to the representation of multiples of numbers that are one less than or one more than the base.", "''In the following multiplication table, numerals are written in duodecimal.", "For example, \"10\" means twelve, and \"12\" means fourteen.", "''+ Duodecimal multiplication table×1234567891011234567810224610121416181203369101316192023262930448101418202428303438405131821262343942475066101620263036404650566077121924236414853565708814202834404854606874809916233039465360697683901826344250568768492A0129384756657483921B010102030405060708090A0B0100" ], [ "Conversion tables to and from decimal", "To convert numbers between bases, one can use the general conversion algorithm (see the relevant section under positional notation).", "Alternatively, one can use digit-conversion tables.", "The ones provided below can be used to convert any duodecimal number between 0;1 and ,; to decimal, or any decimal number between 0.1 and 99,999.9 to duodecimal.", "To use them, the given number must first be decomposed into a sum of numbers with only one significant digit each.", "For example::12,345.6 = 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0.6This decomposition works the same no matter what base the number is expressed in.", "Just isolate each non-zero digit, padding them with as many zeros as necessary to preserve their respective place values.", "If the digits in the given number include zeroes (for example, 7,080.9), these are left out in the digit decomposition (7,080.9 = 7,000 + 80 + 0.9).", "Then, the digit conversion tables can be used to obtain the equivalent value in the target base for each digit.", "If the given number is in duodecimal and the target base is decimal, we get::(duodecimal) 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0;6 = (decimal) 20,736 + 3,456 + 432 + 48 + 5 + 0.5Because the summands are already converted to decimal, the usual decimal arithmetic is used to perform the addition and recompose the number, arriving at the conversion result: Duodecimal ---> Decimal 10,000 = 20,736 2,000 = 3,456 300 = 432 40 = 48 5 = 5 + 0;6 = + 0.5 -------------------------------------------- 12,345;6 = 24,677.5That is, (duodecimal) 12,345;6 equals (decimal) 24,677.5If the given number is in decimal and the target base is duodecimal, the method is same.", "Using the digit conversion tables:(decimal) 10,000 + 2,000 + 300 + 40 + 5 + 0.6 = (duodecimal) 5,954 + 1,18 + 210 + 34 + 5 + 0;To sum these partial products and recompose the number, the addition must be done with duodecimal rather than decimal arithmetic: Decimal --> Duodecimal 10,000 = 5,954 2,000 = 1,18 300 = 210 40 = 34 5 = 5 + 0.6 = + 0; -------------------------------------------------------- 12,345.6 = 7,189;That is, (decimal) 12,345.6 equals (duodecimal) 7,189;=== Duodecimal to decimal digit conversion === Duod.", "Dec. Duod.", "Dec. Duod.", "Dec. Duod.", "Dec. Duod.", "Dec. Duod.", "Dec. '''10,000''' 20,736 '''1,000''' 1,728 '''100''' 144 '''10''' 12 '''1''' 1 '''0;1''' 0.08 '''20,000''' 41,472 '''2,000''' 3,456 '''200''' 288 '''20''' 24 '''2''' 2 '''0;2''' 0.1 '''30,000''' 62,208 '''3,000''' 5,184 '''300''' 432 '''30''' 36 '''3''' 3 '''0;3''' 0.25 '''40,000''' 82,944 '''4,000''' 6,912 '''400''' 576 '''40''' 48 '''4''' 4 '''0;4''' 0.", "'''50,000''' 103,680 '''5,000''' 8,640 '''500''' 720 '''50''' 60 '''5''' 5 '''0;5''' 0.41 '''60,000''' 124,416 '''6,000''' 10,368 '''600''' 864 '''60''' 72 '''6''' 6 '''0;6''' 0.5 '''70,000''' 145,152 '''7,000''' 12,096 '''700''' 1,008 '''70''' 84 '''7''' 7 '''0;7''' 0.58 '''80,000''' 165,888 '''8,000''' 13,824 '''800''' 1,152 '''80''' 96 '''8''' 8 '''0;8''' 0.", "'''90,000''' 186,624 '''9,000''' 15,552 '''900''' 1,296 '''90''' 108 '''9''' 9 '''0;9''' 0.75 '''''' 207,360 ''',000''' 17,280 '''00''' 1,440 '''0''' 120 '''''' 10 '''0;''' 0.8 '''0,000''' 228,096 ''',000''' 19,008 '''00''' 1,584 '''0''' 132 '''''' 11 '''0;''' 0.91=== Decimal to duodecimal digit conversion === '''Dec.'''", "'''Duod.'''", "'''Dec.'''", "'''Duod.'''", "'''Dec.'''", "'''Duod.'''", "'''Dec.'''", "'''Duod.'''", "'''Dec.'''", "'''Duod.'''", "'''Dec.'''", "'''Duodecimal''' '''10,000''' 5,954 '''1,000''' 64 '''100''' 84 '''10''' '''1''' 1 '''0.1''' 0;1 '''20,000''' ,68 '''2,000''' 1,18 '''200''' 148 '''20''' 18 '''2''' 2 '''0.2''' 0; '''30,000''' 15,440 '''3,000''' 1,80 '''300''' 210 '''30''' 26 '''3''' 3 '''0.3''' 0;3 '''40,000''' 1,194 '''4,000''' 2,394 '''400''' 294 '''40''' 34 '''4''' 4 '''0.4''' 0; '''50,000''' 24,28 '''5,000''' 2,88 '''500''' 358 '''50''' 42 '''5''' 5 '''0.5''' 0;6 '''60,000''' 2,880 '''6,000''' 3,580 '''600''' 420 '''60''' 50 '''6''' 6 '''0.6''' 0; '''70,000''' 34,614 '''7,000''' 4,074 '''700''' 44 '''70''' 5 '''7''' 7 '''0.7''' 0;8 '''80,000''' 3,368 '''8,000''' 4,768 '''800''' 568 '''80''' 68 '''8''' 8 '''0.8''' 0; '''90,000''' 44,100 '''9,000''' 5,260 '''900''' 630 '''90''' 76 '''9''' 9 '''0.9''' 0;" ], [ "Divisibility rules", "''In this section, numerals are in duodecimal.", "For example, \"10\" means 6×2, and \"12\" means 7×2.", "''This section is about the divisibility rules in duodecimal.", ";1Any integer is divisible by '''1'''.", ";2If a number is divisible by '''2''', then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, or .", ";3If a number is divisible by '''3''', then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 3, 6, or 9.;4If a number is divisible by '''4''', then the unit digit of that number will be 0, 4, or 8.;5To test for divisibility by 5, double the units digit and subtract the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits.", "If the result is divisible by '''5''', then the given number is divisible by 5.This rule comes from 21 ().Examples: '''13''' rule , which is divisible by 5.", "'''25''' rule , which is divisible by 5 (or apply the rule on 20).", "'''OR'''To test for divisibility by 5, subtract the units digit and triple of the result to the number formed by the rest of the digits.", "If the result is divisible by '''5''', then the given number is divisible by 5.This rule comes from 13 ().Examples: '''13''' rule → , which is divisible by 5.", "'''25''' rule → , which is divisible by 5 (or apply the rule on 81).", "'''OR'''Form the alternating sum of blocks of two from right to left.", "If the result is divisible by '''5''', then the given number is divisible by 5.This rule comes from 101, since ; thus, this rule can be also tested for the divisibility by 25.Example:'''97,374,627''' → , which is divisible by 5.;6If a number is divisible by '''6''', then the unit digit of that number will be 0 or 6.;7To test for divisibility by 7, triple the units digit and add the result to the number formed by the rest of the digits.", "If the result is divisible by '''7''', then the given number is divisible by 7.This rule comes from 2 ()Examples:'''12''' rule → , which is divisible by 7.", "'''271''' rule → , which is divisible by 7 (or apply the rule on 29).", "'''OR'''To test for divisibility by 7, subtract the units digit and double the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits.", "If the result is divisible by '''7''', then the given number is divisible by 7.This rule comes from 12 ().Examples:'''12''' rule → , which is divisible by 7.", "'''271''' rule → , which is divisible by 7 (or apply the rule on 513).", "'''OR'''To test for divisibility by 7, quadruple the units digit and subtract the result from the number formed by the rest of the digits.", "If the result is divisible by '''7''', then the given number is divisible by 7.This rule comes from 41 ().Examples:'''12''' rule → , which is divisible by 7.", "'''271''' rule → , which is divisible by 7 (or apply the rule on 235).", "'''OR'''Form the alternating sum of blocks of three from right to left.", "If the result is divisible by '''7''', then the given number is divisible by 7.This rule comes from 1001, since ; thus, this rule can be also tested for the divisibility by 11 and 17.Example:'''386,967,443''' → , which is divisible by 7.;8If the two-digit number formed by the last two digits of the given number is divisible by '''8''', then the given number is divisible by 8.Example: 148, 4120 rule => since 48(87) divisible by 8, then 148 is divisible by 8.rule => since 20(83) divisible by 8, then 4120 is divisible by 8.;9If the two-digit number formed by the last two digits of the given number is divisible by '''9''', then the given number is divisible by 9.Example: 7423, 8330 rule => since 23(93) divisible by 9, then 7423 is divisible by 9.rule => since 30(94) divisible by 9, then 8330 is divisible by 9.;If the number is divisible by 2 and 5, then the number is divisible by ''''''.", ";If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by '''''', then the number is divisible by (the equivalent of casting out nines in decimal).Example: 29, 6113 rule => 2+9 = , which is divisible by , then 29 is divisible by .", "rule => 6+1++1+3 = 1, which is divisible by , then 6113 is divisible by .", ";10If a number is divisible by '''10''', then the unit digit of that number will be 0.;11Sum the alternate digits and subtract the sums.", "If the result is divisible by '''11''', the number is divisible by 11 (the equivalent of divisibility by eleven in decimal).Example: 66, 9427 rule => \|6-6\| = 0, which is divisible by 11, then 66 is divisible by 11.rule => \|(9+2)-(4+7)\| = ;12If the number is divisible by 2 and 7, then the number is divisible by '''12'''.", ";13If the number is divisible by 3 and 5, then the number is divisible by '''13'''.", ";14If the two-digit number formed by the last two digits of the given number is divisible by '''14''', then the given number is divisible by 14.Example: 1468, 7394 rule => since 68(145) divisible by 14, then 1468 is divisible by 14.rule => since 94(147) divisible by 14, then 7394 is divisible by 14." ], [ "Fractions and irrational numbers", "=== Fractions ===Duodecimal fractions for rational numbers with 3-smooth denominators terminate:* = 0;6* = 0;4* = 0;3* = 0;2* = 0;16* = 0;14* = 0;1 (this is one twelfth, is one tenth)* = 0;09 (this is one sixteenth, is one fourteenth)while other rational numbers have recurring duodecimal fractions:* = 0;* = 0;* = 0;1 (one tenth)* = 0; (one eleventh)* = 0; (one thirteenth)* = 0;0 (one fourteenth)* = 0;0 (one fifteenth) Examples in duodecimal Decimal equivalent 1 × () = 0.76 1 × () = 0.625 100 × () = 76 144 × () = 90 = 76 = 90 = 54 = 64 1.6 + 7.6 = 26 22.5 + 7.5 = 30As explained in recurring decimals, whenever an irreducible fraction is written in radix point notation in any base, the fraction can be expressed exactly (terminates) if and only if all the prime factors of its denominator are also prime factors of the base.", "Because in the decimal system, fractions whose denominators are made up solely of multiples of 2 and 5 terminate: = , = , and = can be expressed exactly as 0.125, 0.05, and 0.002 respectively.", "and , however, recur (0.333... and 0.142857142857...).Because in the duodecimal system, is exact; and recur because they include 5 as a factor; is exact, and recurs, just as it does in decimal.The number of denominators that give terminating fractions within a given number of digits, , in a base is the number of factors (divisors) of , the th power of the base (although this includes the divisor 1, which does not produce fractions when used as the denominator).", "The number of factors of '''' is given using its prime factorization.For decimal, .", "The number of divisors is found by adding one to each exponent of each prime and multiplying the resulting quantities together, so the number of factors of '''' is .For example, the number 8 is a factor of 103 (1000), so and other fractions with a denominator of 8 cannot require more than three fractional decimal digits to terminate.", "For duodecimal, .", "This has divisors.", "The sample denominator of 8 is a factor of a gross in decimal), so eighths cannot need more than two duodecimal fractional places to terminate.", "Because both ten and twelve have two unique prime factors, the number of divisors of '''' for grows quadratically with the exponent (in other words, of the order of ).=== Recurring digits ===The Dozenal Society of America argues that factors of 3 are more commonly encountered in real-life division problems than factors of 5.Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of repeating decimals is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used.", "Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations.However, when recurring fractions ''do'' occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because 12 (twelve) is between two prime numbers, 11 (eleven) and 13 (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to the composite number 9.Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period does not help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so rounding, which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor 3 in its factorization, whereas only one out of every five contains the prime factor 5.All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do notinfluence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base).", "Also, the prime factor 2 appears twice in the factorization of twelve, whereas only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are powers of two will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in duodecimal than in decimal:* 1/(22) = 0.2510 = 0.312* 1/(23) = 0.12510 = 0.1612* 1/(24) = 0.062510 = 0.0912* 1/(25) = 0.0312510 = 0.04612 '''Decimal base'''Prime factors of the base: '''2''', '''5'''Prime factors of one below the base: '''3'''Prime factors of one above the base: '''11'''All other primes: '''7''', '''13''', '''17''', '''19''', '''23''', '''29''', '''31''' '''Duodecimal base'''Prime factors of the base: '''2''', '''3'''Prime factors of one below the base: ''''''Prime factors of one above the base: '''11 (=1310)'''All other primes: '''5''', '''7''', '''15''', '''17''', '''1''', '''25''', '''27''' Fraction Prime factorsof the denominator Positional representation Positional representation Prime factorsof the denominator Fraction 1/2 '''2''' 0.5 0;6 '''2''' 1/2 1/3 '''3''' 0.0;4 '''3''' 1/3 1/4 '''2''' 0.25 0;3 '''2''' 1/4 1/5 '''5''' 0.2 0; '''5''' 1/5 1/6 '''2''', '''3''' 0.1 0;2 '''2''', '''3''' 1/6 1/7 '''7''' 0.0; '''7''' 1/7 1/8 '''2''' 0.125 0;16 '''2''' 1/8 1/9 '''3''' 0.0;14 '''3''' 1/9 1/10 '''2''', '''5''' 0.1 0;1 '''2''', '''5''' 1/ 1/11 '''11''' 0.0; '''''' 1/ 1/12 '''2''', '''3''' 0.08 0;1 '''2''', '''3''' 1/10 1/13 '''13''' 0.0; '''11''' 1/11 1/14 '''2''', '''7''' 0.0 0;0 '''2''', '''7''' 1/12 1/15 '''3''', '''5''' 0.0 0;0 '''3''', '''5''' 1/13 1/16 '''2''' 0.0625 0;09 '''2''' 1/14 1/17 '''17''' 0.0; '''15''' 1/15 1/18 '''2''', '''3''' 0.0 0;08 '''2''', '''3''' 1/16 1/19 '''19''' 0.0; '''17''' 1/17 1/20 '''2''', '''5''' 0.05 0;0 '''2''', '''5''' 1/18 1/21 '''3''', '''7''' 0.0;0 '''3''', '''7''' 1/19 1/22 '''2''', '''11''' 0.0 0;0 '''2''', '''''' 1/1 1/23 '''23''' 0.0; '''1''' 1/1 1/24 '''2''', '''3''' 0.041 0;06 '''2''', '''3''' 1/20 1/25 '''5''' 0.04 0; '''5''' 1/21 1/26 '''2''', '''13''' 0.0 0;0 '''2''', '''11''' 1/22 1/27 '''3''' 0.0;054 '''3''' 1/23 1/28 '''2''', '''7''' 0.03 0;0 '''2''', '''7''' 1/24 1/29 '''29''' 0.0; '''25''' 1/25 1/30 '''2''', '''3''', '''5''' 0.0 0;0 '''2''', '''3''', '''5''' 1/26 1/31 '''31''' 0.0; '''27''' 1/27 1/32 '''2''' 0.03125 0;046 '''2''' 1/28 1/33 '''3''', '''11''' 0.0;0 '''3''', '''''' 1/29 1/34 '''2''', '''17''' 0.0 0;0 '''2''', '''15''' 1/2 1/35 '''5''', '''7''' 0.0 0; '''5''', '''7''' 1/2 1/36 '''2''', '''3''' 0.02 0;04 '''2''', '''3''' 1/30The duodecimal period length of 1/''n'' are (in decimal):0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 0, 6, 0, 0, 4, 1, 0, 2, 6, 4, 0, 16, 0, 6, 4, 6, 1, 11, 0, 20, 2, 0, 6, 4, 4, 30, 0, 1, 16, 12, 0, 9, 6, 2, 4, 40, 6, 42, 1, 4, 11, 23, 0, 42, 20, 16, 2, 52, 0, 4, 6, 6, 4, 29, 4, 15, 30, 6, 0, 4, 1, 66, 16, 11, 12, 35, 0, ...", "The duodecimal period length of 1/(''n''th prime) are (in decimal):0, 0, 4, 6, 1, 2, 16, 6, 11, 4, 30, 9, 40, 42, 23, 52, 29, 15, 66, 35, 36, 26, 41, 8, 16, 100, 102, 53, 54, 112, 126, 65, 136, 138, 148, 150, 3, 162, 83, 172, 89, 90, 95, 24, 196, 66, 14, 222, 113, 114, 8, 119, 120, 125, 256, 131, 268, 54, 138, 280, ...", "Smallest prime with duodecimal period ''n'' are (in decimal):11, 13, 157, 5, 22621, 7, 659, 89, 37, 19141, 23, 20593, 477517, 211, 61, 17, 2693651, 1657, 29043636306420266077, 85403261, 8177824843189, 57154490053, 47, 193, 303551, 79, 306829, 673, 59, 31, 373, 153953, 886381, 2551, 71, 73, ... === Irrational numbers ===The representations of irrational numbers in any positional number system (including decimal and duodecimal) neither terminate nor repeat.", "The following table gives the first digits for some important algebraic and transcendental numbers in both decimal and duodecimal.", "Algebraic irrational number In decimal In duodecimal , the square root of 2 1.414213562373... 1;479170078... (phi), the golden ratio = 1.618033988749... 1;746772802... Transcendental number In decimal In duodecimal (pi), the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter 3.141592653589... 3;18480949391... , the base of the natural logarithm 2.718281828459... 2;875236069821..." ], [ "See also", "* Vigesimal (base 20)* Sexagesimal (base 60)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dozenal Society of America \"The DSA Symbology Synopsis\" \"Resources\", the DSA website's page of external links to third party tools* Dozenal Society of Great Britain* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Hayes Agnew" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Hayes Agnew''' (November 24, 1818March 22, 1892) was an American surgeon." ], [ "Biography", "Agnew was born on November 24, 1818, Nobleville, Pennsylvania (present-day Christiana).", "His parents were Robert Agnew and Agnes Noble.", "Agnew grew up as a Christian.", "He was surrounded by a family of doctors and had always known he was going to become a physician.", "As a young boy, he had a sharp sense of humor and was very intelligent.He was educated at Jefferson College, and at Delaware College in Newark, Delaware.", "He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine on April 6, 1838.He returned to Nobleville to help his father in his clinic.", "He worked there for two years.", "His father was an asthmatic and moved to Maryland in 1840 because the climate was more suited to his condition.", "Agnew moved with him.", "On November 21, 1841, he married Margaret Irwin.", "In 1852, he bought and revived the Philadelphia School of Anatomy.", "He held responsibility for ten years until 1862.During the American Civil War he was consulting surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and acquired a considerable reputation for his operations in cases of gunshot wounds.", "On December 21, 1863, he became the Demonstrator of Anatomy and Assistant Lecturer on Clinical Surgery at The University of Pennsylvania.", "Later, he was requested to assist the Professor of Surgery in the Conduct of the surgical clinics.", "In the year 1865, he gave summer instruction courses.", "For the next seven years, he worked for the University as Demonstrator of Anatomy.", "A large portion of his success was due to his wife's energy, intelligence, and determination.", "She gave him an impetus to try harder and not be satisfied with his first try.He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1872." ], [ "Garfield case", "On July 2, 1881, President James A. Garfield was shot by Charles J. Guiteau.", "He held the position of chief consulting surgeon.", "When a committee came to give him his money for helping, Agnew said, \"Gentlemen, I present no bill for my attendance to President Garfield.", "I gave my services freely and gratuitously\".", "He was never optimistic about the President's case and was not fooled by fallacious beliefs.", "This procedure helped create Agnew's reputation." ], [ "''The Agnew Clinic''", "''The Agnew Clinic'' is an 1889 painting by Thomas Eakins which depicts Agnew conducting a mastectomy operation before a gallery of students and doctors." ], [ "Accomplishments", "David Agnew wrote ''The Principles and Practice of Surgery'', covers an experience of fifty active years, and its value, preserving and presenting as it does the life-work of such a recognized authority, can hardly be overrated.", "It was a three-volume set that he published from 1878–1883.He also helped found the Irwin & Agnew Iron Foundry in 1846." ], [ "Death", "Agnew caught a severe attack of epidemic influenza in 1890.He never fully recovered.", "Following this, he had an attack of broncho-vesicular catarrh.", "On March 9, 1892, he was put to bed for a series of medical problems.", "After a few days his condition began to improve, but suddenly, on March 12 it became much worse.", "On March 20, he fell into a comatose condition.", "Agnew stayed like this until he died at 3:20 p.m. on March 22, 1892.He is now buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery." ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* ''Who Was Who in America: Historical Volume, 1607–1896.''", "Chicago: Marquis Who's Who, 1963.", "'''Attribution:'''" ], [ "External links", "** Agnew, D. Hayes.", "''Practical anatomy: a new arrangement of the London dissector'', (Philadelphia, 1856).", "From the Digital Repository of the National Library of Medicine.", "*'' History of the Life of D. Hayes Agnew, MD LLD'', J. Howe Adams M.D., F.A.", "Davis Company, Publishers (1892)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diving (sport)" ], [ "Introduction", "Woman performing a \"swallow dive\", 1937'''Diving''' is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics.", "Diving is an internationally recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games.", "In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime.Competitors possess many of the same characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment and air awareness.", "Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving.", "Dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008." ], [ "History", "=== Antiquity ===The Tomb of the Diver, dating to 470 BCE, contains a single enigmatic fresco clearly depicting a young man diving into a curling and waving stream of water.", "frameless===Plunging===Plunging, the first competitive diving sportAlthough diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the first modern diving competitions were held in England in the 1880s.", "The exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races.", "The 1904 book ''Swimming'' by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865.The 1877 edition to ''British Rural Sports'' by John Henry Walsh makes note of a \"Mr. Young\" plunging in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, a swimmer named Drake could cover .The English Amateur Swimming Association (at the time called the Swimming Association of Great Britain) first started a \"plunging championship\" in 1883.The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937.===Fancy diving===A man dives into the Great South Bay of Long Island.\|leftDiving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century.", "The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made from a greater height.", "This tradition evolved into 'fancy diving', while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as 'Plain diving'.In England, the practice of high diving – diving from a great height – gained popularity; the first diving stages were erected at the Highgate Ponds at a height of in 1893 and the first world championship event, the National Graceful Diving Competition, was held there by the Royal Life Saving Society in 1895.The event consisted of standing and running dives from either .It was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi.", "They demonstrated their acrobatic techniques from the 10 m diving board at Highgate Pond and stimulated the establishment of the Amateur Diving Association in 1901, the first organization devoted to diving in the world (later amalgamated with the Amateur Swimming Association).", "Fancy diving was formally introduced into the championship in 1903.===Olympic era===Swedish high diver Arvid Spångberg at the 1908 Olympic Games from the fourth OlympiadPlain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event.", "The 1908 Olympics in London added 'fancy diving' and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms.", "Women were first allowed to participate in the diving events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm.In the 1928 Olympics, 'plain' and 'fancy' diving were amalgamated into one event – 'Highboard Diving'.", "The diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the 1934 British Empire Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London." ], [ "Competitive diving", "Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines: 1 m and 3 m springboards, and the platform.", "Competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group.", "In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven and a half (generally just called seven), nine, or ten meter towers.", "In major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height.Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, including somersaults and twists.", "Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water.", "A possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for the takeoff (meaning the hurdle), three for the flight (the actual dive), and three for the entry (how the diver hits the water), with one more available to give the judges flexibility.The raw score is multiplied by a degree of difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted.", "The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives is declared the winner.===Synchronized diving===A man and a woman perform synchronized diving in Brazil, 2014.Synchronized diving was adopted as an Olympic sport in 2000.Two divers form a team and perform dives simultaneously.", "The dives are identical.", "It used to be possible to dive opposites, also known as a pinwheel, but this is no longer part of competitive synchronized diving.", "For example, one diver would perform a forward dive and the other an inward dive in the same position, or one would do a reverse and the other a back movement.", "In these events, the diving would be judged both on the quality of execution and the synchronicity – in timing of take-off and entry, height and forward travel.===Scoring the dive===There are rules governing the scoring of a dive.", "Usually a score considers three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry.", "The primary factors affecting the scoring are:* if a hand-stand is required, the length of time and quality of the hold* the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score* the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within of the platform)* the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times* the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water* angle of entry – a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle.", "* amount of splash – many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score.Each dive is assigned a ''degree of difficulty'' (DD), which is determined from a combination of the moves undertaken, position used, and height.", "The DD value is multiplied by the scores given by the judges.To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled; major international events such as the Olympics use seven-judge panels.", "For a five-judge panel, the highest and lowest scores are discarded and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD.", "For seven-judge panels, as of the 2012 London Olympics, the two highest scores and two lowest are discarded, leaving three to be summed and multiplied by the DD.", "(Prior to the London Olympics, the highest and lowest scores were eliminated, and the remaining five scores were multiplied by , to allow for comparison to five-judge panels.)", "The canceling of scores is used to make it difficult for a single judge to manipulate scores.There is a general misconception about scoring and judging.", "In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless.", "It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets.", "Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives.", "Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order.", "However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers.", "Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.In synchronised diving events, there is a panel of seven, nine, or eleven judges; two or three to mark the execution of one diver, two or three to mark the execution of the other, and the remaining three or five to judge the synchronisation.", "The execution judges are positioned two on each side of the pool, and they score the diver which is nearer to them.", "The 2012 London Olympics saw the first use of eleven judges.The score is computed similarly to the scores from other diving events, but has been modified starting with the 2012 London Olympics for the use of the larger judging panels.", "Each group of judges will have the highest and lowest scores dropped, leaving the middle score for each diver's execution and the three middle scores for synchronization.", "The total is then weighted by and multiplied by the DD.", "The result is that the emphasis is on the synchronization of the divers.The synchronisation scores are based on:* time of take-off* height attained* synchronisation of rotations and twists* time of entry to the water* forward travel from the boardThe judges may also disqualify the diver for certain violations during the dive, including:* receiving a score of 0 on all dives performed in the event* improper equipment usage (e.g., female divers not using hair ties)===Competitive strategy===Mixed gender participants of synchronized swimming performing a diveTo win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet.", "To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers.", "Often, simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets.", "The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can achieve consistent, high scores.", "If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DDs and lower scores.In competition, divers must submit their lists beforehand, and once past a deadline (usually when the event is announced or shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives.", "If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced or if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero.", "Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform-such as a loud noise).In the Olympics or other highly competitive meets, many divers will have nearly the same list of dives as their competitors.", "The importance for divers competing at this level is not so much the DD, but how they arrange their list.", "Once the more difficult rounds of dives begin it is important to lead off with a confident dive to build momentum.", "They also tend to put a very confident dive in front of a very difficult dive to ensure that they will have a good mentality for the difficult dive.", "Most divers have pre-dive and post-dive rituals that help them either maintain or regain focus.", "Coaches also play a role in this aspect of the sport.", "Many divers rely on their coaches to help keep their composure during the meet.", "In a large meet coaches are rarely allowed on the deck to talk to their athlete so it is common to see coaches using hand gestures or body movements to communicate.There are some American meets which will allow changes of the position of the dive even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced.", "This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced.", "If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk (when the diver stops mid-hurdle) and the change of dive will not be permitted.Under FINA law, no dive may be changed after the deadline for the dive-sheet to be submitted (generally a period ranging from one hour to 24 hours, depending on the rulings made by the event organiser).It is the diver's responsibility to ensure that the dive-sheet is filled in correctly, and also to correct the referee or announcer before the dive if they describe it incorrectly.", "If a dive is performed which is as submitted but not as (incorrectly) announced, it is declared failed and scores zero according to a strict reading of the FINA law.", "But in practice, a re-dive would usually be granted in these circumstances." ], [ "Governance", "A mixed-sex pair, participating in FINA World Championships of synchronised swimming, waves to the crowd before diving into water.The global governing body of diving is FINA, which also governs swimming, synchronised swimming, water polo and open water swimming.", "Almost invariably, at national level, diving shares a governing body with the other aquatic sports.This is frequently a source of political friction as the committees are naturally dominated by swimming officials who do not necessarily share or understand the concerns of the diving community.", "Divers often feel, for example, that they do not get adequate support over issues like the provision of facilities.", "Other areas of concern are the selection of personnel for the specialised Diving committees and for coaching and officiating at events, and the team selection for international competitions.There are sometimes attempts to separate the governing body as a means to resolve these frustrations, but they are rarely successful.", "For example, in the UK the Great Britain Diving Federation was formed in 1992 with the intention of taking over the governance of Diving from the ASA (Amateur Swimming Association).", "Although it initially received widespread support from the diving community, the FINA requirement that international competitors had to be registered with their National Governing Body was a major factor in the abandonment of this ambition a few years later.Since FINA refused to rescind recognition of the ASA as the British governing body for all aquatic sports including diving, this meant that the elite divers had to belong to ASA-affiliated clubs to be eligible for selection to international competition.In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school's swim team.", "Diving is a separate sport in Olympic and Club Diving.", "The NCAA will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed." ], [ "Safety", "A sign prohibiting diving at a beach in Kirkland, WashingtonDespite the apparent risk, the statistical incidence of injury in supervised training and competition is extremely low.The majority of accidents that are classified as 'diving-related' are incidents caused by individuals jumping from structures such as bridges or piers into water of inadequate depth.", "Many accidents also occur when divers do not account for rocks and logs in the water.", "Because of this many beaches and pools prohibit diving in shallow waters or when a lifeguard is not on duty.After an incident in Washington in 1993, most US and other pool builders are reluctant to equip a residential swimming pool with a diving springboard so home diving pools are much less common these days.", "In the incident, 14-year-old Shawn Meneely made a \"suicide dive\" (holding his hands at his sides, so that his head hit the bottom first) in a private swimming pool and became a tetraplegic.", "The lawyers for the family, Jan Eric Peterson and Fred Zeder, successfully sued the diving board manufacturer, the pool builder, and the National Spa and Pool Institute over the inappropriate depth of the pool.The NSPI had specified a minimum depth of 7 ft 6 in (2.29 m) which proved to be insufficient in the above case.", "The pool into which Meneely dived was not constructed to the published standards.", "The standards had changed after the diving board was installed on the non-compliant pool by the homeowner.", "But the courts held that the pool \"was close enough\" to the standards to hold NSPI liable.", "The multimillion-dollar lawsuit was eventually resolved in 2001 for US$6.6 million ($8 million after interest was added) in favor of the plaintiff.", "The NSPI was held to be liable, and was financially strained by the case.", "It filed twice for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection and was successfully reorganized into a new swimming pool industry association.In competitive diving, FINA takes regulatory steps to ensure that athletes are protected from the inherent dangers of the sport.", "For example, they impose restrictions according to age on the heights of platforms which divers may compete on.", "* Group D (11 & under): 5 m* Group C (12/13 year): 5 m & 7.5 m* Group B (14/15 year): 5 m, 7.5 m & 10 m* Group A (16/18 year): 5 m, 7.5 m & 10 mGroup D divers have only recently been allowed to compete on the tower.", "In the past, the age group could compete only springboard, to discourage children from taking on the greater risks of tower diving.", "Group D tower was introduced to counteract the phenomenon of coaches pushing young divers to compete in higher age categories, thus putting them at even greater risk.However, some divers may safely dive in higher age categories to dive on higher platforms.", "Usually this occurs when advanced Group C divers wish to compete on the 10 m.Points on pool depths in connection with safety:* most competition pools are 5 m deep for 10 m platform and 4 m deep for 5 m platform or 3 m springboard.", "These are currently the FINA recommended minimum depths, however some pools are deeper.", "The deepest diving pool in Europe is in Ponds Forge International Sports Centre at 5.85 m.* diving from 10 m and maintaining a downward streamlined position results in gliding to a stop at about 4.5–5 m.* high standard competition divers rarely go more than about 2.5m below the surface, as they roll in the direction of the dive's rotation.", "This is a technique to produce a clean entry.", "* attempting to scoop the trajectory underwater against the rotation is extremely inadvisable as it can cause serious back injuries.", "* hitting the water flat from 10 m brings the diver to rest in about 30 cm (1 ft).", "The extreme deceleration causes severe bruising both internal and external, strains to connective tissue securing the organs and possible minor hemorrhage to lungs and other tissue.", "This is very painful and distressing, but not life-threatening." ], [ "Dive groups", "A male diver performs a reverse in the tuck position from a 3-meter springboard.There are six \"groups\" into which dives are classified: ''Forward, Back, Inward, Reverse, Twist,'' and ''Armstand''.", "The armstand group applies only to Platform competitions, whereas the other five groups apply to both Springboard and Platform.", "* in the Forward Group (Group 1), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates forward* in the Back Group (2), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates backward* in the Reverse Group (3), the diver takes off facing forward and rotates backward* in the Inward Group (4), the diver takes off with their back to the water and rotates forward* any dive incorporating an axial twisting movement is in the Twist group (5)* any dive commencing from a handstand is in the Armstand group (6) (only on platform)===Dive positions===During the flight of the dive, one of four positions is assumed:* straight – with no bend at the knees or hips (the hardest of the four)* pike – with knees straight but a tight bend at the hips (the median in difficulty of the four).", "The open pike is a variant where the arms are reached to the side, and the legs are brought straight out with a bend in the hips.", "* tuck – body folded up in a tight ball, hands holding the shins and toes pointed (the easiest of the four)* free – indicates a twisting dive, and a combination of other positions.", "In the transition between two positions the diver may for example bend their legs or curve at the waist, and points will not be deducted for doing so.These positions are referred to by the letters A, B, C and D respectively.Additionally, some dives can be started in a flying position.", "The body is kept straight with the arms extended to the side, and the regular dive position is assumed at about half the dive.Difficulty is rated according to the Degree of Difficulty of the dives.", "Some divers may find pike easier in a flip than tuck, and most find straight the easiest in a front/back dive, although it is still rated the most difficult because of the risk of overrotation.An armstand dive may have a higher degree of difficulty outdoors compared to indoors as wind can destabilize the equilibrium of the diver.===Dive numbers===In competition, the dives are referred to by a schematic system of three- or four-digit numbers.", "The letter to indicate the position is appended to the end of the number.The first digit of the number indicates the dive group as defined above.For groups 1 to 4, the number consists of three digits and a letter of the alphabet.", "The third digit represents the number of half-somersaults.", "The second digit is either 0 or 1, with 0 representing a normal somersault, and 1 signifying a \"flying\" variation of the basic movement (i.e.", "the first half somersault is performed in the straight position, and then the pike or tuck shape is assumed).", "No flying dive has been competed at a high level competition for many years.For example:* 101A – forward Dive Straight* 203C – back one-and-a-half somersaults, tuck* 305C – reverse two-and-a-half somersaults, tuck* 113B – flying forward one-and-a-half somersaults, pike* 104C – front double somersaults, tuckFor Group 5, the dive number has 4 digits.", "The first digit indicates that it is a twisting dive.", "The second digit indicates the group (1–4) of the underlying movement; the third digit indicates the number of half-somersaults, and the fourth indicates the number of half-twists.For example:* 5211A – back dive, half twist, straight position.", "* 5337D – reverse one and a half somersaults with three and a half twists, in the Free position.For Group 6 – Armstand – the dive number has either three or four digits: Three digits for dives without twist and four for dives with twists.In non-twisting armstand dives, the second digit indicates the direction of rotation (0 = no rotation, 1 = forward, 2 = backward, 3 = reverse, 4 = inward) and the third digit indicates the number of half-somersaults.", "Inward-rotating armstand dives have never been performed, and are generally regarded as physically impossible.For example:* 600A – armstand dive straight* 612B – armstand forward somersault pike* 624C – armstand back double somersault tuckFor twisting Armstand dives, the dive number again has 4 digits, but rather than beginning with the number 5, the number 6 remains as the first digit, indicating that the \"twister\" will be performed from an Armstand.", "The second digit indicates the direction of rotation – as above, the third is the number of half-somersaults, and the fourth is the number of half-twists:e.g.", "6243D – armstand back double-somersault with one and a half twists in the free positionAll of these dives come with DD (degree of difficulty) this is an indication of how difficult/complex a dive is.", "The score that the dive receives is multiplied by the DD (also known as tariff) to give the dive a final score.", "Before a diver competes they must decide on a \"list\" this is a number of optional dives and compulsory dives.", "The optionals come with a DD limit.", "this means that a diver must select X number of dives and the combined DD limit must be no more than the limit set by the competition/organisation etc.Until the mid-1990s the tariff was decided by the FINA diving committee, and divers could only select from the range of dives in the published tariff table.", "Since then, the tariff is calculated by a formula based on various factors such as the number of twist and somersaults, the height, the group etc., and divers are free to submit new combinations.", "This change was implemented because new dives were being invented too frequently for an annual meeting to accommodate the progress of the sport." ], [ "Mechanics of diving", "Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Italy, a Greek fresco dated 470 BCAt the moment of take-off, two critical aspects of the dive are determined, and cannot subsequently be altered during the execution.", "One is the trajectory of the dive, and the other is the magnitude of the angular momentum.The speed of rotation – and therefore the total amount of rotation – may be varied from moment to moment by changing the shape of the body, in accordance with the law of conservation of angular momentum.The center of mass of the diver follows a parabolic path in free-fall under the influence of gravity (ignoring the effects of air resistance, which are negligible at the speeds involved).===Trajectory===Since the parabola is symmetrical, the travel away from the board as the diver passes it is twice the amount of the forward travel at the peak of the flight.", "Excessive forward distance to the entry point is penalized when scoring a dive, but obviously an adequate clearance from the diving board is essential on safety grounds.The greatest possible height that can be achieved is desirable for several reasons:* the height attained is itself one of the factors that the judges will reward.", "* a greater height gives a longer flight time and therefore more time to execute maneuvers.", "* for any given clearance when passing the board, the forward travel distance to the entry point will be less for a higher trajectory.===Control of rotation===The magnitude of angular momentum remains constant throughout the dive, but since::angular momentum = rotational velocity × moment of inertia,and the moment of inertia is larger when the body has an increased radius, the speed of rotation may be increased by moving the body into a compact shape, and reduced by opening out into a straight position.Since the tucked shape is the most compact, it gives the most control over rotational speed, and dives in this position are easier to perform.", "Dives in the straight position are hardest, since there is almost no scope for altering the speed, so the angular momentum must be created at take-off with a very high degree of accuracy.", "(A small amount of control is available by moving the position of the arms and by a slight hollowing of the back).The opening of the body for the entry does not stop the rotation, but merely slows it down.", "The vertical entry achieved by expert divers is largely an illusion created by starting the entry slightly short of vertical, so that the legs are vertical as they disappear beneath the surface.", "A small amount of additional tuning is available by 'entry save' techniques, whereby underwater movements of the upper body and arms against the viscosity of the water affect the position of the legs.===Twisting===A twisting dive performed from a 10-meter platformDives with multiple twists and somersaults are some of the most spectacular movements, as well as the most challenging to perform.The rules state that twisting \"must not be generated manifestly on take-off\".", "Consequently, divers must use some of the somersaulting angular momentum to generate twisting movements.", "The physics of twisting can be explained by looking at the components of the angular momentum vector.As the diver leaves the board, the total angular momentum vector is horizontal, pointing directly to the left for a forward dive for example.", "For twisting rotation to exist, it is necessary to tilt the body sideways after takeoff, so that there is now a small component of this horizontal angular momentum vector along the body's long axis.", "The tilt can be seen in the photo.The tilting is done by the arms, which are outstretched to the sides just before the twist.", "When one arm is moved up and the other is moved down (like turning a big steering wheel), the body reacts by tilting to the side, which then begins the twisting rotation.", "At the completion of the required number of twist rotations, the arm motion is reversed (the steering wheel is turned back), which removes the body's tilt and stops the twisting rotation.An alternative explanation is that the moving arms have precession torque on them which set the body into twisting rotation.", "Moving the arms back produces opposite torque which stops the twisting rotation.===Entry===The rules state that the body should be vertical, or nearly so, for entry.", "Strictly speaking, it is physically impossible to achieve a literally vertical position throughout the entry as there will inevitably still be some rotational momentum while the body is entering the water.", "Divers therefore attempt to create the illusion of being vertical, especially when performing rapidly rotating multiple somersault movements.", "For back entries, one technique is to allow the upper body to enter slightly short of vertical so that the continuing rotation leaves the final impression of the legs entering vertically.", "This is called \"Pike save\".", "Another is to use \"knee save\" movements of scooping the upper body underwater in the direction of rotation so as to counteract the rotation of the legs.The arms must be beside the body for feet-first dives, which are typically competed only on the 1m springboard and only at fairly low levels of 3m springboard, and extended forwards in line for \"head-first\" dives, which are much more common competitively.", "It used to be common for the hands to be interlocked with the fingers extended towards the water, but a different technique has become favoured during the last few decades.", "Now the usual practice is for one hand to grasp the other with palms down to strike the water with a flat surface.", "This creates a vacuum between the hands, arms and head which, with a vertical entry, will pull down and under any splash until deep enough to have minimal effect on the surface of the water (the so-called \"rip entry\").Once a diver is completely under the water they may choose to roll or scoop in the same direction their dive was rotating to pull their legs into a more vertical position.", "Apart from aesthetic considerations, it is important from a safety point of view that divers reinforce the habit of rolling in the direction of rotation, especially for forward and inward entries.", "Back injuries such as hyperextension are caused by attempting to re-surface in the opposite direction.", "Diving from the higher levels increases the danger and likelihood of such injuries." ], [ "By country", "===Canada===The DPC logoIn Canada, elite competitive diving is regulated by DPC (Diving Plongeon Canada), although the individual provinces also have organizational bodies.", "The main competitive season runs from February to July, although some competitions may be held in January or December, and many divers (particularly international level athletes) will train and compete year round.Most provincial level competitions consist of events for six age groups (Groups A, B, C, D, E, and Open) for both genders on each of the three board levels.", "These age groups roughly correspond to those standardized by FINA, with the addition of a youngest age group for divers 9 and younger, Group E, which does not compete nationally and does not have a tower event (although divers of this age may choose to compete in Group D).", "The age group Open is so called because divers of any age, including those over 18, may compete in these events, so long as their dives meet a minimum standard of difficulty.Although Canada is internationally a fairly strong country in diving, the vast majority of Canadian high schools and universities do not have diving teams, and many Canadian divers accept athletic scholarships from American colleges.Adult divers who are not competitive at an elite level may compete in masters diving.", "Typically, masters are either adults who never practiced the sport as children or teenagers, or former elite athletes who have retired but still seek a way to be involved in the sport.", "Many diving clubs have masters teams in addition to their primary competitive ones, and while some masters dive only for fun and fitness, there are also masters competitions, which range from the local to world championship level.====National championships====Divers can qualify to compete at the age group national championships, or junior national championships, in their age groups as assigned by FINA up to the age of 18.This competition is held annually in July.", "Qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions in the season, although athletes who place very highly at a national championship will be automatically qualified to compete at the next.", "Divers must qualify at two different competitions, at least one of which must be a level 1 competition, i.e.", "a competition with fairly strict judging patterns.", "Such competitions include the Polar Bear Invitational in Winnipeg, the Sting in Victoria, and the Alberta Provincial Championships in Edmonton or Calgary.", "The qualifying scores are determined by DPC according to the results of the preceding year's national competition, and typically do not have much variation from year to year.Divers older than 18, or advanced divers of younger ages, can qualify for the senior national championships, which are held twice each year, once roughly in March and once in June or July.", "Once again, qualification is based on achieving minimum scores at earlier competitions (in this case, within the 12 months preceding the national championships, and in an Open age group event), or high placements in previous national championships or international competitions.", "It is no longer the case that divers may use results from age group events to qualify for senior nationals, or results from Open events to qualify for age group nationals.===Republic of Ireland===In the Republic of Ireland facilities are limited to one operational pool at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin.", "Other facilities with diving boards at the University of Limerick are undergoing staff training in an effort to start diving programmes.====National championships====National championships take place late in the year, usually during November.", "The competition is held at the National Aquatic Centre in Dublin and consists of four events:* Irish Open Age Group Championships* Irish Open Junior Diving Championships* Irish Open Senior Diving Championships* Novice Competition (8–18 yrs)===United Kingdom===In the United Kingdom, diving competitions on all boards run throughout the year.", "National Masters' Championships are held two or three times per year.===United States=======Summer diving====In the United States, summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools.", "Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions.", "These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children.====High school diving====In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving (but some schools use three meter springboards.).", "Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score.", "High school diving and swimming concludes their season with a state competition.", "Depending on the state and the number of athletes competing in the state, certain qualifications must be achieved to compete in the state's championship meet.", "There are often regional championships and district championships which are necessary to compete in before reaching the state meet to narrow the field to only the most competitive athletes.", "Most state championship meets consist of eleven dives.", "The eleven dives are usually split up between two categories: five required (voluntary) dives and six optional dives.====Club diving====In the United States, pre-college divers interested in learning one and three meter or platform diving should consider a club sanctioned by either USA Diving or AAU Diving.", "In USA Diving, Future Champions is the entry level or novice diver category with eight levels of competition.", "From Future Champions, divers graduate to \"Junior Olympic\", or JO.", "JO divers compete in age groups at inter-club competitions, at invitationals, and if qualified, at regional, zone and national competitions.", "Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver.USA Diving sanctions the Winter Nationals championship with one, three meter, and platform events.", "In the summer USA Diving sanctions the Summer Nationals including all three events with both Junior and Senior divers.", "USA Diving is sanctioned by the United States Olympic Committee to select team representatives for international diving competitions including the World Championships and Olympic Games.AAU Diving sanctions one national event per year in the summer.", "AAU competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the All-American team.====College diving====The University of Houston's CRWC Natatorium is home to the United States' largest collegiate swimming pool.In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving.", "Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score.", "College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the NCAA separate from swim team events.", "NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.Each division also has rules on the number of dives in each competition.", "Division II schools compete with 10 dives in competition whereas Division III schools compete with 11.Division I schools only compete with 6 dives in competition.", "These 6 dives consist of either 5 optionals and 1 voluntary, or 6 optionals.", "If the meet is a 5 optional meet, then the divers will perform 1 optional from each category (Front, Back, Inward, Reverse, and Twister) and then 1 voluntary from the category of their choice.", "The voluntary in this type of meet is always worth a DD (Degree of Difficulty) of 2.0 even if the real DD is worth more or less on a DD sheet.", "In a 6 optional meet, the divers will yet again perform one dive from each category, but this time they will perform a 6th optional from the category of their choosing, which is worth its actual DD from the DD sheet.The highest level of collegiate competition is the NCAA Division 1 Swimming and Diving Championship.", "Events at the championship include 1 meter springboard, 3 meter springboard, and platform, as well as various swimming individual and relay events.", "The points scored by swimmers and divers are combined to determine a team swimming & diving champion.", "To qualify for a diving event at the NCAA championships, a competitor must first finish in the top three at one of five zone championships, which are held after the various conference championship meets.", "A diver who scores at least 310 points on the 3 meter springboard and 300 points on the 1 meter springboard in a 6 optional meet can participate in the particular zone championship corresponding to the geographic region in which his or her school lies.A number of colleges and universities offer scholarships to men and women who have competitive diving skills.", "These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club diving experience.The NCAA limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions.", "The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.====Masters' Diving====Divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Masters' Diving programs.", "Masters' diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.Masters' Diving events are normally conducted in age-groups separated by five or ten years, and attract competitors of a wide range of ages and experience (many, indeed, are newcomers to the sport); the oldest competitor in a Masters' Diving Championship was Viola Krahn, who at the age of 101 was the first person in any sport, male or female, anywhere in the world, to compete in an age-group of 100+ years in a nationally organized competition." ], [ "Non-competitive diving", "A man diving into Lake MichiganMan and woman jumping off a cliff at Colliding Rivers, Glide, OregonDiving is also popular as a non-competitive activity.", "Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver enters the water.", "The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training.", "Entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is underwater swimming.Such non-competitive diving can occur indoors and outdoors.", "Outdoor diving typically takes place from cliffs or other rock formations either into fresh or salt water.", "However, man-made diving platforms are sometimes constructed in popular swimming destinations.", "Outdoor diving requires knowledge of the water depth and currents as conditions can be dangerous.On occasion, the diver will inadvertently belly flop, entering the water horizontally or nearly so.", "The diver typically displaces a larger than usual amount of water." ], [ "High diving", "A recently developing section of the sport is ''High Diving'' (e.g.", "see 2013 World Aquatics Championships), conducted in open air locations, usually from improvised platforms up to high (as compared with as used in Olympic and World Championship events).", "Entry to the water is invariably feet-first to avoid the risk of injury that would be involved in head-first entry from that height.", "The final half-somersault is almost always performed backwards, enabling the diver to spot the entry point and control their rotation.Competitive high diving is run as the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series." ], [ "See also", "Aquatic timing systemCannonball (diving)*Diving at the Summer OlympicsLa Quebrada Cliff DiversList of Olympic medalists in divingScuba divingShallow divingList of 10 meter diving platforms in the United States" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* FINA* USA Diving* AAU Diving* NCAA* USA Masters' Diving.", "* Diving mentality" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dative case" ], [ "Introduction", "In grammar, the '''dative case''' (abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in \"\", Latin for \"Maria gave Jacob a drink\".", "In this example, the dative marks what would be considered the indirect object of a verb in English.Sometimes the dative has functions unrelated to giving.", "In Scottish Gaelic and Irish, the term ''dative case'' is used in traditional grammars to refer to the prepositional case-marking of nouns following simple prepositions and the definite article.", "In Georgian and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), the dative case can also mark the subject of a sentence.", "This is called the dative construction.", "In Hindi, the dative construction is not limited to only certain verbs or tenses and it can be used with any verb in any tense or mood.The dative was common among early Indo-European languages and has survived to the present in the Balto-Slavic branch, the Germanic branch, Albanian and others.", "It also exists in similar forms in several non-Indo-European languages, such as the Uralic family of languages.", "In some languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other, now extinct cases.", "In Ancient Greek, the dative has the functions of the Proto-Indo-European locative and instrumental as well as those of the original dative.Under the influence of English, which uses the preposition \"to\" for (among other uses) both indirect objects (''give to'') and directions of movement (''go to''), the term \"dative\" has sometimes been used to describe cases that in other languages would more appropriately be called lative." ], [ "Etymology", "\"Dative\" comes from Latin ''cāsus datīvus'' (\"case for giving\"), a translation of Greek δοτικὴ πτῶσις, ''dotikē ptôsis'' (\"inflection for giving\").", "Dionysius Thrax in his Art of Grammar also refers to it as ''epistaltikḗ'' \"for sending (a letter)\", from the verb ''epistéllō'' \"send to\", a word from the same root as epistle." ], [ "English", "The Old English language had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the Middle English period, when the accusative and dative of pronouns merged into a single oblique case that was also used with all prepositions.", "This conflation of case in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the \"accusative\" and \"dative\" labels as obsolete in reference to English, often using the term \"objective\" for oblique.===Set expressions===The dative case is rare in modern English usage, but it can be argued that it survives in a few set expressions.", "One example is the word \"methinks\", with the meaning \"it seems to me\".", "It survives in this fixed form from Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as \"it\" + \"me\" (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + \"thinks\" (i.e., \"seems\", < Old English þyncan, \"to seem\", a verb closely related to the verb þencan, \"to think\", but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with \"think\" and lost this meaning).===Relic pronouns===The modern objective case pronoun whom is derived from the dative case in Old English, specifically the Old English dative pronoun \"hwām\" (as opposed to the modern subjective \"who\", which descends from Old English \"hwā\") – though \"whom\" ''also'' absorbed the functions of the Old English accusative pronoun \"hwone\".", "It is also cognate to the word \"''wem''\" (the dative form of \"''wer''\") in German.", "The OED defines all classical uses of the word \"whom\" in situations where the indirect object ''is not known'' – in effect, indicating the anonymity of the indirect object.Likewise, some of the object forms of personal pronouns are remnants of Old English datives.", "For example, \"him\" goes back to the Old English dative ''him'' (accusative was ''hine''), and \"her\" goes back to the dative ''hire'' (accusative was ''hīe'').", "These pronouns are not pure datives in modern English; they are also used for functions previously indicated by the accusative.===Modern English===The indirect object of the verb may be placed between the verb and the direct object of the verb: \"he gave '''me''' a book\" or \"he wrote '''me''' a poem.", "\"The indirect object may also be expressed using a prepositional phrase using \"to\": \"he gave a book '''to me'''." ], [ "German", "In general, the dative (German: ''Dativ'') is used to mark the indirect object of a German sentence.", "For example:* (literally: I sent \"to the man\" the book.)", "– Masculine* (literally: I gave \"to the woman\" the pencil back.)", "– Feminine* (literally: I hand \"to the child\" a present.)", "– NeuterIn English, the first sentence can be rendered as \"I sent the book ''to the man''\" and as \"I sent ''the man'' the book\", where the indirect object is identified in English by standing in front of the direct object.", "The normal word order in German is to put the dative in front of the accusative (as in the example above).", "However, since the German dative is marked in form, it can also be put ''after'' the accusative: .", "The '''''' after and signifies a now largely archaic ending for certain nouns in the dative.", "It survives today almost exclusively in set phrases such as (at home, ''lit.''", "to house), (in the course of), and (during the day, ''lit.''", "at the day), as well as in occasional usage in formal prose, poetry, and song lyrics.Some masculine nouns (and one neuter noun, heart), referred to as ''weak nouns'' or ''n-nouns'', take an -n or -en in the dative singular and plural.", "Many are masculine nouns ending in -e in the nominative (such as name, officer, and boy), although not all such nouns follow this rule.", "Many also, whether or not they fall into the former category, refer to people, animals, professions, or titles; exceptions to this include the aforementioned and , as well as (letter), (peace), (obelisk), (planet), and others.Certain German prepositions require the dative: (from), (out of), (at, near), (against), (opposite), (with), (after, to), (since), (from), and (at, in, to).", "Some other prepositions ( at, on, along, behind, in, into, (beside, next to), over, across, under, below, in front of, and among, between) may be used with dative (indicating current location), or accusative (indicating direction toward something).", "(dative: The book is lying on the table), but (accusative: I put the book onto the table).In addition the four prepositions (in place of), (in spite of), (during), and (because of) which require the genitive in modern formal language, are most commonly used with the dative in colloquial German.", "For example, \"because of the weather\" is expressed as instead of the formally correct .", "Other prepositions requiring the genitive in formal language, are combined with (\"of\") in colloquial style, e.g.", "instead of (\"outside the garden\").The concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase.", "In this case, the noun's or pronoun's case is determined by the preposition, not by its function in the sentence.", "Consider this sentence:* 'I sent the book to the editor.", "'Here, the subject, , is in the nominative case, the direct object, , is in the accusative case, and is in the dative case, since always requires the dative ( is a contraction of + ).", "However:* (''accusative'') .", "'I forwarded the book to my friend.'", "( = lit.", ": to give further).In this sentence, is the indirect object, but, because it follows (direction), the accusative is required, not the dative.All of the articles change in the dative case.", "Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Definite article dem der dem den Indefinite article einem einer einem Ø (the semantically closest word would be '''einigen''', dative plural of einig) Negative articles keinem keiner keinem keinenSome German verbs require the dative for their direct objects.", "Common examples are ''antworten'' (to answer), ''danken'' (to thank), ''gefallen'' (to please), ''folgen'' (to follow), ''glauben'' (to believe), ''helfen'' (to help), and ''raten'' (to advise).", "In each case, the direct object of the verb is rendered in the dative.", "For example:Meine Freunde helfen ''mir''.", "(My friends help me.", ")These verbs cannot be used in normal passive constructions, because German allows these only for verbs with accusative objects.", "It is therefore ungrammatical to say: ''Ich werde geholfen.''", "\"I am helped.\"", "Instead a special construction called \"impersonal passive\" must be used: ''Mir wird geholfen'', literally: \"To me is helped.\"", "A colloquial (non-standard) way to form the passive voice for dative verbs is the following: ''Ich kriege geholfen'', or: ''Ich bekomme geholfen'', literally: \"I '''get''' helped\".", "The use of the verb \"to get\" here reminds us that the dative case has something to do with giving and receiving.", "In German, help is not something you ''perform on'' somebody, but rather something you ''offer'' them.The dative case is also used with reflexive (''sich'') verbs when specifying what part of the self the verb is being done to:Ich wasche ''mich''.", "– accusative (I wash myself.", ")Ich wasche ''mir die Hände''.", "– dative (I wash my hands, literally \"I wash for myself the hands\")Cf.", "the respective ''accord'' in French: \"Les enfants se sont lavé'''''s'''''\" (''the children have washed themselves'') vs. \"Les enfants se sont lavé\" uninflected \"les mains\" (''... their hands'').German can use two datives to make sentences like: ''Sei mir meinem Sohn(e) gnädig!''", "\"For my sake, have mercy on my son!\"", "Literally: \"Be for me to my son merciful.\"", "The first dative ''mir'' (\"for me\") expresses the speaker's commiseration (much like the ''dativus ethicus'' in Latin, see below).", "The second dative ''meinem Sohn(e)'' (\"to my son\") names the actual object of the plea.", "Mercy is to be given ''to'' the son ''for'' or ''on behalf of'' his mother/father.Adjective endings also change in the dative case.", "There are three inflection possibilities depending on what precedes the adjective.", "They most commonly use ''weak inflection'' when preceded by a definite article (the), ''mixed inflection'' after an indefinite article (a/an), and ''strong inflection'' when a quantity is indicated (many green apples).", "Adj.", "in dative case Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural Weak inflection -en -en -en -en Mixed inflection -en -en -en -en Strong inflection -''em'' -''er'' -''em'' -en==Latin== There are several uses for the dative case ():* ('''dative of purpose'''), e.g.", "– \"we learn not for school, but for life\", – \"to call for help\", – \"I'm coming for help\", – \"I receive this as a gift\" or – \"this is for the girl's decoration\", or \"... for decoration for the girl\" (as could be either dative or genitive), which means action for (or against) somebody, e.g., – \"to till fields for Greeks\"; Combination of and (double dative): \"to you for joy\" ('''possessive dative''') which means possession, e.g.", "– literally \"to (or for) the angels are wings\", this is typically found with a copula and translated as \"angels have wings\".", "* ('''ethic dative''') indicates that the person in the dative is or should be especially concerned about the action, e.g.", "\"What is Celsus doing for me?\"", "(expressing the speaker being especially interested in what Celsus is doing for him or her); or \"Whose interest does this serve?\"", "(literally \"To whom does this do good?", "\"), meaning; 'in the eyes of', e.g., 'he seems to me to be a good man'.", "The dative expresses agency with the gerundive when the gerundive is used to convey obligation or necessity, e.g., , 'these things must be done by us.'" ], [ "Greek", "===Ancient===In addition to its main function as the ''dativus'', the dative case has other functions in Classical Greek: (The chart below uses the Latin names for the types of dative; the Greek name for the dative is δοτική πτῶσις, like its Latin equivalent, derived from the verb \"to give\"; in Ancient Greek, δίδωμι.", ")Dativus finalis: The ''dativus finalis'', or the 'dative of purpose', is when the dative is used to denote ''the purpose'' of a certain action.", "For example:\"\"\"I fight '''for the king'''\".", "\"\"**\"I die '''for honour'''\".", "Dativus commŏdi (incommodi): The ''dativus commodi sive incommodi'', or the 'dative of benefit (or harm)' is the dative that expresses the advantage or disadvantage of something ''for someone''.", "For example:''For the benefit of'': \"\" (Sophocles, ''Ajax'' 1366).", "\"Every man toils '''for himself'''\".", "''For the harm or disadvantage of'': \"\" (Thucydides 2.12.4).", "*\"This day will be the beginning of great sorrows '''for the Greeks''' (i.e., for their disadvantage)\".", "Dativus possessivus: The ''dativus possessivus'', or the 'dative of possession' is the dative used to denote ''the possessor'' of a certain object or objects.", "For example:\"\" (Thucycdides 1.86.3).", "\"For '''others have''' a lot of money and ships and horses, but we have good allies (i.e., To others there is a lot of money...)\".", "Dativus ethicus: The ''dativus ethicus'', or the 'ethic or polite dative,' is when the dative is used to signify that the person or thing spoken of is regarded with interest by someone.", "This dative is mostly, if not exclusively, used in pronouns.", "As such, it is also called the \"dative of pronouns.\"", "For example:\"\" (Demosthenes 18.178).", "\"Pay close attention to this, '''I beg you''' (i.e., please pay..)\".", "\"\" (Xenophon, ''Cyropaedia'' 18.178).", "*\"Oh, mother, how handsome grandpa is ('''I've just realized!''')\".", "Dativus auctoris: The ''dativus auctoris'', or the 'dative of agent,' is the dative used to denote ''the doer'' of an action.", "Note, however, that in Classical Greek, the agent is usually in the genitive after (by, at the hands of).", "The agent is in the dative most often with the perfect and pluperfect passive, and with the verbal adjective in .", "For example:\"\" (Isocrates 8.39)\"Many cures have been discovered '''by doctors'''.", "\"Dativus instrumenti: The ''dativus instrumenti'', or the 'dative of instrument,' is when the dative is used to denote an instrument or means of a certain action (or, more accurately, as the instrumental case).", "For example:\".\"", "(Homer, ''Odyssey'' 9.407)\"He kills me '''with a bait''' (i.e., by means of a bait).", "\"Dativus modi: The ''dativus modi'', or the 'dative of manner,' is the dative used to describe ''the manner or way'' by which something happened.", "For example:\"\" (Thucydides 8.84)\"having died '''of''' ('''from''') '''a disease'''.", "\"Dativus mensurae: The ''dativus mensurae'', or the 'dative of measurement,' is the dative used to denote ''the measurement of difference''.", "For example:\"\" (Plato, ''Phaedo'' 101a)\"taller '''by a head'''.", "\"\"\" (Plato, ''Laws'' 729d)*\"'''by far''' the best.", "\"The articles in the Greek dative are+Definite article Masculine Neuter Feminine Singular ΤΩΙ (τῷ) ΤΗΙ (τῇ) Plural ΤΟΙΣ (τοῖς) ΤΑΙΣ (ταῖς)===Modern===The dative case, strictly speaking, no longer exists in Modern Greek, except in fossilized expressions like δόξα τω Θεώ (from the ecclesiastical τῷ Θεῷ δόξα, \"Glory to God\") or εν τάξει (ἐν τάξει, lit.", "\"in order\", i.e.", "\"all right\" or \"OK\").", "Otherwise, most of the functions of the dative are expressed by the genitive or by prepositional phrases." ], [ "Slavic languages", "In Russian, the dative case is used for indicating the indirect object of an action (that to which something is given, thrown, read, etc.).", "In the instance where a person is the goal of motion, dative is used instead of accusative to indicate motion toward.", "This is usually achieved with the preposition + destination in dative case; , meaning \"to the doctor.", "\"Dative is also the necessary case taken by certain prepositions when expressing certain ideas.", "For instance, when the preposition ''по'' is used to mean \"along\", its object is always in dative case, as in , meaning \"along the sides.", "\"Other Slavic languages apply the dative case (and the other cases) more or less the same way as does Russian; some languages may use the dative in other ways.", "The following examples are from Polish:after certain verbs (dziękować '''komuś''' \"to thank someone\", pomóc '''komuś''' \"to help someone\", wierzyć '''komuś''' \"to believe someone\")in certain expressions (Czy podoba '''ci''' się piosenka?", "\"Do you like the song?", "\", Jest '''mi''' zimno \"I'm cold\", Jest '''nam''' smutno \"We're feeling sad\", Będzie '''wam''' trudniej... \"It will be more difficult for you guys\"), Śniło '''jej''' się, że... \"She dreamt that\"''dativus commodi'' to indicate action for somebody (Zbuduję t'''emu''' człowiek'''owi''' dom \"I will build a house for this person\")when something is taken away or something occurs to someone (Zdechł '''im''' pies \"Their dog died\"; Zabrali '''mu''' komputer \"They took away his computer\"; Zepsuł '''nam''' się samochód \"Our car broke down\"; Coś '''mi''' się przypomniało \"I just remembered something\")Some other kinds of dative use as found in the Serbo-Croatian language are: ''Dativus finalis'' ('''Titaniku''' u pomoć \"to Titanic's rescue\"), ''Dativus commodi/incommodi'' (Operi '''svojoj majci''' suđe \"Wash the dishes for your mother\"), ''Dativus possessivus'' ('''Ovcama''' je dlaka gusta \"Sheep's hair is thick\"), ''Dativus ethicus'' (Šta/što '''mi''' radi Boni?", "\"What is Boni doing?", "(I am especially interested in what it is)\") and Dativus auctoris (Izgleda '''mi''' okej \"It seems okay to me\").Unusual in other Indo-European branches but common among Slavic languages, endings of nouns and adjectives are different based on grammatical function.", "Other factors are gender and number.", "In some cases, the ending may not be obvious, even when those three factors (function, gender, number) are considered.", "For example, in Polish, ''''syn'''' (\"son\") and ''''ojciec'''' (\"father\") are both masculine singular nouns, yet appear as ''syn → syn'''owi''''' and ''ojciec → ojc'''u''''' in the dative." ], [ "Baltic languages", "Both Lithuanian and Latvian have a distinct dative case in the system of nominal declensions.Lithuanian nouns preserve Indo-European inflections in the dative case fairly well: (o-stems) vaikas -> sg.", "vaikui, pl.", "vaikams; (ā-stems) ranka -> sg.", "rankai, pl.", "rankoms; (i-stems) viltis -> sg.", "vilčiai, pl.", "viltims; (u-stems) sūnus -> sg.", "sūnui, pl.", "sūnums; (consonant stems) vanduo -> sg.", "vandeniui, pl.", "vandenims.Adjectives in the dative case receive pronominal endings (this might be the result of a more recent development): tas geras vaikas -> sg.", "t'''am''' ger'''am''' vaikui, pl.", "t'''iems''' ger'''iems''' vaikams.The dative case in Latvian underwent further simplifications – the original masculine endings of ''both'' nouns and adjectives have been replaced with pronominal inflections: tas vīrs -> sg.", "tam vīram, pl.", "vīriem.", "Also, the final \"s\" in all Dative forms has been dropped.", "The only exception is personal pronouns in the plural: mum'''s''' (to us), jum'''s''' (to you).", "In colloquial Lithuanian the final \"s\" in the dative is often omitted, as well: time geriem vaikam.In both Latvian and Lithuanian, the main function of the dative case is to render the indirect object in a sentence: (lt) aš duodu vyrui knygą; (lv) es dodu duodu vīram grāmatu – ''I am giving a book to the man''.The dative case can also be used with gerundives to indicate an action preceding or simultaneous with the main action in a sentence: (lt) jam įėjus, visi atsistojo – ''when he walked in, everybody stood up'', lit.", "''to him having walked in, all stood up''; (lt) jai miegant, visi dirbo – ''while she slept, everybody was working'', lit.", "''to her sleeping, all were working''.In modern standard Lithuanian, Dative case is not required by prepositions, although in many dialects it is done frequently: (dial.)", "iki (+D) šiai dienai, (stand.)", "iki (+G) šios dienos – ''up until this day''.In Latvian, the dative case is taken by several prepositions in the singular and '''all''' prepositions in the plural (due to peculiar historical changes): sg.", "bez (+G) tevis ''(without thee)'' ~ pl.", "bez (+D) jums ''(without you)''; sg.", "pa (+A) ceļu ''(along the road)'' ~ pl.", "pa (+D) ceļiem ''(along the roads)''." ], [ "Armenian", "In modern Eastern Armenian, the dative is attained by adding any article to the genitive:: ''dog'' = շուն: GEN > շան ''(of the dog; dog's)'' with no articles: DAT > շան'''ը''' or շան'''ն''' ''(to the dog)'' with definite articles (-ն if preceding a vowel): DAT > '''մի''' շան ''(to a dog)'' with indefinite article: DAT > շան'''ս''' ''(to my dog)'' with 1st person possessive article: DAT > շան'''դ''' ''(to your dog)'' with 2nd person possessive articleThere is a general tendency to view -ին as the standard dative suffix, but only because that is its most productive (and therefore common) form.", "The suffix -ին as a dative marker is nothing but the standard, most common, genitive suffix -ի accompanied by the definite article -ն.", "But the dative case encompasses indefinite objects as well, which will not be marked by -ին:: Definite DAT > Ես գիրքը տվեցի '''տղային''': ''(I gave the book '''to the boy''')'': Indefinite DAT> Ես գիրքը տվեցի '''մի տղայի''': ''(I gave the book '''to a boy''')''The main function of the dative marking in Armenian is to indicate the receiving end of an action, more commonly the indirect object which in English is preceded by the preposition ''to''.", "In the use of \"giving\" verbs like ''give, donate, offer, deliver, sell, bring...'' the dative marks the recipient.", "With communicative verbs like ''tell, say, advise, explain, ask, answer...'' the dative marks the listener.", "Other verbs whose indirect objects are marked by the dative case in Armenian are ''show, reach, look, approach...''Eastern Armenian also uses the dative case to mark the time of an event, in the same way English uses the preposition ''at'', as in ''Meet me at nine o' clock.''" ], [ "Indo-Aryan languages", "=== Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) ===Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) has true dative case for pronouns, but for nouns the dative case has to be constructed using the dative case-marker (postposition) को کو (ko) to the nouns in their oblique case.", "Pronouns in Hindustani also have an oblique case, so dative pronouns can also be alternatively constructed using the dative case-marker को کو (ko) with the pronouns in their oblique case, hence forming two sets of synonymous dative pronouns.", "The following table shows the pronouns in their nominative and their dative forms.", "Hindustani lacks pronouns in the third person and the demonstrative pronouns double as the third person pronouns.", "CasePersonal PronounsNon-Personal Pronouns1st Person2nd PersonDemonstrativeRelativeInterrogativeIntimateNeutralFormalProximalDistalSingularPluralSingularSingular & PluralSingularPluralSingularPluralSingularPluralSingularPluralNominativeमैं میںma͠iहमہمhamतूتوtūतुमتمtumआपآپāpयहیہyahयेیےyeवहوہvahवेوےveजोجوjoकौनکونkaunDativeमुझेمجھےmujheहमेंہمیںhamẽतुझेتجھےtujheतुम्हेंتمھیںtumhẽ—इसेاسےiseइन्हेंانہیںinhẽउसेاسےuseउन्हेंانہیںunhẽजिसेجسےjiseजिन्हेंجنہیںjinhẽकिसेکیسےkiseकिन्हेंکنھیںkinhẽThe table below shows the oblique cases of Hindustani for the nouns ''boy'' and ''girl'' which take in the dative case-marker after them to assign the combination of the oblique case and the case-marker the dative case.", "The oblique case of Hindustani by itself has no meaning and adding the case-marker को کو (ko) assigns the oblique case the function of the dative case.CaseboygirlSingularPluralSingularPluralNominativeलड़काلڑکاlaṛkāलड़केلڑکےlaṛkeलड़कीلڑکیlaṛkīलड़कियाँلڑکیاںlaṛkiyā̃Dativeलड़के कोلڑکے کوlaṛke-koलड़कों कोلڑکوں کوlaṛkõ-koलड़की कोلڑکی کوlaṛkī-koलड़कियों कोلڑکیوں کوlaṛkiyõ-koDative case in Hindustani can also mark the subject of a sentence.", "This is called the dative construction or quirky subjects.", "In the examples below the dative pronoun passes the subjecthood test of subject-oriented anaphora binding.", "The dative subject मुझे مجھے (''mujhe'') binds the anaphora अपने اپنے (''apne'').=== Sanskrit ===The dative case is known as the \"fourth case\" (chaturthi-vibhakti) in the usual procedure in the declension of nouns.", "Its use is mainly for the indirect object." ], [ "Non-Indo-European languages", "===Hungarian===As with many other languages, the dative case is used in Hungarian to show the indirect object of a verb.", "For example, '''''Dánielnek''' adtam ezt a könyvet'' (I gave this book '''to Dániel''').", "It has two suffixes, ''-nak'' and ''-nek''; the correct one is selected by vowel harmony.", "The personal dative pronouns follow the ''-nek'' version: ''nekem'', ''neked'', etc.", "This case is also used to express \"for\" in certain circumstances, such as \"I bought a gift for Mother\".", "In possessive constructions the nak/nek endings are also used but this is not the dative form (rather, the attributive or possessive case)===Finnish===Finnish does not have a separate dative case.", "However, the allative case can fulfill essentially the same role as dative, beyond its primary meaning of directional movement (that is, going somewhere or approaching someone).", "For example: ''He lahjoittivat kaikki rahansa '''köyhille''' (They donated all their money '''to the poor'''.", ")===Tsez===In the Northeast Caucasian languages, such as Tsez, the dative also takes the functions of the lative case in marking the direction of an action.", "By some linguists, they are still regarded as two separate cases in those languages, although the suffixes are exactly the same for both cases.", "Other linguists list them separately only for the purpose of separating syntactic cases from locative cases.", "An example with the ditransitive verb \"show\" (literally: \"make see\") is given below:The dative/lative is also used to indicate possession, as in the example below, because there is no such verb as \"to have\".As in the examples above, the dative/lative case usually occurs in combination with another suffix as poss-lative case; this should not be regarded as a separate case, however, as many of the locative cases in Tsez are constructed analytically; hence, they are, in fact, a combination of two case suffixes.", "See Tsez language#Locative case suffixes for further details.Verbs of perception or emotion (like \"see\", \"know\", \"love\", \"want\") also require the logical subject to stand in the dative/lative case.", "In this example the \"pure\" dative/lative without its POSS-suffix is used.=== Turkish ===The dative case (''yönelme durumu'') in the Turkish language is formed by adding the -e\" or \"-a suffixes to the end of the noun, in accordance with the effected noun's vowel harmony.", "The word that should be in the dative case can be found as an answer to the questions 'neye?'", "(to what?", "), 'kime?'", "(to whom?)", "and 'nereye?'", "(to where?)", "will lead to find a dative case in a sentence.", "There are many different uses for the dative case.The dative also is for objects, usually indirect objects, but sometimes objects that in English would be considered direct:The dative case tells ''whither'', that is, the place ''to which''.", "Thus it has roughly the meaning of the English prepositions \"to\" and \"into\", and also \"in\" when it can be replaced with \"into\":" ], [ "See also", "Dative constructionDeclension in EnglishDouble dative" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* German dative case A lesson covering the dative case in the German language* Hungarian dative case from www.", "HungarianReference.com*Russian Dative: , ," ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dodecahedron" ], [ "Introduction", "+ Common dodecahedraI, order 120Regular-Small stellated-Great-Great stellated-80px80px80px80pxT, order 24T, order 12O, order 48Johnson (J)PyritohedronTetartoidRhombic-Triangular-x80pxx80pxx80pxx80pxD, order 16D, order 12Rhombo-hexagonal-Rhombo-square-Trapezo-rhombic-Rhombo-triangular-80px80px80px80pxIn geometry, a '''dodecahedron''' (; ) or '''duodecahedron''' is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces.", "The most familiar dodecahedron is the regular dodecahedron with regular pentagons as faces, which is a Platonic solid.", "There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form.", "All of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120.Some dodecahedra have the same combinatorial structure as the regular dodecahedron (in terms of the graph formed by its vertices and edges), but their pentagonal faces are not regular:The pyritohedron, a common crystal form in pyrite, has pyritohedral symmetry, while the tetartoid has tetrahedral symmetry.The rhombic dodecahedron can be seen as a limiting case of the pyritohedron, and it has octahedral symmetry.", "The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron variations, along with the rhombic dodecahedra, are space-filling.", "There are numerous other dodecahedra.While the regular dodecahedron shares many features with other Platonic solids, one unique property of it is that one can start at a corner of the surface and draw an infinite number of straight lines across the figure that return to the original point without crossing over any other corner." ], [ "Regular dodecahedron", "The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol {5, 3}.The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron {3, 5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex.+ Four kinds of regular dodecahedrax150pxConvex regular dodecahedronx150pxSmall stellated dodecahedronx150pxGreat dodecahedronx150pxGreat stellated dodecahedronThe convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra.", "They form three of the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra.", "They are the small stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 5}, the great dodecahedron {5, 5/2}, and the great stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 3}.", "The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron {3, 5/2}.", "All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces.", "The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron." ], [ "Other pentagonal dodecahedra", "In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry:===Pyritohedron===Pyritohedron250px(See here for a rotating model.", ")Face polygonisosceles pentagonCoxeter diagramsFaces12Edges30 (6 + 24)Vertices20 (8 + 12)Symmetry groupTh, 4,3+, (32), order 24Rotation groupT, 3,3+, (332), order 12Dual polyhedronPseudoicosahedronPropertiesface transitiveNet150pxA '''pyritohedron''' is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral (Th) symmetry.", "Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices (see figure).", "However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis.", "Its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length.", "The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes.Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form.", "The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals (such as holmium–magnesium–zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes.Dual positions in pyrite crystal models====Crystal pyrite====The name ''crystal pyrite'' comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite (the other one being the cube).", "In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of (210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2·arctan(2) ≈ 126.87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121.6° in between two angles of approximately 106.6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102.6°.", "The following formulas show the measurements for the face of a perfect crystal (which is rarely found in nature).====Cartesian coordinates====The eight vertices of a cube have the coordinates (±1, ±1, ±1).The coordinates of the 12 additional vertices are(0, ±(1 + ''h''), ±(1 − ''h''2)), (±(1 + ''h''), ±(1 − ''h''2), 0) and(±(1 − ''h''2), 0, ±(1 + ''h'')).", "''h'' is the height of the wedge \"roof\" above the faces of that cube with edge length 2.An important case is ''h'' = (a quarter of the cube edge length) for perfect natural pyrite (also the pyritohedron in the Weaire–Phelan structure).Another one is ''h'' = = 0.618... for the regular dodecahedron.", "See section ''Geometric freedom'' for other cases.Two pyritohedra with swapped nonzero coordinates are in dual positions to each other like the dodecahedra in the compound of two dodecahedra.", "Animations 200px 200px Honeycomb of alternating convex and concave pyritohedra with heights between ± Heights between 0 (cube)and 1 (rhombic dodecahedron)====Geometric freedom====The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero.", "The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal.It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra.", "The ''endo-dodecahedron'' is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron.", "Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams.", "On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish-shaped self-intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces.", "Special cases of the pyritohedron Versions with equal absolute values and opposing signs form a honeycomb together.", "(Compare this animation.", ")The ratio shown is that of edge lengths, namely those in a set of 24 (touching cube vertices) to those in a set of 6 (corresponding to cube faces).", "Ratio1 : 10 : 11 : 12 : 11 : 10 : 11 : 1 ''h'' − −1 0 1 −1.618... −0.618... 0.618... 1.618... Image120pxRegular star, great stellated dodecahedron, with regular pentagram faces120pxDegenerate, 12 vertices in the center120pxThe concave equilateral dodecahedron, called an ''endo-dodecahedron''.", "120pxA cube can be divided into a pyritohedron by bisecting all the edges, and faces in alternate directions.120pxA regular dodecahedron is an intermediate case with equal edge lengths.120pxA rhombic dodecahedron is a degenerate case with the 6 crossedges reduced to length zero.120pxSelf-intersecting equilateral dodecahedron===Tetartoid===TetartoidTetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron250px(See here for a rotating model.", ")Face polygonirregular pentagonConway notationgTFaces12Edges30 (6+12+12)Vertices20 (4+4+12)Symmetry groupT, 3,3+, (332), order 12Propertiesconvex, face transitiveA '''tetartoid''' (also '''tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron''', '''pentagon-tritetrahedron''', and '''tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron''') is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry (T).", "Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices.", "However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes.Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does.", "The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one-fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry.", "The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form.Abstractions sharing the solid's topology and symmetry can be created from the cube and the tetrahedron.", "In the cube each face is bisected by a slanted edge.", "In the tetrahedron each edge is trisected, and each of the new vertices connected to a face center.", "(In Conway polyhedron notation this is a gyro tetrahedron.", ")Cobaltite Relationship to the dyakis dodecahedronA tetartoid can be created by enlarging 12 of the 24 faces of a dyakis dodecahedron.", "(The tetartoid shown here is based on one that is itself created by enlarging 24 of the 48 faces of the disdyakis dodecahedron.", ")Crystal modelThe crystal model on the right shows a tetartoid created by enlarging the blue faces of the dyakis dodecahedral core.", "Therefore, the edges between the blue faces are covered by the red skeleton edges.====Cartesian coordinates====The following points are vertices of a tetartoid pentagon under tetrahedral symmetry::(''a'', ''b'', ''c''); (−''a'', −''b'', ''c''); (−, −, ); (−''c'', −''a'', ''b''); (−, , ),under the following conditions::,:''n'' = ''a''2''c'' − ''bc''2,:''d''1 = ''a''2 − ''ab'' + ''b''2 + ''ac'' − 2''bc'',:''d''2 = ''a''2 + ''ab'' + ''b''2 − ''ac'' − 2''bc'',:.====Geometric freedom====The regular dodecahedron is a tetartoid with more than the required symmetry.", "The triakis tetrahedron is a degenerate case with 12 zero-length edges.", "(In terms of the colors used above this means, that the white vertices and green edges are absorbed by the green vertices.)", "Tetartoid variations from regular dodecahedron to triakis tetrahedron140px150px150px150px150px150px150px100px===Dual of triangular gyrobianticupola===A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedron constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base-to-base, called a ''triangular gyrobianticupola.''", "It has D3d symmetry, order 12.It has 2 sets of 3 identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards.", "This form has a hexagonal cross-section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match.", ":160px" ], [ "Rhombic dodecahedron", "Rhombic dodecahedronThe ''rhombic dodecahedron'' is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry.", "It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form.", "The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space.The ''rhombic dodecahedron'' can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces.The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller.Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i.e.", "the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio.", "It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960.This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non-periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra." ], [ "Other dodecahedra", "There are 6,384,634 topologically distinct ''convex'' dodecahedra, excluding mirror images—the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20.", "(Two polyhedra are \"topologically distinct\" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.", ")Topologically distinct dodecahedra (excluding pentagonal and rhombic forms)Uniform polyhedra:Decagonal prism – 10 squares, 2 decagons, D10h symmetry, order 40.", "Pentagonal antiprism – 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons, D5d symmetry, order 20Johnson solids (regular faced):Pentagonal cupola – 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon, C5v symmetry, order 10Snub disphenoid – 12 triangles, D2d, order 8Elongated square dipyramid – 8 triangles and 4 squares, D4h symmetry, order 16Metabidiminished icosahedron – 10 triangles and 2 pentagons, C2v symmetry, order 4Congruent irregular faced: (face-transitive)Hexagonal bipyramid – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of hexagonal prism, D6h symmetry, order 24Hexagonal trapezohedron – 12 kites, dual of hexagonal antiprism, D6d symmetry, order 24*Triakis tetrahedron – 12 isosceles triangles, dual of truncated tetrahedron, Td symmetry, order 24Other less regular faced:Hendecagonal pyramid – 11 isosceles triangles and 1 regular hendecagon, C11v, order 11Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron – 6 rhombi, 6 trapezoids – dual of triangular orthobicupola, D3h symmetry, order 12Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron or ''elongated Dodecahedron'' – 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral hexagons, D4h symmetry, order 16Truncated pentagonal trapezohedron, D5d, order 20, topologically equivalent to regular dodecahedron" ], [ "Practical usage", "Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the \"globe\" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector, based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein." ], [ "See also", "* 120-cell – a regular polychoron (4D polytope) whose surface consists of 120 dodecahedral cells* – a dodecahedron shaped coccolithophore (a unicellular phytoplankton algae)* Pentakis dodecahedron* Roman dodecahedron* Snub dodecahedron* Truncated dodecahedron" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "''Plato's Fourth Solid and the \"Pyritohedron\"'', by Paul Stephenson, 1993, The Mathematical Gazette, Vol.", "77, No.", "479 (Jul., 1993), pp.", "220–226 Stellation of Pyritohedron VRML models and animations of Pyritohedron and its stellations** Editable printable net of a dodecahedron with interactive 3D view* The Uniform Polyhedra* Origami Polyhedra – Models made with Modular Origami* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra* K.J.M.", "MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra* Dodecahedron 3D Visualization* Stella: Polyhedron Navigator: Software used to create some of the images on this page.", "* How to make a dodecahedron from a Styrofoam cube" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Darwin, Northern Territory" ], [ "Introduction", " '''Darwin''' ( ; Larrakia: '''''''''') is the capital city of the Northern Territory, Australia.", "With a population of 139,902 at the 2021 census, the city contains most of the sparsely populated Northern Territory's residents.", "It is the smallest, wettest, and most northerly of the Australian capital cities and serves as the Top End's regional centre.Darwin's proximity to Southeast Asia makes it a key link between Australia and countries such as Indonesia and East Timor.", "The Stuart Highway begins in Darwin and extends southerly across central Australia through Tennant Creek and Alice Springs, concluding in Port Augusta, South Australia.", "The city is built upon a low bluff overlooking Darwin Harbour.", "Darwin's suburbs begin at Lee Point in the north and stretch to Berrimah in the east.", "The Stuart Highway extends to Darwin's eastern satellite city of Palmerston and its suburbs.The Darwin region, like much of the Top End, has a tropical climate, with a wet and dry season.", "A period known locally as \"the build up\" leading up to Darwin's wet season sees temperature and humidity increase.", "Darwin's wet season typically arrives in late November to early December and brings with it heavy monsoonal downpours, spectacular lightning displays, and increased cyclone activity.", "During the dry season, the city has clear skies and mild sea breezes from the harbour.The Larrakia people are the traditional owners of the Darwin area and Aboriginal people are a significant proportion of the population.", "On 9 September 1839, sailed into Darwin Harbour during its survey of the area.", "John Clements Wickham named the region \"Port Darwin\" in honour of their former shipmate Charles Darwin, who had sailed with them on the ship's previous voyage.", "The settlement there became the town of Palmerston in 1869, but was renamed Darwin in 1911.The city has been almost entirely rebuilt four times, following devastation caused by a cyclone in 1897, another one in 1937, Japanese air raids during World War II, and Cyclone Tracy in 1974." ], [ "History", "=== First Nations people ===The Aboriginal people of the Larrakia language group are the traditional custodians and earliest known inhabitants of the greater Darwin area.", "Their name for the area is Garramilla, pronounced and meaning \"white stone\", referring to the colour of rock and sea cliffs found in the area.", "They had trading routes with Southeast Asia (see Macassan contact with Australia) and imported goods from as far afield as South and Western Australia.", "Established songlines penetrated throughout the country, allowing stories and histories to be told and retold along the routes.", "The extent of shared songlines and history of multiple clan groups within this area is contestable.=== Pre-20th century ===The Dutch visited Australia's northern coastline in the 1600s and landed on the Tiwi Islands only to be repelled by the Tiwi peoples.", "The Dutch created the first European maps of the area.", "This accounts for the Dutch names in the area, such as Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt.", "During this period, Dutch explorers named the region around Darwin—sometimes including nearby Kimberley—variations of \"Van Diemen's Land\", after the VOC governor-general Anthony van Diemen.", "This should not be confused with the more general and prolonged use of the same name for Tasmania.The first British person to see Darwin harbour appears to have been Lieutenant John Lort Stokes of on 9 September 1839.The ship's captain, Commander John Clements Wickham, named the port after Charles Darwin, the British naturalist who had sailed with him when he served as first lieutenant on the earlier second expedition of the ''Beagle''.A map of Port Darwin, (1870)In 1863, the Northern Territory was transferred from New South Wales to South Australia.", "In 1864 South Australia sent B. T. Finniss north as Government Resident to survey and found a capital for its new territory.", "Finniss chose a site at Escape Cliffs, near the entrance to Adelaide River, about northeast of the modern city.", "This attempt was short-lived, and the settlement abandoned by 1865.On 5 February 1869, George Goyder, the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 people at Port Darwin between Fort Hill and the escarpment.", "Goyder named the settlement Palmerston after British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston.", "In 1870, the first poles for the Overland Telegraph were erected in Darwin, connecting Australia to the rest of the world.", "The discovery of gold by employees of the Australian Overland Telegraph Line digging holes for telegraph poles at Pine Creek in the 1880s spawned a gold rush, which further boosted the colony's development.leftIn February 1872 the brigantine ''Alexandra'' was the first private vessel to sail from an English port directly to Darwin, carrying people many of whom were coming to recent gold finds.", "''Port Darwin'', 1886In early 1875 Darwin's white population had grown to approximately 300 because of the gold rush.", "On 17 February 1875 the left Darwin ''en route'' for Adelaide.", "The approximately 88 passengers and 34 crew (surviving records vary) included government officials, circuit-court judges, Darwin residents taking their first furlough, and miners.", "While travelling south along the north Queensland coast, the ''Gothenburg'' encountered a cyclone-strength storm and was wrecked on a section of the Great Barrier Reef.", "Only 22 men survived, while between 98 and 112 people perished.", "Many passengers who perished were Darwin residents, and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community, which reportedly took several years to recover.In the 1870s, relatively large numbers of Chinese settled at least temporarily in the Northern Territory; many were contracted to work the goldfields and later to build the Palmerston to Pine Creek railway.", "By 1888 there were 6,122 Chinese in the Northern Territory, mostly in or around Darwin.", "The early Chinese settlers were mainly from Guangdong Province.", "The Chinese community established Darwin Chinatown.", "At the end of the 19th century, anti-Chinese feelings grew in response to the 1890s economic depression, and the White Australia policy meant many Chinese left the territory.", "But some stayed, became British subjects, and established a commercial base in Darwin.===Early 20th century===Smith Street in the 1930sThe Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by South Australia, until its transfer to the Commonwealth in 1911.In the same year, the city's official name changed from Palmerston to Darwin.bombings of DarwinThe period between 1911 and 1919 was filled with political turmoil, particularly with trade union unrest, which culminated on 17 December 1918.Led by Harold Nelson, some 1,000 demonstrators marched to Government House at Liberty Square in Darwin, where they burnt an effigy of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, John Gilruth, and demanded his resignation.", "The incident became known as the Darwin Rebellion.", "Their grievances were against the two main Northern Territory employers: Vestey's Meatworks and the federal government.", "Both Gilruth and the Vestey company left Darwin soon afterward.On 18 October 1918, during the Spanish flu pandemic, the SS ''Mataram'' sailing from Singapore with infectious diseases arrived in Darwin.In 1931, the 17 remaining patients from the leprosarium at Cossack, Western Australia were moved to Darwin, after it closed down.", "It was at a time when many Aboriginal people who were thought to have leprosy or other infectious diseases were sent to lock hospitals and leprosariums under the ''Aborigines Act 1905'', which gave the Chief Protector of Aborigines powers to arrest and send any Indigenous person suspected of having a range of diseases to one of these institutions.Around 10,000 Australian and other Allied troops arrived in Darwin at the outset of World War II to defend Australia's northern coast.", "On 19 February 1942 at 0957, 188 Japanese warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves.", "It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbor, though considerably more bombs were dropped on Darwin than on Pearl Harbor.", "The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town, airfields, and aircraft.", "These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage.", "They were the first of many raids on Darwin.", "Darwin Chinatown which lay within the heart of Darwin was razed to the ground by the Japanese bombing and was never rebuilt.", "Northern Territory administrator Aubrey Abbott wanted to eliminate the Chinese community and forcibly seized their land as it was considered prime real estate.Darwin was further developed after the war, with sealed roads constructed connecting the region to Alice Springs to the south and Mount Isa to the southeast, and Manton Dam built in the south to provide the city with water.", "On Australia Day (26 January) 1959, Darwin was granted city status.===1970–present===Remains of Palmerston Town Hall, destroyed by Cyclone TracyOn 25 December 1974, Darwin was struck by Cyclone Tracy, which killed 71 people and destroyed over 70% of the city's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces the winds generated.", "After the disaster, 30,000 of the population of 46,000 were evacuated in the biggest airlift in Australia's history.", "The town was rebuilt with newer materials and techniques during the late 1970s by the Darwin Reconstruction Commission, led by former Brisbane Lord mayor Clem Jones.", "A satellite city of Palmerston was built east of Darwin in the early 1980s.On 17 September 2003, the Adelaide–Darwin railway was completed, with the opening of the Alice Springs–Darwin standard gauge line.=== Aviation history ===Darwin Aviation Heritage Centre – 1st Ultralight – Hover BirdDarwin hosted many of aviation's early pioneers.", "On 10 December 1919, Captain Ross Smith and his crew landed in Darwin and won a £10,000 prize from the Australian government for completing the first flight from London to Australia in under 30 days.", "Smith and his crew flew a Vickers Vimy, G-EAOU, and landed on an airstrip that has become Ross Smith Avenue.Other aviation pioneers include Amy Johnson, Amelia Earhart, Sir Charles Kingsford Smith and Bert Hinkler.", "The original QANTAS Empire Airways Ltd Hangar, a registered heritage site, was part of the original Darwin Civil Aerodrome in Parap and is now a museum that still bears scars from the bombing of Darwin during World War II.Darwin was home to Australian and U.S. pilots during the war, with airstrips built in and around Darwin.", "Today Darwin provides a staging ground for military exercises.Darwin was a compulsory stopover and checkpoint in the London-to-Melbourne Centenary Air Race in 1934.The official name of the race was the MacRobertson Air Race.", "Winners of the race were Tom Campbell Black and C. W. A. Scott.The following is an excerpt from ''Time'' magazine, 29 October 1934:The Darwin Aviation Museum is about from the city centre on the Stuart Highway and is one of only three places outside the United States where a B-52 bomber (on permanent loan from the United States Air Force) is on public display." ], [ "Geography", "A satellite image of Darwin and the surrounding areas.Darwin is a coastal city, situated along the western shoreline of the Northern Territory.", "The water meets the land from the Beagle Gulf, which extends out into the Timor Sea.", "The central business district occupies a low bluff overlooking Darwin Harbour to the south, beyond which lie East Arm, Middle Arm, Northern Territory, and, across the gulf, West Arm.", "Middle Arm has an industrial precinct on the peninsula, which is being promoted as a sustainable development area that will include plants for industries such as low-emission petrochemicals, renewable hydrogen, and carbon capture storage.", "The city is flanked by Frances Bay to the east and Cullen Bay to the west.The rest of the city is relatively flat and low-lying, and areas bordering the coast are home to recreational reserves, extensive beaches, and excellent fishing.=== City and suburbs ===Map of Darwin with suburbsDarwin and its suburbs spread in an approximately triangular shape, with the older southwestern suburbs—and the city itself—forming one corner, the newer northern suburbs another, and the eastern suburbs, progressing towards Palmerston, forming the third.The older part of Darwin is separated from the newer northern suburbs by Darwin International Airport and RAAF Base Darwin.", "Palmerston is a satellite city east of Darwin that was established in the 1980s and is one of Australia's fastest-growing municipalities.", "Darwin's rural areas, including Howard Springs, Humpty Doo and Berry Springs, are experiencing strong growth.Darwin city centreDarwin's central business district (CBD) is bounded by Daly Street in the northwest, McMinn Street in the northeast, Mitchell Street on the southwest, and Bennett Street on the southeast.", "The CBD has been the focus of a number of major projects, such as the billion-dollar redevelopment of the Stokes Hill wharf waterfront area, including a convention centre with seating for 1,500 people and approximately of exhibition space.", "The developers announced that this includes hotels, residential apartments, and public space.", "The city's main industrial areas are along the Stuart Highway toward Palmerston, centred on Winnellie.", "The area'a largest shopping precinct is Casuarina Square.The most expensive residential areas stand along the coast in suburbs such as the marina of Cullen Bay, Larrakeyah, Bayview and Brinkin.", "These low-lying regions are at risk during cyclones and higher tides, but adequate drainage and stringent building regulations have reduced the potential damage to buildings or injury to residents.", "The inner northern suburbs are home to lower-income households, although low-income Territory Housing units are scattered throughout the metropolitan area.", "The suburb of Lyons was part of a multi-stage land release and development in the Northern Suburbs; planning, development and construction took place from 2004 to 2009.More recent developments near Lyons subdivision includes the suburb of Muirhead.=== Climate ===A wet-season storm at night in JanuaryDarwin has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen ''Aw'') with distinct wet and dry seasons, and the average maximum temperature is similar year round.", "The Australian Building Codes Board classifies it as Climate Zone 1 based on its very humid summers and warm winters.", "The dry season runs from about May to September, during which nearly every day is sunny, and afternoon relative humidity averages around 30%.The driest period of the year, seeing about of monthly rainfall on average, is between May and September.", "In the coolest months, June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as , but very rarely lower, and a temperature lower than has never been recorded in the city centre.", "Outer suburbs away from the coast occasionally record temperatures as low as in the dry season.", "For a 147‑day period during the 2012 dry season, from 5 May to 29 September, Darwin recorded no precipitation.", "Prolonged periods of no precipitation are common in the dry season in Northern Australia (particularly in the Northern Territory and northern regions of Western Australia), although a no-rainfall event of this extent is rare.", "The 3pm dewpoint average in the wet season is around .Extreme temperatures at the Darwin Post Office Station have ranged from on 17 October 1892 to on 25 June 1891; extreme temperatures at the Darwin Airport station (which is farther from the coast and routinely records cooler temperatures than the post office station, which is in Darwin's CBD) have ranged from on 18 October 1982 to on 29 July 1942.The highest minimum temperature on record is on 18 January 1928 for the post office station and on both 25 November 1987 and 17 December 2014 for the airport station.", "The lowest maximum temperature on record is on 3 June 1904 for the post office station and on 14 July 1968 for the airport station.The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains.", "Most rainfall occurs between December and March (the summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70 percent during the wettest months.", "It does not rain every day during the wet season, but most days have plentiful cloud cover; January averages under six hours of bright sunshine daily.", "Darwin's highest daily rainfall verified by the Bureau of Meteorology is , which fell when Cyclone Carlos bore down on the Darwin area on 16 February 2011.February 2011 was also Darwin's wettest month ever recorded, with at the airport.The hottest months are October and November, just before the onset of the main rain season.", "The temperature is usually below , but the heat index sometimes rises above , because of humidity levels that most find uncomfortable.", "Because of its long dry season, Darwin has the second-highest average daily hours of sunshine (8.4) of any Australian capital, with the most sunshine from April to November; only Perth, Western Australia, averages more (8.8).", "The sun passes directly overhead in mid-October and mid-February.The average temperature of the sea ranges from in July to in December.Darwin occupies one of the most lightning-prone areas in Australia.", "On 31 January 2002 an early-morning squall line produced over 5,000 cloud-to-ground lightning strikes within a radius of Darwin alone—about three times the amount of lightning that Perth experiences on average in an entire year." ], [ "Demographics", "===Ancestry and immigration===+ Country of birth (2021) Birthplace Population Australia 89,266 Philippines 5,283 India 3,820 England3,764 Nepal2,540 New Zealand2,437 Mainland China 1,407 Indonesia1,292 Greece1,146Darwin's population changed after the Second World War.", "Like many other Australian cities, Darwin experienced influxes from Europe, with significant numbers of Italians and Greeks during the 1960s and 1970s.", "It also began to experience an influx from other European countries, which included the Dutch, Germans, and many others.", "A significant proportion of Darwin's residents are recent immigrants from Asia, including the peoples of East Timor.At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: 38.3% of the population at the 2016 census was born overseas.", "The five largest groups of overseas-born were from the Philippines (3.6%), England (3.1%), New Zealand (2.1%), India (2%) and Greece (0.9%).8.7% of the population, or 11,960 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and/or Torres Strait Islanders) in 2016.This is the largest proportion of any Australian capital city.===Language===At the 2016 census, 58% of the population spoke only English at home.", "Other languages spoken at home include Tagalog (3.7%), Greek (3.5%), Mandarin (2.0%), Nepali (1.2%), Indonesian (1.0%), Australian Aboriginal languages (1.0%), Malayalam (0.9%), Vietnamese (0.8%), Cantonese (0.7%), Italian (0.6%), Portuguese (0.5%, mostly spoken by Timorese), and Tamil (0.5%).===Age===In 2011, the Darwin population averaged 33 years old (compared to the national average of around 37), to a large extent because of the military presence and because many people opt to retire elsewhere.left=== Religion ===, Christianity had the most adherents in Darwin, with 56,613 followers accounting for 49.5 percent of the population.", "The largest denominations of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (24,538 or 21.5 percent), Anglicanism (14,028 or 12.3 percent) and Greek Orthodoxy (2,964 or 2.6 percent).", "Buddhists, Muslims, Hindus and Jews account for 3.2 percent of Darwin's population.", "There were 26,695 or 23.3 percent of people professing no religion." ], [ "Law and government", "Legislative Assembly of the Northern TerritoryThe Darwin City Council (incorporated under the Northern Territory Local Government Act 1993) governs the City of Darwin, which takes in the CBD and the suburbs.", "The city has been governed by a city council form of government since 1957.The council consists of 13 elected members, the lord mayor, and 12 aldermen.The City of Darwin electorate is organised into four electoral units or wards.", "The wards are Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters.", "The constituents of each ward are directly responsible for electing three aldermen.", "Constituents of all wards are directly responsible for electing the Lord Mayor of Darwin.", "Since the August 2017 council elections, the mayor has been Kon Vatskalis.The rest of the Darwin area is divided into two local government areas—the Palmerston City Council and the Shire of Coomalie.", "These areas have elected councils that are responsible for functions delegated to them by the Northern Territory Government, such as planning and garbage collection.The Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory convenes in Darwin in the Northern Territory Parliament House.", "Government House, the official residence of the Administrator of the Northern Territory, is on the Esplanade.Darwin is split between nine electoral divisions in the Legislative Assembly—Port Darwin, Fannie Bay, Fong Lim, Nightcliff, Sanderson, Johnston, Casuarina, Wanguri, and Karama.", "Historically, Darwin voters elected Country Liberal Party members, but since the turn of the 21st century, voters have often selected Labor members, particularly in the more diverse northern section; as of the 2020 Northern Territory general election, all of Darwin's nine Legislative Assembly electoral divisions are held by Labor, with Labor also holding both the Northern Territory's federal electorates, Solomon and Lingiari.Also on the Esplanade is the Supreme Court of the Northern Territory.", "Darwin has a Magistrate's Court is on the corner of Cavenagh and Bennett streets, quite close to the Darwin City Council Chambers.=== Crime ===Supreme Court of the Northern Territory Darwin's police force are members of the Northern Territory Police, under the NT Police Darwin Metropolitan Command.", "The Darwin urban centre includes Darwin City and the associated suburbs from Buffalo Creek, Berrimah, and East Arm westwards, representing around 35% of the Northern Territory's population.", "Palmerston urban centre closely approximates the Palmerston Local Government Area, and represents approximately 13% of the Northern Territory's population.Darwin has had a history of alcohol abuse and violent crime, with 6,000 assaults in 2009, of which 350 resulted in broken jaws and noses—more than anywhere else in the world, according to the Royal Darwin Hospital.Mitchell Street, with its numerous pubs, clubs and other entertainment venues, was one of the areas policed by the CitySafe Unit, officially launched by the NT Chief Minister Paul Henderson on 25 February 2009.It was credited with success in tackling alcohol abuse linked to crime, and the NT police were looking at establishing a specialist licensing enforcement unit in 2010.The First Response Patrol, run by Larrakia Nation, which helps move homeless Indigenous women out of dangerous situations, was credited with the decline in sexual assaults in 2009.The service operates every day from 5am to 2am.===Recent trends===In the 10 months between 1 October 2018, the date that the alcohol floor price and various other measures were imposed by the NT government following the Riley Review, and 31 July 2019, alcohol-related assaults dropped by 16% and domestic violence by 9% in the Darwin area.The rate of offending in most categories of crime dropped in the Darwin urban area between 2018 and 2019, with the notable exceptions of motor vehicle theft and break-ins (both up about 12%).", "Apart from sexual assault, which rose from 21 to 46, all other categories of crime declined in Palmerston." ], [ "Economy", "Knuckey Street in the Darwin CBDThe two largest economic sectors are mining and tourism.", "Given its location, Darwin serves as a gateway for Australian travellers to Asia.Manunda PlaceMining and energy industry production exceeds $2.5 billion per annum.", "The most important mineral resources are gold, zinc, and bauxite, along with manganese and many others.", "The energy production is mostly off-shore with oil and natural gas from the Timor Sea, although there are significant uranium deposits near Darwin.", "Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists now spend time in Darwin during the wet and dry seasons.", "Federal spending is also a major contributor to the local economy.Darwin's importance as a port is expected to grow, due to the increased exploitation of petroleum in the nearby Timor Sea and to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion in trade with Asia.", "During 2005, a number of major construction projects started in Darwin.", "One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct, which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing including Outrigger Pandanas and Evolution on Gardiner, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon.", "The Chinatown project has also started with plans to construct Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.Darwin's Waterfront is a popular tourist hub=== Tourism ===Tourism is one of Darwin's largest industries and a major employment sector for the Northern Territory.", "In 2005–2006, 1.38 million people visited the Northern Territory.", "They stayed for 9.2 million nights and spent over $1.5 billion.", "The tourism industry directly employed 8,391 Territorians in June 2006, and, when indirect employment is included, tourism typically accounts for more than 14,000 jobs across the Territory.Darwin is a hub for tours to Kakadu National Park, Litchfield National Park and Katherine Gorge.", "The year is traditionally divided into the wet and dry seasons, but there are up to six traditional seasons in Darwin.", "It is warm and sunny from May to September.", "Humidity rises during the green season, from October to April, bringing thunderstorms and monsoonal rains that rejuvenate the landscape.", "Tourism is largely seasonal, with most tourists visiting during the cooler dry season, from April to September.=== Military ===The military presence in both Darwin and the wider Northern Territory is a substantial source of employment.", "On 16 November 2011, Prime Minister Julia Gillard and President Barack Obama announced that the United States would station troops in Australia for the first time since World War II.", "The agreement between the U.S. and Australia would involve a contingent of 250 Marines arriving in Darwin in 2012, with the total number rising to a maximum of 2,500 troops by 2017 on six-month rotations as well as a supporting air element including F-22 Raptors, F-35 Joint Strike Fighters and KC-135 refuellers.", "China and Indonesia have expressed concern about the decision.", "Some analysts have argued that an expanded U.S. presence could pose a threat to security.", "Gillard announced that the first 200 U.S. Marines had arrived in Darwin from Hawaii on 3 April 2012.In 2013, further news of other expansion vectors aired in U.S. media, with no comment or confirmation from Australian authorities.", "The agreement between the two governments remains hidden from public scrutiny.", "Marine numbers based in Darwin increased to more than 1,150 by 2014.In a 2019 telephone survey of local residents, 51% of respondents had positive feelings about the U.S. troop presence, with 6% responding negatively.", "In late 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense signed a contract to create a fuel storage facility at East Arm.Darwin hosts biennial multi-nation exercises named \"Pitch Black\"; in 2014 this involved military personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, and the United States." ], [ "Education", "Education is overseen territory-wide by the Department of Education and Training (DET), whose role is to continually improve education outcomes for all students, with a focus on Indigenous students.=== Preschool, primary and secondary ===Darwin is served by a number of public and private schools that cater to local and overseas students.", "Over 16,500 primary and secondary students are enrolled in schools in Darwin, with 10,524 students attending primary education, and 5,932 students attending secondary education.", "Over 12,089 students are enrolled in government schools, and 2,124 in independent schools.Charles Darwin UniversityThere were 9,764 students attending schools in the City of Darwin area.", "6,045 students attended primary schools and 3,719 attended secondary schools.", "Over 7,161 students are enrolled in government schools and 1,108 in independent schools.", "There are over 35 primary and pre-schools and 12 secondary schools, including both government and non-government.", "Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of Catholic and Lutheran institutions.", "Students intending to complete their secondary education work toward either the Northern Territory Certificate of Education, the Victorian Certificate of Education, or the Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (the latter two are offered only at Haileybury Rendall School).", "Until the sale and restructuring of Kormilda College in 2018, it was the only school to offer the International Baccalaureate in the Northern Territory.Schools have been restructured into Primary, Middle, and High schools since the beginning of 2007.=== Tertiary and vocational ===Darwin's largest university is Charles Darwin University, the Northern Territory's central provider of tertiary education.", "It has both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of TAFE.", "More than 5,500 students are enrolled in tertiary and further education courses.Darwin is also home to several private vocational colleges, including Alana Kaye College and Latitude College." ], [ "Architecture", "18 Smith Street; constructed in the late 19th centuryAs Darwin was destroyed by cyclones several times and suffered severe bomb damage during World War II, few historic buildings remain in town.", "The Administrator's Office dating from 1883 was used as a law court and as a police station and was only slightly damaged by bombs, but in 1974, the cyclone completely destroyed it.", "In 1979, it was decided to rebuild, and the reconstruction was finished in 1981.The building houses government offices today.", "Opposite the building, Survivors Lookout offers a view of the marina.Brown's MartIn a park in the south of the CBD, the ruin of the Town Hall built in 1883 and destroyed by the cyclone in 1974 can be seen.", "Browns Mart is a stone building dating from 1880 opposite the park.", "Browns Mart was originally used in many different activities including commerce, storage, shipping and insurance agency, mining exchange and meetings of local organisations but it was transformed into a theatre.One of Darwin's most prominent buildings is the Chinese Temple, which was founded in 1887 and damaged by cyclones in 1897 and in 1937.It was severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and rebuilt after the war.", "On 24 December 1974 the cyclone completely destroyed it.", "Reconstruction was completed in 1978.There are various modern churches in Darwin.", "St Mary's Star of the Sea Roman Catholic Cathedral was inaugurated in 1962.Christ Church Anglican Cathedral was rebuilt in 1977 after being severely damaged by bombs in 1942 and destroyed by Cyclone Tracy in 1974.The Uniting Memorial Church was built in 1960." ], [ "Events and festivals", "Darwin FestivalThe annual '''Darwin Fringe Festival''' runs for 10 days each July as an open-access festival.", "The Darwin Festival occurs each August, and includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art, and the NT Indigenous Music Awards.", "The '''Nightcliff Seabreeze Festival''', which started in 2005, is held on the second week of May in the suburb of Nightcliff.", "It showcases local talent, and a popular event is Saturday family festivities along the Nightcliff foreshore, one of Darwin's most popular fitness tracks.", "The Darwin beer-can regatta, held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with beer, and contestants race boats made of beer cans.", "Also in Darwin during August are the Darwin Cup horse race and the rodeo and Mud Crab Tying Competition.", "The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most fielded by universities or corporations and some by high schools.", "The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987.", "The '''Royal Darwin Show''' is held annually in July at the Darwin Showgrounds.", "Exhibitions include agriculture and livestock, and horse events.", "Entertainment and sideshows are also included over the three days of the event.", "The '''Darwin Street Art Festival''' is an annual event in September where street artists from around the world create large outdoor murals.", "A yearly music festival, BASSINTHEGRASS, has been held since 2003.Since 2019 it has been held at Mindil Beach.", "On 1 July, Territorians celebrate Territory Day.", "This is the only day of the year, apart from the Chinese New Year and New Year's Eve, that fireworks are permitted.", "In Darwin, the main celebrations occur at Mindil Beach, where the government commissions a large firework display.", "Other festivals include the Glenti, which showcases Darwin's large Greek community, and India@Mindil, a similar festival held by the city's Indian community.", "The Chinese New Year is also celebrated with great festivity, highlighting the East Asian influence in Darwin." ], [ "Arts and culture", "Darwin Convention CentreThe Darwin Symphony Orchestra was assembled in 1989 and has performed throughout the Territory.", "The Darwin Theatre Company is a locally produced professional theatre production company, performing locally and nationally.Darwin Entertainment CentreThe Darwin Entertainment Centre is the city's main concert venue and hosts theatre and orchestral performances.", "Other theatres include the Darwin Convention Centre, which opened in July 2008.The Darwin Convention Centre is part of the $1.1 billion Darwin Waterfront project.The Northern Territory Museum and Art Gallery (MAGNT) in Darwin gives an overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands.", "The MAGNT also organises the annual Telstra National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Art Award, the longest-running Indigenous art award in Australia.", "The MAGNT also manages the ''Defence of Darwin Experience'', a multi-media installation that tells the story of the Japanese air raids on Darwin during World War II.The '''NT Dance Company''' is led by choreographer Gary Lang, who has been artistic director since 2012.Lang previously taught at many leading dance companies, including Bangarra Dance Theatre, after studying dance at NAISDA in Sydney and working as a dancer for years.", "The company has a strong focus on culture, and also works with disadvantaged young Indigenous people.Local and visiting bands can be heard at venues including the Darwin Entertainment Centre, The Vic Hotel, Happy Yess, and Brown's Mart.", "Artists such as Jessica Mauboy and The Groovesmiths call Darwin home.The multiculturalism of Darwin has helped make Southeast Asian noodle broth laksa the city's favourite meal." ], [ "Other entertainment", "Smith Street Mall is a major retail precinctWeekly markets include the popular Mindil Beach Sunset Market (Thursdays and Sundays during the dry season); Parap Market; Nightcliff Market; and Rapid Creek market.Darwin's only casino opened in 1979 as the Don Casino, operating out of the Don Hotel on Cavenagh Street.", "The present site of the hotel and casino on Darwin's Mindil Beach opened in 1983, at which point gambling operations ceased at the Don Hotel and resumed at the newly built facilities.", "The new hotel and casino was named Mindil Beach Casino until 1985, when the name changed to the Diamond Beach Hotel Casino.", "Upon its acquisition by MGM Grand the hotel was rebranded as the MGM Grand Darwin, before it changed to Skycity Darwin after Skycity Entertainment Group purchased the hotel in 2004.Mitchell Street in the central business district is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants.", "This is the city's entertainment hub.", "There are several smaller theatres, three cinema complexes (CBD, Casuarina, and Palmerston), and the Deckchair Cinema.", "An open-air cinema operates through the dry season, from April to October, screening independent and arthouse films." ], [ "Recreation", "=== Beaches ===Mindil BeachDuring the months of October–May the sea contains deadly box jellyfish, known locally as stingers or sea wasps.", "Saltwater crocodiles are common in all waterways surrounding Darwin and are occasionally found in Darwin Harbour and on local beaches.", "An active trapping program is carried out by the NT Government to limit numbers of crocodiles within the Darwin urban waterway area.The city has many kilometres of beaches, including the Casuarina Beach and renowned Mindil Beach, home of the Mindil Beach markets.", "Darwin City Council has designated an area of Casuarina Beach as a free beach, which has been designated as a nudist beach area since 1976.Bundilla Beach was formerly named Vesteys Beach, as it was one of the beaches overlooked by Vestey's Meatworks, which existed from 1914 to 1920 and was involved in the Darwin rebellion.", "In March 2021, the beach was formally renamed Bundilla Beach, the name by which it had long been known to the traditional owners, the Larrakia people.The Darwin Surf Life Saving Club operates longboats and surf skis and provides events and lifesaving accreditations.===Fishing===Fishing is a popular recreation among Darwin locals.", "Visitors fish for the barramundi, an iconic fish in the region.", "This fish thrives in the Mary River, Daly River, and South and East Alligator River.George Brown Darwin Botanic GardensBlue-water fishing is also available off the coast of Darwin; Spanish mackerel, black jewfish, queenfish, and snapper are found in the area.", "Lake Alexander is a man-made swimming lake at East Point Reserve.=== Parks and gardens ===Darwin has extensive parks and gardens.", "These include the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Casuarina Coastal Reserve, Charles Darwin National Park, Knuckey Lagoons Conservation Reserve, Leanyer Recreation Park, the Nightcliff Foreshore, Bicentennial Park and the Jingili Water Gardens.=== Wildlife ===Darwin is a popular bird-watching site, with locations such as the George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens, East Point Reserve, Buffalo Creek, Leanyer Ponds, and Knuckey Lagoon.", "Slightly further from the city is one of the best birding sites in the country, Fogg Dam Conservation Reserve.Some species of native mammals are more abundant in Darwin than in the surrounding native forest and woodland ecosystems of the region, including the common brushtail possum and black-footed tree-rat.", "This is likely due to the presence of well-watered gardens and parks, the absence of frequent fires, and the availability of denning sites (e.g.", "the roofs of houses).Darwin is also home to many species of frogs and reptiles.", "There are more species of snake in Darwin than any other Australian capital city, with 34 non-marine snake species found in the region, of which 23 have been recorded by professional snake catchers in Darwin itself.", "Fortunately for the citizens of Darwin, a far smaller proportion of these snakes are highly venomous than is typically found in other cities, due to the low numbers of front-fanged elapid species and dominance of relatively harmless pythons and colubrid species.", "Of the 23 more regularly encountered snake species in Darwin, it seems that species with broader habitat and dietary preferences, as well as a penchant for arboreality, are associated with more frequent human–snake interactions.", "Shifts in snake behaviour or movement also occur throughout the year, with species specific differences in abundance and occurrence in certain months." ], [ "Sports", "Marrara Oval, the largest sports stadium in the Northern TerritoryThe Marrara Sports Complex near the airport has stadiums for Australian rules (TIO Stadium), cricket, rugby league, football, basketball (and indoor court sports), athletics and field hockey.", "Every two years since 1991 (excluding 2003 due to the SARS outbreak), Darwin has hosted the Arafura Games, a major regional sporting event.", "In July 2003, the city hosted its first international test cricket match between Australia and Bangladesh, followed by Australia and Sri Lanka in 2004.Australian rules is played all year round and the Territory's premier league competition, the Northern Territory Football League is based in Darwin.", "Australian Football League clubs generally sell a handful of games to the Northern Territory each year, some of which are played at Marrara Oval.", "Darwin is part of a bid for a Northern Territory AFL license for proposed entry into the competition by 2028 at the earliest.", "The Darwin based Indigenous All-Stars have participated in the AFL pre-season competition.", "In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and Carlton Football Club at Marrara.Rugby League and Rugby Union club competitions are played in Darwin each year, organised by the NTRL and NTRU respectively.", "The Darwin Hottest Sevens in the World tournament is hosted in Darwin each January, with Rugby Sevens club teams from countries including Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia, and Singapore competing.", "Darwin's Hottest 7s is the richest Rugby 7s tournament in the Southern Hemisphere.Darwin hosts a round of the Supercars Championship every year, bringing thousands of motorsports fans to the Hidden Valley Raceway.", "Also in Hidden Valley, adjacent to the road-racing circuit, is Darwin's dirt track racing venue, Northline Speedway.", "The speedway has hosted a number of Australian Championships over the years for different categories including Sprintcars, Speedcars, and Super Sedans.The Darwin Cup culminating on the first Monday of August is a popular horse race event for Darwin and draws large crowds every year to Fannie Bay Racecourse.", "While it is not as popular as the Melbourne Cup, it does draw a crowd and, in 2003, Sky Racing began televising most of the races.", "The Darwin Cup day is a public holiday for the Northern Territory (Picnic Day public holiday).There is one greyhound racing track in Darwin at Winnellie Park on Hook Road.", "It is the only track in the Northern Territory.In 2022, the Darwin Salties basketball club will debut in the Queensland-based NBL1 North competition, making the NBL1 the first Australian sport league to have clubs based in and playing out of every state and territory in Australia." ], [ "Media", "ABC Darwin studios and headquartersDarwin's major newspapers are the ''Northern Territory News'' (Monday–Saturday), ''The Sunday Territorian'' (Sunday), and the national daily, ''The Australian'' (Monday–Friday) and ''The Weekend Australian'' (Saturday), all published by News Corp. Free weekly community newspapers include ''Sun Newspapers'' (delivered in Darwin, Palmerston and Litchfield), and published by the ''NT News''.", "Another newspaper, the ''Centralian Advocate'' (1947–present), is printed in Darwin and trucked to Alice Springs.Former publications in (or connected to) Darwin include:''Moonta Herald and Northern Territory Gazette'' (1869)''Northern Territory Times and Gazette'' (1873–1927)''The North Australian'' (1883–1889)''The North Australian and Northern Territory Government Gazette'' (1889–1890)''The Northern Territory Times'' (1927–1932)''The Northern Standard'' (c.1929–1942)''Army News'' (1941–1946) – for the troops stationed in Darwin''The Darwin Sun'' (1981–1982) – a community newsletterFive free-to-air channels service Darwin.", "Commercial television channels are provided by Seven Darwin (Seven Network affiliate), Nine Darwin (formerly branded as Channel 8) and Ten Darwin (Network Ten relay), which launched on 28 April 2008.The two government-owned national broadcast services in Darwin are the ABC and SBS.", "Subscription television services Foxtel via Cable and Fetch TV via IPTV are available in the Darwin/Palmerston/Litchfield areas.Darwin has radio stations on AM and FM frequencies, as well as on DAB+ (digital radio).", "ABC stations include ABC Local Radio (105.7 FM), ABC Radio National (657 AM), ABC News Radio (102.5 FM), ABC Classic (107.3 FM) and Triple J (103.3 FM).", "SBS Radio (100.9 FM) also broadcasts its national radio network to Darwin.", "There are three commercial radio stations, Hot 100, Mix 104.9 and Top Country 92.3.Other stations in Darwin include university-based station Territory FM 104.1, dance music station KIK FM 91.5, Palmerston FM 88.0 and Niche Radio 87.6 Non-English stations include Arabic-language channel 2ME 1638 AM, Chinese-language channel 3CW 1701 AM, Greek-language channel 2MM 1656AM, Italian-language channel Rete Italia 1476 AM and Spanish-language channel Radio Austral 90.7 FM.", "Indigenous community-based stations Radio Larrakia 94.5 FM and Radio Yolngu 1530 AM.", "The two sports stations TAB Radio 1242 AM and SEN 1611 AM.", "As well as Christian stations Faith 88.4 FM, Rhema 97.7 FM and Vision Radio 1323 AM." ], [ "Transport", "Buses in DarwinThe Territory's public transport services are managed by the Department of Lands and Planning, Public Transport Division.", "Darwin has a bus network serviced by a range of contracted bus operators, which provides transport to the main suburbs of Darwin.Darwin has no commuter rail system, but long-distance passenger rail services do operate out of the city.", "The Alice Springs-Darwin railway line was completed in 2003, linking Darwin to Adelaide.", "The first service ran in 2004.", "''The Ghan'' passenger train service from Adelaide via Alice Springs and Katherine runs once per week in each direction, with some exceptions.", "Historically, the North Australia Railway carried passengers and freight from Darwin into the interior, reaching Pine Creek in 1889, Katherine in 1917, and Birdum in 1929.It was closed due to declining traffic in 1976.Aircraft at Darwin International AirportDarwin International Airport, in the suburb of Eaton, is Darwin's only airport, which shares its runways with the Royal Australian Air Force's RAAF Base Darwin.Darwin can be reached via the Stuart Highway, which runs the length of the Northern Territory from Darwin through Katherine, Tennant Creek, Alice Springs, and on to Adelaide.", "Other major roads in Darwin include Tiger Brennan Drive, Amy Johnson Avenue, Dick Ward Drive, Bagot Road, Trower Road, and McMillans Road.", "Bus service in the greater Darwin area is provided by Darwinbus.===Port===Ferries leave from Port Darwin to island locations, mainly for tourists.", "A ferry service to the Tiwi Islands, the ''Arafura Pearl'', operates from Cullen Bay.Darwin has a deepwater port, East Arm Wharf, which opened in 2000.It has of wharfline and is capable of handling Panamax-sized ships of a maximum length of and a DWT of up to ." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Royal Darwin Hospital=== Health ===The Government of the Northern Territory Department of Health and Families oversees one public hospital in the Darwin metropolitan region.", "The Royal Darwin Hospital, in Tiwi, is the city's major teaching and referral hospital, and the largest in the Northern Territory.There is one major private hospital, Darwin Private Hospital, in Tiwi, adjacent to the Royal Darwin Hospital.", "Darwin Private Hospital is operated and owned by Healthscope Ltd, a private hospital corporation.A new hospital called Palmerston Regional Hospital was opened in August 2018 to help ease the pressure of patient numbers at the Royal Darwin Hospital.=== Utilities ===Water storage, supply and power for Darwin is managed by Power and Water Corporation, which is owned by the Government of the Northern Territory.", "The corporation is also responsible for management of sewage and the major water catchments in the region.", "Water is mainly stored in the largest dam, The Darwin River Dam, which holds up to 90% of Darwin's water supply.", "For many years, Darwin's principal water supply came from Manton Dam.Darwin and its suburbs, Palmerston and Katherine, are powered by the Channel Island Power Station, the Northern Territory's largest power plant, and the Weddell Power Station.=== Telecommunications ===Darwin once had Australia's only international connection to the outside world in the form of an overseas telegraph cable, connecting Darwin to Java.", "The southern section of the cable connected Darwin with Adelaide and was known as the overland telegraph line.", "In 2022, the Northern Territory Government announced that an international undersea cable system would land into Darwin, directly connecting it to Indonesia, Singapore, the United States and Timor Leste.", "The new cable system, representing an investment of $700 million, is expected to create a new digital economy as it is coupled with recent announcements on Data Centre Investment into Darwin.", "The plans for Darwin for Data Centres and International cables are outlined in the Northern Territory's Digital Strategy the Terabit Territory." ], [ "See also", "* List of films shot in Darwin* List of mayors and lord mayors of Darwin* List of people from Darwin* Local government areas of the Northern Territory* List of Darwin suburbs" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* City of Darwin Official Website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dictator" ], [ "Introduction", "20th-century leaders typically described as dictators, from left to right and top to bottom, include Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union; Adolf Hitler, Führer of Germany; Augusto Pinochet, President of Chile; Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party; Benito Mussolini, Duce and Prime Minister of Italy; Kim Il Sung, Supreme Leader of North KoreaJulius Caesar outmaneuvered his opponents in Ancient Rome to install himself as dictator for life.A '''dictator''' is a political leader who possesses absolute power.", "A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a small clique.", "The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times of emergency.Like the term ''tyrant'', and to a lesser degree ''autocrat'', ''dictator'' came to be used almost exclusively as a non-titular term for oppressive rule.", "In modern usage the term ''dictator'' is generally used to describe a leader who holds or abuses an extraordinary amount of personal power.", "Dictatorships are often characterised by some of the following: suspension of elections and civil liberties; proclamation of a state of emergency; rule by decree; repression of political opponents; not abiding by the procedures of the rule of law; and the existence of a cult of personality centered on the leader.", "Dictatorships are often one-party or dominant-party states.A wide variety of leaders coming to power in different kinds of regimes, such as one-party or dominant-party states and civilian governments under a personal rule, have been described as dictators.__TOC__" ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''dictator'' comes from the Latin language word ''dictātor'', agent noun from ''dictare'' (say repeatedly, assert, order) A dictator was a Roman magistrate given sole power for a limited duration.", "Originally an emergency legal appointment in the Roman Republic and the Etruscan culture, the term ''dictator'' did not have the negative meaning it has now.", "It started to get its modern negative meaning with Cornelius Sulla's ascension to the dictatorship following Sulla's civil war, making himself the first Dictator in Rome in more than a century (during which the office was ostensibly abolished) as well as ''de facto'' eliminating the time limit and need of senatorial acclamation.", "He avoided a major constitutional crisis by resigning the office after about one year, dying a few years later.", "Julius Caesar followed Sulla's example in 49 BC and in February 44 BC was proclaimed , \"Dictator in perpetuity\", officially doing away with any limitations on his power, which he kept until his assassination the following month.Following Caesar's assassination, his heir Augustus was offered the title of dictator, but he declined it.", "Later successors also declined the title of dictator, and usage of the title soon diminished among Roman rulers." ], [ "Modern era", "Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo of Equatorial Guinea is Africa's longest serving dictator.As late as the second half of the 19th century, the term ''dictator'' had occasional positive implications.", "For example, during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the national leader Lajos Kossuth was often referred to as dictator, without any negative connotations, by his supporters and detractors alike, although his official title was that of regent-president.", "When creating a provisional executive in Sicily during the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi officially assumed the title of \"Dictator\" (see Dictatorship of Garibaldi).", "Shortly afterwards, during the 1863 January uprising in Poland, \"Dictator\" was also the official title of four leaders, the first being Ludwik Mierosławski.Past that time, however, the term ''dictator'' assumed an invariably negative connotation.", "In popular usage, a ''dictatorship'' is often associated with brutality and oppression.", "As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse against political opponents.", "The term has also come to be associated with megalomania.", "Many dictators create a cult of personality around themselves and they have also come to grant themselves increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours.", "For instance, Idi Amin Dada, who had been a British army lieutenant prior to Uganda's independence from Britain in October 1962, subsequently styled himself \"''His Excellency, President for Life, Field Marshal Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin Dada, VC, DSO, MC, Conqueror of the British Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in Particular''\".", "In the movie ''The Great Dictator'' (1940), Charlie Chaplin satirized not only Adolf Hitler but the institution of dictatorship itself.=== Benevolent dictatorship ===A benevolent dictatorship refers to a government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state but is perceived to do so with regard for the benefit of the population as a whole, standing in contrast to the decidedly malevolent stereotype of a dictator.", "A benevolent dictator may allow for some civil liberties or democratic decision-making to exist, such as through public referendums or elected representatives with limited power, and often makes preparations for a transition to genuine democracy during or after their term.", "The label has been applied to leaders such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey\t(1923–38), Josip Broz Tito of SFR Yugoslavia (1953–80),\"...All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality.", "Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism.\"", "and Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore (1959–90).=== Military roles ===The association between a dictator and the military is a common one.", "Many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and they often wear military uniforms.", "In some cases, this is perfectly legitimate; for instance, Francisco Franco was a general in the Spanish Army before he became Chief of State of Spain, and Manuel Noriega was officially commander of the Panamanian Defense Forces.", "In other cases, the association is mere pretense.=== Crowd manipulation ===Some dictators have been masters of crowd manipulation, such as Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler.", "Others were more prosaic speakers, such as Joseph Stalin and Francisco Franco.", "Typically, the dictator's people seize control of all media, censor or destroy the opposition, and give strong doses of propaganda daily, often built around a cult of personality.Mussolini and Hitler used similar, modest titles referring to them as \"the Leader\".", "Mussolini used \"Il Duce\" and Hitler was generally referred to as \"der Führer\", both meaning 'Leader' in Italian and German respectively.", "Franco used a similar title \"El Caudillo\" (\"the Head\", 'the chieftain') and for Stalin his adopted name, meaning \"Man of Steel\", became synonyms with his role as the absolute leader.", "For Mussolini, Hitler, and Franco, the use of modest, non-traditional titles displayed their absolute power even stronger as they did not need any, not even a historic legitimacy either.", "However, in the case of Franco, the title \"Caudillo\" did have a longer history for political-military figures in both Latin America and Spain.", "Franco also used the phrase \"By the Grace of God\" on coinage or other material displaying him as ''Caudillo'', whereas Hitler and Mussolini rarely used such monarchical-associated language or imagery.=== Criticism ===The usage of the term ''dictator'' in western media has been criticized by the left-leaning organization Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting as \"Code for Government We Don't Like\".", "According to them, leaders that would generally be considered authoritarian but are allied with the US such as Paul Biya or Nursultan Nazarbayev are rarely referred to as \"dictators\", while leaders of countries opposed to U.S. policy such as Nicolás Maduro or Bashar al-Assad have the term applied to them much more liberally." ], [ "Modern usage in formal titles", "Giuseppe Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in 1860.Because of its negative and pejorative connotations, modern authoritarian leaders very rarely (if ever) use the term ''dictator'' in their formal titles, instead they most often simply have title of president.", "In the 19th century, however, its official usage was more common:* The Dictatorial Government of Sicily (27 May – 4 November 1860) was a provisional executive government appointed by Giuseppe Garibaldi to rule Sicily.", "The government ended when Sicily's annexation into the Kingdom of Italy was ratified by plebiscite.", "* Marian Langiewicz of Poland proclaimed himself Dictator and attempted (unsuccessfully) to form a Polish government in March 1863.", "* Romuald Traugutt was Dictator of Poland from 17 October 1863 to 10 April 1864.", "* The Dictatorial Government of the Philippines (1898–1898) was an insurgent government in the Philippines which was headed by Emilio Aguinaldo, who formally held the title of Dictator.", "The dictatorial government was superseded by the revolutionary government with Aguinaldo as president." ], [ "Human rights abuses, war crimes and genocides", " Under Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad, Syrian military inflicted industrial-scale atrocities on civilian population during the Syrian civil war.", "These include hundreds of chemical attacks, such as the Ghouta chemical attack, the largest chemical attack in the 21st century.Over time, dictators have been known to use tactics that violate human rights.", "For example, under the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, government policy was enforced by secret police and the Gulag system of prison labour camps.", "Most Gulag inmates were not political prisoners, although significant numbers of political prisoners could be found in the camps at any one time.", "Data collected from Soviet archives gives the death toll from Gulags as 1,053,829.Other human rights abuses by the Soviet state included human experimentation, the use of psychiatry as a political weapon and the denial of freedom of religion, assembly, speech and association.Similar crimes were committed during Chairman Mao Zedong's rule over the People's Republic of China during China's Cultural Revolution, where Mao set out to purge dissidents, primarily through the use of youth groups strongly committed to his cult of personality, and during Augusto Pinochet's junta in Chile.", "Some dictators have been associated with genocide on certain races or groups; the most notable and wide-reaching example is the Holocaust, Adolf Hitler's genocide of eleven million people, of whom six million were Jews.", "Later on in Democratic Kampuchea, General Secretary Pol Pot and his policies killed an estimated 1.7 million people (out of a population of 7 million) during his four-year dictatorship.", "As a result, Pol Pot is sometimes described as \"the Hitler of Cambodia\" and \"a genocidal tyrant\".The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant for Sudan's military dictator Omar al-Bashir over alleged war crimes in Darfur.", "Syrian dictator Bashar al-Assad, known for perpetrating numerous chemical attacks, has been regarded as the deadliest war criminal of the 21st century for inflicting industrial-scale atrocities in the Syrian civil war." ], [ "See also", "* Authoritarian personality* Absolute monarchy* Benevolent dictator for life* Democracy indices* Dictator novel* Dictatorship of the proletariat* Emergency powers* Greek junta* List of political leaders who suspended the constitution* Nazi Party* Strongman (politics)* Supreme leader* Totalitarianism" ], [ "References", "=== Informational notes ===* A He conferred a doctorate of law on himself from Makerere University.", "* B The Victorious Cross (VC) was a medal made to emulate the British Victoria Cross.=== Citation notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Online books on dictatorship at the Internet Archive* Scholarly approach to comparative political economy; excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* Scholarly focus on 19th century Europe.", "* Scholarly analysis of 13 major dictators; excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* How the Conservative government in Britain dealt with them.", "* Covers Brazil, Argentina, and Chile since 1945; excerpt;* Brief scholarly summaries; excerpt.", "* * * Excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* Excerpt.", "* online* Popular.", "* Popular; eBook.", "* * Excerpt." ], [ "External links", "* Current Dictators of the World" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Decibel" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''decibel''' (symbol: '''dB''') is a relative unit of measurement equal to one tenth of a '''bel''' ('''B''').", "It expresses the ratio of two values of a power or root-power quantity on a logarithmic scale.", "Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 101/10 (approximately ) or root-power ratio of 10 (approximately ).The unit expresses a relative change or an absolute value.", "In the latter case, the numeric value expresses the ratio of a value to a fixed reference value; when used in this way, the unit symbol is often suffixed with letter codes that indicate the reference value.", "For example, for the reference value of 1 volt, a common suffix is \"V\" (e.g., \"20 dBV\").Two principal types of scaling of the decibel are in common use.", "When expressing a power ratio, it is defined as ten times the logarithm in base 10.That is, a change in ''power'' by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 10 dB change in level.", "When expressing root-power quantities, a change in ''amplitude'' by a factor of 10 corresponds to a 20 dB change in level.", "The decibel scales differ by a factor of two, so that the related power and root-power levels change by the same value in linear systems, where power is proportional to the square of amplitude.The definition of the decibel originated in the measurement of transmission loss and power in telephony of the early 20th century in the Bell System in the United States.", "The bel was named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell, but the bel is seldom used.", "Instead, the decibel is used for a wide variety of measurements in science and engineering, most prominently for sound power in acoustics, in electronics and control theory.", "In electronics, the gains of amplifiers, attenuation of signals, and signal-to-noise ratios are often expressed in decibels." ], [ "History", "The decibel originates from methods used to quantify signal loss in telegraph and telephone circuits.", "Until the mid-1920s, the unit for loss was ''Miles of Standard Cable'' (MSC).", "1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over one mile (approximately 1.6 km) of standard telephone cable at a frequency of radians per second (795.8 Hz), and matched closely the smallest attenuation detectable to a listener.", "A standard telephone cable was \"a cable having uniformly distributed resistance of 88 ohms per loop-mile and uniformly distributed shunt capacitance of 0.054 microfarads per mile\" (approximately corresponding to 19 gauge wire).In 1924, Bell Telephone Laboratories received a favorable response to a new unit definition among members of the International Advisory Committee on Long Distance Telephony in Europe and replaced the MSC with the ''Transmission Unit'' (TU).", "1 TU was defined such that the number of TUs was ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of measured power to a reference power.The definition was conveniently chosen such that 1 TU approximated 1 MSC; specifically, 1 MSC was 1.056 TU.", "In 1928, the Bell system renamed the TU into the decibel, being one tenth of a newly defined unit for the base-10 logarithm of the power ratio.", "It was named the ''bel'', in honor of the telecommunications pioneer Alexander Graham Bell.The bel is seldom used, as the decibel was the proposed working unit.The naming and early definition of the decibel is described in the NBS Standard's Yearbook of 1931:In 1954, J. W. Horton argued that the use of the decibel as a unit for quantities other than transmission loss led to confusion, and suggested the name ''logit'' for \"standard magnitudes which combine by multiplication\", to contrast with the name ''unit'' for \"standard magnitudes which combine by addition\".In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considered a recommendation for the inclusion of the decibel in the International System of Units (SI), but decided against the proposal.", "However, the decibel is recognized by other international bodies such as the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO).", "The IEC permits the use of the decibel with root-power quantities as well as power and this recommendation is followed by many national standards bodies, such as NIST, which justifies the use of the decibel for voltage ratios.", "In spite of their widespread use, suffixes (such as in dBA or dBV) are not recognized by the IEC or ISO." ], [ "Definition", " dB Power ratio Amplitude ratio 100 90 80 70 60 50 316 .2 40 100 30 31 .62 20 100 10 10 10 3 .162 6 3 .981 ≈ 4 1 .995 ≈ 2 3 1 .995 ≈ 2 1 .413 ≈ 1 1 .259 1 .122 0 1 1 −1 0 .794 0 .891 −3 0 .501 ≈ 0 .708 ≈ −6 0 .251 ≈ 0 .501 ≈ −10 0 .1 0 −20 0 .01 0 .1 −30 0 .001 0 −40 0 0 .01 −50 0 0 −60 0 0 .001 −70 0 0 −80 0 0 −90 0 0 −100 0 0 An example scale showing power ratios ''x'', amplitude ratios , and dB equivalents 10 log10 ''x''.ISO 80000-3 describes definitions for quantities and units of space and time.", "The IEC Standard 60027-3:2002 defines the following quantities.", "The decibel (dB) is one-tenth of a bel: .", "The bel (B) is ln(10) nepers: .", "The neper is the change in the level of a root-power quantity when the root-power quantity changes by a factor of ''e'', that is , thereby relating all of the units as nondimensional natural ''log'' of root-power-quantity ratios, .", "Finally, the level of a quantity is the logarithm of the ratio of the value of that quantity to a reference value of the same kind of quantity.Therefore, the bel represents the logarithm of a ratio between two power quantities of 10:1, or the logarithm of a ratio between two root-power quantities of :1.Two signals whose levels differ by one decibel have a power ratio of 101/10, which is approximately , and an amplitude (root-power quantity) ratio of 10 ().The bel is rarely used either without a prefix or with SI unit prefixes other than ''deci''; it is preferred, for example, to use ''hundredths of a decibel'' rather than ''millibels''.", "Thus, five one-thousandths of a bel would normally be written 0.05 dB, and not 5 mB.The method of expressing a ratio as a level in decibels depends on whether the measured property is a ''power quantity'' or a ''root-power quantity''; see ''Power, root-power, and field quantities'' for details.===Power quantities===When referring to measurements of ''power'' quantities, a ratio can be expressed as a level in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to reference value.", "Thus, the ratio of ''P'' (measured power) to ''P''0 (reference power) is represented by ''L''''P'', that ratio expressed in decibels, which is calculated using the formula::The base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the two power quantities is the number of bels.", "The number of decibels is ten times the number of bels (equivalently, a decibel is one-tenth of a bel).", "''P'' and ''P''0 must measure the same type of quantity, and have the same units before calculating the ratio.", "If in the above equation, then ''L''''P'' = 0.If ''P'' is greater than ''P''0 then ''L''''P'' is positive; if ''P'' is less than ''P''0 then ''L''''P'' is negative.Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for ''P'' in terms of ''P''0 and ''L''''P''::=== Root-power (field) quantities ===When referring to measurements of root-power quantities, it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of ''F'' (measured) and ''F''0 (reference).", "This is because the definitions were originally formulated to give the same value for relative ratios for both power and root-power quantities.", "Thus, the following definition is used::The formula may be rearranged to give:Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current when the impedance is constant.", "Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the equation for power gain level ''L''''G''::where ''V''out is the root-mean-square (rms) output voltage, ''V''in is the rms input voltage.", "A similar formula holds for current.The term ''root-power quantity'' is introduced by ISO Standard 80000-1:2009 as a substitute of ''field quantity''.", "The term ''field quantity'' is deprecated by that standard and ''root-power'' is used throughout this article.=== Relationship between power and root-power levels ===Although power and root-power quantities are different quantities, their respective levels are historically measured in the same units, typically decibels.", "A factor of 2 is introduced to make ''changes'' in the respective levels match under restricted conditions such as when the medium is linear and the ''same'' waveform is under consideration with changes in amplitude, or the medium impedance is linear and independent of both frequency and time.", "This relies on the relationship:holding.", "In a nonlinear system, this relationship does not hold by the definition of linearity.", "However, even in a linear system in which the power quantity is the product of two linearly related quantities (e.g.", "voltage and current), if the impedance is frequency- or time-dependent, this relationship does not hold in general, for example if the energy spectrum of the waveform changes.For differences in level, the required relationship is relaxed from that above to one of proportionality (i.e., the reference quantities ''P'' and ''F'' need not be related), or equivalently,:must hold to allow the power level difference to be equal to the root-power level difference from power ''P'' and ''F'' to ''P'' and ''F''.", "An example might be an amplifier with unity voltage gain independent of load and frequency driving a load with a frequency-dependent impedance: the relative voltage gain of the amplifier is always 0 dB, but the power gain depends on the changing spectral composition of the waveform being amplified.", "Frequency-dependent impedances may be analyzed by considering the quantities power spectral density and the associated root-power quantities via the Fourier transform, which allows elimination of the frequency dependence in the analysis by analyzing the system at each frequency independently.===Conversions===Since logarithm differences measured in these units often represent power ratios and root-power ratios, values for both are shown below.", "The bel is traditionally used as a unit of logarithmic power ratio, while the neper is used for logarithmic root-power (amplitude) ratio.+ Conversion between units of level and a list of corresponding ratiosUnit In decibels In bels In nepers Power ratio Root-power ratio 1 dB 1 dB 0.1 B Np 10 ≈ 10 ≈ 1 Np dB B 1 Np e2 ≈ e ≈ 1 B 10 dB 1 B 1.151 3 Np 10 10 ≈ 3.162 28===Examples===The unit dBW is often used to denote a ratio for which the reference is 1 W, and similarly dBm for a reference point.", "* Calculating the ratio in decibels of (one kilowatt, or watts) to yields: * The ratio in decibels of to is , illustrating the consequence from the definitions above that ''L''''G'' has the same value, 30 dB, regardless of whether it is obtained from powers or from amplitudes, provided that in the specific system being considered power ratios are equal to amplitude ratios squared.", "* The ratio in decibels of to (one milliwatt) is obtained with the formula * The power ratio corresponding to a change in level is given by A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 corresponds to a change in level of .", "A change in power ratio by a factor of 2 or is approximately a change of 3 dB.", "More precisely, the change is ± dB, but this is almost universally rounded to 3 dB in technical writing.", "This implies an increase in voltage by a factor of .", "Likewise, a doubling or halving of the voltage, corresponding to a quadrupling or quartering of the power, is commonly described as 6 dB rather than ± dB.Should it be necessary to make the distinction, the number of decibels is written with additional significant figures.", "3.000 dB corresponds to a power ratio of 10, or , about 0.24% different from exactly 2, and a voltage ratio of , 0.12% different from exactly .", "Similarly, an increase of 6.000 dB corresponds to the power ratio is , about 0.5% different from 4." ], [ "Properties", "The decibel is useful for representing large ratios and for simplifying representation of multiplicative effects, such as attenuation from multiple sources along a signal chain.", "Its application in systems with additive effects is less intuitive, such as in the combined sound pressure level of two machines operating together.", "Care is also necessary with decibels directly in fractions and with the units of multiplicative operations.===Reporting large ratios===The logarithmic scale nature of the decibel means that a very large range of ratios can be represented by a convenient number, in a manner similar to scientific notation.", "This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity.", "See ''Bode plot'' and ''Semi-log plot''.", "For example, 120 dB SPL may be clearer than \"a trillion times more intense than the threshold of hearing\".===Representation of multiplication operations===Level values in decibels can be added instead of multiplying the underlying power values, which means that the overall gain of a multi-component system, such as a series of amplifier stages, can be calculated by summing the gains in decibels of the individual components, rather than multiply the amplification factors; that is, = log(''A'') + log(''B'') + log(''C'').", "Practically, this means that, armed only with the knowledge that 1 dB is a power gain of approximately 26%, 3 dB is approximately 2× power gain, and 10 dB is 10× power gain, it is possible to determine the power ratio of a system from the gain in dB with only simple addition and multiplication.", "For example:A system consists of 3 amplifiers in series, with gains (ratio of power out to in) of 10 dB, 8 dB, and 7 dB respectively, for a total gain of 25 dB.", "Broken into combinations of 10, 3, and 1 dB, this is: With an input of 1 watt, the output is approximately Calculated precisely, the output is 1 W × 10 ≈ 316.2 W. The approximate value has an error of only +0.4% with respect to the actual value, which is negligible given the precision of the values supplied and the accuracy of most measurement instrumentation.However, according to its critics, the decibel creates confusion, obscures reasoning, is more related to the era of slide rules than to modern digital processing, and is cumbersome and difficult to interpret.Quantities in decibels are not necessarily additive, thus being \"of unacceptable form for use in dimensional analysis\".Thus, units require special care in decibel operations.", "Take, for example, carrier-to-noise-density ratio ''C''/''N''0 (in hertz), involving carrier power ''C'' (in watts) and noise power spectral density ''N''0 (in W/Hz).", "Expressed in decibels, this ratio would be a subtraction (''C''/''N''0)dB = ''C''dB − ''N''0dB.", "However, the linear-scale units still simplify in the implied fraction, so that the results would be expressed in dB-Hz.===Representation of addition operations===According to Mitschke, \"The advantage of using a logarithmic measure is that in a transmission chain, there are many elements concatenated, and each has its own gain or attenuation.", "To obtain the total, addition of decibel values is much more convenient than multiplication of the individual factors.\"", "However, for the same reason that humans excel at additive operation over multiplication, decibels are awkward in inherently additive operations:if two machines each individually produce a sound pressure level of, say, 90 dB at a certain point, then when both are operating together we should expect the combined sound pressure level to increase to 93 dB, but certainly not to 180 dB!", "; suppose that the noise from a machine is measured (including the contribution of background noise) and found to be 87 dBA but when the machine is switched off the background noise alone is measured as 83 dBA.", "... the machine noise level (alone) may be obtained by 'subtracting' the 83 dBA background noise from the combined level of 87 dBA; i.e., 84.8 dBA.", "; in order to find a representative value of the sound level in a room a number of measurements are taken at different positions within the room, and an average value is calculated.", "...", "Compare the logarithmic and arithmetic averages of ... 70 dB and 90 dB: logarithmic average = 87 dB; arithmetic average = 80 dB.Addition on a logarithmic scale is called logarithmic addition, and can be defined by taking exponentials to convert to a linear scale, adding there, and then taking logarithms to return.", "For example, where operations on decibels are logarithmic addition/subtraction and logarithmic multiplication/division, while operations on the linear scale are the usual operations:::The logarithmic mean is obtained from the logarithmic sum by subtracting , since logarithmic division is linear subtraction.===Fractions===Attenuation constants, in topics such as optical fiber communication and radio propagation path loss, are often expressed as a fraction or ratio to distance of transmission.", "In this case, dB/m represents decibel per meter, dB/mi represents decibel per mile, for example.", "These quantities are to be manipulated obeying the rules of dimensional analysis, e.g., a 100-meter run with a 3.5 dB/km fiber yields a loss of 0.35 dB = 3.5 dB/km × 0.1 km." ], [ "Uses", "===Perception===The human perception of the intensity of sound and light more nearly approximates the logarithm of intensity rather than a linear relationship (see Weber–Fechner law), making the dB scale a useful measure.===Acoustics===Examples of sound levels in decibels from various sound sources and activities, taken from the \"How loud is too loud\" screen of the NIOSH Sound Level Meter appThe decibel is commonly used in acoustics as a unit of sound power level or sound pressure level.", "The reference pressure for sound in air is set at the typical threshold of perception of an average human and there are common comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound pressure.", "As sound pressure is a root-power quantity, the appropriate version of the unit definition is used::where ''p''rms is the root mean square of the measured sound pressure and ''p''ref is the standard reference sound pressure of 20 micropascals in air or 1 micropascal in water.Use of the decibel in underwater acoustics leads to confusion, in part because of this difference in reference value.Sound intensity is proportional to the square of sound pressure.", "Therefore the sound intensity level can also be defined as::The human ear has a large dynamic range in sound reception.", "The ratio of the sound intensity that causes permanent damage during short exposure to that of the quietest sound that the ear can hear is equal to or greater than 1 trillion (1012).", "Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic scale: the base-10 logarithm of 1012 is 12, which is expressed as a sound intensity level of 120 dB re 1 pW/m2.The reference values of I and p in air have been chosen such that this also corresponds to a sound pressure level of 120 dB re 20 μPa.Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies, the acoustic power spectrum is modified by frequency weighting (A-weighting being the most common standard) to get the weighted acoustic power before converting to a sound level or noise level in decibels.", "===Telephony===The decibel is used in telephony and audio.", "Similarly to the use in acoustics, a frequency weighted power is often used.", "For audio noise measurements in electrical circuits, the weightings are called psophometric weightings.===Electronics===In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (as for gains) in preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages.", "One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual components.", "Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels denote signal gain or loss from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, waveguide, coaxial cable, fiber optics, etc.)", "using a link budget.The decibel unit can also be combined with a reference level, often indicated via a suffix, to create an absolute unit of electric power.", "For example, it can be combined with \"m\" for \"milliwatt\" to produce the \"dBm\".", "A power level of 0 dBm corresponds to one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater (about 1.259 mW).In professional audio specifications, a popular unit is the dBu.", "This is relative to the root mean square voltage which delivers 1 mW (0 dBm) into a 600-ohm resistor, or ≈ 0.775 VRMS.", "When used in a 600-ohm circuit (historically, the standard reference impedance in telephone circuits), dBu and dBm are identical.===Optics===In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link loss may be quickly calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1 B.===Video and digital imaging===In connection with video and digital image sensors, decibels generally represent ratios of video voltages or digitized light intensities, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the represented intensity (optical power) is directly proportional to the voltage generated by the sensor, not to its square, as in a CCD imager where response voltage is linear in intensity.Thus, a camera signal-to-noise ratio or dynamic range quoted as 40 dB represents a ratio of 100:1 between optical signal intensity and optical-equivalent dark-noise intensity, not a 10,000:1 intensity (power) ratio as 40 dB might suggest.Sometimes the 20 log ratio definition is applied to electron counts or photon counts directly, which are proportional to sensor signal amplitude without the need to consider whether the voltage response to intensity is linear.However, as mentioned above, the 10 log intensity convention prevails more generally in physical optics, including fiber optics, so the terminology can become murky between the conventions of digital photographic technology and physics.", "Most commonly, quantities called \"dynamic range\" or \"signal-to-noise\" (of the camera) would be specified in 20 log dB, but in related contexts (e.g.", "attenuation, gain, intensifier SNR, or rejection ratio) the term should be interpreted cautiously, as confusion of the two units can result in very large misunderstandings of the value.Photographers typically use an alternative base-2 log unit, the stop, to describe light intensity ratios or dynamic range." ], [ "{{anchor\|Suffixes}}Suffixes and reference values", "Suffixes are commonly attached to the basic dB unit in order to indicate the reference value by which the ratio is calculated.", "For example, dBm indicates power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt.In cases where the unit value of the reference is stated, the decibel value is known as \"absolute\".", "If the unit value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as in the dB gain of an amplifier, then the decibel value is considered relative.This form of attaching suffixes to dB is widespread in practice, albeit being against the rules promulgated by standards bodies (ISO and IEC), given the \"unacceptability of attaching information to units\" and the \"unacceptability of mixing information with units\".", "The IEC 60027-3 standard recommends the following format: ''L''''x'' (re ''x''ref) or as ''L''''x''/''x''ref, where ''x'' is the quantity symbol and ''x''ref is the value of the reference quantity, e.g., ''L''''E'' (re 1 μV/m) = 20 dB or ''L''''E''/(1 μV/m)= 20 dB for the electric field strength ''E'' relative to 1 μV/m reference value.If the measurement result 20 dB is presented separately, it can be specified using the information in parentheses, which is then part of the surrounding text and not a part of the unit: 20 dB (re: 1 μV/m) or 20 dB (1 μV/m).", "Outside of documents adhering to SI units, the practice is very common as illustrated by the following examples.", "There is no general rule, with various discipline-specific practices.", "Sometimes the suffix is a unit symbol (\"W\",\"K\",\"m\"), sometimes it is a transliteration of a unit symbol (\"uV\" instead of μV for microvolt), sometimes it is an acronym for the unit's name (\"sm\" for square meter, \"m\" for milliwatt), other times it is a mnemonic for the type of quantity being calculated (\"i\" for antenna gain with respect to an isotropic antenna, \"λ\" for anything normalized by the EM wavelength), or otherwise a general attribute or identifier about the nature of the quantity (\"A\" for A-weighted sound pressure level).", "The suffix is often connected with a hyphen, as in \"dBHz\", or with a space, as in \"dB HL\", or enclosed in parentheses, as in \"dB(sm)\", or with no intervening character, as in \"dBm\" (which is non-compliant with international standards)." ], [ "List of suffixes", "===Voltage===Since the decibel is defined with respect to power, not amplitude, conversions of voltage ratios to decibels must square the amplitude, or use the factor of 20 instead of 10, as discussed above.A schematic showing the relationship between dBu (the voltage source) and dBm (the power dissipated as heat by the 600 Ω resistor);dBV: dB(VRMS) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.", "This is used to measure microphone sensitivity, and also to specify the consumer line-level of , in order to reduce manufacturing costs relative to equipment using a line-level signal.", ";dBu or dBv: RMS voltage relative to (i.e.", "the voltage that would dissipate 1 mW into a 600 Ω load).", "An RMS voltage of 1 V therefore corresponds to Originally dBv, it was changed to dBu to avoid confusion with dBV.", "The ''v'' comes from ''volt'', while ''u'' comes from the volume ''unit'' used in the VU meter.dBu can be used as a measure of voltage, regardless of impedance, but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dBm (1 mW).", "The reference voltage comes from the computation where is the resistance and is the power.", "In professional audio, equipment may be calibrated to indicate a \"0\" on the VU meters some finite time after a signal has been applied at an amplitude of .", "Consumer equipment typically uses a lower \"nominal\" signal level of .", "Therefore, many devices offer dual voltage operation (with different gain or \"trim\" settings) for interoperability reasons.", "A switch or adjustment that covers at least the range between and is common in professional equipment.", ";dBm0s:Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.", "; dBmV: dB(mVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω.", "Widely used in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal at the receiver terminals is about 0 dBmV.", "Cable TV uses 75 Ω coaxial cable, so 0 dBmV corresponds to −78.75 dBW (−48.75 dBm) or approximately 13 nW.", ";dBμV or dBuV: dB(μVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 microvolt.", "Widely used in television and aerial amplifier specifications.", "60 dBμV = 0 dBmV.===Acoustics===Probably the most common usage of \"decibels\" in reference to sound level is dB SPL, sound pressure level referenced to the nominal threshold of human hearing: The measures of pressure (a root-power quantity) use the factor of 20, and the measures of power (e.g.", "dB SIL and dB SWL) use the factor of 10.;dB SPL: dB SPL (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 micropascals (μPa), or , approximately the quietest sound a human can hear.", "For sound in water and other liquids, a reference pressure of 1 μPa is used.", "An RMS sound pressure of one pascal corresponds to a level of 94 dB SPL.", ";dB SIL: dB sound intensity level – relative to 10−12 W/m2, which is roughly the threshold of human hearing in air.", ";dB SWL: dB sound power level – relative to 10−12 W.;dBA, dBB, and dBC: These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL).", "These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards.", "Other variations that may be seen are dBA or dB(A).", "According to standards from the International Electro-technical Committee (IEC 61672-2013) and the American National Standards Institute, ANSI S1.4, the preferred usage is to write LA = x dB.", "Nevertheless, the units dBA and dB(A) are still commonly used as a shorthand for Aweighted measurements.", "Compare dBc, used in telecommunications.", ";dB HL: dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss.", "The reference level varies with frequency according to a minimum audibility curve as defined in ANSI and other standards, such that the resulting audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as 'normal' hearing.", ";dB Q: sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise weighting;dBpp: relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.", ";dBG: Gweighted spectrum===Audio electronics===See also dBV and dBu above.", ";dBm: dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt.", "In audio and telephony, dBm is typically referenced relative to a 600 Ω impedance, which corresponds to a voltage level of 0.775 volts or 775 millivolts.", ";dBm0: Power in dBm (described above) measured at a zero transmission level point.", ";dBFS: dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", "Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave.", "A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dBFS(fullscale sine wave) = −3 dBFS(fullscale square wave).", ";dBVU: dB volume unit;dBTP: dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", "In digital systems, 0 dBTP would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing.", "Measured values are always negative or zero, since they are less than or equal to full-scale.===Radar===;dBZ: dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm6⋅m−3: energy of reflectivity (weather radar), related to the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar receiver.", "Values above 20 dBZ usually indicate falling precipitation.", ";dBsm: dB(m2) – decibel relative to one square meter: measure of the radar cross section (RCS) of a target.", "The power reflected by the target is proportional to its RCS.", "\"Stealth\" aircraft and insects have negative RCS measured in dBsm, large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values.===Radio power, energy, and field strength===;dBc: relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power.", "Compare dBC, used in acoustics.", ";dBpp: relative to the maximum value of the peak power.", ";dBJ: energy relative to 1 joule.", "1 joule = 1 watt second = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dBJ.", ";dBm: dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt.", "In the radio field, dBm is usually referenced to a 50 Ω load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts.", ";dBμV/m, dBuV/m, or dBμ: dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter.", "The unit is often used to specify the signal strength of a television broadcast at a receiving site (the signal measured ''at the antenna output'' is reported in dBμV).", ";dBf: dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.", ";dBW: dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.", ";dBk: dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.", ";dBe: dB electrical.", ";dBo: dB optical.", "A change of 1 dBo in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dBe in electrical signal power in a system that is thermal noise limited.===Antenna measurements===;dBi: dB(isotropic) – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain of a theoretical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions.", "Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.", ";dBd: dB(dipole) – the gain of an antenna compared with the gain a half-wave dipole antenna.", "0 dBd = 2.15 dBi;dBiC: dB(isotropic circular) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a theoretical circularly polarized isotropic antenna.", "There is no fixed conversion rule between dBiC and dBi, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.", ";dBq: dB(quarterwave) – the gain of an antenna compared to the gain of a quarter wavelength whip.", "Rarely used, except in some marketing material.", "0 dBq = −0.85 dBi;dBsm: dB(m2) – decibel relative to one square meter: measure of the antenna effective area.", ";dBm−1: dB(m−1) – decibel relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor.===Other measurements===;dBHz: dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one hertz.", "E.g., 20 dBHz corresponds to a bandwidth of 100 Hz.", "Commonly used in link budget calculations.", "Also used in carrier-to-noise-density ratio (not to be confused with carrier-to-noise ratio, in dB).", ";dBov or dBO: dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", "Similar to dBFS, but also applicable to analog systems.", "According to ITU-T Rec.", "G.100.1 the level in dBov of a digital system is defined as::: ,: with the maximum signal power , for a rectangular signal with the maximum amplitude .", "The level of a tone with a digital amplitude (peak value) of is therefore .", ";dBr: dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context.", "The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.", ";dBrn: dB above reference noise.", "See also '''dBrnC''';dBrnC: '''dBrnC''' represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to a -90 dBm reference level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter.", "The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America.", "The Psophometric filter is used for this purpose on international circuits.", "See Psophometric weighting to see a comparison of frequency response curves for the C-message weighting and Psophometric weighting filters.", ";dBK:'''dB(K)''' – decibels relative to 1 K; used to express noise temperature.", ";dB/K: dB(K−1) – decibels relative to 1 K−1.— ''not'' decibels per kelvin: Used for the ''G/T'' factor, a figure of merit utilized in satellite communications, relating the antenna gain ''G'' to the receiver system noise equivalent temperature ''T''.===List of suffixes in alphabetical order=======Unpunctuated suffixes====;dBA: see dB(A).", ";dBa: see dBrn adjusted.", ";dBB: see dB(B).", ";dBc: relative to carrier – in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power.", ";dBC: see dB(C).", ";dBD: see dB(D).", ";dBd: dB(dipole) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave dipole antenna.", "0 dBd = 2.15 dBi;dBe: dB electrical.", ";dBf: dB(fW) – power relative to 1 femtowatt.", ";dBFS: dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", "Full-scale may be defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid or alternatively a full-scale square wave.", "A signal measured with reference to a full-scale sine-wave appears 3 dB weaker when referenced to a full-scale square wave, thus: 0 dBFS(fullscale sine wave) = −3 dBFS(fullscale square wave).", ";dBG: G-weighted spectrum;dBi: dB(isotropic) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with the hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions.", "Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.", ";dBiC: dB(isotropic circular) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a circularly polarized isotropic antenna.", "There is no fixed conversion rule between dBiC and dBi, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.", ";dBJ: energy relative to 1 joule.", "1 joule = 1 watt second = 1 watt per hertz, so power spectral density can be expressed in dBJ.", ";dBk: dB(kW) – power relative to 1 kilowatt.", ";dBK:'''dB(K)''' – decibels relative to kelvin: Used to express noise temperature.", ";dBm: dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt.", ";dBm0: Power in dBm measured at a zero transmission level point.", ";dBm0s: Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.", ";dBmV: dB(mVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω.;dBo: dB optical.", "A change of 1 dBo in optical power can result in a change of up to 2 dBe in electrical signal power in system that is thermal noise limited.", ";dBO: see dBov ;dBov or dBO: dB(overload) – the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", ";dBpp: relative to the peak to peak sound pressure.", ";dBpp: relative to the maximum value of the peak power.", ";dBq: dB(quarterwave) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a quarter wavelength whip.", "Rarely used, except in some marketing material.", "0 dBq = −0.85 dBi;dBr: dB(relative) – simply a relative difference from something else, which is made apparent in context.", "The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.", ";dBrn: dB above reference noise.", "See also '''dBrnC''';dBrnC: '''dBrnC''' represents an audio level measurement, typically in a telephone circuit, relative to the circuit noise level, with the measurement of this level frequency-weighted by a standard C-message weighting filter.", "The C-message weighting filter was chiefly used in North America.", ";dBsm: dB(m2) – decibel relative to one square meter;dBTP: dB(true peak) – peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs.", ";dBu or dBv: RMS voltage relative to .", ";dBu0s: Defined by Recommendation ITU-R V.574.", ";dBuV: see dBμV;dBuV/m: see dBμV/m;dBv: see dBu ;dBV: dB(VRMS) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.", ";dBVU: dB volume unit;dBW: dB(W) – power relative to 1 watt.", ";dBW·m−2·Hz−1: spectral density relative to 1 W·m−2·Hz−1;dBZ: dB(Z) – decibel relative to Z = 1 mm6⋅m−3;dBμ: see dBμV/m;dBμV or dBuV: dB(μVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 microvolt.", ";dBμV/m, dBuV/m, or dBμ: dB(μV/m) – electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter.====Suffixes preceded by a space====;dB HL: dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss.", ";dB Q: sometimes used to denote weighted noise level;dB SIL: dB sound intensity level – relative to 10−12 W/m2 ;dB SPL: dB SPL (sound pressure level) – for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20 μPa in air or 1 μPa in water;dB SWL: dB sound power level – relative to 10−12 W.====Suffixes within parentheses====;dB(A), dB(B), dB(C), dB(D), dB(G), and dB(Z): These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL).", "These measurements usually refer to noise and its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and environmental standards.", "Other variations that may be seen are dBA or dBA.====Other suffixes====;dB-Hz: dB(Hz) – bandwidth relative to one hertz.", ";dB/K: dB(K−1) – decibels relative to reciprocal of kelvin;dBm−1: dB(m−1) – decibel relative to reciprocal of meter: measure of the antenna factor.", ";mBm: mB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt, in millibels (one hundredth of a decibel).", "100 mBm = 1 dBm.", "This unit is in the Wi-Fi drivers of the Linux kernel and the regulatory domain sections." ], [ "See also", " Apparent magnitude* Cent (music)* Day–evening–night noise level (Lden) and day-night average sound level (Ldl), European and American standards for expressing noise level over an entire day* dB drag racing* Decade (log scale)* Loudness* * pH* Phon* Richter magnitude scale* Sone" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " What is a decibel?", "With sound files and animations* Conversion of sound level units: dBSPL or dBA to sound pressure p and sound intensity J* OSHA Regulations on Occupational Noise Exposure* Working with Decibels (RF signal and field strengths)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Darwinism" ], [ "Introduction", "Charles Darwin in 1868'''Darwinism''' is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.", "Also called '''Darwinian theory''', it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published ''On the Origin of Species'' in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories.", "English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term ''Darwinism'' in April 1860." ], [ "Terminology", "Darwinism subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology.", "Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life or to cosmic evolution, that are distinct to biological evolution.", "It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work, in place of other concepts, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term ''Darwinism'' in April 1860.It was used to describe evolutionary concepts in general, including earlier concepts published by English philosopher Herbert Spencer.", "Many of the proponents of Darwinism at that time, including Huxley, had reservations about the significance of natural selection, and Darwin himself gave credence to what was later called Lamarckism.", "The strict neo-Darwinism of German evolutionary biologist August Weismann gained few supporters in the late 19th century.", "During the approximate period of the 1880s to about 1920, sometimes called \"the eclipse of Darwinism\", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable.", "The development of the modern synthesis in the early 20th century, incorporating natural selection with population genetics and Mendelian genetics, revived Darwinism in an updated form.While the term ''Darwinism'' has remained in use amongst the public when referring to modern evolutionary theory, it has increasingly been argued by science writers such as Olivia Judson, Eugenie Scott, and Carl Safina that it is an inappropriate term for modern evolutionary theory.", "For example, Darwin was unfamiliar with the work of the Moravian scientist and Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel, and as a result had only a vague and inaccurate understanding of heredity.", "He naturally had no inkling of later theoretical developments and, like Mendel himself, knew nothing of genetic drift, for example.In the United States, creationists often use the term \"Darwinism\" as a pejorative term in reference to beliefs such as scientific materialism.", "This is now also the case even in the United Kingdom." ], [ "Huxley and Kropotkin", "As evolution became widely accepted in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles Darwin with the body of an ape or monkey symbolised evolution.Huxley, upon first reading Darwin's theory in 1858, responded, \"How extremely stupid not to have thought of that!", "\"While the term ''Darwinism'' had been used previously to refer to the work of Erasmus Darwin in the late 18th century, the term as understood today was introduced when Charles Darwin's 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species'' was reviewed by Thomas Henry Huxley in the April 1860 issue of the ''Westminster Review''.", "Having hailed the book as \"a veritable Whitworth gun in the armoury of liberalism\" promoting scientific naturalism over theology, and praising the usefulness of Darwin's ideas while expressing professional reservations about Darwin's gradualism and doubting if it could be proved that natural selection could form new species, Huxley compared Darwin's achievement to that of Nicolaus Copernicus in explaining planetary motion:These are the basic tenets of evolution by natural selection as defined by Darwin:# More individuals are produced each generation than can survive.# Phenotypic variation exists among individuals and the variation is heritable.# Those individuals with heritable traits better suited to the environment will survive.# When reproductive isolation occurs new species will form.Another important evolutionary theorist of the same period was the Russian geographer and prominent anarchist Pyotr Kropotkin who, in his book ''Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution'' (1902), advocated a conception of Darwinism counter to that of Huxley.", "His conception was centred around what he saw as the widespread use of co-operation as a survival mechanism in human societies and animals.", "He used biological and sociological arguments in an attempt to show that the main factor in facilitating evolution is cooperation between individuals in free-associated societies and groups.", "This was in order to counteract the conception of fierce competition as the core of evolution, which provided a rationalization for the dominant political, economic and social theories of the time; and the prevalent interpretations of Darwinism, such as those by Huxley, who is targeted as an opponent by Kropotkin.", "Kropotkin's conception of Darwinism could be summed up by the following quote:" ], [ "Other 19th-century usage", "\"Darwinism\" soon came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society.", "One of the more prominent approaches, summed in the 1864 phrase \"survival of the fittest\" by Herbert Spencer, later became emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution (as expressed in 1857) was more similar to that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck than to that of Darwin, and predated the publication of Darwin's theory in 1859.What is now called \"Social Darwinism\" was, in its day, synonymous with \"Darwinism\"—the application of Darwinian principles of \"struggle\" to society, usually in support of anti-philanthropic political agenda.", "Another interpretation, one notably favoured by Darwin's half-cousin Francis Galton, was that \"Darwinism\" implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on \"civilized\" people, it was possible for \"inferior\" strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the \"superior\" strains, and voluntary corrective measures would be desirable—the foundation of eugenics.In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term \"Darwinism\", and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context.", "The ideas had international influence, and Ernst Haeckel developed what was known as ''Darwinismus'' in Germany, although, like Spencer's \"evolution\", Haeckel's \"Darwinism\" had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centred on natural selection.", "In 1886, Alfred Russel Wallace went on a lecture tour across the United States, starting in New York and going via Boston, Washington, Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska to California, lecturing on what he called \"Darwinism\" without any problems.In his book ''Darwinism'' (1889), Wallace had used the term ''pure-Darwinism'' which proposed a \"greater efficacy\" for natural selection.", "George Romanes dubbed this view as \"Wallaceism\", noting that in contrast to Darwin, this position was advocating a \"pure theory of natural selection to the exclusion of any supplementary theory.\"", "Taking influence from Darwin, Romanes was a proponent of both natural selection and the inheritance of acquired characteristics.", "The latter was denied by Wallace who was a strict selectionist.", "Romanes' definition of Darwinism conformed directly with Darwin's views and was contrasted with Wallace's definition of the term." ], [ "Contemporary usage", "The term ''Darwinism'' is often used in the United States by promoters of creationism, notably by leading members of the intelligent design movement, as an epithet to attack evolution as though it were an ideology (an \"ism\") based on philosophical naturalism, atheism, or both.", "For example, in 1993, UC Berkeley law professor and author Phillip E. Johnson made this accusation of atheism with reference to Charles Hodge's 1874 book ''What Is Darwinism?''.", "However, unlike Johnson, Hodge confined the term to exclude those like American botanist Asa Gray who combined Christian faith with support for Darwin's natural selection theory, before answering the question posed in the book's title by concluding: \"It is Atheism.", "\"Creationists use pejoratively the term ''Darwinism'' to imply that the theory has been held as true only by Darwin and a core group of his followers, whom they cast as dogmatic and inflexible in their belief.", "In the 2008 documentary film ''Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed'', which promotes intelligent design (ID), American writer and actor Ben Stein refers to scientists as Darwinists.", "Reviewing the film for ''Scientific American'', John Rennie says \"The term is a curious throwback, because in modern biology almost no one relies solely on Darwin's original ideas...", "Yet the choice of terminology isn't random: Ben Stein wants you to stop thinking of evolution as an actual science supported by verifiable facts and logical arguments and to start thinking of it as a dogmatic, atheistic ideology akin to Marxism.", "\"However, ''Darwinism'' is also used neutrally within the scientific community to distinguish the modern evolutionary synthesis, which is sometimes called \"neo-Darwinism\", from those first proposed by Darwin.", "''Darwinism'' also is used neutrally by historians to differentiate his theory from other evolutionary theories current around the same period.", "For example, ''Darwinism'' may refer to Darwin's proposed mechanism of natural selection, in comparison to more recent mechanisms such as genetic drift and gene flow.", "It may also refer specifically to the role of Charles Darwin as opposed to others in the history of evolutionary thought—particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as Lamarckism or later ones such as the modern evolutionary synthesis.In political discussions in the United States, the term is mostly used by its enemies.", "\"It's a rhetorical device to make evolution seem like a kind of faith, like 'Maoism, says Harvard University biologist E. O. Wilson.", "He adds, \"Scientists don't call it 'Darwinism'.\"", "In the United Kingdom, the term often retains its positive sense as a reference to natural selection, and for example British ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins wrote in his collection of essays ''A Devil's Chaplain'', published in 2003, that as a scientist he is a Darwinist.In his 1995 book ''Darwinian Fairytales'', Australian philosopher David Stove used the term \"Darwinism\" in a different sense than the above examples.", "Describing himself as non-religious and as accepting the concept of natural selection as a well-established fact, Stove nonetheless attacked what he described as flawed concepts proposed by some \"Ultra-Darwinists.\"", "Stove alleged that by using weak or false ''ad hoc'' reasoning, these Ultra-Darwinists used evolutionary concepts to offer explanations that were not valid: for example, Stove suggested that the sociobiological explanation of altruism as an evolutionary feature was presented in such a way that the argument was effectively immune to any criticism.", "English philosopher Simon Blackburn wrote a rejoinder to Stove, though a subsequent essay by Stove's protégé James Franklin suggested that Blackburn's response actually \"confirms Stove's central thesis that Darwinism can 'explain' anything.", "\"In more recent times, the Australian moral philosopher and professor Peter Singer, who serves as the Ira W. DeCamp Professor of Bioethics at Princeton University, has proposed the development of a \"Darwinian left\" based on the contemporary scientific understanding of biological anthropology, human evolution, and applied ethics in order to achieve the establishment of a more equal and cooperative human society in accordance with the sociobiological explanation of altruism." ], [ "Esoteric usage", "In evolutionary aesthetics theory, there is evidence that perceptions of beauty are determined by natural selection and therefore Darwinian; that things, aspects of people and landscapes considered beautiful are typically found in situations likely to give enhanced survival of the perceiving human's genes." ], [ "See also", "* Darwin Awards* Evidence of common descent* History of evolutionary thought* Modern evolutionary synthesis* Neural Darwinism* Pangenesis—Charles Darwin's hypothetical mechanism for heredity* Speciation* Universal Darwinism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * Retrieved 2015-11-17.", "* " ], [ "Further reading", " Danilevsky, Nikolay.", "1885-1889 ''Darwinism: A Critical Study'' (Дарвинизм.", "Критическое исследование) at Runivers.ru in DjVu format.", "Fiske, John.", "(1885).", "''Darwinism, and Other Essays''.", "Houghton Mifflin and Company.", " Mayr, Ernst.", "(1985).", "''The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance''.", "Harvard University Press.", "* Romanes, John George.", "(1906).", "''Darwin and After Darwin: An Exposition of the Darwinian Theory and a Discussion of Post-Darwinian Questions''.", "''Volume 2: Heredity and Utility''.", "The Open Court Publishing Company.", "* Wallace, Alfred Russel.", "(1889).", "''Darwinism: An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection, with Some of Its Applications''.", "Macmillan and Company.", "Simon, C. (2019).", "Taking Darwinism seriously.", "''Animal Sentience'', ''3''(23), 47." ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doraemon" ], [ "Introduction", "A magazine in which the new work of the manga \"Doraemon\" was published.", "Month of release.", "Blue is short.", "Red is Long Stories.", "is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio.", "The manga was first serialized in December 1969.Its chapters were collected in 45 ''tankōbon'' volumes published by Shogakukan from 1974 to 1996.The story revolves around an earless robotic cat named Doraemon, who travels back in time from the 22nd century to aid a boy named Nobita Nobi.The manga spawned a media franchise.", "Three anime TV series have been adapted in 1973, 1979, and 2005.Additionally, Shin-Ei Animation has produced over forty animated films, including two 3D computer-animated films, all of which are distributed by Toho.", "Various types of merchandise and media have been developed, including soundtrack albums, video games, and musicals.", "The manga series was licensed for an English language release in North America, via Amazon Kindle, by a collaboration of Fujiko F. Fujio Pro with Voyager Japan and AltJapan Co., Ltd.", "The anime series was licensed by Disney for an English-language release in North America in 2014, and LUK International in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.", "''Doraemon'' was well-received by critics and became a hit in many Asian countries.", "It won numerous awards, including the Japan Cartoonists Association Award in 1973 and 1994, the Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga in 1982, and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 1997.By 2019, it has sold over 250 million copies worldwide, becoming one of the best-selling manga series of all time.", "The character of Doraemon has been viewed as a Japanese cultural icon, and was appointed as the first \"anime ambassador\" in 2008 by the country's Foreign Ministry." ], [ "Synopsis", "Nobita Nobi is a ten-year-old Japanese school boy, who is kind-hearted and honest, but also lazy, unlucky, weak, gets bad grades and is bad at sports.", "One day, a robot cat from the 22nd century named Doraemon is sent back to the past by Nobita's future grandchild, Sewashi Nobi, to take care of Nobita so that his descendants can have a better life.", "Doraemon has a four-dimensional pouch in which he stores tools, inventions, and gadgets from the future to aid Nobita whenever he is faced with a problem.", "Although Doraemon is a cat robot, he has a fear of mice because of an incident where robotic mice chewed off his ears.", "This is why Doraemon lost his original yellow color and turned blue, from sadness.Nobita has three main friends: Takeshi Goda (nicknamed Gian), Suneo Honekawa (Gian's sidekick), and Shizuka Minamoto, Nobita's best friend and love-interest.", "Gian is a strong, leading and domineering boy, but also loyal to his friends.", "Suneo is a wealthy and spoiled boy who uses his friendship with Gian to win the respect of other schoolmates.", "Shizuka is a gentle and kind girl who frequently plays with Nobita.", "Nobita has a crush on Shizuka; she is his prospective future wife (Nobita's future wife is initially Gian's younger sister).", "Although Gian and Suneo are Nobita's friends, they also typically bully and abuse him.", "Nobita normally responds by using Doraemon's gadgets to fight back against them, but Nobita has a tendency to get carried away with using the gadgets (or Gian and Suneo, if they steal it away), which typically results in unintended consequences for him and others.In addition to Gian, Suneo, and Shizuka, Dorami and Hidetoshi Dekisugi are also recurring characters.", "Dorami is Doraemon's younger sister, and Dekisugi is a gifted student boy who as Shizuka's close friend, frequently attracts the jealousy of Nobita." ], [ "Creation and conception", "=== Development and themes ===''Doraemon'' is written and illustrated by Fujiko F. Fujio, the pen name of Japanese manga artist Hiroshi Fujimoto.", "According to Fujio, it was originally conceived following a series of three events: when searching for ideas for a new manga, he wished a machine existed that would come up with ideas for him, he tripped over his daughter's toy, and heard cats fighting in his neighborhood.", "To set up the plot and characters, he inspired some elements from his earlier manga series, ''Obake no Q-Tarō'', which involve an ''obake'' living with humans, with a similar formula.", "Fujio said that the idea for ''Doraemon'' came after \"an accumulation of trial and error\", during which he finally found the most suitable style of manga to him.", "Initially, the series achieved little success as ''gekiga'' was well-known at the time, and only became a hit after its adaptation into an anime TV series and multiple feature films.", "''Doraemon'' is mainly aimed at children, so Fujio chose to create the character with a simple graphic style, based on shapes such as circles and ellipses.", "He used the same sequences of cartoons with regularity and continuity to enhance the reader's ease of understanding.", "In addition, blue, a characteristic color of Doraemon, was chosen as the main color in magazine publications, which used to have a yellow cover and red title.", "Set in Tokyo, the manga reflected parts of Japan's society, such as the class system and the \"ideal\" of Japanese childhood.", "Problems, if occur, were resolved in a way so as not to rely on violence and eroticism, and the stories were integrated with the concept of environmentalism.", "The manga also insisted on the ethical values of integrity, perseverance, courage, family and respect.In order to underline the crucial role of the young generation in society, the manga's creator chose to have the act carried out in a \"children's domain\" where young people can live with happiness, freedom and power without adult's interference.", "As Saya S. Shiraishi noted, the existence of the \"domain\" helped ''Doraemon'' to have a strong appeal in various Asian countries.", "During ''Doraemon'''s development, Fujio did not express a change in characters; he said, \"When a manga hero become a success, the manga suddenly stops being interesting.", "So the hero has to be like the stripes on a barber pole; he seems to keep moving upward, but actually he stays in the same place.", "\"According to Zensho Ito, Fujio's former student, the \"length\" of time in the universe is one of the ideas that inspired Fujio to make ''Doraemon''.", "Frequently displayed in its stories is Nobita's desire to control time, and there exist time-control gadgets that he uses to satisfy that desire, particularly the \"Time Machine\", which lies in his desk drawer.", "Unlike Western works on science fiction, the manga did not explain the theory nor the applied technology behind these tools, but instead focusing on how the characters exploit their advantages, making it more children-friendly.=== Origin of the name ===The name \"Doraemon\" can be roughly translated to \"stray\".", "Unusually, the name is written in a mixture of two Japanese scripts: Katakana () and Hiragana ().", "\"Dora\" derives from , and is a corruption of nora (stray), while \"-emon\" (in kanji ) is an old-fashioned suffix for male names (for example, as in Ishikawa Goemon).", "Nobita's home address in Tsukimidai (\"moon-view-heights\"), Nerima refers to Fujimidai (\"Fuji-view-heights\"), where Osamu Tezuka's residence and animation studio is based.", "The name \"Nobita Nobi\" refers to \"nobi nobi\", meaning \"the way a young child grows up free, healthy, and happy, unrestrained in any sense\".=== Gadgets ===alt=\"Anywhere Door\", a pink door used as a gadget in \"Doraemon\"; users can travel anywhere on their wish by turning the door's knobGadgets, or , are Doraemon's tools from the future, usually used to help the characters.", "Fujio said that Doraemon has a total of 1,293 gadgets; according to a 2004 analysis by Yasuyuki Yokoyama of Toyama University, there are 1,963 gadgets found in 1,344 sketches.", "The most important gadgets include \"Take-Copter\", a small piece of headgear made out of bamboo that can allow its users to fly; \"Time Machine\", a machine used for time travel; \"Anywhere Door\", a pink-colored door that allows people to travel according to the thoughts of the person who turns the knob; \"Time Kerchief\", a handkerchief which can turn an object new or old or a person young or old; \"Translator Tool\", a cuboid jelly that allow one to converse in any language; and \"Designer\", a camera used to instantly dress-up the user.Saya S. Shiraishi wrote that most of the gadgets were \"an impressive testimony to the standards of quality control and innovation that exist in the twenty-second century\".", "The gadgets were an essential part of the series so as to reflect a positive point of view about the association of technology in children, and to express the wishes of modern society.=== Conclusion ===The series ceased its original run in 1994 and was not given a ending before Fujimoto's death in 1996; this has since aroused numerous urban legends throughout the years.", "One of the most well-known \"endings\" of the manga was by an amateur manga cartoonist under the pen name \"Yasue T. Tajima\", first appeared on the Internet in 1998 and made up into a manga in 2005.The story takes place when Doraemon's battery dies, and Nobita later grows up becoming a robot engineer, potentially revive Doraemon and live a happy life.", "Tajima issued an apology in 2007, and the profits were shared with Shogakukan and the copyright owner, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro.Ryūichi Yagi and Takashi Yamazaki, the directors of ''Stand by Me Doraemon'', confirmed that it had only one opening, while the ending has been rewritten several times.", "Because of this, Shogakukan had to clarify that only if the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka is finalized will the mission be accomplished, and then Doraemon will return to the future." ], [ "Media", "=== Manga ===+ Main Tankōbon of the manga ''Doraemon'' Book Title Memo Label Abbr.", "Volumes Recorded Episodes Publication Publisher ''Doraemon'' The Complete Works of Fujiko F. Fujio CWF201326 2009–2012 Shogakukan ''Doraemon'' Kindle Edition KE2001311 2013–2016 Shogakukan ''Doraemon'' Chūkō comics: Fujiko Fujio Land FFL45833 1984–1990 Chūōkōronsha ''Doraemon'' Normal volume Tentōmushi Comics TC45822 1974–1996 Shogakukan ''Doraemon Plus'' Tentōmushi Comics DP7145 2005–2006, 2014, 2023 Shogakukan ''Doraemon Color Works'' Tentōmushi Comics Special DCW6119 1999–2006 Shogakukan ''Doraemon'' Volume 0 Tentōmushi Comics TC019 2019 Shogakukantime machine\|alt=Excerpt of \"Doraemon\" manga volume 1, where Doraemon made his first appearance by coming from the time machine, which lies in Nobita's desk drawerIn December 1969, the ''Doraemon'' manga appeared in six different children's monthly magazines published by Shogakukan: ''Yoiko'', ''Yōchien'', ''Shogaku Ichi-nensei'', ''Shogaku Ni-nensei'', ''Shogaku San-nensei'', and ''Shogaku Yo-nensei''.", "The magazines were aimed at children from nursery school to fourth grade.", "In 1973, two other magazines, ''Shogaku Go-nensei'' and ''Shogaku Roku-nensei'' (aimed at fifth-grade and sixth-grade students respectively), started publishing the manga.", "In 1977, ''CoroCoro Comic'' was launched as the flagship magazine of ''Doraemon.", "''Since the debut of ''Doraemon'' in 1969, the stories have been selectively collected into forty-five ''tankōbon'' volumes that were published under Shogakukan's imprint from July 31, 1974, to April 26, 1996.These volumes are collected in the Takaoka Central Library in Toyama, Japan, where Fujio was born.", "Between April 25, 2005, and February 28, 2006, Shōgakukan published a series of five manga volumes under the title ''Doraemon Plus'' (''Doraemon+''), featuring short stories which did not appear in the forty-five original volumes; a sixth volume, the first volume in eight years, was published on December 1, 2014.Additionally, 119 unpublished stories were compiled into six colored-manga volumes under the title ''Doraemon Kara Sakuhin-shu'' , published from July 17, 1999, to September 2, 2006.Between July 24, 2009, and September 25, 2012, Shogakukan published a ''master works'' collection consisting of twenty volumes with all 1,345 stories written by Fujio.", "In December 2019, on the 50th anniversary of ''Doraemon'', a \"Volume 0\" was published by Shogakukan featuring six different versions of Doraemon's first appearance.There have been two series of bilingual, Japanese and English, volumes of the manga by Shogakukan English Comics under the title ''Doraemon: Gadget Cat from the Future'', and two audio versions.", "The first series has ten volumes and the second one has six.", "21st Century Publishing House released bilingual English-Chinese versions in Mainland China, and Chingwin Publishing Group released bilingual English-Chinese versions in Taiwan.In July 2013, Fujiko F. Fujio Pro announced that they would be collaborating with ebook publisher Voyager Japan and localization company AltJapan Co., Ltd. to release an English-language version of the manga in full color digitally via the Amazon Kindle platform in North America.", "Shogakukan released the first volume in November 2013; by 2016, a total of 200 volumes have been published.", "This English version incorporates a variety of changes to character names; Nobita is \"Noby\", Shizuka is \"Sue\", Suneo is \"Sneech\", and Gian is \"Big G\", while dorayaki is \"Yummy Bun/Fudgy Pudgy Pie\".", "Also, by 2016, four volumes of the manga have been published in English in print by Shogakukan Asia.Shogakukan started digital distribution of all forty-five original volumes throughout Japan from July 16, 2015.====Long Stories====''Doraemon's Long Tales'' is the core of the work, as is ''Doraemon Short Stories''.", "''Doraemon's Long Tales'' is a manga and movie series ongoing since 1979, featuring longer and continuous narratives about the characters' adventures into various lands of science fiction and fantasy.", "Long Stories manga series consists of twenty-four tankōbon volumes published from 1983 to 2004.====Spin-offs====Several spin-off manga series of ''Doraemon'' have been made.", "''The Doraemons'', a manga illustrated by Michiaki Tanaka based on ''Doraemon'', was published by Shogakukan in six ''tankōbon'' volumes from 1996 to 2001.Between 1997 and 2003, Shogakukan also published fifteen volumes of ''The Doraemons Special'', created by Yukihiro Mitani and Masaru Miyazaki as a complement part of ''The Doraemons'', including twelve from the main series and three from the ''Robot Training School Edition''.", "''Dorabase'', a baseball-themed manga written and illustrated by Mugiwara Shintarō, is another spin-off of ''Doraemon''; twenty-three volumes of the manga were published by Shogakukan from April 26, 2001, to October 28, 2011.=== Anime ===Doraemon anime outlineThe first attempt of a ''Doraemon'' animated series was in 1973, by Nippon Television.", "After a January 1973 pilot named ''Doraemon Mirai Kara Yattekuru'' , twenty-six episodes, each with two segments, were broadcast on Nippon TV from April 1 to September 30 of the same year.", "The series was directed by Mitsuo Kaminashi with voice cast from Aoni Production; the character Doraemon was voiced by Kōsei Tomita, then later by Masako Nozawa.", "Later in the series, the animation studio, Nippon TeleMovie Productions, went bankrupt, and the masters were sold off or destroyed.", "The series was re-aired on Nippon TV and several local stations until 1979, when Shogakukan requested Toyama Television to cease broadcasting.", "Some of the segments were found in the archives of Imagica in 1995, and some others were recovered by Jun Masami in 2003.As of 2013, 21 of 52 segments are known to survive, two of which have no audio.", "''Doraemon'' remained fairly exclusive in manga form until 1979 when a animation studio, Shin-Ei Animation (now owned by TV Asahi) produced an animated second attempt of ''Doraemon''.", "The series aired on TV Asahi from April 2, 1979.Ryo Motohira served as chief director from 1981, and Tsutomu Shibayama from 1984.Eiichi Nakamura served as director of character designer, while Shunsuke Kikuchi was the composer.", "Nobuyo Ōyama voiced Doraemon in the series; because of this, in Asia, this version is sometimes referred to as the Ōyama Edition.", "In total, 1,787 episodes were produced and released in VHS and DVD by Toho.", "On April 15, 2005, a major renewal was carried out, including the replacement of voice actors and staff, and updated character designs (Doraemon (2005 TV series)).", "The third series is sometimes referred to in Asia as the Mizuta Edition, as a tribute for the voice actress for Doraemon, Wasabi Mizuta.", "It was released in DVD on February 10, 2006 under the title ''New TV-ban Doraemon'' with Shogakukan Video banner.In May 2014, TV Asahi Corporation announced an agreement with The Walt Disney Company to bring the 2005 series to the Disney XD television channel and Disney Channel in the United States beginning in the summer of that year.", "Besides using the name changes that were used in AltJapan's English adaptation of the original manga, other changes and edits have also been made to make the show more relatable to an American audience, such as Japanese text being replaced with English text on certain objects like signs and graded papers, items such as yen notes being replaced by US dollar bills, and the setting being changed from Japan to the United States.", "Initial response to the edited dub was positive.", "The Disney adaptation began broadcast in Japan on Disney Channel from February 1, 2016.The broadcast offered the choice of the English voice track or a newly recorded Japanese track by the Japanese cast of the 2005 series.The anime has also been aired in over sixty countries worldwide.", "It premiered in Thailand in 1982, the Philippines in 1999, India in 2005, and Vietnam in 2010.Other Asian countries that broadcast the series include China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, Malaysia, Indonesia, and South Korea.", "The series is licensed in EMEA regions by LUK International; it premiered in Spain in 1993 and France in 2003.It has also been distributed in South American countries, including Brazil, Colombia, and Chile.", "In 2017, POPS Worldwide, a Vietnamese multimedia company, collaborated with TV Asahi to release the anime series on YouTube and other digital platforms.==== Films ====By 2023, there have been 42 annual feature-length animated films produced by Shin-Ei Animation and released by Toho.", "The first twenty-five films are based on the 1979 anime, while the rest are based on the 2005 anime.", "Unlike the anime and manga series, the films are more action-adventure oriented, taking the familiar characters of ''Doraemon'' and placing them in a variety of exotic and perilous settings.A 3D computer animated film, ''Stand by Me Doraemon,'' debuted in Japan on August 8, 2014.Directed by Takashi Yamazaki and Ryūichi Yagi, it combines elements from the short stories of the manga series: \"All the Way from the Country of the Future\", \"Imprinting Egg\", \"Goodbye, Shizuka-chan\", \"Romance in Snowy Mountain\", \"Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding\", and \"Goodbye, Doraemon ...\" into a new complete story, from the first time Doraemon came to Nobita's house to Doraemon bidding farewell to Nobita.", "The film was a box office success, grossing $183.4 million worldwide.", "A sequel, ''Stand by Me Doraemon 2'', also directed by Yamazaki and Yagi, was released on November 20, 2020.==== Short films, OVA and crossover ====Several ''Doraemon'' short films were produced and released between 1989 and 2004.These include ''2112: The Birth of Doraemon'', a film about the life of Doraemon from birth before coming to Nobita; ''Doraemon: Nobita's the Night Before a Wedding'', a film about the events related to the marriage of Nobita and Shizuka; ''The Day When I Was Born'' and ''Doraemon: A Grandmother's Recollections'', the films about the relationship between Nobita and his parents along with his grandmother.", "Other short films focus on Dorami and The Doraemons.", "In 1981, Toho released ''What Am I for Momotaro'', a film about Momotarō, the hero of Japanese folklore.In 1994, an educational OVA was made, titled ''Doraemon: Nobita to Mirai Note'' , where the main characters express the hope for a better Earth.", "The OVA was released in DVD along with the 13th issue of ''Fujiko F. Fujio Wonderland'' magazine in September 2004.A crossover episode of ''Doraemon'' with ''AIBOU: Tokyo Detective Duo'' aired on TV Asahi on November 9, 2018.==== Music ====The soundtrack of the 1973 anime series was composed by Nobuyoshi Koshibe, who also arranged the opening theme song and the ending theme song , both performed by Harumi Naitō.", "For the 1979 anime, Shunsuke Kikuchi was the composer, who arranged ; it had been performed by numerous singers, including Kumiko Ōsugi and Satoko Yamano.", "When the anime got a reboot in 2005, Kan Sawada was the composer of the series.", "There are four other opening themes, including an instrumental version of \"Doraemon no Uta\" performed by Twelve Girls Band; \"Hagushichao\" performed by Rimi Natsukawa; \"Yume wo Kanaete Doraemon\" , the opening theme broadcast from 2007 to 2018; and \"Doraemon\" performed by Gen Hoshino, broadcast since October 2019.Numerous collections of theme songs of the anime series and feature films were initially available in cassettes.", "Since the 1990s, ''Doraemon'' songs have been released in CD, under the type of singles and compilation albums.", "Soundtracks of ''Doraemon'' feature films have been released by Nippon Columbia since 2001 in the album series .=== Musical shows === ''Doraemon'' has been adapted into a musical, titled .", "Based on the 1990 anime film of the same name, it debuted at Tokyo Metropolitan Art Space on September 4, 2008, running through September 14.Shoji Kokami was the director and writer, Makoto Sakamoto played Nobita and Reiko Suho as Shizuka; Jaian and Suneo were portrayed by Tomohiro Waki and Kensaku Kobayashi, respectively; Wasabi Mizuta voiced Doraemon.", "The musical was later revived and ran at Sunshine Theater, Tokyo from March 26 to April 2, 2017, then later in other prefectures including Fukuoka, Osaka, Miyagi and Aichi.", "The 2017 revival is also directed and written by Kokami, with Mizuta reprising her role; Nobita, Shizuka, Jaian and Suneo were played by Yuuchi Ogoe, Hina Higuchi, Koki Azuma and Shō Jinnai, respectively.===Video games===Many Japanese-only video games based on ''Doraemon'' have been developed.", "For instance, in 1983, Bandai developed , an arcade game inspired by Pac-Man.", "''Doraemon'', a NES video game made by Hudson Soft, was released on December 12, 1986, and became one of the best-selling games of that year in Japan with over 1.15 million copies sold.", "On December 6, 2007, Sega published ''Doraemon Wii'', the first ''Doraemon'' video game released on Wii.", "Doraemon can also be seen in Namco's ''Taiko no Tatsujin'' rhythm game series, such as in ''Taiko no Tatsujin: Sesson de Dodon ga Don!''", "(2017).", "The first Doraemon game to receive a Western release was ''Doraemon Story of Seasons'' (2019).", "Card games with ''Doraemon'' themes have also been made in several special occasions, sometimes to exploit the popularity of feature films.", "In 2016, a special edition of ''Uno'' about the series' characters was released exclusively in Japan, as a result of a cooperation between Asatsu-DK and Mattel.=== Merchandise ===In Japan, the ''Doraemon'' merchandising rights belong to Shogakukan-Shueisha Productions, which has produced and distributed a wide range of products under its brand, such as toys, food, stationery, action figures, ''gashapon'', shoes, clothing, and others.", "Several companies have collaborated on the creation and distribution of products on the series and its characters, including Sanrio, Converse, Moleskine, and ESP Guitars, which has made guitars decorated with ''Doraemon'' characters; a further partnership of ''Doraemon'' with Uniqlo led to a line of clothing designed by Takashi Murakami.", "The ''Doraemon'' franchise has also collaborated with various Japanese brands, including Tsi Groove & Sports's ''Jack Bunny'' golf apparel brand, Unicharm's ''MamiPoko'' diaper brand, and the video games ''LINE Pop 2'', ''Monster Strike'', and ''Granblue Fantasy''.", "Viz Media owns the ''Doraemon'' merchandising rights in North and Latin America, which has developed ''Doraemon''-themed clothing and collectibles in collaboration with retail chain Hot Topic, and themed Happy Meals in a 2015 collaboration with McDonald's.", "Viz Media Europe (now Crunchyroll EMEA) manages the merchandising in Europe except Spain and Portugal; LUK International has obtained licenses in these two countries.Characters from ''Doraemon'' have been used in advertising through specific agreements with Shogakukan.", "For instance, following the Cool Japan initiative promoted by the Japanese government, Sharp Corporation produced a series of commercials featuring the characters of Doraemon and Nobita, which were broadcast in several ASEAN countries.", "In late 2011, Shogakukan and Toyota Motor Corporation joined forces to create a series of live-action commercials as part of Toyota's ReBorn ad campaign, which depicted the manga's characters two decades after being grown up, where Hollywood actor Jean Reno played Doraemon." ], [ "Reception", "=== General ===''Doraemon'' is considered one of the best-known manga of all time, a true Japanese cultural icon, and an essential part of family life of the Japanese post-war generation.", "Akihiro Motoyama observed that \"mothers who watched the movies when they were children are now taking their own children to see them\".", "It was also commercially successful: over books were sold in Japan by 1996.The 1979 and 2005 anime series also achieved high ratings on television.", "With the film ''Doraemon: Nobita's Secret Gadget Museum'', the ''Doraemon'' anime film series reached 100 million tickets sold at the Japanese box office, surpassing ''Godzilla'' as the highest-grossing film franchise in Japan.", "By 2015, it had sold over 103 million tickets, and was the largest franchise by numbers of admissions in the country.", "''Doraemon'' was also a hit in Asia in general, and was considered one of the typical cases of Japanese soft power, although it was published without a license in some countries.", "The anime television series is available in over 60 countries, and reportedly getting high ratings in at least 30 countries.", "However, ''Doraemon'' was less successful in Western countries, because it was viewed as a children-only series, and there were some tight restrictions about publishing manga and broadcasting anime series there.", "The manga has sold over copies worldwide by 2012, and 250 million by 2019.Estimates show that ''Doraemon'' has generated at least more than in merchandise sales by 2019, and over $1.7 billion from anime feature films by 2020, making it one of the highest-grossing media franchises of all time.Outside Japan, ''Doraemon'' achieved particular success in Vietnam, with a record-breaking 40 million copies sold by 2006.The manga was first launched there in 1992 by Kim Đồng Publishing House, but the copyright from Shogakukan was not fully acquired until 1996.In 1993, the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture considered the manga's publication to be \"an impactful event for the improvement of children, youth and adult's likings ... ''Doraemon'' is a comprehensively educational book series which has the effect of developing children's personality\".", "Doraemon is now a cultural icon in Vietnam, having featured in many cultural events.=== Critical response and analysis ===''Doraemon'' received favorable reviews.", "Mark Schilling wrote, \"For kids whose lives are often so regulated, Doraemon represents a welcome breath of freedom and a glimpse of a funnier, friendlier world where all dreams, even foolish ones, can come true.\"", "Italian writer Massimo Nicora wrote that the manga \"can be interpreted as a type of book that criticizes, with irony, the omnipotence of science that pretends to solve every problem with its tools\", alluding to the fact that Doraemon's gadgets often end up making the problems even worse than they initially were, more than anything else.", "He added that it represents \"the metaphor of the childish imagination, which always manages to find the most bizarre and original solutions, in a continuous game of transformation of reality\".Some critics considered that Nobita's flawed personality and modest background is different from the special or extraordinary characteristics usually seen in other typical anime and manga protagonists; this portrayal has been seen as reasons of its appeal as well as the contrary, especially in the United States.", "According to the Italian Parents Movement (Moige), in the manga, \"the lazy Nobita does not know any kind of appreciable evolution\", though there are still good points including \"the criticism of bullying, the goodness that transpires from the little Nobita and the positive figure of Shizuka\".In his 2000 article, Leo Ching explained that the success of ''Doraemon'' in Asia was because it had reflected the Asian values such as imagination and responsibility, the same reason that ''Oshin'', another Japanese cultural export, became well-known there.", "On the other hand, according to an analysis by Anne Allison, professor of cultural anthropology at Duke University, the strong point of it was not the variety of the gadgets, but the relationship between Doraemon and Nobita, which was particularly appreciated.", "Jason Thompson praised the \"silly situations\" and \"old fashioned, simple artwork\", with Doraemon's expression and comments adding to the \"surrounding elementary-school mischief\".", "On the manga's 50th anniversary, an op-ed published on ''Asahi Shimbun'' stated that the manga \"has already become a contemporary classic\".=== Awards, accolades and public recognition ===''Doraemon'' has received numerous accolades.", "It won the Japan Cartoonists Association Award twice in 1973 and 1994, the former for Excellence Award while the latter for Minister of Education, Science and Technology Award.", "In 1982, it received the first Shogakukan Manga Award for children's manga.", "In 1997, the manga won the Grand Prize at the first Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize.", "The 1979 series won the award from the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs four times for best television series in 1984, 1985, 1988 and 1989.A 2006 poll among 80,000 Japanese fans for the 10th anniversary of the Japan Media Arts Festival placed ''Doraemon'' at fifth among the top ten best manga of all time.", "The 2005 and 2006 surveys conducted by TV Asahi found the ''Doraemon'' anime ranked fifth and third, respectively, among the 100 most favorite anime series of all time.", "In 2010, a survey conducted by researchers of Tokyo Polytechnic University found that most responders considered ''Doraemon'', along with ''Dragon Ball'' franchise, to be the anime series that represents Cool Japan.", "In a 2013 survey, ''Doraemon'' was found to be the best anime recommended for foreign people.=== Controversies ===''Doraemon'' has been blamed for having a negative impact on children, due to the controversial traits of the characters in the anime.", "The character has received criticism in China, where some media outlets considered Doraemon to be a politically subversive character and that it was a tool of Japan's \"cultural invasion\".", "In 2016, a resolution to ban Hindi dubbed ''Doraemon'' anime series was submitted in Pakistan.", "Around the same time, legal notices were served against several companies in India, targeting ''Doraemon'' and ''Crayon Shin-chan'' for bans (which did not materialize), as having an adverse effect on children.", "Disney Channel India, the regional broadcaster of the anime, was banned in Bangladesh and Pakistan citing non-availability of localized dubs for content including ''Doraemon''." ], [ "Cultural impact and legacy", "The ''Doraemon'' manga has inspired many other mangakas; these include Eiichiro Oda, the creator of ''One Piece'' with the idea of \"Devil Fruits\", and Masashi Kishimoto, the creator of ''Naruto'', who showed interest in drawing characters from anime shows during his childhood, including Doraemon.", "The manga has also been mentioned in ''Gin Tama'' and ''Great Teacher Onizuka''.", "The character Doraemon is considered one of the cultural icons in Japan, and one of the most well-known characters in manga history; some critics compared his notability with Mickey Mouse and Snoopy.", "Mark Schilling noted that Doraemon's \"Take-Copter\" is familiar among Japanese people \"just as Snoopy's biplane is familiar to most Americans\".On April 22, 2002, on the special issue of ''Asian Hero'' in ''Time'' magazine, Doraemon was the only anime character to be named one of the twenty-two Asian Heroes, and was described as \"The Cuddliest Hero in Asia\".", "A 2007 poll by Oricon shown that Doraemon was the second-strongest manga character ever, behind only Son Goku of ''Dragon Ball''.", "Doraemon is also referred as something with the ability to satisfy all wishes.In 2005, the Taiwan Society of New York selected ''Doraemon'' as a culturally significant work of Japanese otaku pop-culture in its exhibit ''Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture'', curated by renowned artist Takashi Murakami.", "In 2008, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs appointed Doraemon as the first anime cultural ambassador; a Ministry spokesperson explained the decision as an attempt to help people in other countries understand Japanese anime better and to deepen their interest in Japanese culture.", "On September 3, 2012, Doraemon was granted official residence in the city of Kawasaki, Kanagawa, one hundred years before he was born.", "In the same year, Hong Kong celebrated the birthday of Doraemon 100 years early with a series of displays of the character.", "In April 2013, Doraemon was chosen as Japan's ambassador in Tokyo's bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics.", "He appeared in the 2016 Summer Olympics closing ceremony to promote the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.A Fujiko F. Fujio museum opened in Kawasaki on September 3, 2011, featuring Doraemon as the star of the museum.", "The National Museum of Singapore held a time-travelling exhibition in October 2020 as a tribute to the manga.", "After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Shogakukan released an earthquake survival guidebook, which included the main cast of the ''Doraemon'' manga series.", "TV Asahi launched the ''Doraemon Fund'' charity fund to raise money for natural disasters in 2004, and in 2011.In 2020, Mumbai's Sion Friends Circle group distributed food and books to kids using mascots, one being Doraemon, to help during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "In Vietnam, a Doraemon scholarship fund was established in 1996, and the Doraemon character has been used for education of traffic safety.", "''Doraemon'''s creator, Fujiko F. Fujio, received the Culture Fighter Medal from the Vietnamese Ministry of Culture in 1996 for his contributions to young education through the manga.Many prominent figures have been nicknamed after the cast of ''Doraemon'': politician Osamu Fujimura is known as the \"Doraemon of Nagatacho\" due to his figure and warm personality, and sumo wrestler Takamisugi was nicknamed \"Doraemon\" because of his resemblance to the character.", "In 2015, a group of people in a drought-affected village in northern Thailand used a Doraemon toy to complete a rain-ritual, in order to avoid controversies that would occur by using real animals.A parody of ''Doraemon'' created by Hikari Fujisaki, titled ''Nozoemon'' , was first serialized in Nihon Bungeisha's ''Comic Heaven'' magazine in September 2014, with the compiled book volume released on June 9, 2015; however, it was discontinued in August 2015 due to content issues." ], [ "See also", "Other manga series by Fujiko Fujio: ''Perman'', ''Ninja Hattori-kun'', ''Kiteretsu Daihyakka''''21 Emon'', a manga by Fujiko F. Fujio set in the same universe as ''Doraemon''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* *****" ], [ "External links", " ''Doraemon'' Official TV Asahi Website * ''Doraemon'' Official US website * ''Doraemon Channel'' official website * ''Doraemon'' official Shin-Ei Animation website *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dartmoor Preservation Association" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "'Fighting to keep Dartmoor wild and free since 1883.'", "'''Dartmoor Preservation Association (DPA)''' is one of the oldest environmental or amenity bodies in the UK.", "It was founded in 1883.It concerns itself with Dartmoor, a National Park in Devon, south-west England.", "It began with two main areas of concern.", "Firstly, commoners' rights were being eroded through army use, including the firing of live artillery shells, and piecemeal enclosure of land around the margins.", "Secondly, there was increasing public interest in Dartmoor's scenery, archaeology, history and wildlifeThe DPA has opposed what it considered to be unsuitable developments on Dartmoor throughout its history.", "In its founding year, the secretary, Robert Burnard persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays to allow access to the public.", "Many battles have been fought since, particularly against the military presence and the proposed building of reservoirs on the moor, notably under the Chairmanship of Lady Sayer, granddaughter of Robert Burnard.The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded.", "For example, in June 2015, it supported the inhabitants of Widecombe-in-the-Moor against the erecting of a telecommunications mast in an area of pristine countryside against the wishes of the local population.Dartmoor Preservation Association is a registered charity, Number 215665." ], [ "Background", "Dartmoor is said to be one of the last remaining areas of wilderness in Britain, but it has been a managed landscape since the late Neolithic (3,000-2,500 BCE).", "The Bronze Age inhabitants (from 2,500 to 750 BCE) cleared ancient forest and developed farming.", "They made extensive use of surface moorstone in the construction of roundhouses (their remains now seen as \"hut circles\"), enclosures, land-dividing reaves, stone rows, stone circles, menhirs and kistvaens.Farming has continued through the Medieval period to the present day, but a more disruptive activity to the landscape was the appearance of tin-mining, firstly by stream-working, then by lode-working and finally by underground mining.", "Many valleys have been dug over and scarred, leaving a rich industrial archaeology.", "Other activities such as newtake wall building, peat cutting, rabbit warrening, quarrying, clay extraction and the building of a prominent prison have all left marks on the moor.", "Recent undertakings have left more obvious changes: the building of reservoirs and the planting of conifer forests." ], [ "History of the association", "The use of moorstone continued up to recent times with the extensive building of dry stone walls around farm newtakes.", "Later, stone was cut and dressed.", "The use of moorstone continued to such an extent that in 1847 boundary markers were cut around Pew Tor to protect it.", "Marker stones were erected around Roos Tor.", "The taking of stone started to change the Dartmoor landscape: for example Eric Hemery (writing in 1983) stated that Swell Tor had been \"decapitated and disembowelled by the quarrymen\".In August 1881, a public meeting was convened by the Portreeve of Tavistock in the Guildhall to discuss the continued taking of stone, particularly from landmark tors.", "The DPA was founded in 1883.The protected area around Pew Tor was extended in December 1896.In 1901, the DPA commissioned a report into damage to ancient monuments, caused by the taking of stone for building and road-mending, and into unlawful enclosures of common land.Frontispiece of DPA book about Commons and Commoners' Rights, published 1890===Commoners' rights===The first publication of the DPA, in 1890, was a short history of commoners' rights on Dartmoor and the commons of Devon.", "This notes a decrease in the numbers of animals even in medieval times: in 1296 – 5,000 cattle, 487 horses, 131 folds of sheep; in 1316 – 3,292 cattle, 368 horses, 100 folds of sheep.", "''An important battle occurred in 1894 when the Corporation of London attempted to buy the whole of Dartmoor in order to pipe its water to Paddington alongside Brunel’s recently converted railway, when it went from broad gauge to standard gauge.", "The DPA led the revolt against this''.", "In 1897, the DPA went to court to fight successfully the enclosure of a section of Peter Tavy Great Common, in support of a farmer.", "Commoners rights seem to have been a settled issue in recent years: except for where they are impinged upon by the military presence.===Military use===Dartmoor Training Area has been used regularly for military training since 1873, although it was used earlier during the Napoleonic and Crimean Wars.", "In 1906–07, seven miles of roads were built on the north moor to facilitate the movement of guns.", "There are three established firing ranges at Okehampton, Willsworthy and Merrivale.", "The area taken up with live firing ranges is and they are used on average 120 days each year.", "They are used for small arms, mortars and artillery smoke and illuminating shells.The use of the moor by the military has been a major concern of the DPA since its founding.", "In its first year, Robert Burnard (DPA Secretary) persuaded the War Department not to fire on the Okehampton Firing Range on Saturdays so that there may be some public access to the area.", "Lady Sylvia Sayer was very outspoken about it being totally at odds with the area being designated as a National Park.", "In 1963 the DPA published a widely circulated 24-page booklet entitled ''Misuse of a National Park'' which includes photographs of unexploded shells lying on the open moor, corrugated iron buildings, large craters, a derelict tank used as a target, bullet marks on standing stones, etc.", "It also contains details of a 1958 incident in which a young boy was killed by a mortar shell near Cranmere Pool.Since the 1960s there has been much less military damage and litter as a result of the DPA persuading the Services to be more cautious.", "The military have changed since the Victorian era, they now have 120 conservation groups across the Ministry of Defence (MOD), including Dartmoor Military Conservation Group.", "The current leases run for many years, with Cramber Tor most recently being granted a further 40-year licence.===Afforestation===Early afforestation occurred when Brimpts was planted with trees in 1862.The Forestry Commission was founded in 1919, following World War I and in that year the Duchy of Cornwall planted 800 acres of conifers at Fernworthy.", "In 1921, Plymouth Corporation planted conifers around Burrator Reservoir.", "The Forestry Commission planted Bellever and Laughter Tor farms in 1930-32 and in 1944-1945 Soussons Down was also planted.", "The DPA opposed these post-war plantings and R. Hansford Worth (1868-1950, a Plymouth engineer, scientist and antiquarian) delivered a lecture fiercely critical of the Duchy of Cornwall as the landowners at The Plymouth Athenaeum, using the argument of encroachment on the rights of common and loss of ancient monuments.", "DPA opposition to forestry on Dartmoor arose again in 1953 when it wrote a policy on woodlands in the then-new national park.", "Opposition was exercised when Hawn, Dendles and High House Wastes, all near Cornwood, were designated for tree planting in 1959.Argument continued while Hawns and Dendles Wastes were ploughed in 1960.High House Waste was purchased by the DPA in 1964 and the Nature Conservancy (UK) bought neighbouring Dendles in 1965.The situation in 2015 is that some of the Dartmoor plantations have been affected by the fungal disease Phytophthora ramorum which results in widespread clear felling to prevent further spread of the disease.", "The policy now is to replant with more native hardwood trees although more resistant conifers are also being used.===Reservoirs===There are eight Dartmoor reservoirs, with the earliest being Tottiford Reservoir, 1861.Three were built in the mid-20th century: Fernworthy, 1942; Avon, 1957 and Meldon, 1972, and the DPA fought many battles over these.", "It opposed plans for reservoirs on Brent Moor (1899) and Holne Moor (1901) where, later, the Avon Reservoir and Venford Reservoirs were respectively built.", "The DPA's opposition was supported in the House of Commons with argument made regarding the effects on the local water table.", "The DPA was one of many local and national amenity bodies that fought the building of the Meldon dam.", "The preservation battle for the Meldon valley was recorded in a DPA publication.", "The DPA offered a viable alternative site, Gorhuish Valley, for various reasons, including the fact that minerals such as arsenic would leach into the water supply if Meldon were selected.", "The Meldon story was discussed many times in Parliament.", "Another battle was fought against the flooding of the Swincombe valley to form another reservoir.", "This was rejected in parliament in 1970, revived in 1974 and finally resolved by the building of the Roadford Reservoir to the west of the moor.", "In 1985 the DPA used funds from a bequest to purchase 50 acres of land where the dam of a reservoir at Swincombe would have to be.===National Park designation===The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 led to Dartmoor being one of the first four parks to be designated, by an order made on 15 August 1951 and confirmed on 30 October 1951.Shortly after this, the DPA tried to ensure that the new National Park was run by an independent committee and not by the Dartmoor Standing Committee that was a subcommittee of Devon County Council Planning Committee.", "The committee was reformed as Dartmoor National Park Committee under the Local Government Act 1972 but it was still a subcommittee of Devon County Council and as such it was not seen to be an independent guardian of the moor by the DPA.", "It was not until 1997 that an independent Dartmoor National Park Authority was enabled under the Environment Act 1995 as a free-standing local authority, forty-four years after the park was created, although it is still dominated by local authorities and government appointees.===North Hessary Tor TV mast===The DPA learned in October 1951 that the BBC planned to build a 750-foot television mast on North Hessary Tor, near Princetown, that was erected in 1955.This was to be a relay from a transmitting station at Wenvoe, South Wales.", "The DPA objected to this threat and sought expert opinion, offered alternative solutions, pressed for a public enquiry, engaged a lawyer, held public meetings, distributed pamphlets, wrote to the press and petitioned parliament.", "Eventually, a public enquiry was announced.", "When the decision was made to permit the mast, there were a number of conditions, included among them was that the development was built near the tor, leaving it still intact, and that its new approach road should not be fenced.", "During the process of obtaining land for the transmitter, one MP asked in the House of Commons: \"Will the Assistant Postmaster-General bear in mind that we have no desire to hinder the provision of this station but that it is felt that ancient common rights such as these, that have existed for a thousand years, should be adequately protected or properly extinguished by due process of law?", "\"DPA boundary stone at Sharpitor===Sharpitor===During World War II, the Royal Air Force (RAF) built a mast and buildings on Peek Hill, as RAF Sharpitor.", "In 1956, permission was granted to rebuild the station as part of the \"Gee\" radio navigation system, to be occupied for ten years.", "There followed delay in leaving and a proposal was made in 1970 by Devon & Cornwall Police to use the mast, which was rejected.", "Then later that year Plymouth Corporation wanted to use the exposed site for housing juvenile offenders.", "This was also rejected, but Plymouth appealed.", "At a public enquiry in June 1973 Lady Sylvia Sayer represented the DPA and permission for development on the site was refused.", "A few years later, DPA fought successfully in support of South West Water (SWW) against renewed calls for a new reservoir at Swincombe.", "To mark the victory, Sylvia Sayer asked SWW if DPA could purchase the rocky outcrop of Sharpitor.", "The DPA purchased 32 acres in February 1984.===Okehampton bypass===Okehampton lies on the A30 main road, the shortest route from London to west Devon and Cornwall.", "The need for a bypass was mooted in 1963.In 1975, three routes were considered: a northern route through mainly farmland, a central route using a railway, and a southern route through Dartmoor National Park.", "In August 1976, the Department of the Environment announced the preferred route was through the National Park.", "A major event on the timeline of this project was a 96-day public enquiry from 1 May 1979 to 4 February 1980 held in Okehampton.", "In March 1984, the DPA with other organisations petitioned Parliament opposing compulsory purchase orders on public open spaces.", "The Secretary of State announced in July 1985 that he was introducing a bill to reverse the decision of a Joint Parliamentary Committee and confirm a route through the National Park.", "This was followed by a confirmation bill in November 1985 that was passed in the House of Lords on 5 December 1985.Construction started in November 1986 and the road was opened on 19 July 1988." ], [ "Since 2000", "The DPA continues to follow the same objectives as when it was founded.", "The activities have widened, involving local partners, it has a calendar of events, walks and work days with its Conservation Team undertaking a variety of moorland projects, it funds the supply of walking boots to some children who need them for the Duke of Edinburgh Award Scheme through the Moor Boots Scheme, it collaborates with the Campaign for National Parks, it monitors the activities of Dartmoor National Park Authority who run the National Park.", "It objected to eight planning proposals (with success in seven cases), with many other achievements in the DPA Director's Annual Report.", "The DPA remains true to its original objectives and has also added other activities in support of Dartmoor and its inhabitants.===China clay expansion===The china clay industry on Dartmoor was established long before the DPA was founded.", "The earliest record of a china clay pit refers to Hook Lake in 1502.The area was surveyed around 1827 by Cornishmen with thirty years experience in the clay industry.", "They obtained a 21-year lease in 1830, from the Earl of Morley who owned the land, to work the area between Lee Moor and Shaugh Moor.", "A rival pit was opened at Leftlake in about 1850 and at Hemerdon and Broomage in about 1855.Further pits were opened at Cholwichtown, Whitehill Yeo and Wigford Down/Brisworthy (circa 1860).", "Others followed at Smallhanger and Headon in the 1870s.", "Redlake started working in 1910.China clay pits are open cast mines that result in large holes in the ground accompanied by large waste tips.", "Over time, the pits become larger and more ground is needed for the waste, changing the landscape: the effect of this can be seen from space.The DPA argues that this is an activity that does not agree with the ethos of a National Park, whose purpose is to protect landscape from unsuitable development.", "In 1994, the National Park boundaries were changed to include common land at Shaugh Moor and exclude china clay worked land at Lee Moor.", "The DPA revived its campaign with the publication of a booklet in 1999 when the Blackabrook Valley, Crownhill Down and Shaugh Moor, near the popular tourist area of Cadover Bridge, all came under threat from exploitation or dumping of waste.", "The china clay companies relinquished planning permissions in 2001.However, in November 2009, the clay companies, Sibelco and Imerys, produced a report reviewing old mineral permissions under the Environment Act 1995 with a view to joining up two pits.", "A presumed Bronze Age barrow, known as Emmets Post, was to be removed and three other monuments may be affected.", "The DPA were recorded twice, with other bodies, in a Devon County Council Development Management Committee Report for their representations in securing the future of the three areas where planning permissions were relinquished in 2001.Oxford Archaeology held an open day during their excavation of Emmets Post in 2014 prior to its removal.===House of Lords reception===The DPA and Exmoor Society held a joint reception at the House of Lords on 6 November 2008, hosted by Baroness Mallalieu, to lobby members of both Houses of Parliament and relevant Ministers about ensuring that environmental schemes for the uplands are \"fit for purpose\".", "Both organisations funded an invited number of upland hill farmers to attend.===Whitehorse Hill excavation===The excavation in August 2011 on the north moor of a Bronze Age burial kistvaen, or cist, that was originally uncovered in 2001 was part-funded by the DPA, along with other bodies.===South West Uplands Federation Conference===A conference for the upland farmers of Bodmin Moor, Exmoor and Dartmoor was held as a joint venture between the South West Uplands Federation and the DPA.", "It was run by the DPA at Exeter Racecourse in October 2012, with 150 delegates.", "Speakers came from the Foundation for Common Land, the Forest of Dartmoor Commoners, the University of Gloucestershire, the National Farmers Union of England and Wales and the Open Spaces Society.", "The CEO raised sponsorship from Dartmoor National Park, Exmoor National Park, Natural England, Duchy of Cornwall and the Exmoor Society - this reflecting the standing of the DPA with those bodies.===Undergrounding power cables===Two major projects to underground overhead power cables in Dartmoor National Park have been completed in a joint project between Western Power Distribution, the South West Protected Landscapes Forum (SWPLF) and Dartmoor National Park Authority.", "The two schemes on Holne Moor and Walkhampton Common between them remove nearly 6 km of overhead line from open moorland.", "At nearly 5 km, the Walkhampton scheme is the largest to be undertaken in the South West region by Western Power Distribution.", "The old overhead line was readily visible from the B3212 Princetown to Yelverton Road, strung across Walkhampton Common from Devil's Elbow to just above Horseyeatt at Peek Hill.", "The works to provide the new underground supply were mainly undertaken on the highway to minimise the impact on the sensitive moorland landscape, its archaeology, wildlife and livestock.", "The DPA has supported the undergrounding of these visually intrusive power lines for many years.", "Walkhampton Common pylons and power cables before undergrounding Walkhampton Common pylons during undergrounding, posing with a cross-cut saw for the local press Walkhampton Common after undergrounding of the power cables===The Dartmoor Conservation Garden===The Dartmoor Conservation Garden is a joint project between DPA and Dartmoor National Park Authority (DNPA) and is located in the Jack Wigmore Garden behind the High Moorland Centre in Princetown: this is a memorial garden to a former Chair of the Authority.", "It is planted with a cross-section of typical native Dartmoor plants.", "It also houses some typical Dartmoor archaeological features, such as a 4,000-year-old Bronze Age burial kistvaen (or cist) and a Medieval granite cross from Ter Hill.", "This marked the Monk's Path but was constantly being pushed over by cattle.", "The purpose of the Garden is to illustrate the biodiversity on Dartmoor.", "The project came online in June 2015.DPA Conservation Team volunteers cutting bracken in Drake's Plymouth Leat, June 2015 DPA stand at Chagford Fair, with 2nd Place Rosette in the Trade Section for stand presentation, August 2014 Conservation Team volunteers clearing scrub on Devonport Leat, January 2015===Widecombe telecommunications mast===The DPA were involved in a campaign in June 2015 against four telecommunications masts planned for Dartmoor, with the first to be erected in the village of Widecombe.", "At short notice, the DPA banners were taken out, letters written, press interviews given and support given to the villagers when an inflatable mast was demonstrated – with the effect that the planning application was withdrawn.Friends of Dartmoor Car Sticker===Friends of Dartmoor===In common with other amenity bodies, such as those for the Lake District, Peak District, Pembrokeshire Coast, Yorkshire Dales Three Peaks and the New Forest Trust, the image of Dartmoor Preservation Association is evolving from its Victorian origins, although the original name is being retained.", "Friends of Dartmoor projects a more modern image of preservation where several years of diplomacy have achieved good relations with the partner agencies that operate in the Dartmoor arena.", "This is due mainly to the efforts of the previous CEO, James Paxman and his successor, Phil Hutt.===Constitution, objectives and policies===The DPA Constitution, objectives and policies are published on the DPA web site.The objectives enshrined in the constitution are the protection, preservation and enhancement in the public interest of the landscape, antiquities, flora and fauna, natural beauty, cultural heritage and scientific interest of Dartmoor.", "Also the protection and preservation of public access to and on Dartmoor subject to the ancient rights of commoners.", "Co-operation with the commoners and any organisation in achieving DPA objectives, also the study of and the recording and publication of information upon the antiquities, history and natural history of Dartmoor.", "The DPA has twenty-two policies listed on its web site: regarding access and rights of way, fencing, protecting monuments, diverse habitats, bracken, china clay quarrying, military training and live firing, hill farming and small scale traditional local industries, quarrying, television and telephone masts, wind farms, planning applications, housing developments, woodlands and forestry, ponies, swaling, and recreational activities.===Conservation===The DPA conservation team meet throughout the year to work on a number of ongoing projects; from gorse clearance, to habitat protection and archaeological surveying.", "A quarterly timetable is released both on the organisation's website and through its member publications, along with details of how to get involved.", "The team also host an annual open day at the DPA land holding of Pudsham Meadows.", "DPA logo from 1966, with Nun's Cross incorporated DPA logo from 1969 2023 Logo including the original reference to Nun's Cross in minimalist form" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brewer, Dave.", "''Dartmoor Boundary Markers''.", "Halsgrove.", "Tiverton, Devon, 2002.", "* Crossing, William.", "''Crossing’s Dartmoor Worker''.", "2nd Edn.", "Peninsula Press, Newton Abbot, Devon, 1992.", "* Dartmoor Preservation Association.", "\"The Meldon Story\".", "DPA Publication No.", "7.Crapstone, Plymouth, 1972.UIN BLL01004145656.", "* Greeves, Tom.", "''Tin Mines and Miners of Dartmoor: A Photographic Record''.", "Devon Books, Kingkerswell, Devon, 1986..* Greeves, Tom.", "\"Sacred Land – Working Land: the case for the preservation of the Blackabrook Valley, Crownhill Down and Shaugh Moor from the expansion of the china clay industry.\"", "Dartmoor Preservation Association, Princetown, 1999..* Harris, Helen.", "''Industrial Archaeology of Dartmoor''.", "David & Charles, Newton Abbot, Devon, 1968..* Hemery, Eric.", "''High Dartmoor''.", "Robert Hale Ltd, London, 1983.", "* Kelly, Matthew.", "''Quartz and Feldspar: Dartmoor - A British Landscape in Modern Times'', Jonathan Cape, London, 2015.", "* Moore, Stuart A.", "\"A short history of the rights of common upon the Forest of Dartmoor and the commons of Devon\".", "Dartmoor Preservation Association, Plymouth, 1890.", "* Newman, Phil.", "''The Dartmoor Tin Industry: A Field Guide''.", "Newton Abbot, Devon, 1968..* Somers Cocks, John.", "\"Exploitation\".", "In ''Dartmoor: A New Study''.", "Editor Crispin Gill.", "David & Charles, Newton Abbot Devon, 1970..* Somers Cocks, J.", "\"A Dartmoor Century 1883-1983: One hundred years of the Dartmoor Preservation Association\".", "Dartmoor Preservation Association.", "Yelverton, Devon, 1983.. * Stanbrook, Elisabeth.", "''Dartmoor Forest Farms''.", "Devon Books, Kinkerswell, 1994.", "* Wade, E.A.", "''The Redlake Tramway & China Clay Works''.", "Twelveheads Press, Truro, 2004.." ], [ "External links", " Campaign for National Parks website* Charity Commission Register: Dartmoor Preservation Association* Dartmoor Preservation Association website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dartmouth College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dartmouth College''' (; ) is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire.", "Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.", "Emerging into national prominence at the turn of the 20th century, Dartmouth was considered to be the most prestigious undergraduate college in the United States in the early 1900s.Although originally established to educate Native Americans in Christian theology and the English way of life, the university primarily trained Congregationalist ministers during its early history before it gradually secularized.", "While Dartmouth is now a research university rather than simply an undergraduate college, it continues to go by \"Dartmouth College\" to emphasize its focus on undergraduate education.Following a liberal arts curriculum, Dartmouth provides undergraduate instruction in 40 academic departments and interdisciplinary programs, including 60 majors in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering, and enables students to design specialized concentrations or engage in dual degree programs.", "In addition to the undergraduate faculty of arts and sciences, Dartmouth has four professional and graduate schools: the Geisel School of Medicine, the Thayer School of Engineering, the Tuck School of Business, and the Guarini School of Graduate and Advanced Studies.", "The university also has affiliations with the Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center.", "Dartmouth is home to the Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences, the Hood Museum of Art, the John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding, and the Hopkins Center for the Arts.", "With a student enrollment of about 6,700, Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League.", "Undergraduate admissions are highly selective with an acceptance rate of 6% for the class of 2027, including a 4.5% rate for regular decision applicants.Situated on a terrace above the Connecticut River, Dartmouth's main campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New England.", "The university functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms.", "Dartmouth is known for its undergraduate focus, Greek culture, and campus traditions.", "Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I.", "The university has many prominent alumni, including 170 members of the United States Congress, 24 U.S. governors, 8 U.S.", "Cabinet secretaries, 3 Nobel Prize laureates, 2 U.S. Supreme Court justices, and a U.S. vice president.", "Other notable alumni include 81 Rhodes Scholars, 26 Marshall Scholarship recipients, 13 Pulitzer Prize recipients, 10 CEOs of ''Fortune'' 500 companies, and 51 Olympic medalists." ], [ "History", "Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth College founderDartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock, a Yale graduate and Congregational minister from Windham, Connecticut, who had sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as Christian missionaries.", "It was one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.", "Wheelock's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom.", "Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747, and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks.Wheelock founded Moor's Indian Charity School in 1755.The Charity School proved somewhat successful, but additional funding was necessary to continue school's operations, and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money.", "The first major donation to the school was given by John Phillips in 1762, who would go on to found Phillips Exeter Academy.", "Occom, accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker, traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches.", "With these funds, they established a trust to help Wheelock.", "The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth.The Charter of Dartmouth College on display in Baker Memorial Library.", "The charter was signed on December 13, 1769, on behalf of George III.Although the fund provided Wheelock ample financial support for the Charity School, Wheelock initially had trouble recruiting Indians to the institution, primarily because its location was far from tribal territories.", "In seeking to expand the school into a college, Wheelock relocated it to Hanover, in the Province of New Hampshire.", "The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources and secure a charter.", "The Royal Governor of New Hampshire, John Wentworth, provided the land upon which Dartmouth would be built and on December 13, 1769, issued a royal charter in the name of King George III establishing the college.", "That charter created a college \"for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences and also of English Youth and any others\".", "The reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable the use of the Charity School's unspent trust funds.", "Named for William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth – an important supporter of Eleazar Wheelock's earlier efforts but who, in fact, opposed creation of the college and never donated to it – Dartmouth is the nation's ninth oldest college and the last institution of higher learning established under Colonial rule.", "The college granted its first degrees in 1771.Given the limited success of the Charity School, however, Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites.", "Occom, disappointed with Wheelock's departure from the school's original goal of Indian Christianization, went on to form his own community of New England Indians called Brothertown Indians in New York.The earliest known image of Dartmouth appeared in the February 1793 issue of ''Massachusetts Magazine''.", "The engraving may also be the first visual proof of cricket being played in the United States.In 1819, Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic Dartmouth College case, which challenged New Hampshire's 1816 attempt to amend the college' charter to make the school a public university.", "An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817, though the college continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby.", "Daniel Webster, an alumnus of the class of 1801, presented the college's case to the Supreme Court, which found the amendment of Dartmouth's charter to be an illegal impairment of a contract by the state and reversed New Hampshire's takeover of the college.", "Webster concluded his peroration with the famous words: \"It is, Sir, as I have said, a small college.", "And yet there are those who love it.", "\"Dartmouth taught its first African-American students in 1775 and 1808.By the end of the Civil War, 20 black men had attended the college or its medical school.", "and Dartmouth \"was recognized in the African-American community as a place where a man of color could go to get educated\".", "One of them, Jonathan C. Gibbs, served as Secretary of State and Superintendent of Public Instruction for the state of Florida.In 1866, the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts was incorporated in Hanover, in connection with Dartmouth College.", "The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth and was directed by Dartmouth's president.", "The new college was moved to Durham, New Hampshire, in 1891, and later became known as the University of New Hampshire.Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the 20th century.", "Prior to this period, the college had clung to traditional methods of instruction and was relatively poorly funded.", "Under President William Jewett Tucker (1893–1909), Dartmouth underwent a major revitalization of facilities, faculty, and the student body, following large endowments such as the $10,000 given by Dartmouth alumnus and law professor John Ordronaux.", "20 new structures replaced antiquated buildings, while the student body and faculty both expanded threefold.", "Tucker is often credited for having \"refounded Dartmouth\" and bringing it into national prestige.", "Lithograph of the President's House, Thornton Hall, Dartmouth Hall, and Wentworth HallPresidents Ernest Fox Nichols (1909–16) and Ernest Martin Hopkins (1916–45) continued Tucker's trend of modernization, further improving campus facilities and introducing selective admissions in the 1920s.", "In 1945, Hopkins was subject to no small amount of controversy, as he openly admitted to Dartmouth's practice of using racial quotas to deny Jews entry into the university.", "John Sloan Dickey, serving as president from 1945 until 1970, strongly emphasized the liberal arts, particularly public policy and international relations.", "During World War II, Dartmouth was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission.The Dartmouth workshop, which was held in 1956, is widely considered to be the founding event of artificial intelligence as a field.In 1970, longtime professor of mathematics and computer science John George Kemeny became president of Dartmouth.", "Kemeny oversaw several major changes at the college.", "Dartmouth, which had been a men's institution, began admitting women as full-time students and undergraduate degree candidates in 1972 amid much controversy.", "At about the same time, the college adopted its \"Dartmouth Plan\" of academic scheduling, permitting the student body to increase in size within the existing facilities.", "In 1988, Dartmouth's alma mater song's lyrics changed from \"Men of Dartmouth\" to \"Dear old Dartmouth\".During the 1990s, the college saw a major academic overhaul under President James O. Freedman and a controversial (and ultimately unsuccessful) 1999 initiative to encourage the school's single-sex Greek houses to go coed.", "The first decade of the 21st century saw the commencement of the $1.5 billion Campaign for the Dartmouth Experience, the largest capital fundraising campaign in the college's history, which surpassed $1 billion in 2008.The mid- and late first decade of the 21st century have also seen extensive campus construction, with the erection of two new housing complexes, full renovation of two dormitories, and a forthcoming dining hall, life sciences center, and visual arts center.", "In 2004, Booz Allen Hamilton selected Dartmouth College as a model of institutional endurance \"whose record of endurance has had implications and benefits for all American organizations, both academic and commercial\", citing ''Dartmouth College v. Woodward'' and Dartmouth's successful self-reinvention in the late 19th century.College seal at the Collis CenterSince the election of a number of petition-nominated trustees to the Board of Trustees starting in 2004, the role of alumni in Dartmouth governance has been the subject of ongoing conflict.", "President James Wright announced his retirement in February 2008 and was replaced by Harvard University professor and physician Jim Yong Kim on July 1, 2009.Kim was succeeded by Philip J. Hanlon in June 2013 and Sian Leah Beilock in June 2023.In May 2010 Dartmouth joined the Matariki Network of Universities (MNU) together with Durham University (UK), Queen's University (Canada), University of Otago (New Zealand), University of Tübingen (Germany), University of Western Australia (Australia) and Uppsala University (Sweden).In early August 2019, Dartmouth College agreed to pay nine current and former students a total of $14 million to settle a class-action lawsuit alleging they were sexually harassed by three former neuroscience professors.In 2019, Dartmouth College was elected to the Association of American Universities (AAU).In April 2022, Dartmouth College returned the papers of Samson Occum (who helped Eleazar Wheelock secure the funds for Dartmouth College for what Occom believed would be a school for Native students in Connecticut) to the Mohegan Tribe.In November 2022, Dartmouth Hall was rededicated after a $42 million renovation.", "Fundraising for the project was led by over 1700 alumnae as part of the celebration of 50 years of coeducation at Dartmouth College." ], [ "Academics", "Baker Memorial LibraryDartmouth, a liberal arts institution, offers a four-year Bachelor of Arts and ABET-accredited Bachelor of Engineering degree to undergraduate students.", "The college has 39 academic departments offering 56 major programs, while students are free to design special majors or engage in dual majors.", "For the graduating class of 2017, the most popular majors were economics, government, computer science, engineering sciences, and history.", "The Economics Department, whose prominent professors include David Blanchflower and Andrew Samwick, also holds the distinction as the top-ranked bachelor's-only economics program in the world.A view of East Campus from Baker TowerIn order to graduate, a student must complete 35 total courses, eight to ten of which are typically part of a chosen major program.", "Other requirements for graduation include the completion of ten \"distributive requirements\" in a variety of academic fields, proficiency in a foreign language, and completion of a writing class and first-year seminar in writing.", "Many departments offer honors programs requiring students seeking that distinction to engage in \"independent, sustained work\", culminating in the production of a thesis.", "In addition to the courses offered in Hanover, Dartmouth offers 57 different off-campus programs, including Foreign Study Programs, Language Study Abroad programs, and Exchange Programs.Tuck School of BusinessThrough the Graduate Studies program, Dartmouth grants doctorate and master's degrees in 19 Arts & Sciences graduate programs.", "Although the first graduate degree, a PhD in classics, was awarded in 1885, many of the current PhD programs have only existed since the 1960s.", "Furthermore, Dartmouth is home to three professional schools: the Geisel School of Medicine (established 1797), Thayer School of Engineering (1867)—which also serves as the undergraduate department of engineering sciences—and Tuck School of Business (1900).", "With these professional schools and graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of \"Dartmouth University\"; however, because of historical and nostalgic reasons (such as ''Dartmouth College v. Woodward''), the school uses the name \"Dartmouth College\" to refer to the entire institution.Dartmouth employs a total of 607 tenured or tenure-track faculty members, including the highest proportion of female tenured professors among the Ivy League universities, and the first black woman tenure-track faculty member in computer science at an Ivy League university.", "Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Workshop, the Dartmouth Time Sharing System, Dartmouth BASIC, and Dartmouth ALGOL 30.In 2005, sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $169 million.Dartmouth served as the host member of the University Press of New England, a university press founded in 1970 that included Brandeis University, Tufts University, the University of New Hampshire, and Northeastern University.", "The University Press of New England shut down in 2018.With the exception of Dartmouth College Press titles, in 2021, Brandeis become the sole owner of all copyrights and titles of UPNE.=== Rankings ===+''USNWR'' graduate school rankings Business 6 Engineering 55 Medicine Primary Care 46 Research 48+''USNWR'' departmental rankings Biological Sciences 33 Chemistry 67 Computer Science 43 Earth Sciences 54 Mathematics 53 Physics 61 Psychology 53 Public Health 41Dartmouth was ranked 12th among undergraduate programs at national universities by ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' in its 2022 rankings.", "''U.S.", "News'' also ranked the school 3rd best for veterans, tied for 5th best in undergraduate teaching, and 7th for \"best value\" national universities.", "Dartmouth's undergraduate teaching was previously ranked 1st by ''U.S.", "News'' for five years in a row (2009–2013).", "Dartmouth College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.In ''Forbes'' 2019 rankings of 650 universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies, Dartmouth ranked 10th overall and 10th in research universities.", "In the ''Forbes'' 2018 \"grateful graduate\" rankings, Dartmouth came in first for the second year in a row.The 2021'' Academic Ranking of World Universities'' ranked Dartmouth among the 90–110th best universities in the nation.", "However, this specific ranking has drawn criticism from scholars for not adequately adjusting for the size of an institution, which leads to larger institutions ranking above smaller ones like Dartmouth.The 2006 Carnegie Foundation classification listed Dartmouth as the only \"majority-undergraduate\", \"arts-and-sciences focused\", \"research university\" in the country that also had \"some graduate coexistence\" and \"very high research activity\".=== Admissions ===Undergraduate admission to Dartmouth College is characterized by the Carnegie Foundation and ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' as \"most selective\".", "The ''Princeton Review'', in its 2023 edition, gave the university an admissions selectivity rating of 98 out of 99.McNutt Hall, home to the Dartmouth Office of Undergraduate AdmissionsFor the freshman class entering Fall 2023, Dartmouth received a record 28,841 applications of which 6.2% were accepted, consistent with the prior two years; approximately 67% of those accepted are expected to matriculate.", "Of those admitted students who reported class rank, 444 were ranked first or second in their class, while 96% ranked in the top decile.", "The admitted students' academic profile showed an all-time high SAT average score of 1501, while the average composite ACT score remained at 33.Additionally, for the 2016–2017 academic year, Dartmouth received 685 transfer applications of which 5.1% were accepted, with an average SAT composite score of 1490, average composite ACT score of 34, and average college GPA of about 3.85.Dartmouth meets 100% of students' demonstrated financial need in order to attend the college, and currently admits all students, including internationals, on a need-blind basis.=== Financial aid ===Dartmouth guarantees to meet 100% of the demonstrated need of every admitted student who applies for financial aid at the time of admission.", "Dartmouth is one of seven American universities to practice international need-blind admissions.", "This means that all applicants, including U.S. permanent residents, undocumented students in the U.S., and international students, are admitted to the college without regard to their financial circumstances.", "At Dartmouth, free tuition is provided for students from families with total incomes of $125,000 or less and possessing typical assets.", "Dartmouth is also one of a few U.S. universities to eliminate undergraduate student loans and replace them with expanded scholarship grants.", "In 2015, $88.8 million (~$ in ) in need-based scholarships were awarded to Dartmouth students.The median family income of Dartmouth students is $200,400, with 58% of students coming from the top 10% highest-earning families and 14% from the bottom 60%.However, a 2022 article from ''The Dartmouth'' disputes the college's claims by saying the following: \"To put it all together with the $9 million of student debt from the Class of 2021, this change in Dartmouth policy, hailed as \"eliminating loans for undergraduate students\" actually eliminated only about a quarter—27.4% to be exact—of student loans for undergraduate students.", "So, while Dartmouth gets glowing coverage in news publications across the country, 72.6% of the debt it saddles its students with remains.", "\"=== The Dartmouth Plan ===Tower Room in Baker Memorial LibraryDartmouth functions on a quarter system, operating year-round on four ten-week academic terms.", "The Dartmouth Plan (or simply \"D-Plan\") is an academic scheduling system that permits the customization of each student's academic year.", "All undergraduates are required to be in residence for the fall, winter, and spring terms of their freshman year and two terms of their senior year, as well as the summer term of their sophomore year.", "However, students may petition to alter this plan so that they may be off during terms of their senior year or sophomore summer terms.", "During all terms, students are permitted to choose between studying on-campus, studying at an off-campus program, or taking a term off for vacation, outside internships, or research projects.", "The typical course load is three classes per term, and students will generally enroll in classes for 12 total terms over the course of their academic career.The D-Plan was instituted in the early 1970s at the same time that Dartmouth began accepting female undergraduates.", "It was initially devised as a plan to increase the enrollment without enlarging campus accommodations, and has been described as \"a way to put 4,000 students into 3,000 beds\".", "Although new dormitories have been built since, the number of students has also increased and the D-Plan remains in effect.", "It was modified in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce the problems of lack of social and academic continuity.=== Board of trustees ===Dartmouth Hall was reconstructed in 1906.Dartmouth is governed by a board of trustees comprising the college president (''ex officio''), the state governor (''ex officio''), 13 trustees nominated and elected by the board (called \"charter trustees\"), and eight trustees nominated by alumni and elected by the board (\"alumni trustees\").", "The nominees for alumni trustee are determined by a poll of the members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College, selecting from among names put forward by the Alumni Council or by alumni petition.Although the board elected its members from the two sources of nominees in equal proportions between 1891 and 2007, the board decided in 2007 to add several new members, all charter trustees.", "In the controversy that followed the decision, the Association of Alumni filed a lawsuit, although it later withdrew the action.", "In 2008, the board added five new charter trustees." ], [ "Campus", "Drawing of Wilson Hall, Dartmouth's first library building, by architect Samuel J. F. Thayer (1842–1893), which appeared in ''American Architect and Building News'' in March 1885.Dartmouth College is situated in the rural town of Hanover, New Hampshire, located in the Upper Valley along the Connecticut River in New England.", "Its campus is centered on a \"Green\", a former field of pine trees cleared in 1771.Dartmouth is the largest private landowner of the town of Hanover, and its total landholdings and facilities are worth an estimated $434 million.", "In addition to its campus in Hanover, Dartmouth owns of Mount Moosilauke in the White Mountains and a tract of land in northern New Hampshire known as the Second College Grant.American elm on Dartmouth College campus, June 2011Dartmouth's campus buildings vary in age from Wentworth and Thornton Halls of the 1820s (the oldest surviving buildings constructed by the college) to new dormitories and mathematics facilities completed in 2006.Most of Dartmouth's buildings are designed in the Georgian colonial architecture style, a theme which has been preserved in recent architectural additions.", "The college has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus, earning it the grade of A− from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card 2008.A notable feature of the Dartmouth campus is its many trees which (despite Dutch elm disease) include some 200 American elms.", "The campus also has the largest Kentucky coffeetree in New Hampshire, at 91 ft tall.While Dartmouth's campus is located in a rural setting, it is connected to several major cities by intercity bus services that directly serve Dartmouth and Hanover.", "Dartmouth Coach provides service from Hanover to South Station and Logan International Airport in Boston as well as New York City, while Greyhound Lines operates a daily route connecting Hanover and Montreal.", "All three cities are popular weekend/vacation destinations for Dartmouth students.=== Academic facilities ===Hopkins CenterThe college's creative and performing arts facility is the Hopkins Center for the Arts (\"the Hop\").", "Opened in 1962, the Hop houses the college's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty.", "The building was designed by the famed architect Wallace Harrison, who would later design the similar-looking façade of Manhattan's Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center.", "Its facilities include two theaters and one 900-seat auditorium and the Courtyard Café dining facility.", "The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art, arguably North America's oldest museum in continuous operation, and the Loew Auditorium, where films are screened.Sherman Fairchild Physical Sciences CenterIn addition to its 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences, Dartmouth is home to three separate graduate schools.", "The Geisel School of Medicine is located in a complex on the north side of campus and includes laboratories, classrooms, offices, and a biomedical library.", "The Dartmouth–Hitchcock Medical Center, located several miles to the south in Lebanon, New Hampshire, contains a 396-bed teaching hospital for the Medical School.", "The Thayer School of Engineering and the Tuck School of Business are both located at the end of Tuck Mall, west of the center of campus and near the Connecticut River.", "The Thayer School comprises two buildings; Tuck has seven academic and administrative buildings, as well as several common areas.", "The two graduate schools share a library, the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library.", "In December 2018, Dartmouth began a major expansion of the west end of campus by breaking ground on the $200 million (~$ in ) Center for Engineering and Computer Science.", "The Center will house the Computer Science department and Magnuson Center for Entrepreneurship.", "In October 2019, construction began on the Irving Institute of Energy and Society.", "Both were completed by Spring 2022, and the Center for Engineering and Computer Science was renamed the Class of 1982 Engineering and Computer Science Center.Dartmouth's libraries are all part of the collective Dartmouth College Library, which comprises 2.48 million volumes and 6 million total resources, including videos, maps, sound recordings, and photographs.", "Its specialized libraries include the Biomedical Libraries, Evans Map Room, Feldberg Business & Engineering Library, Jones Media Center, Rauner Special Collections Library, and Sherman Art Library.", "Baker-Berry Library is the main library at Dartmouth, consisting of a merger of the Baker Memorial Library (opened 1928) and the Berry Library (completed 2002).", "Located on the northern side of the Green, Baker's tower is an iconic symbol of the college.=== Athletic facilities ===Memorial FieldDartmouth's original sports field was the Green, where students played cricket and old division football during the 19th century.", "Today, two of Dartmouth's athletic facilities are located in the southeast corner of campus.", "The center of athletic life is the Alumni Gymnasium, which includes the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool, a fitness center, a weight room, and a 1/13th-mile (123 m) indoor track.", "Attached to Alumni Gymnasium is the Berry Sports Center, which contains basketball and volleyball courts (Leede Arena), as well as the Kresge Fitness Center.", "Behind the Alumni Gymnasium is Memorial Field, a 15,600-seat stadium overlooking Dartmouth's football field and track.", "The nearby Thompson Arena, designed by Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi and constructed in 1975, houses Dartmouth's ice rink.", "Also visible from Memorial Field is the Nathaniel Leverone Fieldhouse, home to the indoor track.", "The new softball field, Dartmouth Softball Park, was constructed in 2012, sharing parking facilities with Thompson arena and replacing Sachem Field, located over a mile from campus, as the primary softball facility.Dartmouth's other athletic facilities in Hanover include the Friends of Dartmouth Rowing Boathouse and the old rowing house storage facility (both located along the Connecticut River), the Hanover Country Club, Dartmouth's oldest remaining athletic facility (established in 1899), and the Corey Ford Rugby Clubhouse.", "The college also maintains the Dartmouth Skiway, a skiing facility located over two mountains near the Hanover campus in Lyme Center, New Hampshire, that serves as the winter practice grounds for the Dartmouth Ski Team, which is a perennial contender for the NCAA Division I championship.Dartmouth's close association and involvement in the development of the downhill skiing industry is featured in the 2010 book ''Passion for Skiing'' as well as the 2013 documentary based on the book ''Passion for Snow''.=== Residential housing and student life facilities ===Beginning in the fall term of 2016, Dartmouth placed all undergraduate students in one of six House communities, similar to residential colleges, including Allen House, East Wheelock House, North Park House, School House, South House, and West House, alongside independent Living Learning Communities.", "Dartmouth used to have nine residential communities located throughout campus, instead of ungrouped dormitories or residential colleges.", "The dormitories varied in design from modern to traditional Georgian styles, and room arrangements range from singles to quads and apartment suites.", "Since 2006, the college has guaranteed housing for students during their freshman and sophomore years.", "More than 3,000 students elect to live in housing provided by college.Campus meals are served by Dartmouth Dining Services, which operates 11 dining establishments around campus.", "The Class of 1953 Commons, commonly referred to as \"Foco\", is the all-you-can-eat dining hall, located at the center of campus.", "Dartmouth also operates à la carte cafes around campus (Collis Café, Courtyard Café, Novack Café, The Fern Coffee & Tea Bar, Ramekin, and Café@Baker), a convenience store (Collis Market), and 3 snack bars located in the Allen House Commons (also called the \"Cube\"), McLaughlin Cluster, and East Wheelock Cluster.The Collis Center is the center of student life and programming, serving as what would be generically termed the \"student union\" or \"campus center\".", "It contains a café, study space, common areas, and a number of administrative departments, including the Academic Skills Center.", "Robinson Hall, next door to both the Collis Center and the Class of 1953 Commons, contains the offices of a number of student organizations, including the Dartmouth Outing Club and ''The Dartmouth'' daily newspaper.==== House communities ====+NameFoundedTotal capacityMain location capacityMain location buildingsFreshman buildingsColorAllen House2016426257Gile Hall, Streeter Hall, Lord HallBissell Hall, Cohen HallRedEast Wheelock House2016327327Andres Hall, Zimmerman Hall, Morton Hall, McCulloch HallOrangeNorth Park House2016214137Thomas Hall, Goldstein Hall, Byrne II Hall, Rauner Hall, Bildner Hall, Berry HallDark BlueSchool House2016561333North, Mid- and South Massachusetts Halls, Hitchcock HallBrown Hall, Little Hall, Wheeler HallLight BlueSouth House2016592366Topliff Hall, New Hampshire Hall, The LodgeNorth, Mid- and South Fayerweather Halls, Richardson HallBlackWest House2016520335Russell Sage Hall, Butterfield Hall, Fahey Hall, McLane HallFrench Hall, Judge HallPurpleFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Lord Hall.JPG\|Lord Hall, Allen HouseFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Morton Hall 01.JPG\|Morton Hall, East Wheelock HouseFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Woodward Hall 02.JPG\|Woodward Hall, North Park HouseFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Mid Massachusetts Hall 02.JPG\|Mid Massachusetts Hall, School HouseFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-06-23 Topliff Hall 03.JPG\|Topliff Hall, South HouseFile:Dartmouth College campus 2007-10-21 03 - Russell Sage Hall.JPG\|Russell Sage Hall, West House" ], [ "Student life", "Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal White Asian Foreign national Hispanic Other Black Native American Economic diversity Low-income Affluent Dartmouth Student Government represents students on issues related to student life.", "Annually, students elect a student body president, vice president, and undergraduate senate to represent them in the following academic year.", "In 2006, ''The Princeton Review'' ranked Dartmouth third in its \"Quality of Life\" category, and sixth for having the \"Happiest Students\".", "Athletics and participation in the Greek system are the most popular campus activities.", "In all, Dartmouth offers more than 350 organizations, teams, and sports.", "The school is also home to a variety of longstanding traditions and celebrations and has a loyal alumni network; Dartmouth ranked #2 in \"The Princeton Review\" in 2006 for Best Alumni Network.In 2014, Dartmouth College was the third highest in the nation in \"total of reports of rape\" on their main campus, with 42 reports of rape.", "''The Washington Post'' attributed the high number of rape reports to the fact that a growing number of sexual assault victims feel comfortable enough to report sexual assaults that would have gone unreported in previous years.", "In 2015, the Huffington Post reported that Dartmouth had the highest rate of bystander intervention of any college surveyed, with 57.7% of Dartmouth students reporting that they would take some sort of action if they saw someone acting in a \"sexually violent or harassing manner,\" compared to 45.5% of students nationally.Dartmouth fraternities have an extensive history of hazing and alcohol abuse, leading to police raids and accusations of sexual harassment.=== Student groups ===Robinson Hall houses many of the College's student-run organizations, including the Dartmouth Outing Club.", "The building is a designated stop along the Appalachian Trail.Dartmouth Alpha Chi Alpha fraternity houseDartmouth's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests.", "In 2007, the college hosted eight academic groups, 17 cultural groups, two honor societies, 30 \"issue-oriented\" groups, 25 performing groups, 12 pre-professional groups, 20 publications, and 11 recreational groups.", "Notable student groups include the nation's largest and oldest collegiate outdoors club, the Dartmouth Outing Club, which includes the nationally recognized Big Green Bus; the campus's oldest a cappella group, The Dartmouth Aires; the controversial independent newspaper ''The Dartmouth Review''; Dartmouth Student Government, the college's official undergraduate student government; and ''The Dartmouth'', arguably the nation's oldest university newspaper.", "''The Dartmouth'' describes itself as \"America's Oldest College Newspaper, Founded 1799\".Partially because of Dartmouth's rural, isolated location, the Greek system dating from the 1840s is one of the most popular social outlets for students.", "Dartmouth is home to 32 recognized Greek houses: 17 fraternities, 12 sororities, and three coeducational organizations.", "In 2007, roughly 70% of eligible students belonged to a Greek organization; since 1987, students have not been permitted to join Greek organizations until their sophomore year.", "Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to desegregate fraternity houses, doing so in the 1950s, and was involved in the movement to create coeducational Greek houses in the 1970s.", "In the early first decade of the 21st century, campus-wide debate focused on a board of trustees recommendation that Greek organizations become \"substantially coeducational\"; this attempt to change the Greek system eventually failed.Dartmouth also has a number of secret societies, which are student- and alumni-led organizations often focused on preserving the history of the college and initiating service projects.", "Most prominent among them is the Sphinx society, housed in a prominent Egyptian tomb-like building near the center of campus.", "The Sphinx has been the subject of numerous rumors as to its facilities, practices, and membership.The college has an additional classification of social/residential organizations known as undergraduate societies.=== Athletics ===A Dartmouth varsity hockey game against Princeton at Thompson ArenaApproximately 20% of students participate in a varsity sport, and nearly 80% participate in some form of club, varsity, intramural, or other athletics.", "In 2021, Dartmouth College fielded 33 intercollegiate varsity teams: 15 for men, 17 for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs.", "Dartmouth's athletic teams compete in the NCAA Division I eight-member Ivy League conference; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC).", "As is mandatory for the members of the Ivy League, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships.", "In addition to the traditional American team sports (football, basketball, baseball, and ice hockey), Dartmouth competes at the varsity level in many other sports including track and field, softball, squash, sailing, tennis, rowing, soccer, skiing, and lacrosse.rightThe college also offers 26 club and intramural sports such as fencing, rugby, water polo, figure skating, boxing, volleyball, ultimate frisbee, and cricket, leading to a 75% participation rate in athletics among the undergraduate student body.", "The Dartmouth Fencing Team, despite being entirely self-coached, won the USACFC club national championship in 2014.The Dartmouth Men's Rugby Team, founded in 1951, has been ranked among the best collegiate teams in that sport, winning for example the Ivy Rugby Conference every year between 2008 and 2020.The figure skating team won the national championship five straight times from 2004 through 2008.In addition to the academic requirements for graduation, Dartmouth requires every undergraduate to complete a swim and three terms of physical education.=== Native Americans at Dartmouth ===The 40th Dartmouth PowwowThe charter of Dartmouth College, granted to Wheelock in 1769, proclaims that the institution was created \"for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading, writing and all parts of Learning ... as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences; and also of English Youth and any others\".", "However, Wheelock primarily intended the college to educate white youth, and the few Native students that attended Dartmouth experienced much difficulty in an institution ostensibly dedicated to their education.", "The funds for the Charity School for Native Americans that preceded Dartmouth College were raised primarily by the efforts of a Mohegan named Samson Occom, and at least some of those funds were used to help found the college.The college graduated only 19 Native Americans during its first 200 years.", "In 1970, the college established Native American academic and social programs as part of a \"new dedication to increasing Native American enrollment\".", "Since then, Dartmouth has graduated over 700 Native American students from over 200 different tribes, more than the other seven Ivy League universities combined.=== Traditions ===Dartmouth is well known for its fierce school spirit and many traditions.", "The college functions on a quarter system, and one weekend each term is set aside as a traditional celebratory event, known on campus as \"big weekends\" or \"party weekends\".", "In the fall term, Homecoming (officially called Dartmouth Night) is marked by a bonfire on the Green constructed by the freshman class.", "Winter term is celebrated by Winter Carnival, a tradition started in 1911 by the Dartmouth Outing Club to promote winter sports.", "This tradition is the oldest in the United States, and subsequently went on to catch on at other New England colleges.", "In the spring, Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration.The summer term was formerly marked by Tubestock, an unofficial tradition in which the students used wooden rafts and inner tubes to float on the Connecticut River.", "Begun in 1986, Tubestock was ended in 2006 by town ordinance.", "The Class of 2008, during their summer term on campus in 2006, replaced the defunct Tubestock with Fieldstock.", "This new celebration includes a barbecue, live music, and the revival of the 1970s and 1980s tradition of racing homemade chariots around the Green.", "Unlike Tubestock, Fieldstock is funded and supported by the college.Another longstanding tradition is four-day, student-run First-Year Trips for incoming freshmen, begun in 1935.Each trip concludes at the Moosilauke Ravine Lodge.", "In 2011, over 96% of freshmen elected to participate." ], [ "Insignia and other representations", "=== Motto and song ===Dartmouth's motto, chosen by Eleazar Wheelock, is ''Vox clamantis in deserto''.", "The Latin motto is literally translated as \"The voice of one crying in the wilderness\", but is more often rendered as \"A voice crying out in the wilderness\".", "The phrase appears five times in the Bible and is a reference to the college's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement.", "Richard Hovey's \"Men of Dartmouth\" was elected as the best of Dartmouth's songs in 1896, and became the school's official song in 1926.The song was retitled to \"Alma Mater\" in the 1980s when its lyrics were changed to refer to women as well as men.=== Seal ===Seal of Dartmouth CollegeDartmouth's 1769 royal charter required the creation of a seal for use on official documents and diplomas.", "The college's founder, Eleazar Wheelock, designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, a missionary society founded in London in 1701, in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education.", "Engraved by a Boston silversmith, the seal was ready by commencement of 1773.The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25, 1773, describing it as:On October 28, 1926, the trustees affirmed the charter's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone.", "The College Publications Committee commissioned noted typographer William Addison Dwiggins to create a line drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use.", "Dwiggins' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from \"1770\" to \"1769\", to accord with the date of the college charter.", "The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of \"1769\" to replace the old dies, now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use.", "The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032.=== Shield ===On October 28, 1926, the trustees approved a \"Dartmouth College Shield\" for general use.", "Artist and engraver W. Parke Johnson designed this emblem on the basis of the shield that is depicted at the center of the original seal.", "This design does not survive.", "On June 9, 1944, the trustees approved another coat of arms based on the shield part of the seal, this one by Canadian artist and designer Thoreau MacDonald.", "That design was used widely and, like Dwiggins' seal, had its date changed from \"1770\" to \"1769\" around 1958.That version continues to be used under trademark registration number 3112676 and others.College designer John Scotford made a stylized version of the shield during the 1960s, but it did not see the success of MacDonald's design.", "The shield appears to have been used as the basis of the shield of the Geisel School of Medicine, and it has been reproduced in sizes as small as 20 micrometers across.", "The design has appeared on Rudolph Ruzicka's Bicentennial Medal (Philadelphia Mint, 1969) and elsewhere.=== Nickname, symbol, and mascot ===Dartmouth has never had an official mascot.", "The nickname \"The Big Green\", originating in the 1860s, is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green (\"Dartmouth Green\") as the school's official color in 1866.Beginning in the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams were known by their unofficial nickname \"the Indians\", a moniker that probably originated among sports journalists.", "This unofficial mascot and team name was used until the early 1970s, when its use came under criticism.", "In 1974, the Trustees declared the \"use of the Indian symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education\".", "Some alumni and students, as well as the conservative student newspaper, ''The Dartmouth Review'', have sought to return the Indian symbol to prominence, but never succeeded in doing so.Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a mascot, but none has become \"official\".", "One proposal devised by the college humor magazine the ''Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern'' was Keggy the Keg, an anthropomorphic beer keg who makes occasional appearances at college sporting events.", "Despite student enthusiasm for Keggy, the mascot has received approval from only the student government.", "In November 2006, student government attempted to revive the \"Dartmoose\" as a potential replacement amid renewed controversy surrounding the former unofficial Indian mascot." ], [ "Alumni", "Dartmouth's alumni are known for frequently donating to their alma mater.", "Most start by giving to the Senior Class Gift.", "According to a 2008 article in ''The Wall Street Journal'' based on data from payscale.com, Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed.By 2008, Dartmouth had graduated 238 classes of students, and had over 60,000 living alumni in a variety of fields.", "Finance, consulting, and technology have consistently been the most popular industries to enter for students.", "Top employers of new graduates include Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, McKinsey & Company, Bain & Company, Amazon, Microsoft, and Google.Nelson A. Rockefeller, 41st Vice President of the United States and 49th Governor of New York, graduated cum laude from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930.Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives, such as Massachusetts statesman Daniel Webster.", "Cabinet members of American presidents include Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal, Secretary of Labor Robert Reich, Secretary of the Treasury Henry Paulson, and Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner.", "C. Everett Koop was the Surgeon General of the United States under President Ronald Reagan.", "Two Dartmouth alumni have served as justices on the Supreme Court of the United States: Salmon P. Chase and Levi Woodbury.", "Eugene Norman Veasey (class of 1954) served as the Chief Justice of Delaware.", "The 46th Governor of Pennsylvania, Tom Wolf; the 42nd Governor of Illinois, businessman Bruce Rauner; and the 31st governor and current senator from North Dakota, John Hoeven (R), are also Dartmouth alumni.", "Ernesto de la Guardia, class of 1925, was president of the Republic of Panama.In literature and journalism, Dartmouth has produced 13 Pulitzer Prize winners: Thomas M. Burton, Richard Eberhart, Dan Fagin, Paul Gigot, Frank Gilroy, Jake Hooker, Nigel Jaquiss, Joseph Rago, Martin J. Sherwin, David K. Shipler, David Shribman, Justin Harvey Smith and Robert Frost.", "Frost, who received four Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry in his lifetime, attended but did not graduate from Dartmouth; he is, however, the only person to have received two honorary degrees from Dartmouth.Other authors and media personalities include CNN Chief White House correspondent and anchor Jake Tapper, novelist and founding editor of ''The Believer'' Heidi Julavits, \"Dean of rock critics\" Robert Christgau, National Book Award winners Louise Erdrich and Phil Klay, novelist/screenwriter Budd Schulberg, political commentator Dinesh D'Souza, radio talk show host Laura Ingraham, commentator Mort Kondracke, and journalist James Panero.", "Norman Maclean, professor at the University of Chicago and author of ''A River Runs Through It and Other Stories'', graduated from Dartmouth in 1924.Theodor Geisel, better known as children's author Dr. Seuss, was a member of the class of 1925.In the area of religion and theology, Dartmouth alumni include priests and ministers Ebenezer Porter, Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs, Caleb Sprague Henry, Arthur Whipple Jenks, Solomon Spalding, and Joseph Tracy; and rabbis Marshall Meyer, Arnold Resnicoff, and David E. Stern.", "Hyrum Smith, brother of Mormon Prophet Joseph Smith, attended the college in his teens.", "He was Patriarch of the LDS Church.Dartmouth alumni in academia include Stuart Kauffman and Jeffrey Weeks, both recipients of MacArthur Fellowships (commonly called \"genius grants\").", "Dartmouth has also graduated three Nobel Prize winners with four separate prizes: Owen Chamberlain (Physics, 1959), K. Barry Sharpless (Chemistry, 2001 and 2022), and George Davis Snell (Physiology or Medicine, 1980).", "Educators include founder and first president of Bates College Oren Burbank Cheney (1839); the former chancellor of the University of California, San Diego, Marye Anne Fox (PhD.", "in Chemistry, 1974); founding president of Vassar College Milo Parker Jewett; founder and first president of Kenyon College Philander Chase; first professor of Wabash College Caleb Mills; president of Union College Charles Augustus Aiken.", "Nine of Dartmouth's 17 presidents were alumni of the college.Dartmouth alumni serving as CEOs or company presidents and executives include Charles Alfred Pillsbury, founder of the Pillsbury Company and patriarch of the Pillsbury family, Sandy Alderson (San Diego Padres), John Donahoe (eBay), Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. (IBM), Charles E. Haldeman (Putnam Investments), Donald J.", "Hall Sr. (Hallmark Cards), Douglas Hodge (CEO of PIMCO accused of fraud), Jeffrey R. Immelt (General Electric), Gail Koziara Boudreaux (United Health Care), Grant Tinker (NBC), Greg Maffei (Liberty Media), and Brian Goldner (Hasbro).In film, entertainment, and television, Dartmouth is represented by David Benioff, co-creator, showrunner, and writer of ''Game of Thrones''; Shonda Rhimes, creator of ''Grey's Anatomy'', ''Private Practice'', and ''Scandal''; Budd Schulberg, Academy Award-winning screenwriter of ''On the Waterfront''; Michael Phillips, who won the Academy Award for Best Picture as co-producer of ''The Sting''; Rachel Dratch, a former cast member of ''Saturday Night Live''; Chris Meledandri, executive producer of ''Ice Age'', ''Horton Hears a Who!", "'', and ''Despicable Me''; writer and director duo Phil Lord and Chris Miller; and the title character of ''Mister Rogers' Neighborhood'', Fred Rogers.", "Other notable film and television figures include Sarah Wayne Callies (''Prison Break''), Emmy Award winner Michael Moriarty, Andrew Shue of ''Melrose Place'', Aisha Tyler of ''Friends'' and ''24'', ESPN and Tennis Channel broadcaster Brett Haber, Connie Britton of ''Spin City'' and ''Friday Night Lights'', Mindy Kaling of ''The Office'' and ''The Mindy Project'', David Harbour of ''Stranger Things'', and Michelle Khare of HBO Max's ''Karma''.A number of Dartmouth alumni have found success in professional sports.", "In baseball, Dartmouth alumni include All-Star and three-time Gold Glove winner and manager Brad Ausmus, All-Star reliever Mike Remlinger, and pitcher Kyle Hendricks.", "Professional football players include Miami Dolphins quarterback Jay Fiedler, linebacker Reggie Williams, three-time Pro Bowler Nick Lowery, quarterback Jeff Kemp, and Tennessee Titans tight end Casey Cramer, and Miami Dolphins defensive coordinator Matt Burke.", "Dartmouth has also produced a number of Olympic competitors.", "Adam Nelson won the silver medal in the shot put in the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the gold medal at the 2004 Athens Olympics to go along with his gold medal in the 2005 World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki.", "Kristin King and Sarah Parsons were members of the United States' 2006 bronze medal-winning ice hockey team.", "Cherie Piper, Gillian Apps, and Katie Weatherston were among Canada's ice hockey gold medalists in 2006.Lawrence Whitney won bronze at the 1912 Summer Olympics in men's shot put.Dick Durrance and Tim Caldwell competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics, respectively.", "Arthur Shaw, Earl Thomson, Edwin Myers, Marc Wright, Adam Nelson, Gerry Ashworth, and Vilhjálmur Einarsson have all won medals in track and field events.", "Former heavyweight rower Dominic Seiterle is a member of the Canadian national rowing team and won a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in the men's 8+ event.File:Jb modern frost 2 e.jpg\|Robert Frost, poetFile:Ted Geisel NYWTS 2 crop.jpg\|Dr.", "Seuss, writer and illustratorFile:Henry Paulson official Treasury photo, 2006.jpg\|Henry Paulson, former CEO of Goldman Sachs and United States Secretary of the TreasuryFile:Timothy Geithner official portrait.jpg\|Timothy Geithner, former United States Secretary of the TreasuryFile:Mathew Brady, Portrait of Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, officer of the United States government (1860–1865, full version).jpg\|Salmon Chase, former Chief Justice of the U.S.File:Daniel Webster.jpg\|Daniel Webster, former Secretary of StateFile:Nelson Rockefeller.jpg\|Nelson Rockefeller, former Vice President of the United StatesFile:SenatorGillibrandpic.jpg\|Kirsten Gillibrand, United States senatorFile:Robert Reich at the UT Liz Carpenter Lecture 2015.JPG\|Robert Reich, former United States Secretary of Labor, political commentator, professor, and authorFile:Sarah Wayne Callies Comic-Con 4, 2012.jpg\|Sarah Wayne Callies, actressFile:MindyKaling08.jpg\|Mindy Kaling, actress and comedianFile:Connie Britton 2013.jpg\|Connie Britton, actress, singer and producerFile:Shonda Rhimes 2008.jpg\|Shonda Rhimes, television producer and writerFile:Ausmuscrop.jpg\|Brad Ausmus, baseball playerFile:Jake Tapper at the White House.jpg\|Jake Tapper, journalist, author, and commentatorFile:David Benioff by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg\|David Benioff, screenwriter and television producer, writer, and directorFile:Fred Rogers, late 1960s.jpg\|Fred Rogers, television personality(''did not graduate'')File:Rachel Dratch 2012 Shankbone 2.JPG\|Rachel Dratch, comedian" ], [ "In popular culture", "Dartmouth College has appeared in or been referenced by a number of popular media.", "Some of the most prominent include:* The 1978 comedy film ''National Lampoon's Animal House'', was co-written by Chris Miller '63 and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth.", "In a CNN interview, John Landis said the movie was \"based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth\", Alpha Delta Phi.", "* Dartmouth's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film ''Winter Carnival'' starring Ann Sheridan and written by Budd Schulberg '36 and F. Scott Fitzgerald." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Behrens, Richard K., \"From the Connecticut Valley to the West Coast: The Role of Dartmouth College in the Building of the Nation,\" ''Historical New Hampshire,'' 63 (Spring 2009), 45–68.", "* Calloway, Colin G. ''The Indian History of an American Institution: Native Americans and Dartmouth'' (Dartmouth College Press, 2010) online.", "* Campbell, David P. \"The Vocational Interests of Dartmouth College Freshmen: 1947‐67.\"", "''Personnel and Guidance Journal'' 47.6 (1969): 521-530.online* ''( Read and download public domain copy via Google Books .", ")''* * * * Hoge, Dean R. \"Changes in college students' value patterns in the 1950's, 1960's, and 1970's.\"", "''Sociology of Education'' (1976): 155-163.online* * Kegerreis, Richard.", "\"The Handel Society of Dartmouth.\"", "''American Music'' (1986): 177-193.online* Person, Harlow S. \"The Amos Tuck School of Dartmouth College.\"", "''Journal of Political Economy'' 21.2 (1913): 117-126.onlinePutnam, Constance.", "(2015) ''The Science We Have Loved and Taught: Dartmouth Medical School's First Two Centuries'' (Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, 2015).", "online * Syrett, Nicholas L. \"The boys of Beaver Meadow: A homosexual community at 1920s Dartmouth College.\"", "''American Studies'' 48.2 (2007): 9-18.online* Tobias, Marilyn.", "(1982) ''Old Dartmouth on trial: The transformation of the academic community in nineteenth-century America'' (NYU Press, 1982) online* ''Listen, Look, Likeness: examining the portraits of Félix de la Concha'' 2009 ArtsEditor.com article" ], [ "External links", "* * Dartmouth Athletics website" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dartmouth, Devon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dartmouth''' () is a town and civil parish in the English county of Devon.", "It is a tourist destination set on the western bank of the estuary of the River Dart, which is a long narrow tidal ria that runs inland as far as Totnes.", "It lies within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and South Hams district, and had a population of 5,512 in 2001, reducing to 5,064 at the 2011 census.", "There are two electoral wards in the ''Dartmouth'' area (Townstal & Kingswear).", "Their combined population at the above census was 6,822." ], [ "History", "In 1086, the Domesday Book listed ''Dunestal'' as the only settlement in the area which now makes up the parish of Dartmouth.", "It was held by Walter of Douai.", "It paid tax on half a hide, and had two plough teams, two slaves, five villagers and four smallholders.", "There were six cattle, 40 sheep and 15 goats.", "At this time Townstal (as the name became) was apparently a purely agricultural settlement, centred around the church.", "Walter of Douai rebelled against William II, and his lands were confiscated and added to the Honour of Marshwood (Dorset), which sublet Townstal and Dartmouth to the FitzStephens.", "It was probably during the early part of their proprietorship that Dartmouth began to grow as a port, as it was of strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels.", "The port was used as the sailing point for the Crusades of 1147 and 1190, and Warfleet Creek, close to Dartmouth Castle is supposed by some to be named for the vast fleets which assembled there.", "Dartmouth was a home of the Royal Navy from the reign of Edward III and was twice surprised and sacked during the Hundred Years' War, after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain.", "The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, Dartmouth Castle and Kingswear Castle.", "Originally Dartmouth's only wharf was Bayard's Cove, a relatively small area protected by a fort at the southern end of the town.In 1373 Geoffrey Chaucer visited and among the pilgrims in his ''Canterbury Tales'',Notwithstanding Dartmouth's connections with the crown and respectable society, it was a major base for privateering in medieval times.", "John Hawley or Hauley, a licensed privateer and sometime mayor of Dartmouth is reputed to be a model for Chaucer's \"schipman\".The earliest street in Dartmouth to be recorded by name (in the 13th century) is Smith Street.", "Several of the houses on the street are originally late 16th century or early 17th century and probably rebuilt on the site of earlier medieval dwellings.", "The street name undoubtedly derives from the smiths and shipwrights who built and repaired ships here when the tidal waters reached as far as this point.", "Smith Street was also the site of the town pillory in medieval times.The first church in the parish was St Clement's, Townstal, which may have existed in some form before the 1190s.", "It was granted by the FitzStephens to Torre Abbey in about 1198, the Abbey having been founded in 1196, and the present stone-built church was probably started shortly after this.Medieval church door of St Saviour's, with armorial leopardsManorial transactions are first recorded in 1220, when the manor house was at Norton, about half a mile west of Townstal.", "Names of occupations also started to appear, including taverner, tailor, coggar, korker, goldsmith, glover, skinner and baker.", "The \"Fosse\", now Foss Street, a dam across the creek known later as The Mill Pool, was first mentioned in 1243.The flow of water out of the pool through the Mill Gullet powered a tidal mill.", "The dam was used as an unofficial footpath linking Clifton, to the south, with Hardness, to the north.", "Before this it was necessary to go westwards to the head of the creek at Ford to travel between the two settlements.", "The lord of the manor was given the rights to hold a weekly market and an annual fair in 1231.In 1281, a legal case proved that the Lord of Totnes had the right to charge tolls on ships using the river, and this right was bought by Nicholas of Tewkesbury in 1306, who conveyed the town, river and port to the king in 1327, so making Dartmouth a Royal Borough.", "The king gave the river to the Duchy of Cornwall in 1333, who still own the \"fundus\" or bed of the river.", "In 1335 Edward III granted Dartmouth to Joan of Carew, whose husband was Lord of Stoke Fleming, and almost immediately she obediently passed the lordship to Guy de Bryan, one of the king's leading ministers.", "In 1341, the town was granted a Royal Charter, which allowed for the election of a mayor.", "The borough was required to provide two ships for forty days per year.", "After 1390, no more is heard of lordship rights, and the borough became effectively independent of any lord.St Saviour's Church was constructed in 1335 and consecrated in 1372.It contains a pre-Reformation oak rood screen built in 1480 and several monuments including the tomb of John Hawley (died 1408) and his two wives, covered with a large brass plate effigy of all three.", "A large medieval ironwork door is decorated with two leopards of the Plantagenets and is possibly the original portal.", "Although it is dated \"1631\", this is thought to be the date of a subsequent refurbishment coincidental with major renovations of the church in the 17th century.", "The gallery of the church is decorated with the heraldic crests of prominent local families and is reputed to be constructed of timbers from ships captured during the defeat of the Spanish Armada, although this has not been categorically substantiated.", "An engraving of a painting by Thomas Allom of the interior of the church, showing the rood screen, provided the inspiration for Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poetical illustration ''Dartmouth Church'' in Fisher's Drawing Room scrap Book, 1833.In medieval times, land access from the Totnes direction passed the manor at Norton and the parish church at Townstal before falling steeply along what are now Church Road, Mount Boone and Ridge Hill to the river at Hardness.", "There were steeper routes via Townstal Hill and Clarence Street and also via Brown's Hill.", "These were all too steep for vehicles, so the only land access was by packhorse.", "In 1671 there is the first mention of the building of the \"New Ground\".", "A previously existing sandbank was built up using ships' ballast, and a quay wall was built around it to provide more mooring space.", "The area proved too unstable to be built on, and is now the Royal Avenue Gardens.", "It was originally linked to the corner of the Quay by a bridge, opposite Duke Street.", "At the other end of The Quay, Spithead extended into the river for a few yards.", "The arrival of the Great Carrack ''Madre de Deus'' at Dartmouth Harbour, 18 September 1592Dartmouth sent numerous ships to join the English fleet that attacked the Spanish Armada, including the Roebuck, Crescent and Hart.", "The ''Nuestra Señora del Rosario'', the Spanish Armada's \"payship\" commanded by Admiral Pedro de Valdés, was captured along with all its crew by Sir Francis Drake.", "It was reportedly anchored in the River Dart for more than a year and the crew were used as labourers on the nearby Greenway Estate which was the home of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh.", "Greenway was later the home of Dame Agatha Christie.In 1592 the ''Madre de Deus'', a Portuguese treasure ship captured by the English in the Azores, docked at Dartmouth Harbour.", "It attracted all manner of traders, dealers, cutpurses and thieves and by the time Sir Walter Raleigh arrived to reclaim the Crown's share of the loot, a cargo estimated at half a million pounds had been reduced to £140,000.Still, ten freighters were needed to carry the treasure to London.Henry Hudson put into Dartmouth on his return from North America, and was arrested for sailing under a foreign flag.", "The Pilgrim Fathers put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en route from Southampton to America.", "They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the ''Mayflower'' and the ''Speedwell'' on 20 August 1620.About 300 miles west of Land's End, upon realising that the ''Speedwell'' was unseaworthy, it returned to Plymouth.", "The ''Mayflower'' departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod.", "Dartmouth's sister city is Dartmouth, Massachusetts.The ButterwalkThe town contains many medieval and Elizabethan streetscapes and is a patchwork of narrow lanes and stone stairways.", "A significant number of the historic buildings are listed.", "One of the most obvious is the Butterwalk, built 1635 to 1640.Its intricately carved wooden fascia is supported on granite columns.", "Charles II held court in the Butterwalk whilst sheltering from storms in 1671 in a room which now forms part of Dartmouth Museum.", "Much of the interior survives from that time.The Royal Castle Hotel was built in 1639 on the then new quay.", "The building was re-fronted in the 19th century, and as the new frontage is itself listed, it is not possible to see the original which lies beneath.", "A claimant for the oldest building is a former merchant's house in Higher Street, now a Good Beer Guide listed public house called ''the Cherub'', built circa 1380.Agincourt House (next to the Lower Ferry) is also 14th century.The remains of a fort at Gallants Bower just outside the town are some of the best preserved remains of a Civil War defensive structure.", "The fort was built by Royalist occupation forces in c. 1643 to the south east of the town, with a similar fort at Mount Ridley on the opposite slopes of what is now Kingswear.", "The Parliamentarian General Fairfax attacked from the north in 1646, taking the town and forcing the Royalists to surrender, after which Gallants Bower was demolished.===19th century===Before 1671, what is now the town centre was almost entirely tidal mud flats.", "The New Road (now Victoria Road) was constructed across the bed of the (silted up) Mill Pool and up the Ford valley after 1823.Spithead was extended in 1864 when the Dartmouth and Torbay Railway arrived in Kingswear and a pontoon was constructed, linked to Spithead by a bridge.", "The railway directors and others formed the Dartmouth Harbour Commissioners.", "At this time, all the roads in those parts of Dartmouth which were not land reclamations were very narrow.", "In 1864-7 Higher Street was widened into Southtown and linked to Lower Street, which was also widened, with the northern part renamed Fairfax Place.", "Some of the buildings were rebuilt further back with decorative frontages.In 1881 the Harbour Commissioners produced a scheme for an embankment or esplanade from near the Lower Ferry to Hardness, across the remains of The Pool, to provide an attraction for tourists and further mooring space.", "It was completed in 1885 after much disagreement between the Borough, the Commissioners and the Railway (now the Great Western Railway).", "A new station was also built at this time.", "The building of the Embankment left a section of river isolated between Spithead and the New Ground, which is known as The Boatfloat, and is linked to the river by a bridge for small vessels under the road.The coming of steam ships led to Dartmouth being used as a bunkering port, with coal being brought in by ship or train.", "Coal lumpers were members of gangs, who competed to bunker the ships by racing to be first to a ship.", "This led to the men living as close as possible to the river, and their tenements became grossly overcrowded, with the families living in slum conditions, with up to 15 families in one house, one family to a room.The Royal National Lifeboat Institution opened the Dart Lifeboat Station at the Sand Quay in 1878, but it was closed in 1896.In all this time only one effective rescue was made by the lifeboat.===20th century===The area to the north of Ridge Hill was a shallow and muddy bay (\"Coombe Mud\") with a narrow road running along the shore linking with the Higher Ferry.", "The mud was a dumping ground for vessels, including a submarine.", "The reclamation was completed in 1937 by the extension of the Embankment and the reclamation of the mud behind it, which became Coronation Park.", "Smith Street circa 1930In the 1920s, aided by government grants, the council made a start on clearing the slums.", "This was aided by the decline in the use of coal as a fuel for ships.", "The slums were demolished, and the inhabitants were rehoused in new houses in the Britannia Avenue area, to the west of the old village or hamlet of Townstal.", "The process was interrupted by the second world war, but was resumed with the construction of many prefabs, and later more houses.", "Community facilities were minimal at first, but a central area was reserved for a church, which was used by the Baptists and opened in 1954, together with a speedway track.", "The latter was later used for housing, but a new community centre was opened nearby, together with a leisure centre, an outdoor swimming pool, and later an indoor pool, and supermarkets.", "There are also light industrial units.In the latter part of the Second World War the town was a base for American forces and one of the departure points for Utah Beach in the D Day landings.", "Slipways and harbour improvements were also constructed.", "Much of the surrounding countryside and notably Slapton Sands was closed to the public while it was used by US troops for practise landings and manoeuvres.", "Between 1985 and 1990 the Embankment was widened by 6 metres and raised to prevent flooding at spring tides.", "A tidal lock gate was provided at the Boatfloat bridge, which could be closed at such times.===21st century===Dart Lifeboat Station was reopened in 2007, the first time that a lifeboat had been stationed in the town since 1896.It has initially been kept in a temporary building in Coronation Park.In 2010, a fire seriously damaged numerous historical properties in Fairfax Place and Higher Street.", "Several were Tudor and Grade I or Grade II listed buildings." ], [ "Governance", "The town was an ancient borough, incorporated by Edward III, known formally as '''Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness''', and consisting of the three parishes of ''St Petrox'', ''St Saviour'' and ''Townstal'', and incorporating the hamlets of Ford, Old Mill and Norton.", "It was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.The town returned two members of parliament from the 13th century until 1835, after which one Member of Parliament (MP) was elected until the town was disenfranchised in 1868.It remained a municipal borough until 1974, when it was merged into the South Hams district, and became a successor parish of Dartmouth with a town council.Dartmouth Town Council is the lowest of three tiers of local government.", "It consists of 16 councillors representing the two wards of Clifton and Townstal.", "At the second tier, Dartmouth forms part of the Dartmouth and Kingswear ward of South Hams District Council, which returns three councillors.", "At the upper tier of local government Dartmouth and Kingswear Electoral Division elects one member to Devon County Council." ], [ "Culture and tourism", "Map of DartmouthThe Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta takes place annually over three days at the end of August.", "The event sees the traditional regatta boat races along with markets, fun fairs, community games, musical performances, air displays including the Red Arrows and fireworks.", "A Royal Navy guard ship is often present at the event.Other cultural events include beer festivals in February and July (the latter in Kingswear), a music festival and an art and craft weekend in June, a food festival in October and a Christmas candlelit event.The Flavel Centre incorporates the public library and performance spaces, featuring films, live music and comedy and exhibitions.Bayard's Cove has been used in several television productions, including ''The Onedin Line'' a popular BBC television drama series that ran from 1971 to 1980.Many of the scenes from the BBC's popular series ''Down to Earth'', starring Ricky Tomlinson, were filmed at various locations around the town.Notable tourist attractions include the Dartmouth Royal Naval College, Bayard's Cove Fort, Dartmouth Castle and the Dartmouth Steam Railway which terminates at Kingswear on the opposite bank of the river.Boat cruises to nearby places along the coast (such as Torbay and Start Bay) and up the river (to Totnes, Dittisham and the Greenway Estate) are provided by several companies.", "The paddlesteamer PS Kingswear Castle returned to the town in 2013.The South West Coast Path National Trail passes through the town, and also through extensive National Trust coastal properties at Little Dartmouth and Brownstone (Kingswear).", "The Dart Valley Trail starts in Dartmouth, with routes either side of the River Dart as far as Dittisham, and continuing to Totnes via Cornworthy, Tuckenhay and Ashprington.", "The area has long been well regarded for yachting, and there are extensive marinas at Sandquay, Kingswear and Noss (approximately one mile north of Kingswear)." ], [ "Climate", "The nearest Met Office weather station is Slapton, about 5 miles south-south west of Dartmouth and a similar distance from the coast.", "As with the rest of the British Isles and South West England, the area experiences a maritime climate with warm summers and mild winters—this is particularly pronounced due to its position near the coast—extremes range from a record low of just in January 1987 up to a record high of during June 1976." ], [ "Transport", "Dartmouth is linked to Kingswear, on the other side of the River Dart, by three ferries.", "The Higher Ferry and the Lower Ferry are both vehicular ferries.", "The Passenger Ferry, as its name suggests, carries only passengers, principally to connect with the Dartmouth Steam Railway at Kingswear railway station.", "The nearest bridge across the Dart is in Totnes, some away by road.Dartmouth station building, now a restaurant.The A379 road runs through Dartmouth, linking the town to Slapton and Kingsbridge to the southwest and to Torbay to the east across the Higher Ferry.", "The A3122 connects Dartmouth to a junction with the A381, and hence to both Totnes and a more direct route to Kingsbridge.Stagecoach South West provides local town bus services and links to Plymouth, Totnes and Exeter, and Kingsbridge.", "In addition it provides links to the Torbay resorts of Brixham, Paignton and Torquay from Kingswear via the ferry.No railway has ever run to Dartmouth, but the town does have a railway station, opened on 31 March 1890 to replace the original facility on the pontoon, although it is now a restaurant.", "In fact Dartmouth Railway Station was built while the line from Paignton to the River Dart was still being built, anticipating a bridge across the river being built near the present Greenway Halt.", "The railway line to Kingswear was opened in 1864.As a result of shortage of capital, a deviation from the original scheme to run the line from Churston to Greenway with a steamer service to Dartmouth was proposed, but defeated in Parliament.", "It had been suggested that this could, at a later date, be used as a jumping off point for a bridge to the west bank of the Dart and a line direct to Dartmouth.", "In 1900, a Light Railway scheme was proposed for a crossing of the Dart near Maypool to join another line from Totnes and then proceed to Kingsbridge and Yealmpton, with a branch to Salcombe.", "This was also defeated by lack of funds.", "The railway terminated at a station called \"Kingswear for Dartmouth\" (now on the Dartmouth Steam Railway) and a ferry took passengers across the river to the station at Dartmouth railway station, which had a dedicated pontoon.", "British Railways formally closed the line to mainline passenger trains in 1973, but it immediately re-opened as a heritage line and has run as one ever since.Kingswear seen from Dartmouth" ], [ "Education", "===Britannia Royal Naval College===The town is home to the Royal Navy's officer training college (Britannia Royal Naval College), where all officers of the Royal Navy and many foreign naval officers are trained.===Schools===Dartmouth has one primary school—St John the Baptist R.C.", "Primary School, and one all-through school—Dartmouth Academy—for those aged 3–16.Dartmouth also has a pre-school in the centre of town, established for over 40 years and based in the old Victorian school rooms at South Ford Road.", "It provides care for 2- to 5-year-olds and is run as a charitable organisation." ], [ "Sport and leisure", "Dartmouth has a Non-League football club Dartmouth A.F.C.", "who play at Long Cross.Dartmouth also hosts the annual \"World Indoor Rally Championship\", based on slot car racing in the late summer.At the end of August and early September there is the annual Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta.Since 1905 Dartmouth has had a greenhouse as part of the Royal Avenue Gardens.", "In May 2013 this building, used for the previous 10 years by Dartmouth in Bloom, a not-for-profit organisation affiliated with Britain in Bloom, was closed as structurally unsound.", "There are proposals to restore the greenhouse to its prior Edwardian style." ], [ "Notable residents", "* George Parker Bidder (1806–1878), the civil engineer and calculating prodigy, notable for his work on railways over much of the world, as well as the docks of the East End in the Port of London.", "Bidder died at his home at Paradise Point near Warfleet Creek and is buried at nearby Stoke Fleming.", "* Simon Drew (born 1952), a commercially successful cartoonist and illustrator, lives in Dartmouth and runs a shop on Fosse Street.", "* John Flavel (ca.1627–1691), an English Puritan Presbyterian minister and author.", "* Gordon Onslow Ford (1912–2003), a leading British surrealist painter, attended the Royal Naval College.", "* Sir John Harvey Jones (1924–2008), businessman and television presenter, attended the Royal Naval College.", "* Rachel Kempson (1910–2003), stage and film actress, was born in Dartmouth.", "She was the wife of Sir Michael Redgrave and mother of Vanessa, Lynn and Corin, and published her autobiography, ''Life Among the Redgraves'', in 1988.", "* Christopher Robin Milne (1920–1996), son of A.", "A. Milne, after whom the character Christopher Robin in the Winnie-the-Pooh books was named, used to own the Harbour Bookshop.", "The bookshop closed in September 2011.", "* Thomas Newcomen (1664–1729), the inventor of the atmospheric engine - the first successful steam-powered pumping engine—was born in Dartmouth in 1663.An 18th-century working Newcomen steam engine is on display in the town.", "* Sir Nicholas Harris Nicolas GCMG KH (1799–1848), an English antiquary.", "* Mary Nightingale (born 1963), ITV newscaster, lived in Dartmouth for much of her childhood.", "* John \"Jack\" Russell (1795–1883), an English parson, an enthusiastic fox-hunter and dog breeder.", "* Flora Thompson (1876–1947), lived in Above Town between 1928 and 1940, writing ''Lark Rise'' and ''Over to Candleford'' during this time.", "The books were later published as ''Lark Rise to Candleford''.", "She is buried at Longcross Cemetery.", "* Theodore Veale (1892–1980), recipient of the Victoria Cross during the First World War.", "* John L. Wimbush (1854–1914), landscape and portrait painter." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Charles Oman, \"Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles: Twin Dart estuary defenders\"* Dartmouth WebCam* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dodo" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''dodo''' ('''''Raphus cucullatus''''') is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius, which is east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean.", "The dodo's closest relative was the also-extinct and flightless Rodrigues solitaire.", "The two formed the subfamily Raphinae, a clade of extinct flightless birds that were a part of the family which includes pigeons and doves.", "The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon.", "A white dodo was once thought to have existed on the nearby island of Réunion, but it is now believed that this assumption was merely confusion based on the also-extinct Réunion ibis and paintings of white dodos.Subfossil remains show the dodo measured around in height and may have weighed in the wild.", "The dodo's appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings, paintings, and written accounts from the 17th century.", "Since these portraits vary considerably, and since only some of the illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens, the dodos' exact appearance in life remains unresolved, and little is known about its behaviour.", "It has been depicted with brownish-grey plumage, yellow feet, a tuft of tail feathers, a grey, naked head, and a black, yellow, and green beak.", "It used gizzard stones to help digest its food, which is thought to have included fruits, and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of Mauritius.", "One account states its clutch consisted of a single egg.", "It is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on Mauritius.", "Though the dodo has historically been portrayed as being fat and clumsy, it is now thought to have been well-adapted for its ecosystem.", "The first recorded mention of the dodo was by Dutch sailors in 1598.In the following years, the bird was hunted by sailors and invasive species, while its habitat was being destroyed.", "The last widely accepted sighting of a dodo was in 1662.Its extinction was not immediately noticed, and some considered the bird to be a myth.", "In the 19th century, research was conducted on a small quantity of remains of four specimens that had been brought to Europe in the early 17th century.", "Among these is a dried head, the only soft tissue of the dodo that remains today.", "Since then, a large amount of subfossil material has been collected on Mauritius, mostly from the Mare aux Songes swamp.", "The extinction of the dodo within less than a century of its discovery called attention to the previously unrecognised problem of human involvement in the disappearance of entire species.", "The dodo achieved widespread recognition from its role in the story of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'', and it has since become a fixture in popular culture, often as a symbol of extinction and obsolescence." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The dodo was variously declared a small ostrich, a rail, an albatross, or a vulture, by early scientists.", "In 1842, Danish zoologist Johannes Theodor Reinhardt proposed that dodos were ground pigeons, based on studies of a dodo skull he had discovered in the collection of the Natural History Museum of Denmark.", "This view was met with ridicule, but was later supported by English naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville in their 1848 monograph ''The Dodo and Its Kindred'', which attempted to separate myth from reality.", "After dissecting the preserved head and foot of the specimen at the Oxford University Museum and comparing it with the few remains then available of the extinct Rodrigues solitaire (''Pezophaps solitaria'') they concluded that the two were closely related.", "Strickland stated that although not identical, these birds shared many distinguishing features of the leg bones, otherwise known only in pigeons.Strickland and Melville established that the dodo was anatomically similar to pigeons in many features.", "They pointed to the very short keratinous portion of the beak, with its long, slender, naked basal part.", "Other pigeons also have bare skin around their eyes, almost reaching their beak, as in dodos.", "The forehead was high in relation to the beak, and the nostril was located low on the middle of the beak and surrounded by skin, a combination of features shared only with pigeons.", "The legs of the dodo were generally more similar to those of terrestrial pigeons than of other birds, both in their scales and in their skeletal features.", "Depictions of the large crop hinted at a relationship with pigeons, in which this feature is more developed than in other birds.", "Pigeons generally have very small clutches, and the dodo is said to have laid a single egg.", "Like pigeons, the dodo lacked the vomer and septum of the nostrils, and it shared details in the mandible, the zygomatic bone, the palate, and the hallux.", "The dodo differed from other pigeons mainly in the small size of the wings and the large size of the beak in proportion to the rest of the cranium.Throughout the 19th century, several species were classified as congeneric with the dodo, including the Rodrigues solitaire and the Réunion solitaire, as ''Didus solitarius'' and ''Raphus solitarius'', respectively (''Didus'' and ''Raphus'' being names for the dodo genus used by different authors of the time).", "An atypical 17th-century description of a dodo and bones found on Rodrigues, now known to have belonged to the Rodrigues solitaire, led Abraham Dee Bartlett to name a new species, ''Didus nazarenus'', in 1852.Based on solitaire remains, it is now a synonym of that species.", "Crude drawings of the red rail of Mauritius were also misinterpreted as dodo species; ''Didus broeckii'' and ''Didus herberti''.For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own, the Raphidae (formerly Dididae), because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved.", "Each was also placed in its own monotypic family (Raphidae and Pezophapidae, respectively), as it was thought that they had evolved their similarities independently.", "Osteological and DNA analysis has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae, and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily, Raphinae, within the family Columbidae.=== Evolution ===The Nicobar pigeon is the closest living relative of the dodoIn 2002, American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo for the first time.", "Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome ''b'' and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a tarsal of the Oxford specimen and a femur of a Rodrigues solitaire confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae.", "The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon (''Caloenas nicobarica'') to be their closest living relative, followed by the crowned pigeons (''Goura'') of New Guinea, and the superficially dodo-like tooth-billed pigeon (''Didunculus strigirostris'') from Samoa (its scientific name refers to its dodo-like beak).", "This clade consists of generally ground-dwelling island endemic pigeons.", "The following cladogram shows the dodo's closest relationships within the Columbidae, based on Shapiro and colleagues, 2002:1848 lithograph of the Oxford specimen's foot, which has been used to sample DNA for genetic analyses A similar cladogram was published in 2007, inverting the placement of ''Goura'' and ''Didunculus'' and including the pheasant pigeon (''Otidiphaps nobilis'') and the thick-billed ground pigeon (''Trugon terrestris'') at the base of the clade.", "The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen, and since this material is degraded, and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains, these findings still need to be independently verified.", "Based on behavioural and morphological evidence, Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the subfamily Gourinae along with the ''Goura'' pigeons and others, in agreement with the genetic evidence.", "In 2014, DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon (''Caloenas maculata'') was analysed, and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon, and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the dodo and the solitaire diverged around the Paleogene-Neogene boundary, about 23.03 million years ago.", "The Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues), are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old.", "Therefore, the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage.", "The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae, which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly, were semi-terrestrial, and inhabited islands.", "This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia.", "The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes and flightlessness.", "Despite its divergent skull morphology and adaptations for larger size, many features of its skeleton remained similar to those of smaller, flying pigeons.", "Another large, flightless pigeon, the Viti Levu giant pigeon (''Natunaornis gigoura''), was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji.", "It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the solitaire, and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons.=== Etymology ===1601 engraving showing Dutch activities on the shore of Mauritius and the first published depiction of a dodo on the left (2, called \"''Walchvoghel''\")One of the original names for the dodo was the Dutch \"''Walghvoghel''\", first used in the journal of Dutch Vice Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck, who visited Mauritius during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia in 1598.", "''Walghe'' means \"tasteless\", \"insipid\", or \"sickly\", and means \"bird\".", "The name was translated by Jakob Friedlib into German as ''Walchstök'' or ''Walchvögel''.", "The original Dutch report titled ''Waarachtige Beschryving'' was lost, but the English translation survived:Another account from that voyage, perhaps the first to mention the dodo, states that the Portuguese referred to them as penguins.", "The meaning may not have been derived from ''penguin'' (the Portuguese referred to those birds as \"''fotilicaios''\" at the time), but from ''pinion'', a reference to the small wings.", "The crew of the Dutch ship ''Gelderland'' referred to the bird as \"Dronte\" (meaning \"swollen\") in 1602, a name that is still used in some languages.", "This crew also called them \"griff-eendt\" and \"kermisgans\", in reference to fowl fattened for the Kermesse festival in Amsterdam, which was held the day after they anchored on Mauritius.Labelled sketch from 1634 by Sir Thomas Herbert, showing a broad-billed parrot, a red rail, and a dodoThe etymology of the word ''dodo'' is unclear.", "Some ascribe it to the Dutch word ''dodoor'' for \"sluggard\", but it is more probably related to ''Dodaars'', which means either \"fat-arse\" or \"knot-arse\", referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end.", "The first record of the word ''Dodaars'' is in Captain Willem Van West-Zanen's journal in 1602.The English writer Sir Thomas Herbert was the first to use the word ''dodo'' in print in his 1634 travelogue claiming it was referred to as such by the Portuguese, who had visited Mauritius in 1507.Another Englishman, Emmanuel Altham, had used the word in a 1628 letter in which he also claimed its origin was Portuguese.", "The name \"dodar\" was introduced into English at the same time as dodo, but was only used until the 18th century.", "As far as is known, the Portuguese never mentioned the bird.", "Nevertheless, some sources still state that the word ''dodo'' derives from the Portuguese word ''doudo'' (currently ''doido''), meaning \"fool\" or \"crazy\".", "It has also been suggested that ''dodo'' was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird's call, a two-note pigeon-like sound resembling \"doo-doo\".The Latin name ''cucullatus'' (\"hooded\") was first used by Juan Eusebio Nieremberg in 1635 as ''Cygnus cucullatus'', in reference to Carolus Clusius's 1605 depiction of a dodo.", "In his 18th-century classic work ''Systema Naturae'', Carl Linnaeus used ''cucullatus'' as the specific name, but combined it with the genus name ''Struthio'' (ostrich).", "Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the genus name ''Raphus'' (referring to the bustards) in 1760, resulting in the current name ''Raphus cucullatus''.", "In 1766, Linnaeus coined the new binomial ''Didus ineptus'' (meaning \"inept dodo\").", "This has become a synonym of the earlier name because of nomenclatural priority." ], [ "Description", "Size compared to a humanAs no complete dodo specimens exist, its external appearance, such as plumage and colouration, is hard to determine.", "Illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction (1598–1662) are the primary evidence for its external appearance.", "According to most representations, the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage, with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end.", "The head was grey and naked, the beak green, black and yellow, and the legs were stout and yellowish, with black claws.", "A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous rather than plumaceous (downy) and most similar to those of other pigeons.", "Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that dodos were very large birds, measuring around in height.", "The bird was sexually dimorphic; males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks.", "Weight estimates have varied from study to study.", "In 1993, Bradley C. Livezey proposed that males would have weighed and females .", "Also in 1993, Andrew C. Kitchener attributed a high contemporary weight estimate and the roundness of dodos depicted in Europe to these birds having been overfed in captivity; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range of , and fattened birds could have weighed .", "A 2011 estimate by Angst and colleagues gave an average weight as low as .", "This has also been questioned, and there is still controversy over weight estimates.", "A 2016 study estimated the weight at , based on CT scans of composite skeletons.", "It has also been suggested that the weight depended on the season, and that individuals were fat during cool seasons, but less so during hot.===Skeleton===1848 lithographs of the Oxford dodo's skull in multiple views The skull of the dodo differed much from those of other pigeons, especially in being more robust, the bill having a hooked tip, and in having a short cranium compared to the jaws.", "The upper bill was nearly twice as long as the cranium, which was short compared to those of its closest pigeon relatives.", "The openings of the bony nostrils were elongated along the length of the beak, and they contained no bony septum.", "The cranium (excluding the beak) was wider than it was long, and the frontal bone formed a dome-shape, with the highest point above the hind part of the eye sockets.", "The skull sloped downwards at the back.", "The eye sockets occupied much of the hind part of the skull.", "The sclerotic rings inside the eye were formed by eleven ossicles (small bones), similar to the amount in other pigeons.", "The mandible was slightly curved, and each half had a single fenestra (opening), as in other pigeons.Skeleton of the dodo (left) and its closest relative, the Rodrigues solitaire, not to scaleThe dodo had about nineteen presynsacral vertebrae (those of the neck and thorax, including three fused into a notarium), sixteen synsacral vertebrae (those of the lumbar region and sacrum), six free tail (caudal) vertebrae, and a pygostyle.", "The neck had well-developed areas for muscle and ligament attachment, probably to support the heavy skull and beak.", "On each side, it had six ribs, four of which articulated with the sternum through sternal ribs.", "The sternum was large, but small in relation to the body compared to those of much smaller pigeons that are able to fly.", "The sternum was highly pneumatic, broad, and relatively thick in cross-section.", "The bones of the pectoral girdle, shoulder blades, and wing bones were reduced in size compared to those of flighted pigeon, and were more gracile compared to those of the Rodrigues solitaire, but none of the individual skeletal components had disappeared.", "The carpometacarpus of the dodo was more robust than that of the solitaire, however.", "The pelvis was wider than that of the solitaire and other relatives, yet was comparable to the proportions in some smaller, flighted pigeons.", "Most of the leg bones were more robust than those of extant pigeons and the solitaire, but the length proportions were little different.Many of the skeletal features that distinguish the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire, its closest relative, from other pigeons have been attributed to their flightlessness.", "The pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted pigeons to support the higher weight, and the pectoral region and the small wings were paedomorphic, meaning that they were underdeveloped and retained juvenile features.", "The skull, trunk and pelvic limbs were peramorphic, meaning that they changed considerably with age.", "The dodo shared several other traits with the Rodrigues solitaire, such as features of the skull, pelvis, and sternum, as well as their large size.", "It differed in other aspects, such as being more robust and shorter than the solitaire, having a larger skull and beak, a rounded skull roof, and smaller orbits.", "The dodo's neck and legs were proportionally shorter, and it did not possess an equivalent to the knob present on the solitaire's wrists.=== Contemporary descriptions ===Most contemporary descriptions of the dodo are found in ship's logs and journals of the Dutch East India Company vessels that docked in Mauritius when the Dutch Empire ruled the island.", "These records were used as guides for future voyages.", "Few contemporary accounts are reliable, as many seem to be based on earlier accounts, and none were written by scientists.", "One of the earliest accounts, from van Warwijck's 1598 journal, describes the bird as follows:One of the most detailed descriptions is by Herbert in ''A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia'' from 1634:=== Contemporary depictions ===Compilation of the ''Gelderland'' ship's journal sketches from 1601 of live and recently killed dodos, attributed to Joris LaerleThe travel journal of the Dutch ship ''Gelderland'' (1601–1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius.", "They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now-extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist.", "Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th-century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.", "Since dodos are otherwise only known from limited physical remains and descriptions, contemporary artworks are important to reconstruct their appearance in life.", "While there has been an effort since the mid-19 century to list all historical illustrations of dodos, previously unknown depictions continue to be discovered occasionally.The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird, but this view may be exaggerated.", "The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens.", "It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers, as part of display behaviour.", "The Dutch painter Roelant Savery was the most prolific and influential illustrator of the dodo, having made at least twelve depictions, often showing it in the lower corners.", "A famous painting of his from 1626, now called ''Edwards's Dodo'' as it was once owned by the ornithologist George Edwards, has since become the standard image of a dodo.", "It is housed in the Natural History Museum, London.", "The image shows a particularly fat bird and is the source for many other dodo illustrations.Edwards's Dodo'', painted by Roelant Savery in 1626An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in the Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, in 1955 shows a dodo along with native Indian birds.", "It depicts a slimmer, brownish bird, and its discoverer Aleksander Iwanow and British palaeontologist Julian Hume regarded it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring.", "It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to the Mughal painter Ustad Mansur.", "The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir, located in Surat, where the English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen two dodos sometime between 1628 and 1633.In 2014, another Indian illustration of a dodo was reported, but it was found to be derivative of an 1836 German illustration.All post-1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images, around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer.", "Differences in the depictions led ornithologists such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism, ontogenic traits, seasonal variation, and even the existence of different species, but these theories are not accepted today.", "Because details such as markings of the beak, the form of the tail feathers, and colouration vary from account to account, it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features, whether they signal age or sex, or if they even reflect reality.", "Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits, as seen in the ''Gelderland'', Cornelis Saftleven, Savery's Crocker Art Gallery, and Mansur images.", "According to this claim, the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models.", "Most depictions show that the wings were held in an extended position, unlike flighted pigeons, but similar to ratites such as the ostrich and kiwi." ], [ "Behaviour and ecology", "Modern life restoration of a slim dodo, by Julian P. Hume Little is known of the behaviour of the dodo, as most contemporary descriptions are very brief.", "Based on weight estimates, it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 21, and the female 17.Studies of the cantilever strength of its leg bones indicate that it could run quite fast.", "The legs were robust and strong to support the bulk of the bird, and also made it agile and manoeuvrable in the dense, pre-human landscape.", "Though the wings were small, well-developed muscle scars on the bones show that they were not completely vestigial, and may have been used for display behaviour and balance; extant pigeons also use their wings for such purposes.", "Unlike the Rodrigues solitaire, there is no evidence that the dodo used its wings in intraspecific combat.", "Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures, it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison.", "The dodo may instead have used its large, hooked beak in territorial disputes.", "Since Mauritius receives more rainfall and has less seasonal variation than Rodrigues, which would have affected the availability of resources on the island, the dodo would have less reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour.", "The Rodrigues solitaire was therefore probably the more aggressive of the two.", "In 2016, the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo; the brain-to-body-size ratio was similar to that of modern pigeons, indicating that dodos were probably equal in intelligence.1601 map of a bay on Mauritius; the small D on the far right side marks where dodos were foundThe preferred habitat of the dodo is unknown, but old descriptions suggest that it inhabited the woods on the drier coastal areas of south and west Mauritius.", "This view is supported by the fact that the Mare aux Songes swamp, where most dodo remains have been excavated, is close to the sea in south-eastern Mauritius.", "Such a limited distribution across the island could well have contributed to its extinction.", "A 1601 map from the ''Gelderland'' journal shows a small island off the coast of Mauritius where dodos were caught.", "Julian Hume has suggested this island was l'île aux Benitiers in Tamarin Bay, on the west coast of Mauritius.", "Subfossil bones have also been found inside caves in highland areas, indicating that it once occurred on mountains.", "Work at the Mare aux Songes swamp has shown that its habitat was dominated by tambalacoque and ''Pandanus'' trees and endemic palms.", "The near-coastal placement and wetness of the Mare aux Songes led to a high diversity of plant species, whereas the surrounding areas were drier.Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct.", "Before humans arrived, Mauritius was entirely covered in forests, but very little remains of them today, because of deforestation.", "The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened.", "The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail, the broad-billed parrot, the Mascarene grey parakeet, the Mauritius blue pigeon, the Mauritius scops owl, the Mascarene coot, the Mauritian shelduck, the Mauritian duck, and the Mauritius night heron.", "Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle-backed Mauritius giant tortoise, the domed Mauritius giant tortoise, the Mauritian giant skink, and the Round Island burrowing boa.", "The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail ''Tropidophora carinata'' lived on Mauritius and Réunion, but vanished from both islands.", "Some plants, such as ''Casearia tinifolia'' and the palm orchid, have also become extinct.=== Diet and feeding ===Savery sketch of three dodos from , Crocker Art GalleryA 1631 Dutch letter (long thought lost, but rediscovered in 2017) is the only account of the dodo's diet, and also mentions that it used its beak for defence.", "The document uses word-play to refer to the animals described, with dodos presumably being an allegory for wealthy mayors:In addition to fallen fruits, the dodo probably subsisted on nuts, seeds, bulbs, and roots.", "It has also been suggested that the dodo might have eaten crabs and shellfish, like their relatives the crowned pigeons.", "Its feeding habits must have been versatile, since captive specimens were probably given a wide range of food on the long sea journeys.", "Oudemans suggested that as Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to survive the dry season, when food was scarce; contemporary reports describe the bird's \"greedy\" appetite.", "The Mauritian ornithologist France Staub suggested in 1996 that they mainly fed on palm fruits, and he attempted to correlate the fat-cycle of the dodo with the fruiting regime of the palms.Dodo and its gizzard stone by Carolus Clusius from 1605, copied from an illustration in the journal of Jacob van NeckSkeletal elements of the upper jaw appear to have been rhynchokinetic (movable in relation to each other), which must have affected its feeding behaviour.", "In extant birds, such as frugivorous (fruit-eating) pigeons, kinetic premaxillae help with consuming large food items.", "The beak also appears to have been able to withstand high force loads, which indicates a diet of hard food.", "Examination of the brain endocast found that though the brain was similar to that of other pigeons in most respects, the dodo had a comparatively large olfactory bulb.", "This gave the dodo a good sense of smell, which may have aided in locating fruit and small prey.Several contemporary sources state that the dodo used Gastroliths (gizzard stones) to aid digestion.", "The English writer Sir Hamon L'Estrange witnessed a live bird in London and described it as follows:It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk.", "Contemporary depictions show a large crop, which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk.", "It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth.In 1973, the tambalacoque, also known as the dodo tree, was thought to be dying out on Mauritius, to which it is endemic.", "There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old.", "Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation, and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird's digestive tract.", "He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo.", "Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without being abraded during digestion.", "Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as ''Cylindraspis'' tortoises, fruit bats, or the broad-billed parrot.", "According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands, the tree, while rare, has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred, not 13 as claimed by Temple, hence, discrediting Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship.The Brazilian ornithologist Carlos Yamashita suggested in 1997 that the broad-billed parrot may have depended on dodos and ''Cylindraspis'' tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds, which became food for the parrots.", "''Anodorhynchus'' macaws depended on now-extinct South American megafauna in the same way, but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service.=== Reproduction and development ===Replica of an alleged dodo egg in a reconstructed nest, East London MuseumAs it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius, the dodo probably nested on the ground.", "The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call:Cauche's account is problematic, since it also mentions that the bird he was describing had three toes and no tongue, unlike dodos.", "This led some to believe that Cauche was describing a new species of dodo (\"''Didus nazarenus''\").", "The description was most probably mingled with that of a cassowary, and Cauche's writings have other inconsistencies.", "A mention of a \"young ostrich\" taken on board a ship in 1617 is the only other reference to a possible juvenile dodo.", "An egg claimed to be that of a dodo is stored in the East London Museum in South Africa.", "It was donated by the South African museum official Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer, whose great aunt had received it from a captain who claimed to have found it in a swamp on Mauritius.", "In 2010, the curator of the museum proposed using genetic studies to determine its authenticity.", "It may instead be an aberrant ostrich egg.Because of the possible single-egg clutch and the bird's large size, it has been proposed that the dodo was K-selected, meaning that it produced few altricial offspring, which required parental care until they matured.", "Some evidence, including the large size and the fact that tropical and frugivorous birds have slower growth rates, indicates that the bird may have had a protracted development period.", "The fact that no juvenile dodos have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp may indicate that they produced little offspring, that they matured rapidly, that the breeding grounds were far away from the swamp, or that the risk of miring was seasonal.A 2017 study examined the histology of thin-sectioned dodo bones, modern Mauritian birds, local ecology, and contemporary accounts, to recover information about the life history of the dodo.", "The study suggested that dodos bred around August, after having potentially fattened themselves, corresponding with the fat and thin cycles of many vertebrates of Mauritius.", "The chicks grew rapidly, reaching robust, almost adult, sizes, and sexual maturity before Austral summer or the cyclone season.", "Adult dodos which had just bred moulted after Austral summer, around March.", "The feathers of the wings and tail were replaced first, and the moulting would have completed at the end of July, in time for the next breeding season.", "Different stages of moulting may also account for inconsistencies in contemporary descriptions of dodo plumage." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "1648 engraving showing the killing of dodos (centre left, erroneously depicted as penguin-like) and other animals now extinct from MauritiusMauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513, but was settled by neither.", "No records of dodos by these are known, although the Portuguese name for Mauritius, \"Cerne (swan) Island\", may have been a reference to dodos.", "The Dutch Empire acquired Mauritius in 1598, renaming it after Maurice of Nassau, and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company henceforward.", "The earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by Dutch travellers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia, led by admiral Jacob van Neck in 1598.They appear in reports published in 1601, which also contain the first published illustration of the bird.", "Since the first sailors to visit Mauritius had been at sea for a long time, their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary.", "The 1602 journal by Willem Van West-Zanen of the ship ''Bruin-Vis'' mentions that 24–25 dodos were hunted for food, which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime, their remains being preserved by salting.", "An illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal, showing the killing of dodos, a dugong, and possibly Mascarene grey parakeets, was captioned with a Dutch poem, here in Hugh Strickland's 1848 translation:Some early travellers found dodo meat unsavoury, and preferred to eat parrots and pigeons; others described it as tough, but good.", "Some hunted dodos only for their gizzards, as this was considered the most delicious part of the bird.", "Dodos were easy to catch, but hunters had to be careful not to be bitten by their powerful beaks.The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before Charles Darwin's theory of evolution:=== Dodos transported abroad ===The dodo was found interesting enough that living specimens were sent to Europe and the East.", "The number of transported dodos that reached their destinations alive is uncertain, and it is unknown how they relate to contemporary depictions and the few non-fossil remains in European museums.", "Based on a combination of contemporary accounts, paintings, and specimens, Julian Hume has inferred that at least eleven transported dodos reached their destinations alive.Hamon L'Estrange's description of a dodo that he saw in London in 1638 is the only account that specifically mentions a live specimen in Europe.", "In 1626 Adriaen van de Venne drew a dodo that he claimed to have seen in Amsterdam, but he did not mention if it was alive, and his depiction is reminiscent of Savery's ''Edwards's Dodo''.", "Two live specimens were seen by Peter Mundy in Surat, India, between 1628 and 1634, one of which may have been the individual painted by Mansur around 1625.In 1628, Emmanuel Altham visited Mauritius and sent a letter to his brother in England:Whether the dodo survived the journey is unknown, and the letter was destroyed by fire in the 19th century.The earliest known picture of a dodo specimen in Europe is from a collection of paintings depicting animals in the royal menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague.", "This collection includes paintings of other Mauritian animals as well, including a red rail.", "The dodo, which may be a juvenile, seems to have been dried or embalmed, and had probably lived in the emperor's zoo for a while together with the other animals.", "That whole stuffed dodos were present in Europe indicates they had been brought alive and died there; it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships, and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens.", "Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet.One dodo was reportedly sent as far as Nagasaki, Japan, in 1647, but it was long unknown whether it arrived.", "Contemporary documents first published in 2014 proved the story, and showed that it had arrived alive.", "It was meant as a gift, and, despite its rarity, was considered of equal value to a white deer and a bezoar stone.", "It is the last recorded live dodo in captivity.=== Extinction ===Walter Paget, 1914.Hunting by humans is not believed to have been the main cause of the bird's extinction.Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of humans.", "This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors.", "Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of dodos for ships' provisions, archaeological investigations have found scant evidence of human predation.", "Bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, which would not have been easily accessible to dodos because of the high, broken terrain.", "The human population on Mauritius (an area of ) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century, but they introduced other animals, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab-eating macaques, which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources.", "At the same time, humans destroyed the forest habitat of the dodos.", "The impact of the introduced animals on the dodo population, especially the pigs and macaques, is today considered more severe than that of hunting.", "Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests, since dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs.It has been suggested that the dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius, since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island.", "A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood.", "Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct.", "Yet the fact that the dodo survived hundreds of years of volcanic activity and climatic changes shows the bird was resilient within its ecosystem.Some controversy surrounds the date of its extinction.", "The last widely accepted record of a dodo sighting is the 1662 report by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz of the Dutch ship ''Arnhem'', who described birds caught on a small islet off Mauritius, now suggested to be Amber Island:The dodos on this islet may not necessarily have been the last members of the species.", "The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688.A 2003 statistical analysis of these records by the biologists David L. Roberts and Andrew R. Solow gave a new estimated extinction date of 1693, with a 95% confidence interval of 1688–1715.These authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638, the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s, and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave could not be dismissed out of hand.The British ornithologist Alfred Newton suggested in 1868 that the name of the dodo was transferred to the red rail after the former had gone extinct.", "Cheke also pointed out that some descriptions after 1662 use the names \"Dodo\" and \"Dodaers\" when referring to the red rail, indicating that they had been transferred to it.", "He therefore pointed to the 1662 description as the last credible observation.", "A 1668 account by English traveller John Marshall, who used the names \"Dodo\" and \"Red Hen\" interchangeably for the red rail, mentioned that the meat was \"hard\", which echoes the description of the meat in the 1681 account.", "Even the 1662 account has been questioned by the writer Errol Fuller, as the reaction to distress cries matches what was described for the red rail.", "Until this explanation was proposed, a description of \"dodos\" from 1681 was thought to be the last account, and that date still has proponents.Cheke stated in 2014 that then recently accessible Dutch manuscripts indicate that no dodos were seen by settlers in 1664–1674.In 2020, Cheke and the British researcher Jolyon C. Parish suggested that all mentions of dodos after the mid-17th century instead referred to red rails, and that the dodo had disappeared due to predation by feral pigs during a hiatus in settlement of Mauritius (1658–1664).", "The dodo's extinction therefore was not realised at the time, since new settlers had not seen real dodos, but as they expected to see flightless birds, they referred to the red rail by that name instead.", "Since red rails probably had larger clutches than dodos and their eggs could be incubated faster, and their nests were perhaps concealed, they probably bred more efficiently, and were less vulnerable to pigs.It is unlikely the issue will ever be resolved, unless late reports mentioning the name alongside a physical description are rediscovered.", "The IUCN Red List accepts Cheke's rationale for choosing the 1662 date, taking all subsequent reports to refer to red rails.", "In any case, the dodo was probably extinct by 1700, about a century after its discovery in 1598.The Dutch left Mauritius in 1710, but by then the dodo and most of the large terrestrial vertebrates there had become extinct.Even though the rareness of the dodo was reported already in the 17th century, its extinction was not recognised until the 19th century.", "This was partly because, for religious reasons, extinction was not believed possible until later proved so by Georges Cuvier, and partly because many scientists doubted that the dodo had ever existed.", "It seemed altogether too strange a creature, and many believed it a myth.", "The bird was first used as an example of human-induced extinction in ''Penny Magazine'' in 1833, and has since been referred to as an \"icon\" of extinction." ], [ "Physical remains", "=== 17th-century specimens ===The only extant remains of dodos taken to Europe in the 17th century are a dried head and foot in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, a foot once housed in the British Museum but now lost, a skull in the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum, and an upper jaw in the National Museum, Prague.", "The last two were rediscovered and identified as dodo remains in the mid-19th century.", "Several stuffed dodos were also mentioned in old museum inventories, but none are known to have survived.", "Apart from these remains, a dried foot, which belonged to the Dutch professor Pieter Pauw, was mentioned by Carolus Clusius in 1605.Its provenance is unknown, and it is now lost, but it may have been collected during the Van Neck voyage.", "Supposed stuffed dodos seen in museums around the world today have in fact been made from feathers of other birds, many of the older ones by the British taxidermist Rowland Ward's company.The only known soft tissue remains, the Oxford head (specimen OUM 11605) and foot, belonged to the last known stuffed dodo, which was first mentioned as part of the Tradescant collection in 1656 and was moved to the Ashmolean Museum in 1659.It has been suggested that this might be the remains of the bird that Hamon L'Estrange saw in London, the bird sent by Emanuel Altham, or a donation by Thomas Herbert.", "Since the remains do not show signs of having been mounted, the specimen might instead have been preserved as a study skin.", "In 2018, it was reported that scans of the Oxford dodo's head showed that its skin and bone contained lead shot, pellets which were used to hunt birds in the 17th century.", "This indicates that the Oxford dodo was shot either before being transported to Britain, or some time after arriving.", "The circumstances of its killing are unknown, and the pellets are to be examined to identify where the lead was mined from.Many sources state that the Ashmolean Museum burned the stuffed dodo around 1755 because of severe decay, saving only the head and leg.", "Statute 8 of the museum states \"That as any particular grows old and perishing the keeper may remove it into one of the closets or other repository; and some other to be substituted.\"", "The deliberate destruction of the specimen is now believed to be a myth; it was removed from exhibition to preserve what remained of it.", "This remaining soft tissue has since degraded further; the head was dissected by Strickland and Melville, separating the skin from the skull in two-halves.", "The foot is in a skeletal state, with only scraps of skin and tendons.", "Very few feathers remain on the head.", "It is probably a female, as the foot is 11% smaller and more gracile than the London foot, yet appears to be fully grown.", "The specimen was exhibited at the Oxford museum from at least the 1860s and until 1998, where-after it was mainly kept in storage to prevent damage.", "Casts of the head can today be found in many museums worldwide.The dried London foot, first mentioned in 1665, and transferred to the British Museum in the 18th century, was displayed next to Savery's ''Edwards's Dodo'' painting until the 1840s, and it too was dissected by Strickland and Melville.", "It was not posed in a standing posture, which suggests that it was severed from a fresh specimen, not a mounted one.", "By 1896 it was mentioned as being without its integuments, and only the bones are believed to remain today, though its present whereabouts are unknown.The Copenhagen skull (specimen ZMUC 90-806) is known to have been part of the collection of Bernardus Paludanus in Enkhuizen until 1651, when it was moved to the museum in Gottorf Castle, Schleswig.", "After the castle was occupied by Danish forces in 1702, the museum collection was assimilated into the Royal Danish collection.", "The skull was rediscovered by J. T. Reinhardt in 1840.Based on its history, it may be the oldest known surviving remains of a dodo brought to Europe in the 17th century.", "It is shorter than the Oxford skull, and may have belonged to a female.", "It was mummified, but the skin has perished.The front part of a skull (specimen NMP P6V-004389) in the National Museum of Prague was found in 1850 among the remains of the Böhmisches Museum.", "Other elements supposedly belonging to this specimen have been listed in the literature, but it appears only the partial skull was ever present (a partial right limb in the museum appears to be from a Rodrigues solitaire).", "It may be what remains of one of the stuffed dodos known to have been at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II, possibly the specimen painted by Hoefnagel or Savery there.=== Subfossil specimens ===Until 1860, the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th-century specimens.", "Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860, which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum, who did not publish the findings.", "In 1863, Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found.", "In 1865, George Clark, the government schoolmaster at Mahébourg, finally found an abundance of subfossil dodo bones in the swamp of Mare aux Songes in Southern Mauritius, after a 30-year search inspired by Strickland and Melville's monograph.", "In 1866, Clark explained his procedure to ''The Ibis'', an ornithology journal: he had sent his coolies to wade through the centre of the swamp, feeling for bones with their feet.", "At first they found few bones, until they cut away herbage that covered the deepest part of the swamp, where they found many fossils.", "Harry Pasley Higginson, a railway engineer from Yorkshire, reports discovering the Mare aux Songes bones at the same time as Clark and there is some dispute over who found them first.", "Higginson sent boxes of these bones to Liverpool, Leeds and York museums.", "The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos, but very few skull and wing bones, possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped.", "The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes.", "Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration.Clark's reports about the finds rekindled interest in the bird.", "Sir Richard Owen and Alfred Newton both wanted to be first to describe the post-cranial anatomy of the dodo, and Owen bought a shipment of dodo bones originally meant for Newton, which led to rivalry between the two.", "Owen described the bones in ''Memoir on the Dodo'' in October 1866, but erroneously based his reconstruction on the ''Edwards's Dodo'' painting by Savery, making it too squat and obese.", "In 1869 he received more bones and corrected its stance, making it more upright.", "Newton moved his focus to the Réunion solitaire instead.", "The remaining bones not sold to Owen or Newton were auctioned off or donated to museums.", "In 1889, Théodor Sauzier was commissioned to explore the \"historical souvenirs\" of Mauritius and find more dodo remains in the Mare aux Songes.", "He was successful, and also found remains of other extinct species.In 2005, after a hundred years of neglect, a part of the Mare aux Songes swamp was excavated by an international team of researchers (International Dodo Research Project).", "To prevent malaria, the British had covered the swamp with hard core during their rule over Mauritius, which had to be removed.", "Many remains were found, including bones of at least 17 dodos in various stages of maturity (though no juveniles), and several bones obviously from the skeleton of one individual bird, which have been preserved in their natural position.", "These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis museum in Leiden.", "63% of the fossils found in the swamp belonged to turtles of the extinct genus ''Cylindraspis'', and 7.1% belonged to dodos, which had been deposited within several centuries, 4,000 years ago.", "Subsequent excavations suggested that dodos and other animals became mired in the Mare aux Songes while trying to reach water during a long period of severe drought about 4,200 years ago.", "Furthermore, cyanobacteria thrived in the conditions created by the excrements of animals gathered around the swamp, which died of intoxication, dehydration, trampling, and miring.", "Though many small skeletal elements were found during the recent excavations of the swamp, few were found during the 19th century, probably owing to the employment of less refined methods when collecting.Louis Etienne Thirioux, an amateur naturalist at Port Louis, also found many dodo remains around 1900 from several locations.", "They included the first articulated specimen, which is the first subfossil dodo skeleton found outside the Mare aux Songes, and the only remains of a juvenile specimen, a now lost tarsometatarsus.", "The former specimen was found in 1904 in a cave near Le Pouce mountain, and is the only known complete skeleton of an individual dodo.", "Thirioux donated the specimen to the Museum Desjardins (now Natural History Museum at Mauritius Institute).", "Thrioux's heirs sold a second mounted composite skeleton (composed of at least two skeletons, with a mainly reconstructed skull) to the Durban Museum of Natural Science in South Africa in 1918.Together, these two skeletons represent the most completely known dodo remains, including bone elements previously unrecorded (such as knee-caps and wing bones).", "Though some contemporary writers noted the importance of Thrioux's specimens, they were not scientifically studied, and were largely forgotten until 2011, when sought out by a group of researchers.", "The mounted skeletons were laser scanned, from which 3-D models were reconstructed, which became the basis of a 2016 monograph about the osteology of the dodo.", "In 2006, explorers discovered a complete skeleton of a dodo in a lava cave in Mauritius.", "This was only the second associated skeleton of an individual specimen ever found, and the only one in recent times.Worldwide, 26 museums have significant holdings of dodo material, almost all found in the Mare aux Songes.", "The Natural History Museum, American Museum of Natural History, Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, the Senckenberg Museum, and others have almost complete skeletons, assembled from the dissociated subfossil remains of several individuals.", "In 2011, a wooden box containing dodo bones from the Edwardian era was rediscovered at the Grant Museum at University College London during preparations for a move.", "They had been stored with crocodile bones until then." ], [ "White dodo", "The supposed \"white dodo\" (or \"solitaire\") of Réunion is now considered an erroneous conjecture based on contemporary reports of the Réunion ibis and 17th-century paintings of white, dodo-like birds by Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn that surfaced in the 19th century.", "The confusion began when Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, who visited Réunion around 1619, mentioned fat, flightless birds that he referred to as \"Dod-eersen\" in his journal, though without mentioning their colouration.", "When the journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving of a dodo from Savery's \"Crocker Art Gallery sketch\".", "A white, stocky, and flightless bird was first mentioned as part of the Réunion fauna by Chief Officer J. Tatton in 1625.Sporadic mentions were subsequently made by Sieur Dubois and other contemporary writers.Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the name ''Raphus solitarius'' for these birds in 1848, as he believed the accounts referred to a species of dodo.", "When 17th-century paintings of white dodos were discovered by 19th-century naturalists, it was assumed they depicted these birds.", "Oudemans suggested that the discrepancy between the paintings and the old descriptions was that the paintings showed females, and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic.", "Some authors also believed the birds described were of a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire, as it was referred to by the same name, or even that there were white species of both dodo and solitaire on the island.The Pieter Withoos painting, which was discovered first, appears to be based on an earlier painting by Pieter Holsteyn, three versions of which are known to have existed.", "According to Hume, Cheke, and Valledor de Lozoya, it appears that all depictions of white dodos were based on Roelant Savery's painting ''Landscape with Orpheus and the animals'', or on copies of it.", "The painting has generally been dated to 1611, though a post-1614, or even post-1626, date has also been proposed.", "The painting shows a whitish specimen and was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague; a ''walghvogel'' described as having a \"dirty off-white colouring\" was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607–1611).", "Savery's several later images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen another specimen.", "Cheke and Hume believe the painted specimen was white, owing to albinism.", "Valledor de Lozoya has instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply artistic license.In 1987, scientists described fossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion with a relatively short beak, ''Borbonibis latipes'', before a connection to the solitaire reports had been made.", "Cheke suggested to one of the authors, Francois Moutou, that the fossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire, and this suggestion was published in 1995.The ibis was reassigned to the genus ''Threskiornis'', now combined with the specific epithet '''' from the binomial ''R.", "solitarius''.", "Birds of this genus are also white and black with slender beaks, fitting the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire.", "No fossil remains of dodo-like birds have ever been found on the island." ], [ "Cultural significance", "The dodo's significance as one of the best-known extinct animals and its singular appearance led to its use in literature and popular culture as a symbol of an outdated concept or object, as in the expression \"dead as a dodo,\" which has come to mean unquestionably dead or obsolete.", "Similarly, the phrase \"to go the way of the dodo\" means to become extinct or obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the past.", "\"Dodo\" is also a slang term for a stupid, dull-witted person, as it was said to be stupid and easily caught.The dodo appears frequently in works of popular fiction, and even before its extinction, it was featured in European literature, as a symbol for exotic lands, and of gluttony, due to its apparent fatness.", "In 1865, the same year that George Clark started to publish reports about excavated dodo fossils, the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''.", "It is thought that he included the dodo because he identified with it and had adopted the name as a nickname for himself because of his stammer, which made him accidentally introduce himself as \"Do-do-dodgson\", his legal surname.", "Carroll and the girl who served as inspiration for Alice, Alice Liddell, had enjoyed visiting the Oxford museum to see the dodo remains there.", "The book's popularity made the dodo a well-known icon of extinction.", "Popular depictions of the dodo often became more exaggerated and cartoonish following its ''Alice in Wonderland'' fame, which was in line with the inaccurate belief that it was clumsy, tragic, and destined for extinction.The dodo is used as a mascot for many kinds of products, especially in Mauritius.", "It appears as a supporter on the coat of arms of Mauritius, on Mauritius coins, is used as a watermark on all Mauritian rupee banknotes, and features as the background of the Mauritian immigration form.", "A smiling dodo is the symbol of the Brasseries de Bourbon, a popular brewer on Réunion, whose emblem displays the white species once thought to have lived there.", "The dodo is used to promote the protection of endangered species by environmental organisations, such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Durrell Wildlife Park.", "The Center for Biological Diversity gives an annual 'Rubber Dodo Award', to \"those who have done the most to destroy wild places, species and biological diversity\".", "In 2011, the nephiline spider ''Nephilengys dodo'', which inhabits the same woods as the dodo once did, was named after the bird to raise awareness of the urgent need for protection of the Mauritius biota.", "Two species of ant from Mauritius have been named after the dodo: ''Pseudolasius dodo'' in 1946 and ''Pheidole dodo'' in 2013.A species of isopod from a coral reef off Réunion was named ''Hansenium dodo'' in 1991.The name dodo has been used by scientists naming genetic elements, honouring the dodo's flightless nature.", "A fruitfly gene within a region of a chromosome required for flying ability was named \"dodo\".", "In addition, a defective transposable element family from ''Phytophthora infestans'' was named ''DodoPi'' as it contained mutations that eliminated the element's ability to jump to new locations in a chromosome.", "In 2009, a previously unpublished 17th-century Dutch illustration of a dodo went for sale at Christie's and was expected to sell for £6,000.It is unknown whether the illustration was based on a specimen or on a previous image, and the artist is unidentified.", "It sold for £44,450.Parrish suggested it depicts a stuffed specimen, as the legs look dried.The poet Hilaire Belloc included the following poem about the dodo in his ''Bad Child's Book of Beasts'' from 1896:" ], [ "See also", "* Holocene extinction* List of African animals extinct in the Holocene* List of extinct bird species since 1500" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===" ], [ "External links", " Painting the Dodo: Two-minute video about Julian Hume's modern interpretation of Roelant Savery's Dodo* Dodo Bird Unboxing: Seven-minute video showing the Oxford specimen being taken out of storage and discussed* Aves3D – ''Raphus cucullatus'' : Interactive 3D scans of various dodo elements" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Sideroxylon grandiflorum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Sideroxylon grandiflorum''''', also known as the '''tambalacoque''' or '''dodo tree''', is a long-lived species of tree in the sapote family Sapotaceae.", "It is endemic to Mauritius." ], [ "Description", "The fruit of ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' is analogous to a peach.", "They are both termed drupes because both have a hard endocarp, or pit, surrounding the seed.", "The plant itself superficially resembles the unrelated ''Plumeria'', but the dodo tree's flowers and fruit are cauliflorous." ], [ "Ecology", "Preserved seeds.In 1973, it was thought that the species was becoming extinct.", "There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old.", "The true age could not be determined because tambalacoque has no growth rings.", "Stanley Temple hypothesized that the dodo, which became extinct in the 17th century, ate tambalacoque fruits, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the dodo could the seeds germinate.", "Temple (1977) force-fed seventeen tambalacoque fruits to wild turkeys.", "Seven of the fruits were crushed by the bird's gizzard.", "The remaining ten were either regurgitated or passed with the bird's feces.", "Temple planted the remaining ten fruits and three germinated.", "Temple did not try to germinate any seeds from control fruits not fed to turkeys so the effect of feeding fruits to turkeys was unclear.", "Reports made on tambalacoque seed germination by Hill (1941) and King (1946) found the seeds germinated without abrading.Temple's hypothesis that the tree required the dodo was contested.", "Others have suggested the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or that other extinct animals may also have been distributing the seeds, such as giant tortoises, fruit bats or the broad-billed parrot.", "The difference in numbers is because young trees are not distinct in appearance and may easily be confused with similar species.", "The decline of the tree may possibly be due to introduction of domestic pigs and crab-eating macaques, and competition from introduced plants.", "Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979), and Witmer (1991).", "Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis.In 2004, the Botanical Society of America's Plant Science Bulletin disputed Temple's research as flawed.", "The Bulletin published evidence as to why the dodo's extinction did not directly cause the increasing disappearance of young trees, including suggestions that the ''Cylindraspis'' giant tortoises would have been more likely to disperse the seeds than dodos, casting doubt on Temple's view as to the dodo and the tree's sole survival relationship." ], [ "Uses", "This dodo tree is highly valued for its wood in Mauritius, which has led some foresters to scrape the pits by hand to make them sprout and grow." ], [ "See also", "* ''Sideroxylon majus'', a species native to Réunion, that has been confounded with ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' (particularly under its synonym ''Calvaria major'')" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* '''Catling''', P. M. (2001): Extinction and the importance of history and dependence in conservation.", "''Biodiversity'' 2(3): 2-13 pdf* '''Helfferich''', C. (1990): The Turkey and the Tambalacoque Tree* '''Hershey''', D. R. (2004): The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate.", "''Plant Science Bulletin'' 50: 105–108.", "* '''Hill''', A. W. (1941): The genus ''Calvaria'', with an account of the stony endocarp and germination of the seed, and description of the new species.", "''Annals of Botany'' '''5'''(4): 587–606.PDF fulltext (requires user account)* '''King''', H. C. (1946): ''Interim Report on Indigenous Species in Mauritius''.", "Port Louis, Mauritius: Government Printer.", "* '''Owadally''', A. W. & '''Temple''', Stanley A.", "(1979): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree.", "''Science'' '''203'''(4387): 1363–1364.", "* '''Quammen''', David (1996): ''The Song of the Dodo: Island Biogeography in an Age of Extinction''.", "Touchstone, New York.", "* '''Temple''', Stanley A.", "(1977): Plant-animal mutualism: coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant.", "''Science'' '''197'''(4306): 885–886.HTML abstract* '''Witmer''', M. C. & '''Cheke''', A. S. (1991): The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered.", "''Oikos'' '''61'''(1): 133–137.HTML abstract" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dwight Schultz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Dwight Schultz''' (born November 24, 1947) is an American television, film and voice actor.He is known for his roles as Captain \"Howling Mad\" Murdock on the 1980s action series ''The A-Team'' and as Reginald Barclay in the ''Star Trek'' franchise.He is also known in animation as the megalomaniacal mad scientist Dr. Animo in the ''Ben 10'' series, Adrian Toomes/Vulture in some Marvel video games, Chef Mung Daal in the children's animated series ''Chowder'', and Eddie the Squirrel in ''CatDog''." ], [ "Early life", "Schultz was born in Baltimore on November 24, 1947.He is of German descent and a Roman Catholic.", "He attended Calvert Hall College High School and Towson University." ], [ "Career", "Schultz's breakthrough role was that of Captain \"Howling Mad\" Murdock on ''The A-Team''.", "He appeared in several films, including ''The Fan'' (1981), and he starred in ''Fat Man and Little Boy'' (1989) as J. Robert Oppenheimer.", "In the early 1990s, he had a recurring role as Lieutenant Reginald Barclay in ''Star Trek: The Next Generation;'' he reprised the role in ''Star Trek: Voyager'' and the film ''Star Trek: First Contact''.", "He played in the 1992 television film ''Child of Rage'', starring opposite Mel Harris as a compassionate couple who adopt a troubled girl who has been sexually abused.", "In November 2009, Schultz confirmed that he and former ''A-Team'' co-star Dirk Benedict would make cameo appearances in the feature film ''The A-Team''.Schultz hosted a conservative talk-radio podcast called ''Howling Mad Radio'' which ended in March 2009.He has also guest-hosted on numerous occasions for Michael Savage on ''The Savage Nation'', Jerry Doyle on ''The Jerry Doyle Show'', and Rusty Humphries on ''The Rusty Humphries Show''.", "He also posts political commentaries and podcasts on his official fansite." ], [ "Personal life", "Schultz married actress Wendy Fulton in 1983.They have a daughter.Schultz is Catholic and a conservative.", "In 2012 he began regular appearances on ''The Glazov Gang'', an Internet political talk show hosted by Jamie Glazov, managing editor of ''FrontPage Magazine''." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Series Role Notes Source 1981 ''The Fan'' TV Director 1982 ''Alone in the Dark'' Dan Potter 1989 ''Fat Man and Little Boy'' J. Robert Oppenheimer 1990 ''The Long Walk Home'' Norman Thompson 1993 ''The Temp'' Roger Jasser 1996 ''Star Trek: First Contact'' Lieutenant Reginald Barclay 2010 ''The A-Team'' German Doctor #1 Cameo===Voice=== Year Series Role Notes Source 1998 ''Golgo 13: Queen Bee'' Robert HardyEnglish dub 2000 ''Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust'' Benge, Old Man of Barbarois 2003 ''The Chronicles of Riddick: Dark Fury'' Skiff A.I.Direct to video ''The Animatrix'' NonakaDirect to video 2004 ''Van Helsing: The London Assignment'' Dr. Henry Jekyll / Jack the RipperDirect to video ''Kaena: The Prophecy'' Ilpo2006 ''Asterix and the Vikings'' Dubbledekabus ''Ultimate Avengers 2'' OdinDirect to video ''Tekkonkinkreet'' SnakeEnglish dub 2007 ''Ben 10: Secret of the Omnitrix'' Dr. Animo Television film 2010 ''Batman: Under the Red Hood'' Freddie, Drug Dealer Direct to video 2012 ''Ben 10: Destroy All Aliens'' Dr. Animo Television film 2016''Barbie: Star Light Adventure'' Constantine Limited theatrical release 2017 ''Deep'' Kraken 2018''Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash''Eobard ThawneDirect to video 2019 ''Klaus'' Additional voices 2020 ''Happy Halloween, Scooby-Doo!''", "Scarecrow===Television=== Year Series Role Notes Source1981 ''Thin Ice'' Mr. Ritchie ''Hill Street Blues'' Carmichael Episode: \"Life, Death, Eternity\" ''CHiPS'' Lyle Pickett Episode: \"The Hawk and the Hunter\" ''Dial M for Murder'' TV Director ''Bitter Harvest'' Schlatter ''Standing Room Only'' Bassick Episode: \"Sherlock Holmes\" ''Nurse'' Dr. Kevin Michaels Episode: \"Going Home\" 1983 ''When Your Lover Leaves'' Richard Reese Television film 1983–1987 ''The A-Team'' Captain \"Howling Mad\" Murdock 97 episodes 1987–1989 ''Perry Mason'' Andrew Lloyd, Tony Franken 2 episodes 1990 ''A Killer Among Us'' Clifford Gillette Television film 1990–1994 ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' Lieutenant Reginald Barclay 5 episodes 1992 ''Last Wish'' Ed Edwards Television film ''Child of Rage'' Rob Tyler Television film ''Woman with a Past'' Mick Television film 1993 ''Victim of Love: The Shannon Mohr Story'' Dave Davis Television film1994 ''Babylon 5'' Amis Episode: \"The Long Dark\" ''Menendez: A Killing in Beverly Hills'' Dr. Jerome Oziel Television film ''Weird Science'' Hank Episode: \"Circuit Courtship\" 1995–2001 ''Star Trek: Voyager'' Lieutenant Reginald Barclay 6 episodes1995 ''The Outer Limits'' Leviticus Mitchell Episode: \"If These Walls Could Talk\" ''Flipper'' Wayne Cole Episode: \"The Green Freak\" ''Deadly Games'' Nathan Abrams Episode: \"Motivational Speaker\" ''Diagnosis: Murder'' Dr. Henry Wexler Episode: \"Naked Babes\" ''Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan'' Narrator Television film1996 ''Nowhere Man'' Harrison Barton Episode: \"Hidden Agenda\" ''Touched by an Angel'' Dr. Adam Litowski Episode: \"A Joyful Noise\" ''Hart to Hart: Till Death Do Us Hart'' Peter Donner Television film 1997 ''Diagnosis: Murder'' Dr. Gavin Reed Episode: \"Delusions of Murder\" 1998 ''Stargate SG-1'' The Keeper Episode: \"The Gamekeeper\" 1999 ''Walker, Texas Ranger'' Lloyd Allen Episode: \"Safe House\" 2001 ''The Agency'' Russell Orland Episode: \"Closure\" ===Cartoons=== Year Series Role Notes Source1997 ''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'' Garret Grady Episode: \"AKA Superman\" ''Reign: The Conqueror'' Attalos 1998–2001''CatDog'' Eddie the Squirrel, additional voices Main role1999''Todd McFarlane's Spawn'' Doctor, NSC Operative Episode: \"Seed of the Hellspawn\"''The Chimp Channel'' Stan''The Wild Thornberrys'' Dr.", "Freed, Customer, Inspector Tabu 2 episodes 1999–2000''Family Guy'' Clerk, Randall Fargus 2 episodes 2001–2002''Invader Zim'' Mr. Slunchy, Earth Father, additional voices 2001 ''Johnny Bravo'' Leo Episode: \"A Johnny Bravo Christmas\" 2003 ''Ninja Scroll: The Series'' Dakuan''The Cramp Twins'' Bouncy Bob Episode: \"Walk Like a Man/Bouncy Bob\"''Rugrats'' Gracko Episode: \"Diapies and Dragons/Baby Power\" 2004–2006 ''The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy'' Ernest, Turtle, Psychiatrist, various voices2006 ''Avatar: The Last Airbender'' Trainer Episode: \"Appa's Lost Days\" ''Catscratch'' Carmendor Nuget Episode: \"Blikmail/Love Jackal\" 2006–2007 ''Ben 10'' Dr. Animo, various voices 2007 ''Afro Samurai'' Assassin 1, Patron 1, Ronin 2007–2010 ''Chowder'' Mung Daal, various voices 2008 ''Ben 10: Alien Force'' Dr. Animo Episode: \"Voided\" 2010–2012 ''Ben 10: Ultimate Alien'' Dr. Animo 2011 ''Scooby-Doo!", "Mystery Incorporated'' Older Danny Darrow Episode: \"Escape from Mystery Manor\" 2012 ''The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes'' Technovore, Executive 1, AIM Scientist Episode: \"Alone Against A.I.M.\"", "2013 ''Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness'' Fu-xi Episode: \"Serpent's Tooth\" 2013–2014 ''Avengers Assemble'' Attuma, United Nations Moderator, Vampire Soldier #2 ''Ben 10: Omniverse'' Dr. Animo 2014 ''Wander Over Yonder'' Wild Card Episode: \"The Big Job/The Helper\" 2014–2017 ''All Hail King Julien'' Karl, Karl-Gram, Patrick 10 episodes 2015 ''Harvey Beaks'' Spirit of Wetbark Lake, Snake Episode: \"Pe-Choo/The Spitting Tree\" ''Teen Titans Go!''", "TV Episode: \"Oil Drums\" ''Kirby Buckets'' Shredlock Episode: \"Failure to Launch\" ''Ultimate Spider-Man'' Mesmero, Attuma, Teacher ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles'' Wyrm Episode: \"The Weird World of Wyrm\" 2016–2021 ''Ben 10'' Dr. Animo, Shepherd, Lumberjack 9 episodes 2017 ''All Hail King Julien: Exiled'' Karl, Father Tentacle, Chimp, Fore-Vegetable, Rat, Thrax 7 episodes 2018''The Powerpuff Girls''Lester van LusterEpisode: \"Small World\" 2019 ''Young Justice: Outsiders'' Mad HatterEpisode: \"Triptych\" ===Video games=== Year Series Role Notes Source 1998 ''Fallout 2'' Hakunin 1999 ''CatDog: Quest for the Golden Hydrant'' Eddie the Squirrel 2000 ''Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn'' Mae'Var, Vithal, Prince Villynaty ''Vampire Hunter D'' Benge ''Sacrifice''Additional voices''Call to Power II'' 2001 ''Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel'' Gammorin, Paladin Latham ''Final Fantasy X'' Maechen ''Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura'' Simeon Tor''Baldur's Gate: Dark Alliance'' Additional voices 2002 ''Spider-Man'' The Vulture 2003 ''Crash Nitro Kart'' Dingodile, Fake Crash ''Final Fantasy X-2'' Maechen, O'aka XXIII ''Star Trek: Elite Force II'' Lieutenant Reginald Barclay ''Lionheart: Legacy of the Crusader'' Additional voices ''Lords of EverQuest'' Lord Dungannon ''Battlestar Galactica'' Lord Erebus, Deimos2004 ''The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay'' Hoxie ''Crash Twinsanity'' Papu Papu, Dingodile, Rusty Walrus, Tribesmen ''The Bard's Tale''Additional voices ''EverQuest II'' ''Spider-Man 2'' The Vulture PSP and DS versions only2005 ''Fantastic Four'' Additional voices ''Destroy All Humans!''", "Air Force General, Fair Worker ''Advent Rising'' Kelehm Farwaters ''X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse'' Living Monolith, Garrokk ''Psychonauts'' Crispin Whytehead ''Gun'' Hecht the Rancher ''Killer7'' Harman Smith ''Neopets: The Darkest Faerie'' King Hagan ''Yakuza'' Kage 2006 ''X-Men: The Official Game'' Magneto ''Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops'' Python ''Baten Kaitos Origins'' Geldoblame ''Final Fantasy XII'' Gran Kiltias Anastasis, Old Dalan ''Gothic 3'' Additional voices ''Superman Returns'' Mr. Mxyzptlk, The Citizens of Metropolis ''Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell Double Agent'' Carson Moss2007 ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer'' Red Ghost ''Mass Effect'' Navigator Pressly, Dr. Zev Cohen, Bartender ''Ben 10: Protector of Earth'' Dr. Animo ''Conan'' Graven, Kalden ''Armored Core 4'' Emill, Enemy AI ''The Darkness'' Uncle Paulie Franchetti ''Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End'' Montanari2008 ''Dark Sector'' Robert Mezner, AD ''Valkyria Chronicles'' Prime Minister Maurits von Borg, Capt.", "Giorgios Geld ''Spider-Man: Web of Shadows'' Kraven the Hunter PS2 and PSP versions only ''God of War: Chains of Olympus'' Charon, Helios, Male Greek, Fire Guard ''The Rise of the Argonauts'' Additional voices ''Destroy All Humans!", "Path of the Furon'' Sammy, Travis Skeever2009 ''Ben 10 Alien Force: Vilgax Attacks'' Dr. Animo ''Cartoon Network Universe: FusionFall'' Thromnambular ''Dragon Age: Origins'' Bodahn Feddic, Additional voices ''Terminator Salvation'' Murphy ''MadWorld'' Noa, Martin 2010 ''DC Universe Online'' The Flash, Martian Manhunter ''Final Fantasy XIII'' Cocoon Inhabitants English dub ''Mafia II'' Additional voices ''Resonance of Fate'' Gelsey ''Mass Effect 2'' Additional voices2011 ''Dragon Age II'' Bodahn Feddic, additional voices ''Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure'' Additional voices ''Gears of War 3'' Richard Prescott 2012 ''Skylanders: Giants'' Ignitor ''Ben 10: Omniverse'' Dr. Animo 2013 ''Skylanders: Swap Force'' Ignitor ''République'' Headmaster ''Infinity Blade III'' Eves ''The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim – Dragonborn'' Neloth2014 ''Ancient Space'' H.E.C.T.O.R, Admiral Thorensen, Captain Yuri Rudenko ''Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor'' Nemesis Orcs, Hallas ''Skylanders: Trap Team'' Ignitor ''Wolfenstein: The New Order'' Wilhelm \"Deathshead\" Strasse2015 ''Killing Floor 2'' Reverend David Alberts ''Batman: Arkham Knight'' Lazlo Valentin / Professor Pyg ''Skylanders: SuperChargers'' Ignitor ''Fallout 4'' Knight Captain Cade2016 ''Master of Orion: Conquer the Stars'' GNN Male Anchor ''World of Warcraft: Legion'' Additional voices ''Lego Dimensions'' Howling Mad Murdock ''Killing Floor 2'' Reverend David Alberts 2017 ''Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy'' Papu Papu, Lab Assistants ''Middle-earth: Shadow of War'' Nemesis Orcs 2018 ''Marvel's Spider-Man'' The Vulture 2019 ''Crash Team Racing Nitro-Fueled'' Papu Papu, Nash, Geary ''Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order'' Odin 2020 ''Iron Man VR'' Willie Lumpkin / S.H.I.E.L.D.", "Agent E ===Broadway===''Night and Day''''The Crucifer of Blood''''The Water Engine''===Radio===''Dark Matters Radio with Don Ecker and Special Co-Host Dwight Schultz''''Howling Mad Radio''''The Jerry Doyle Show''''The Laura Ingraham Show''''The Rusty Humphries Show''''The Savage Nation''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", " * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Density" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Density''' ('''volumetric mass density''' or '''specific mass''') is a substance's mass per unit of volume.", "The symbol most often used for density is ''ρ'' (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter ''D'' can also be used.", "Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume: where ''ρ'' is the density, ''m'' is the mass, and ''V'' is the volume.", "In some cases (for instance, in the United States oil and gas industry), density is loosely defined as its weight per unit volume, although this is scientifically inaccurate this quantity is more specifically called specific weight.For a pure substance the density has the same numerical value as its mass concentration.Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging.", "Osmium is the densest known element at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity \"relative density\" or \"specific gravity\", i.e.", "the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water.", "Thus a relative density less than one relative to water means that the substance floats in water.The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure.", "This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases.", "Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density.", "Increasing the temperature of a substance (with a few exceptions) decreases its density by increasing its volume.", "In most materials, heating the bottom of a fluid results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top, due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid, which causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics.", "Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.Other conceptually comparable quantities or ratios include specific density, relative density (specific gravity), and specific weight." ], [ "History", "=== Density, floating, and sinking ===The understanding that different materials have different densities, and of a relationship between density, floating, and sinking must date to prehistoric times.", "Much later it was put in writing.", "Aristotle, for example, wrote:=== Volume vs. density; volume of an irregular shape ===In a well-known but probably apocryphal tale, Archimedes was given the task of determining whether King Hiero's goldsmith was embezzling gold during the manufacture of a golden wreath dedicated to the gods and replacing it with another, cheaper alloy.", "Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass; but the king did not approve of this.", "Baffled, Archimedes is said to have taken an immersion bath and observed from the rise of the water upon entering that he could calculate the volume of the gold wreath through the displacement of the water.", "Upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, \"Eureka!", "Eureka!\"", "().", "As a result, the term ''eureka'' entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment.The story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius' ''books of architecture'', two centuries after it supposedly took place.", "Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time.", "Nevertheless, in 1586, Galileo Galilei, in one of his first experiments, made a possible reconstruction of how the experiment could have been performed with ancient Greek resources" ], [ "Units{{anchor\|Unit}}", "From the equation for density (), mass density has any unit that is ''mass divided by volume''.", "As there are many units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use.", "The SI unit of kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3) and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) are probably the most commonly used units for density.", "One g/cm3 is equal to 1000 kg/m3.One cubic centimetre (abbreviation cc) is equal to one millilitre.", "In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical and US customary units may be used.", "See below for a list of some of the most common units of density.The litre and tonne are not part of the SI, but are acceptable for use with it, leading to the following units:* kilogram per litre (kg/L)* gram per millilitre (g/mL)* tonne per cubic metre (t/m3)Densities using the following metric units all have exactly the same numerical value, one thousandth of the value in (kg/m3).", "Liquid water has a density of about 1 kg/dm3, making any of these SI units numerically convenient to use as most solids and liquids have densities between 0.1 and 20 kg/dm3.", "* kilogram per cubic decimetre (kg/dm3)* gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)** 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3* megagram (metric ton) per cubic metre (Mg/m3)In US customary units density can be stated in:* Avoirdupois ounce per cubic inch (1 g/cm3 ≈ 0.578036672 oz/cu in)* Avoirdupois ounce per fluid ounce (1 g/cm3 ≈ 1.04317556 oz/US fl oz = 1.04317556 lb/US fl pint)* Avoirdupois pound per cubic inch (1 g/cm3 ≈ 0.036127292 lb/cu in)* pound per cubic foot (1 g/cm3 ≈ 62.427961 lb/cu ft)* pound per cubic yard (1 g/cm3 ≈ 1685.5549 lb/cu yd)* pound per US liquid gallon (1 g/cm3 ≈ 8.34540445 lb/US gal)* pound per US bushel (1 g/cm3 ≈ 77.6888513 lb/bu)* slug per cubic footImperial units differing from the above (as the Imperial gallon and bushel differ from the US units) in practice are rarely used, though found in older documents.", "The Imperial gallon was based on the concept that an Imperial fluid ounce of water would have a mass of one Avoirdupois ounce, and indeed 1 g/cm3 ≈ 1.00224129 ounces per Imperial fluid ounce = 10.0224129 pounds per Imperial gallon.", "The density of precious metals could conceivably be based on Troy ounces and pounds, a possible cause of confusion.Knowing the volume of the unit cell of a crystalline material and its formula weight (in daltons), the density can be calculated.", "One dalton per cubic ångström is equal to a density of 1.660 539 066 60 g/cm3." ], [ "Measurement", "A number of techniques as well as standards exist for the measurement of density of materials.", "Such techniques include the use of a hydrometer (a buoyancy method for liquids), Hydrostatic balance (a buoyancy method for liquids and solids), immersed body method (a buoyancy method for liquids), pycnometer (liquids and solids), air comparison pycnometer (solids), oscillating densitometer (liquids), as well as pour and tap (solids).", "However, each individual method or technique measures different types of density (e.g.", "bulk density, skeletal density, etc.", "), and therefore it is necessary to have an understanding of the type of density being measured as well as the type of material in question.", "===Homogeneous materials===The density at all points of a homogeneous object equals its total mass divided by its total volume.", "The mass is normally measured with a scale or balance; the volume may be measured directly (from the geometry of the object) or by the displacement of a fluid.", "To determine the density of a liquid or a gas, a hydrometer, a dasymeter or a Coriolis flow meter may be used, respectively.", "Similarly, hydrostatic weighing uses the displacement of water due to a submerged object to determine the density of the object.===Heterogeneous materials===If the body is not homogeneous, then its density varies between different regions of the object.", "In that case the density around any given location is determined by calculating the density of a small volume around that location.", "In the limit of an infinitesimal volume the density of an inhomogeneous object at a point becomes: , where is an elementary volume at position .", "The mass of the body then can be expressed as=== Non-compact materials ===In practice, bulk materials such as sugar, sand, or snow contain voids.", "Many materials exist in nature as flakes, pellets, or granules.Voids are regions which contain something other than the considered material.", "Commonly the void is air, but it could also be vacuum, liquid, solid, or a different gas or gaseous mixture.The ''bulk volume'' of a material —inclusive of the void space fraction— is often obtained by a simple measurement (e.g.", "with a calibrated measuring cup) or geometrically from known dimensions.Mass divided by bulk volume determines ''bulk density''.", "This is not the same thing as the material volumetric mass density.To determine the material volumetric mass density, one must first discount the volume of the void fraction.", "Sometimes this can be determined by geometrical reasoning.", "For the close-packing of equal spheres the non-void fraction can be at most about 74%.", "It can also be determined empirically.", "Some bulk materials, however, such as sand, have a ''variable'' void fraction which depends on how the material is agitated or poured.", "It might be loose or compact, with more or less air space depending on handling.In practice, the void fraction is not necessarily air, or even gaseous.", "In the case of sand, it could be water, which can be advantageous for measurement as the void fraction for sand saturated in water—once any air bubbles are thoroughly driven out—is potentially more consistent than dry sand measured with an air void.In the case of non-compact materials, one must also take care in determining the mass of the material sample.", "If the material is under pressure (commonly ambient air pressure at the earth's surface) the determination of mass from a measured sample weight might need to account for buoyancy effects due to the density of the void constituent, depending on how the measurement was conducted.", "In the case of dry sand, sand is so much denser than air that the buoyancy effect is commonly neglected (less than one part in one thousand).Mass change upon displacing one void material with another while maintaining constant volume can be used to estimate the void fraction, if the difference in density of the two voids materials is reliably known." ], [ "Changes of density", "In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature.", "Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material.", "Increasing the temperature generally decreases the density, but there are notable exceptions to this generalization.", "For example, the density of water increases between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C; similar behavior is observed in silicon at low temperatures.The effect of pressure and temperature on the densities of liquids and solids is small.", "The compressibility for a typical liquid or solid is 10−6 bar−1 (1 bar = 0.1 MPa) and a typical thermal expansivity is 10−5 K−1.This roughly translates into needing around ten thousand times atmospheric pressure to reduce the volume of a substance by one percent.", "(Although the pressures needed may be around a thousand times smaller for sandy soil and some clays.)", "A one percent expansion of volume typically requires a temperature increase on the order of thousands of degrees Celsius.In contrast, the density of gases is strongly affected by pressure.", "The density of an ideal gas iswhere is the molar mass, is the pressure, is the universal gas constant, and is the absolute temperature.", "This means that the density of an ideal gas can be doubled by doubling the pressure, or by halving the absolute temperature.In the case of volumic thermal expansion at constant pressure and small intervals of temperature the temperature dependence of density iswhere is the density at a reference temperature, is the thermal expansion coefficient of the material at temperatures close to ." ], [ "Density of solutions", "The density of a solution is the sum of mass (massic) concentrations of the components of that solution.Mass (massic) concentration of each given component in a solution sums to density of the solution,Expressed as a function of the densities of pure components of the mixture and their volume participation, it allows the determination of excess molar volumes:provided that there is no interaction between the components.Knowing the relation between excess volumes and activity coefficients of the components, one can determine the activity coefficients:" ], [ "List of densities {{anchor\|Densities}}", "=== Various materials ===+Densities of various materials covering a range of values Material ''ρ'' (kg/m3) Notes-0.08988 Hydrogen 0.0898 Helium 0.179 Aerographite 0.2 Metallic microlattice 0.9 Aerogel 1.0 Air 1.2 At sea level Tungsten hexafluoride 12.4 One of the heaviest known gases at standard conditions Liquid hydrogen 70 At approximately −255 °C Styrofoam 75 Approximate Cork 240 Approximate Pine 373 Lithium 535 Least dense metal Wood 700 Seasoned, typical Oak 710 Potassium 860 Ice 916.7 At temperature 3) Notes Interstellar medium Based on 10 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre Local Interstellar Cloud Based on 0.3 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre Interstellar medium Based on 10 hydrogen atoms per cubic centimetre The Earth 5,515 Mean density.", "Earth's inner core 13,000 Approx., as listed in Earth.", "The core of the Sun 33,000–160,000 Approx.", "White dwarf star Approx.", "Atomic nuclei Does not depend strongly on size of nucleus Neutron star === Water ===+ Density of liquid water at 1 atm pressure Temp.", "(°C) Density (kg/m3) −30 983.854 −20 993.547 −10 998.117 0 999.8395 4 999.9720 10 999.7026 15 999.1026 20 998.2071 22 997.7735 25 997.0479 30 995.6502 40 992.2 60 983.2 80 971.8 100 958.4Notes:=== Air ===Air density ''vs.''", "temperature+Density of air at 1 atm pressure ''T'' (°C) ''ρ'' (kg/m3) −25 1.423 −20 1.395 −15 1.368 −10 1.342 −5 1.316 0 1.293 5 1.269 10 1.247 15 1.225 20 1.204 25 1.184 30 1.164 35 1.146=== Molar volumes of liquid and solid phase of elements ===Molar volumes of liquid and solid phase of elements" ], [ "See also", "* Densities of the elements (data page)* List of elements by density* Air density* Area density* Bulk density* Buoyancy* Charge density* Density prediction by the Girolami method* Dord* Energy density* Lighter than air* Linear density* Number density* Orthobaric density* Paper density* Specific weight* Spice (oceanography)* Standard temperature and pressure* Volumic quantity" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Video: Density Experiment with Oil and Alcohol* Video: Density Experiment with Whiskey and Water* Glass Density Calculation – Calculation of the density of glass at room temperature and of glass melts at 1000 – 1400°C* List of Elements of the Periodic Table – Sorted by Density* Calculation of saturated liquid densities for some components* Field density test* Water – Density and specific weight* Temperature dependence of the density of water – Conversions of density units* A delicious density experiment * Water density calculator Water density for a given salinity and temperature.", "* Liquid density calculator Select a liquid from the list and calculate density as a function of temperature.", "* Gas density calculator Calculate density of a gas for as a function of temperature and pressure.", "* Densities of various materials.", "* Determination of Density of Solid, instructions for performing classroom experiment.", "* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dave Barry" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David McAlister Barry''' (born July 3, 1947) is an American author and columnist who wrote a nationally syndicated humor column for the ''Miami Herald'' from 1983 to 2005.He has also written numerous books of humor and parody, as well as comic novels and children's novels.", "Barry's honors include the Pulitzer Prize for Commentary (1988) and the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism (2005).Barry has defined a sense of humor as \"a measurement of the extent to which we realize that we are trapped in a world almost totally devoid of reason.", "Laughter is how we express the anxiety we feel at this knowledge.\"" ], [ "Early life and education", "Barry was born in Armonk, New York, where his father, David W. Barry, was a Presbyterian minister.", "He was educated at Wampus Elementary School, Harold C. Crittenden Junior High School (both in Armonk), and Pleasantville High School, where he was elected \"Class Clown\" in 1965.He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Haverford College in 1969.As an alumnus of a Quaker-affiliated college, he avoided military service during the Vietnam War by registering as a religious conscientious objector.", "Notwithstanding his father's vocation, Barry decided \"early on\" that he was an atheist.", "He said, \"The problem with writing about religion is that you run the risk of offending sincerely religious people, and then they come after you with machetes.\"" ], [ "Writing career", "Barry began his journalism career in 1971, working as a general-assignment reporter for the ''Daily Local News'' in West Chester, Pennsylvania, near his alma mater, Haverford College.", "He covered local government and civic events and was promoted to City Editor after about two years.", "He also started writing a weekly humor column for the paper and began to develop his unique style.", "He remained at the newspaper through 1974.He then worked briefly as a copy editor at the Associated Press's Philadelphia bureau before joining Burger Associates, a consulting firm.At Burger, he taught effective writing to businesspeople.", "In his own words, he \"spent nearly eight years trying to get various businesspersons to...stop writing things like 'Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but...eventually realized that it was hopeless.", "\"Brian Engler, Chair of the Fairfax Library Foundation, presents the 2013 Fairfax Prize to Dave Barry on September 22, 2013.In 1981 he wrote a humorous guest column in ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' about watching the birth of his son, which attracted the attention of Gene Weingarten, then an editor of the ''Miami Herald''s Sunday magazine ''Tropic''.", "Weingarten hired Barry as a humor columnist in 1983.Barry's column was syndicated nationally.", "Barry won a Pulitzer Prize for Commentary in 1988 for \"his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns.", "\"Barry's first novel, ''Big Trouble'', was published in 1999.The book was adapted into a motion picture directed by Barry Sonnenfeld and starring Tim Allen, Rene Russo, and Patrick Warburton, with a cameo by Barry (deleted in post-production).", "The movie was originally due for release in September 2001 but was postponed following the September 11, 2001, attacks because the story involved smuggling a nuclear weapon onto an airplane.", "The film was released in April 2002.In response to a column in which Barry mocked the cities of Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand Forks, Minnesota, for calling themselves the \"Grand Cities\", Grand Forks named a sewage pumping station after Barry in January 2002.Barry traveled to Grand Forks for the dedication ceremony.Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as ''Boating'', ''Home Office Computing'', and ''Reader's Digest'', in addition to the ''Chicken Soup for the Soul'' inspirational book series.", "Two of his articles have been included in ''The Best American Sports Writing'' series.", "One of his columns was used as the introduction to the book ''Pirattitude!", ": So You Wanna Be a Pirate?", "Here's How!''", "(), a follow-up to Barry's role in publicizing International Talk Like a Pirate Day.", "His books have frequently appeared on ''The New York Times'' Best Seller list.On October 31, 2004, Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly column to spend more time with his family.", "In December 2005, Barry said in an interview with ''Editor & Publisher'' that he would not resume his weekly column, although he would continue such features as his yearly gift guide, his year-in-review feature, and his blog, as well as an occasional article or column.In 2005, Barry won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.On Sunday, September 22, 2013, the opening night of the 15th annual Fall for the Book festival in Fairfax, Virginia, Barry was awarded the event's highest honor, the Fairfax Prize, honoring outstanding literary achievement, presented by the Fairfax Library Foundation." ], [ "''Dave's World'' television series", "From 1993 to 1997, CBS broadcast the sitcom ''Dave's World'' based on the books ''Dave Barry Turns 40'' and ''Dave Barry's Greatest Hits''.", "The show starred Harry Anderson as Barry and DeLane Matthews as his wife Beth.", "In an early episode, Barry appeared in a cameo role.", "After four seasons, the program was canceled shortly after being moved from its \"coveted\" Monday night slot to the \"Friday night death slot\", so named because of its association with low viewership." ], [ "Music", "During college, Barry was in a band called the Federal Duck (the band actually issued a self-titled album on Musicor Records in 1968, but Barry was no longer in the group by that point) while at the ''Miami Herald'', he and several of his colleagues created a band called the Urban Professionals, with Barry on lead guitar and vocals.", "They performed an original song called \"The Tupperware Song\" at the Tupperware headquarters in Orlando, Florida.Beginning in 1992, Barry played lead guitar in the Rock Bottom Remainders, a rock band made up of published authors.", "''(Remainder'' is a publishing term for a book that doesn't sell.)", "The band was founded by Barry's sister-in-law, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, for an American Booksellers Association convention, and has also included Stephen King, Amy Tan, Ridley Pearson, Scott Turow, Mitch Albom, Roy Blount Jr., Barbara Kingsolver, Matt Groening, and Barry's brother Sam, among others.", "The band's members \"are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud,\" according to Barry.", "Several high-profile musicians, including Al Kooper, Warren Zevon, and Roger McGuinn, have performed with the band, and Bruce Springsteen sat in at least once.", "The band's road tour resulted in the book ''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude''.", "The Rock Bottom Remainders disbanded in 2012 following Goldmark's death from breast cancer.", "They have reunited several times, performing at the Tucson Festival of Books in 2016 and 2018." ], [ "Other activities", "Beginning in 1984, Barry and ''Tropic'' editors Gene Weingarten and Tom Shroder have organized the Tropic Hunt (now the Herald Hunt), an annual puzzlehunt in Miami.", "A Washington, D.C., spinoff, the Post Hunt, began in 2008.Barry has run several mock campaigns for President of the United States, running on a libertarian platform.", "He has also written for the Libertarian Party's national newsletter.The screen adaptation of Barry's book ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys'' was released in 2005; it is available on DVD." ], [ "Personal life", "Barry married Lois Ann Shelnutt in 1969.He married Beth Lenox in 1976.Barry and Lenox worked together at the ''Daily Local News'', where they began their journalism careers on the same day in September 1971; they had one child, Robert, born October 8, 1980.Barry and Lenox divorced in 1993.In 1996, Barry married ''Miami Herald'' sportswriter Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000.Barry experienced tragedy in his family: his father and his youngest brother suffered from alcoholism, and his father died in 1984; his sister Mary Katherine was institutionalized for schizophrenia; and his mother died by suicide in 1987.Barry has had dogs named Goldie, Earnest, Zippy, and now Lucy.", "All have been mentioned regularly in Barry's columns." ], [ "Works", "===Non-fiction===* ''The Taming of the Screw'' (1983, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)* ''Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home'' (1984, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)* ''Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead'' (1985, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)* ''Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week'' (1986, with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)* ''Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex'' (1987 with illustrator Jerry O'Brien)* ''Homes and Other Black Holes'' (1988)* ''Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States'' (1989)* ''Dave Barry Turns 40'' (1990)* ''Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need'' (1991)* ''Dave Barry's Guide to Life'' (1991) (includes ''Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex'', ''Babies and Other Hazards of Sex'', ''Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead'' and ''Claw Your Way to the Top'')* ''Dave Barry Does Japan'' (1992)* ''Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides'' (1994)* ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys'' (1996)* ''Dave Barry in Cyberspace'' (1996)* ''Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs'' (1997)* ''Dave Barry Turns 50'' (1998)* ''Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions'' (2001)* ''\"My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old\" and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry'' (2001)* ''\"The Greatest Invention in the History Of Mankind Is Beer\" And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry'' (2001)* ''Dave Barry's Money Secrets'' (2006)* ''Dave Barry on Dads'' (2007)* ''Dave Barry's History of the Millennium (So Far)'' (2007)* ''I'll Mature When I'm Dead: Dave Barry's Amazing Tales of Adulthood'' (2010)* ''You Can Date Boys When You're Forty: Dave Barry on Parenting and Other Topics He Knows Very Little About'' (2014)* ''Live Right and Find Happiness (Although Beer is Much Faster): Life Lessons and Other Ravings from Dave Barry'' (2015)* ''Best.", "State.", "Ever.", ": A Florida Man Defends His Homeland'' (2015)* ''For This We Left Egypt?", ": A Passover Haggadah for Jews and Those Who Love Them'' (2017, with Alan Zweibel and Adam Mansbach)* ''Lessons from Lucy'' (2019)* ''A Field Guide to the Jewish People'' (2019, with Adam Mansbach and Alan Zweibel)===Collected columns===* ''Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book'' (1985)* ''Dave Barry's Greatest Hits'' (1988)* ''Dave Barry Talks Back'' (1991)* ''The World According to Dave Barry'' (1994) (includes ''Dave Barry Talks Back'', ''Dave Barry Turns 40'' and ''Dave Barry's Greatest Hits'')* ''Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up'' (1995)* ''Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus'' (1997)* ''Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down'' (2000)* ''Boogers Are My Beat'' (2003)===Fiction===* ''Big Trouble'' (1999).", ".", "* ''Tricky Business'' (2002).", ".", "* ''Peter and the Starcatchers'' (2004, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Peter and the Shadow Thieves'' (2006, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Peter and the Secret of Rundoon'' (2007, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Escape From the Carnivale'' (2006, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''The Shepherd, the Angel, and Walter the Christmas Miracle Dog'' (2006).", ".", "* ''Cave of the Dark Wind'' (2007, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Science Fair'' (2008, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Peter and the Sword of Mercy'' (2009, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Blood Tide'' (2008, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''The Bridge to Neverland'' (2011, with Ridley Pearson).", ".", "* ''Lunatics'' (2012, with Alan Zweibel).", ".", "* ''Insane City'' (2013).", ".", "* ''The Worst Class Trip Ever'' (2015).", ".", "* ''The Worst Night Ever'' (2016).", ".", "* ''Swamp Story'' (2023).", ".=== Film adaptations ===* ''Big Trouble'' (2002)* ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys'' (2005)* ''Peter and the Starcatchers'' (Disney project, announced May 17, 2012.Release date TBA)===Collaborations===* ''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude'' (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris* ''Naked Came the Manatee'' (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, John Dufresne, Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson* Novels (as listed above) with Ridley Pearson and Alan Zweibel.", "* ''Hard Listening'', (July 2013) is an interactive ebook about his participation in a writer/musician band, the Rock Bottom Remainders.", "Published by digital publisher, Coliloquy, LLC===Audio recordings===* ''A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry'' (1992)* ''A Prairie Home Companion: English Majors: A Comedy Collection for the Highly Literate'' (as guest) (1997)* ''Stranger than Fiction (compilation album)'' (1998)" ], [ "See also", "* Exploding whale* International Talk Like a Pirate Day" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* ''Write TV'' Public Television Interview with Dave Barry * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Angell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Lawrence Angell''' (April 10, 1946 – September 11, 2001) was an American screenwriter and television producer, known for his work in sitcoms.", "He won multiple Emmy Awards as the creator and executive producer of the sitcoms ''Wings'' and ''Frasier'' with Peter Casey and David Lee.", "Angell and his wife Lynn were killed heading home from their vacation on Cape Cod aboard American Airlines Flight 11, the first plane to hit the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks." ], [ "Early life", "Angell was born in Providence, Rhode Island, to Henry and Mae (née Cooney) Angell.", "He received a bachelor's degree in English literature from Providence College.", "He married Lynn Edwards on August 14, 1971.Soon after Angell entered the U.S. Army upon graduation and served at the Pentagon until 1972.He then moved to Boston and worked as a methods analyst at an engineering company and later at an insurance firm in Rhode Island.", "His brother, the Most Rev.", "Kenneth Angell, was a Roman Catholic prelate and Bishop of Burlington, Vermont." ], [ "Career", "Angell moved to Los Angeles in 1977.His first script was sold to the producers of the ''Annie Flynn'' series.", "Five years later, he sold his second script, for the sitcom ''Archie Bunker's Place''.", "In 1983, he joined ''Cheers'' as a staff writer.", "In 1985, Angell joined forces with Peter Casey and David Lee as ''Cheers'' supervising producers/writers.", "The trio received 37 Emmy Award nominations and won 24 Emmy Awards, including the above-mentioned for ''Frasier''.", "They also won an Outstanding Comedy Series Emmy for ''Cheers'', in 1989, which Angell, Casey, Lee and the series' other producers shared, and an Outstanding Writing/Comedy Emmy for ''Cheers'', which Angell received in 1984.After working together as producers on ''Cheers'', Angell, Casey and Lee formed Grub Street Productions.", "In 1990, they created and executive-produced the comedy series ''Wings''.+Writing credits Series Episode Air date''Archie Bunker's Place'' \"Barney Gets Laid Off\" \"Relief Bartender\" ''Cheers'' \"Pick a Con... Any Con\" \"Someone Single, Someone Blue\" \"Old Flames\" \"They Called Me Mayday\" \"Snow Job\" \"Coach in Love: Part 1\" \"Coach in Love: Part 2\" \"Peterson Crusoe\" \"Love Thy Neighbor\" \"Dark Imaginings\" \"Strange Bedfellows: Part 1\" \"Strange Bedfellows: Part 2\" \"Strange Bedfellows: Part 3\" \"House of Horrors with Formal Dining and Used Brick\" \"Chambers vs. Malone\" \"The Crane Mutiny\" \"How to Recede in Business\" \"The Guy Can't Help It\" ''Condo'' \"Members Only\" ''Domestic Life'' \"Showdown at Walla Walla\" ''Wings'' \"Legacy\" \"Return to Nantucket: Part 2\" \"Sports and Leisure\" \"Stew in a Stew\" \"The Gift: Part 1\" \"The Gift: Part 2\" ''Frasier'' \"The Good Son\" \"My Coffee with Niles\" \"And the Dish Ran Away with the Spoon\" ''Encore!", "Encore!''", "\"Pilot\"" ], [ "Death", "Angell and his wife Lynn were killed in the 2001 September 11 attacks at the World Trade Center in Manhattan.", "They were among the passengers of American Airlines Flight 11, who were all killed when the plane struck the North Tower of the complex." ], [ "Legacy", "The names of David Angell and his wife are located on Panel N-1 of the National September 11 Memorial's North Pool, along with other passengers from Flight 11.The American Screenwriters Association awards the annual David Angell Humanitarian Award to any individual in the entertainment industry who contributes to global well-being through donations of time, expertise or other support to improve the human condition.In 2004, The Angell Foundation of Los Angeles, California, awarded Providence College a gift of $2 million for the Smith Center for the Arts.The two-part episode of ''Frasier'' to air after the attacks, \"Don Juan in Hell\" airing on September 25, 2001, ended with the memorial tribute, \"In loving memory of our friends Lynn and David Angell\".", "In \"Goodnight, Seattle\", the series finale that aired May 13, 2004, Niles Crane and Daphne Moon's son was born, named David in tribute.At the National 9/11 Memorial, Angell and his wife are memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-1, along with other passengers from Flight 11." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diedrich Hermann Westermann" ], [ "Introduction", "Sudansprachen''.", "'''Diedrich Hermann Westermann''' (June 24, 1875 – May 31, 1956) was a German missionary, Africanist, and linguist.", "He substantially extended and revised the work of Carl Meinhof, his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly.", "Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern African linguistics.He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile.", "His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the Gbe languages, Nuer, Kpelle, Shilluk, Hausa, and Guang.Westermann's comparative work, begun in 1911, initially brought together much of today's Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan language phyla under the name Sudanic languages.", "His most important later publication ''Die westlichen Sudansprachen'' 1927a divided these into East and West Sudanic languages and laid the basis for what would become Niger–Congo.", "In this book and a series of associated articles between 1925 and 1928, Westermann both identified a large number of roots that form the basis of our understanding of Niger–Congo and set out the evidence for the coherence of many of the families that constitute it.", "Much of the classification of African languages associated with Joseph Greenberg actually derives from the work of Westermann.", "In 1927 Westermann published a ''Practical Orthography of African Languages'', which became later known as the ''Westermann script''.", "Subsequently, he published the influential and oft-reprinted ''Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages'' in collaboration with Ida C. Ward (1933).He was born in Baden near Bremen and also died there." ], [ "Bibliography", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1911) ''Die Sudansprachen'' The Sudanic languages.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1912) ''The Shilluk People.''", "Berlin.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1925) Das Tschi und Guang.", "Ihre Stellung innerhalb der Ewe-Tschi Gruppe.", "MSOS, 28:1-85.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926a) Das Ibo in Nigerien.", "Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen.", "MSOS, 29:32-60.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1926b) Das Edo in Nigerien.", "Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen.", "MSOS, 29:1-31.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927a) 'Die westlichen Sudansprachen und ihre Beziehungen zum Bantu' Berlin: de Gruyter.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1927b) Das Nupe in Nigerien.", "Seine Stellung innerhalb der Kwa-Sprachen.", "MSOS, 30:173-207.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1928) Die westatlantische Gruppe der Sudansprachen.", "MSOS, 31:63-86.", "Westermann, Diedrich Hermann & Ward, Ida C. (1933) ''Practical phonetics for students of African languages''.", "London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.", "Westermann, Diedrich H. (1940) Africans recount their lives.", "Eleven self-portraits (Afrikaner erzählen ihr Leben.", "Elf Selbstdarstellungen), Essener Verlagsanstalt* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1948).", "''The missionary and anthropological research''.", "Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.", "* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1949).", "''Sprachbeziehungen und Sprachverwandtschaft in Afrika''.", "Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1948 (Nr.", "1).", "Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.", "* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1952).", "''The languages of West Africa''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1964).", "''Practical phonetics for students of African languages'' (4th improvement).", "Oxford: Oxford University Press." ], [ "Further reading", "Kallaway, Peter.", "Diedrich Westermann and the Ambiguities of Colonial Science in the Inter-War Era.", "The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 2017 vol.", "45 no.", "6, p. 871–893" ], [ "External links", " * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diacritic" ], [ "Introduction", "Latin letter A with multiple diacriticsA '''diacritic''' (also '''diacritical mark''', '''diacritical point''', '''diacritical sign''', or '''accent''') is a glyph added to a letter or to a basic glyph.", "The term derives from the Ancient Greek (, \"distinguishing\"), from (, \"to distinguish\").", "The word ''diacritic'' is a noun, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas ''diacritical'' is only an adjective.", "Some diacritics, such as the acute , grave , and circumflex (all shown above an 'a'), are often called ''accents''.", "Diacritics may appear above or below a letter or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters.The main use of diacritics in Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added.", "Historically, English has used the diaeresis diacritic to indicate the correct pronunciation of ambiguous words, such as \"coöperate\", without which the letter sequence could be misinterpreted to be pronounced .", "Other examples are the acute and grave accents, which can indicate that a vowel is to be pronounced differently than is normal in that position, for example not reduced to /ə/ or silent as in the case of the two uses of the letter e in the noun ''résumé'' (as opposed to the verb ''resume'') and the help sometimes provided in the pronunciation of some words such as ''doggèd'', ''learnèd'', ''blessèd'', and especially words pronounced differently than normal in poetry (for example ''movèd'', ''breathèd'').Most other words with diacritics in English are borrowings from languages such as French to better preserve the spelling, such as the diaeresis on and , the acute from , the circumflex in the word , and the cedille in .", "All these diacritics, however, are frequently omitted in writing, and English is the only major modern European language that does not have diacritics in common usage.In Latin-script alphabets in other languages, diacritics may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French (\"there\") versus (\"the\"), which are both pronounced .", "In Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question.", "In other writing systems, diacritics may perform other functions.", "Vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat ( etc.)", "and the Hebrew niqqud ( etc.)", "systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet.", "The Indic virama ( ् etc.)", "and the Arabic sukūn ( ) mark the absence of vowels.", "Cantillation marks indicate prosody.", "Other uses include the Early Cyrillic titlo stroke ( ◌҃ ) and the Hebrew gershayim ( ), which, respectively, mark abbreviations or acronyms, and Greek diacritical marks, which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals.", "In Vietnamese and the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Mandarin in China, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur.In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter–diacritic combination.", "This varies from language to language and may vary from case to case within a language.In some cases, letters are used as \"in-line diacritics\", with the same function as ancillary glyphs, in that they modify the sound of the letter preceding them, as in the case of the \"h\" in the English pronunciation of \"sh\" and \"th\".", "Such letter combinations are sometimes even collated as a single distinct letter.", "For example, the spelling sch was traditionally often treated as a separate letter in German.", "Words with that spelling were listed after all other words spelled with s in card catalogs in the Vienna public libraries, for example (before digitization)." ], [ "Types", "Among the types of diacritic used in alphabets based on the Latin script are:* accents (so called because the acute, grave, and circumflex were originally used to indicate different types of pitch accents in the polytonic transcription of Greek) – acute (); for example – grave; for example – circumflex; for example – caron, wedge; for example – double acute; for example – double grave; for example ** – tilde; for example * one dot – overdot used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example – an underdot is also used in many orthographies and transcriptions; for example – interpunct is used in the Catalan ''ela geminada'' (l·l) tittle, the superscript dot of the modern lowercase Latin ''i'' and ''j''two dots: * two overdots () are used for umlaut, diaeresis and others; (for example ) two underdots () are used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the ALA-LC romanization system – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels (the \"dots\" are triangular, not circular).", "* curves – breve; for example – inverted breve – sicilicus, a palaeographic diacritic similar to a caron or breve – tilde; for example ** – titlo* vertical stroke** – syllabic a subscript vertical stroke is used in IPA to mark syllabicity and in to mark a schwa* macron or horizontal line – macron; for example – underbar* overlays – vertical bar through the character – slash through the character** – crossbar through the character* ring** – overring: for example * superscript curls – apostrophe – inverted apostrophe – reversed apostrophe – hook above ()** – horn ()* subscript curls – undercomma; for example – cedilla – hook, left or right, sometimes superscript – ogonek* double marks (over or under two base characters) – double breve – tie bar or top ligature – double circumflex – longum** – double tilde* double sub/superscript diacritics – double cedilla – double ogonek – double diaeresis – double ypogegrammeniThe tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon are sometimes diacritical marks, but also have other uses.Not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify.", "In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, but occurs at the beginning of the word, as in the dialects ''’Bulengee'' and ''’Dolimi''.", "Because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word.", "In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, and may occur above, below, before, after, or around the consonant letter they modify.The tittle (dot) on the letter ''i'' or the letter ''j'', of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish ''i'' from the minims (downstrokes) of adjacent letters.", "It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ''ii'' (as in ), then spread to ''i'' adjacent to ''m, n, u'', and finally to all lowercase ''i''s.", "The ''j'', originally a variant of ''i'', inherited the tittle.", "The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century.", "With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today.Several languages of eastern Europe use diacritics on both consonants and vowels, whereas in western Europe digraphs are more often used to change consonant sounds.", "Most languages in Europe use diacritics on vowels, aside from English where there are typically none (with some exceptions)." ], [ "Diacritics specific to non-Latin alphabets", "===Arabic===* (ئ ؤ إ أ and stand alone ء) : indicates a glottal stop.", "* (ــًــٍــٌـ) () symbols: Serve a grammatical role in Arabic.", "The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, e.g.", ".", "* (ــّـ) : Gemination (doubling) of consonants.", "* (ٱ) : Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word.", "Indicates a type of that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk.", "* (آ) : A written replacement for a that is followed by an alif, i.e.", "().", "Read as a glottal stop followed by a long , e.g.", "are written out respectively as .", "This writing rule does not apply when the alif that follows a is not a part of the stem of the word, e.g.", "is not written out as as the stem does not have an alif that follows its .", "* (ــٰـ) ''superscript '' (also \"short\" or \"dagger alif\": A replacement for an original alif that is dropped in the writing out of some rare words, e.g.", "is not written out with the original alif found in the word pronunciation, instead it is written out as .", "* (In Arabic: also called ): (ــَـ) (a) (ــِـ) (i) (ــُـ) (u) (ــْـ) (no vowel)* The or vowel points serve two purposes: They serve as a phonetic guide.", "They indicate the presence of short vowels (, , or ) or their absence ().", " At the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood.", "* For nouns, The is for the nominative, for the accusative, and for the genitive.", "* For verbs, the is for the imperfective, for the perfective, and the is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods.", "* Vowel points or should not be confused with consonant points or () – one, two or three dots written above or below a consonant to distinguish between letters of the same or similar form.===Greek===These diacritics are used in addition to the acute, grave, and circumflex accents and the diaeresis:* – iota subscript () * – rough breathing (, ): aspiration* – smooth (or soft) breathing (, ): lack of aspiration===Hebrew==='''Genesis 1:9 \"And God said, Let the waters be collected\".", "'''Letters in black, niqqud in red, cantillation in blue* Niqqud – Dagesh – Mappiq – Rafe – Shin dot (at top right corner) – Sin dot (at top left corner) – Shva – Kubutz – Holam – Kamatz – Patakh – Segol – Tzeire** – Hiriq* Cantillation marks do not generally render correctly; refer to Hebrew cantillation#Names and shapes of the ta'amim for a complete table together with instructions for how to maximize the possibility of viewing them in a web browser* Other – Geresh – Gershayim===Korean===Hangul, the Korean alphabetThe diacritics ''' 〮''' and '''〯''' , known as Bangjeom (), were used to mark pitch accents in Hangul for Middle Korean.", "They were written to the left of a syllable in vertical writing and above a syllable in horizontal writing.===Sanskrit and Indic===Devanagari scripts (from Brahmic family) compound letters, which are vowels combined with consonants, have diacritics.", "Here, (k) is shown with vowel diacritics.That is:, etc.===Syriac===* A dot above and a dot below a letter represent , transliterated as ''a'' or ''ă'',* Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent , transliterated as ''ā'' or ''â'' or ''å'',* Two horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as ''e'' or ''ĕ''; often pronounced and transliterated as ''i'' in the East Syriac dialect,* Two diagonally-placed dots below a letter represent , transliterated as ''ē'',* A dot underneath the ''Beth'' represent a soft sound, transliterated as ''v''* A tilde (~) placed under ''Gamel'' represent a sound, transliterated as ''j''* The letter ''Waw'' with a dot below it represents , transliterated as ''ū'' or ''u'',* The letter ''Waw'' with a dot above it represents , transliterated as ''ō'' or ''o'',* The letter ''Yōḏ'' with a dot beneath it represents , transliterated as ''ī'' or ''i'',* A tilde (~) under ''Kaph'' represent a sound, transliterated as ''ch'' or ''č'',* A semicircle under ''Peh'' represents an sound, transliterated as ''f'' or ''ph''.In addition to the above vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes ''ə'', ''e̊'' or superscript ''e'' (or often nothing at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some point in the development of Syriac.", "Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons." ], [ "Non-alphabetic scripts", "Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics.", "* Non-pure abjads (such as Hebrew and Arabic script) and abugidas use diacritics for denoting vowels.", "Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and Devanagari use them for foreign sounds.", "Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a ''virama'' to mark the absence of a vowel.", "In addition, Devanagari uses the moon-dot ''chandrabindu'' (''' ँ ''') for vowel nasalization.", "* Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics use several types of diacritics, including the diacritics with alphabetic properties known as Medials and Finals.", "Although long vowels originally were indicated with a negative line through the Syllabic glyphs, making the glyph appear broken, in the modern forms, a dot above is used to indicate vowel length.", "In some of the styles, a ring above indicates a long vowel with a j off-glide.", "Another diacritic, the \"inner ring\" is placed at the glyph's head to modify p to f and t to θ. Medials such as the \"w-dot\" placed next to the Syllabics glyph indicates a w being placed between the syllable onset consonant and the nucleus vowel.", "Finals indicate the syllable coda consonant; some of the syllable coda consonants in word medial positions, such as with the \"h-tick\", indicate the fortification of the consonant in the syllable following it.", "* The Japanese ''hiragana'' and ''katakana'' syllabaries use the ''dakuten'' (◌゛) and ''handakuten'' (◌゜) (in Japanese: 濁点 and 半濁点) symbols, also known as ''nigori'' (濁 \"muddying\") or ''ten-ten'' (点々 \"dot dot\") and ''maru'' (丸 \"circle\"), to indicate voiced consonants or other phonetic changes.", "* Emoticons are commonly created with diacritic symbols, especially Japanese emoticons on popular imageboards." ], [ "Alphabetization or collation", "Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical order.", "French and Portuguese treat letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries.The Scandinavian languages and the Finnish language, by contrast, treat the characters with diacritics ''å'', ''ä'', and ''ö'' as distinct letters of the alphabet, and sort them after ''z''.", "Usually ''ä'' (a-umlaut) and ''ö'' (o-umlaut) used in Swedish and Finnish are sorted as equivalent to ''æ'' (ash) and ''ø'' (o-slash) used in Danish and Norwegian.", "Also, ''aa'', when used as an alternative spelling to ''å'', is sorted as such.", "Other letters modified by diacritics are treated as variants of the underlying letter, with the exception that ''ü'' is frequently sorted as ''y''.Languages that treat accented letters as variants of the underlying letter usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after similar unmarked words.", "For instance, in German where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (e.g.", "''schon'' and then ''schön'', or ''fallen'' and then ''fällen'').", "However, when names are concerned (e.g.", "in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed ''e''; Austrian phone books now treat characters with umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying vowel).In Spanish, the grapheme ''ñ'' is considered a new letter different from ''n'' and collated between ''n'' and ''o'', as it denotes a different sound from that of a plain ''n''.", "But the accented vowels ''á'', ''é'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'' are not separated from the unaccented vowels ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', ''o'', ''u'', as the acute accent in Spanish only modifies stress within the word or denotes a distinction between homonyms, and does not modify the sound of a letter.For a comprehensive list of the collating orders in various languages, see Collating sequence." ], [ "Generation with computers", "German keyboard with umlaut lettersModern computer technology was developed mostly in English-speaking countries, so data formats, keyboard layouts, etc.", "were developed with a bias favoring English, a language with an alphabet without diacritical marks.", "Efforts have been made to create internationalized domain names that further extend the English alphabet (e.g., \"pokémon.com\").Depending on the keyboard layout, which differs amongst countries, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters.", "Some have their own keys; some are created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on.", "Such a key is sometimes referred to as a dead key, as it produces no output of its own but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.In modern Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems, the keyboard layouts ''US International'' and ''UK International'' feature dead keys that allow one to type Latin letters with the acute, grave, circumflex, diaeresis/umlaut, tilde, and cedilla found in Western European languages (specifically, those combinations found in the ISO Latin-1 character set) directly: + gives ''ë'', + gives ''õ'', etc.", "On Apple Macintosh computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics; followed by a vowel places an acute accent, followed by a vowel gives an umlaut, gives a cedilla, etc.", "Diacritics can be composed in most X Window System keyboard layouts, as well as other operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows, using additional software.On computers, the availability of code pages determines whether one can use certain diacritics.", "Unicode solves this problem by assigning every known character its own code; if this code is known, most modern computer systems provide a method to input it.", "With Unicode, it is also possible to combine diacritical marks with most characters.", "However, as of 2019, very few fonts include the necessary support to correctly render character-plus-diacritic(s) for the Latin, Cyrillic and some other alphabets (exceptions include Andika)." ], [ "Languages with letters containing diacritics", "The following languages have letters with diacritics that are orthographically distinct from those without diacritics.=== Latin/Roman letters =======Baltic====:* Latvian has the following letters: ''ā, ē, ī, ū, č, ģ, ķ, ļ, ņ, š, ž'':* Lithuanian.", "In general usage, where letters appear with the caron (''č, š'' and ''ž''), they are considered as separate letters from ''c, s'' or ''z'' and collated separately; letters with the ogonek (''ą, ę, į'' and ''ų''), the macron (''ū'') and the superdot (''ė'') are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order.====Celtic====:* Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave accents on its seven vowels ''a, e, i, o, u, w, y'' (hence the composites â, ê, î, ô, û, ŵ, ŷ, ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, ẅ, ÿ, á, é, í, ó, ú, ẃ, ý, à, è, ì, ò, ù, ẁ, ỳ).", "However all except the circumflex (which is used as a macron) are fairly rare.", ":* Following spelling reforms since the 1970s, Scottish Gaelic uses graves only, which can be used on any vowel (''à, è, ì, ò, ù'').", "Formerly acute accents could be used on ''á, ó'' and ''é'', which were used to indicate a specific vowel quality.", "With the elimination of these accents, the new orthography relies on the reader having prior knowledge of pronunciation of a given word.", ":* Manx uses the single diacritic ç combined with h to give the digraph (pronounced ) to mark the distinction between it and the digraph (pronounced or ).", "Other diacritics used in Manx included â, ê, ï, etc.", "to mark the distinction between two similarly spelled words but with slightly differing pronunciation.", ":* Irish uses only acute accents to mark long vowels, following the 1948 spelling reform.", "Lenition is indicated using an overdot in Gaelic type: in Roman type, a suffixed is used.", ":* Breton does not have a single orthography (spelling system), but uses diacritics for a number of purposes.", "The diaeresis is used to mark that two vowels are pronounced separately and not as a diphthong/digraph.", "The circumflex is used to mark long vowels, but usually only when the vowel length is not predictable by phonology.", "Nasalization of vowels may be marked with a tilde, or following the vowel with the letter .", "The plural suffix -où is used as a unified spelling to represent a suffix with a number of pronunciations in different dialects, and to distinguish this suffix from the digraph which is pronounced as .", "An apostrophe is used to distinguish c'h, pronounced as the digraph is used in other Celtic languages, from the French-influenced digraph ch, pronounced .====Finno-Ugric====:* Estonian has a distinct letter ''õ'', which contains a tilde.", "Estonian \"dotted vowels\" ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'' are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, not like German umlauted letters.", "All four have their own place in the alphabet, between ''w'' and ''x''.", "Carons in ''š'' or ''ž'' appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords.", "Also these are distinct letters, placed in the alphabet between ''s'' and ''t''.", ":* Finnish uses dotted (umlauted) vowels (''ä'' and ''ö'').", "As in Swedish and Estonian, these are regarded as individual letters, rather than vowel + umlaut combinations (as happens in German).", "It also uses the characters ''å'', ''š'' and ''ž'' in foreign names and loanwords.", "In the Finnish and Swedish alphabets, ''å'', ''ä'' and ''ö'' collate as separate letters after ''z'', the others as variants of their base letter.", ":* Hungarian uses the umlaut, the acute and double acute accent (unique to Hungarian): (''ö, ü''), (''á, é, í, ó, ú'') and (''ő, ű'').", "The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel (in case of ''i/í'', ''o/ó'', ''u/ú'') while the double acute performs the same function for ''ö'' and ''ü''.", "The acute accent can also indicate a different sound (more open, like in case of ''a/á'', ''e/é'').", "Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the Hungarian alphabet, but members of the pairs ''a/á, e/é, i/í, o/ó, ö/ő, u/ú'' and ''ü/ű'' are collated in dictionaries as the same letter.", ":* Livonian has the following letters: ''ā, ä, ǟ, ḑ, ē, ī, ļ, ņ, ō, ȯ, ȱ, õ, ȭ, ŗ, š, ț, ū, ž''.====Germanic====:* German uses the umlaut: letters , used to indicate the fronting of back vowels.", ":* Dutch uses acute, circumflex, grave and diaeresis diacritics with most vowels and cedilla with c, as in French.", "This results in ''á, à, ä, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ó, ô, ö, ú, û, ü'' and ''ç''.", "This is mostly on words (and names) originating from French (like ''crème, café, gêne, façade'').", "The acute accent is also used to stress the vowel (like ''één'').", "The two dots diacritic () is used as a diaeresis (indicating a vowel hiatus that splits the two vowels, e.g., ''reële, reünie, coördinatie''), rather than to indicate an umlaut as used in German.", ":* Afrikaans uses 16 additional vowels, both uppercase and lowercase: ''á,\tä, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ŉ, ó, ô, ö, ú, û, ü, ý''.", ":* Faroese uses acutes and other special letters.", "All are considered separate letters and have their own place in the alphabet: ''á'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'' and ''ø''.", ":* Icelandic uses acutes and other special letters.", "All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet: ''á'', ''é'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'', and ''ö''.", ":* Danish and Norwegian use additional characters like the o-slash ''ø'' and the a-overring ''å''.", "These letters come after ''z'' and ''æ'' in the order ''ø, å''.", "Historically, the ''å'' has developed from a ligature by writing a small superscript ''a'' over a lowercase ''a''; if an ''å'' character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled ''a''.", "The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after z, but have different collation standards.", ":* Swedish uses a-diaeresis (''ä'') and o-diaeresis (''ö'') in the place of ash (''æ'') and slashed o (''ø'') in addition to the a-overring (''å'').", "Historically, the diaeresis for the Swedish letters ''ä'' and ''ö'', like the German umlaut, developed from a small Gothic ''e'' written above the letters.", "These letters are collated after ''z'', in the order ''å, ä, ö''.====Romance====:* In Asturian, Galician and Spanish, the character ''ñ'' is a letter and collated between ''n'' and ''o''.", ":* Asturian uses Ḷ (lower case ḷ), and Ḥ (lower case ḥ):* Catalan uses the acute accent ''é, í, ó, ú'', the grave accent ''à, è, ò'', the diaeresis ''ï, ü'', the cedilla ''ç'', and the interpunct ''l·l''.", "In Valencian, the circumflex ''â, ê, î, ô, û'' may also be used.", ":* Corsican uses the following in its alphabet: À/à, È/è, Ì/ì, Ò/ò, Ù/ù.", ":* French uses four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex, acute, grave, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in \"ç\".", ":* Italian uses two diacritics appearing on vowels (acute, grave):* Leonese: could use ''ñ'' or ''nn''.", ":* Portuguese uses a tilde with the vowels and and a cedilla with c.:* Romanian uses a breve on the letter ''a'' (''ă'') to indicate the sound schwa , as well as a circumflex over the letters ''a'' (''â'') and ''i'' (''î'') for the sound .", "Romanian also writes a comma below the letters ''s'' (''ș'') and ''t'' (''ț'') to represent the sounds and , respectively.", "These characters are collated after their non-diacritic equivalent.", ":* Spanish uses acute accents (''á, é, í, ó, ú'') to indicate stress falling on a different syllable than the one it would fall on based on default rules, and to distinguish certain one-syllable homonyms (e.g.", "''el'' (masculine singular definite article) and ''él'' \"he\").", "Diaeresis is used on u only, to distinguish the combinations ''gue, gui'' from ''güe, güi'' , e.g.", "''vergüenza, lingüística''.", "The tilde on is not considered a diacritic as is considered a distinct letter from , not a mutated form of it.====Slavic====:* The Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian Latin alphabets have the symbols ''č'', ''ć'', ''đ'', ''š'' and ''ž'', which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order.", "They also have one digraph including a diacritic, ''dž'', which is also alphabetized independently, and follows ''d'' and precedes ''đ'' in the alphabetical order.", "The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has no diacritics, instead it has a grapheme (glyph) for every letter of its Latin counterpart (including Latin letters with diacritics and the digraphs dž, ''lj'' and ''nj'').", ":* The Czech alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý), caron (č ď ě ň ř š ť ž), and for one letter (ů) the ring.", "(In ď and ť the caron is modified to look rather like an apostrophe.)", "Letter with caron are considered separate letters, whereas vowels are considered only as longer variants of the unaccented letters.", "Acute does not affect alphabetical order, letters with caron are ordered after original counterparts.", ":* Polish has the following letters: ''ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż''.", "These are considered to be separate letters: each of them is placed in the alphabet immediately after its Latin counterpart (e.g.", "''ą'' between ''a'' and ''b''), ''ź'' and ''ż'' are placed after ''z'' in that order.", ":* The Slovak alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý ĺ ŕ), caron (č ď ľ ň š ť ž dž), umlaut (ä) and circumflex accent (ô).", "All of those are considered separate letters and are placed directly after the original counterpart in the alphabet.", ":* The basic Slovenian alphabet has the symbols ''č'', ''š'', and ''ž'', which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order.", "Letters with a caron are placed right after the letters as written without the diacritic.", "The letter ''đ'' may be used in non-transliterated foreign words, particularly names, and is placed after ''č'' and before ''d''.====Turkic====:Azerbaijani includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü.: Crimean Tatar includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü.", "Unlike Turkish, Crimean Tatar also has the letter Ñ.:* Gagauz includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö and Ü.", "Unlike Turkish, Gagauz also has the letters Ä, Ê Ș and Ț. Ș and Ț are derived from the Romanian alphabet for the same sounds.", "Sometime the Turkish Ş may be used instead of Ș.:* Turkish uses a ''G'' with a breve (''Ğ''), two letters with an umlaut (''Ö'' and ''Ü'', representing two rounded front vowels), two letters with a cedilla (''Ç'' and ''Ş'', representing the affricate and the fricative ), and also possesses a dotted capital ''İ'' (and a dotless lowercase ''ı'' representing a high unrounded back vowel).", "In Turkish each of these are separate letters, rather than versions of other letters, where dotted capital ''İ'' and lower case ''i'' are the same letter, as are dotless capital ''I'' and lowercase ''ı''.", "Typographically, ''Ç'' and ''Ş'' are sometimes rendered with a subdot, as in ''Ṣ''; when a hook is used, it tends to have more a comma shape than the usual cedilla.", "The new Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, and Gagauz alphabets are based on the Turkish alphabet and its same diacriticized letters, with some additions.", ":* Turkmen includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ö, Ş and Ü.", "In addition, Turkmen uses A with diaeresis (''Ä'') to represent , N with caron (''Ň'') to represent the velar nasal , Y with acute (''Ý'') to represent the palatal approximant , and Z with caron (''Ž'') to represent .====Other====:Albanian has two special letters Ç and Ë upper and lowercase.", "They are placed next to the most similar letters in the alphabet, c and e correspondingly.", ": Esperanto has the symbols ''ŭ'', ''ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ'' and ''ŝ'', which are included in the alphabet, and considered separate letters.", ":* Filipino also has the character ''ñ'' as a letter and is collated between n and o.:* Modern Greenlandic does not use any diacritics, although ''ø'' and ''å'' are used to spell loanwords, especially from Danish and English.", "From 1851 until 1973, Greenlandic was written in an alphabet invented by Samuel Kleinschmidt, where long vowels and geminate consonants were indicated by diacritics on vowels (in the case of consonant gemination, the diacritics were placed on the vowel preceding the affected consonant).", "For example, the name ''Kalaallit Nunaat'' was spelled ''Kalâdlit Nunât''.", "This scheme uses the circumflex (◌̂) to indicate a long vowel (e.g.", "; modern: ), an acute accent (◌́) to indicate gemination of the following consonant: (i.e.", "; modern: ) and, finally, a tilde (◌̃) or a grave accent (◌̀), depending on the author, indicates vowel length and gemination of the following consonant (e.g.", "; modern: ).", ", used only before , are now written in Greenlandic.", ":* Hawaiian uses the kahakō (macron) over vowels, although there is some disagreement over considering them as individual letters.", "The kahakō over a vowel can completely change the meaning of a word that is spelled the same but without the kahakō.", ":Kurdish uses the symbols Ç, Ê, Î, Ş and Û with other 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.", ":Lakota alphabet uses the caron for the letters ''č'', ''ȟ'', ''ǧ'', ''š'', and ''ž''.", "It also uses the acute accent for stressed vowels á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ.", ":Malay uses some diacritics such as ''á, ā, ç, í, ñ, ó, š, ú''.", "Uses of diacritics was continued until late 19th century except ''ā'' and ''ē''.", ":Maltese uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has an H with an extra horizontal bar.", "For uppercase H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar.", "For lowercase H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a ''t'', and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ).", "The above characters are considered separate letters.", "The letter 'c' without a dot has fallen out of use due to redundancy.", "'Ċ' is pronounced like the English 'ch' and 'k' is used as a hard c as in 'cat'.", "'Ż' is pronounced just like the English 'Z' as in 'Zebra', while 'Z' is used to make the sound of 'ts' in English (like 'tsunami' or 'maths').", "'Ġ' is used as a soft 'G' like in 'geometry', while the 'G' sounds like a hard 'G' like in 'log'.", "The digraph 'għ' (called ''għajn'' after the Arabic letter name ''ʻayn'' for غ) is considered separate, and sometimes ordered after 'g', whilst in other volumes it is placed between 'n' and 'o' (the Latin letter 'o' originally evolved from the shape of Phoenician ''ʻayin'', which was traditionally collated after Phoenician ''nūn'').", ":* The romanization of Syriac uses the altered letters of.", "''Ā, Č, Ḏ, Ē, Ë, Ġ, Ḥ, Ō, Š, Ṣ, Ṭ, Ū, Ž'' alongside the 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.", ":Vietnamese uses the horn diacritic for the letters ''ơ'' and ''ư''; the circumflex for the letters ''â'', ''ê'', and ''ô''; the breve for the letter ''ă''; and a bar through the letter ''đ''.", "Separately, it also has á, à, ả, ã and ạ, the five tones used for vowels besides the flat tone 'a'.===Cyrillic letters===:Belarusian and Uzbek Cyrillic have a letter ''ў''.", ":* Belarusian, Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian have the letter ''й''.", ":* Belarusian and Russian have the letter ''ё''.", "In Russian, this letter is usually replaced by ''е'', although it has a different pronunciation.", "The use of ''е'' instead of ''ё'' does not affect the pronunciation.", "''Ё'' is always used in children's books and in dictionaries.", "A minimal pair is все (''vs'e'', \"everybody\" pl.)", "and всё (''vs'o'', \"everything\" n.", "sg.).", "In Belarusian the replacement by ''е'' is a mistake; in Russian, it is permissible to use either ''е'' or ''ё'' for ''ё'' but the former is more common in everyday writing (as opposed to instructional or juvenile writing).", ":* The Cyrillic Ukrainian alphabet has the letters ''ґ'', ''й'' and ''ї''.", "Ukrainian Latynka has many more.", ":* Macedonian has the letters ''ќ'' and ''ѓ''.", ":* In Bulgarian and Macedonian the possessive pronoun ѝ (''ì'', \"her\") is spelled with a grave accent in order to distinguish it from the conjunction и (''i'', \"and\").", ":* The acute accent above any vowel in Cyrillic alphabets is used in dictionaries, books for children and foreign learners to indicate the word stress, it also can be used for disambiguation of similarly spelled words with different lexical stresses." ], [ "Diacritics that do not produce new letters", "Harvard shows students' efforts at placing the ü and acute accent diacritic used in Spanish orthography.===English===English is one of the few European languages that does not have many words that contain diacritical marks.", "Instead, digraphs are the main way the Modern English alphabet adapts the Latin to its phonemes.", "Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French (and, increasingly, Spanish, like ''jalapeño'' and ''piñata''); however, the diacritic is also sometimes omitted from such words.", "Loanwords that frequently appear with the diacritic in English include ''café'', ''résumé'' or ''resumé'' (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb ''resume''), ''soufflé'', and ''naïveté'' (see ''English terms with diacritical marks'').", "In older practice (and even among some orthographically-conservative modern writers), one may see examples such as ''élite'', ''mêlée'' and ''rôle.", "''English speakers and writers once used the diaeresis more often than now in words such as ''coöperation'' (from Fr.", "''coopération''), ''zoölogy'' (from Grk.", "''zoologia''), and ''seeër'' (now more commonly ''see-er ''or simply'' seer'') as a way of indicating that adjacent vowels belonged to separate syllables, but this practice has become far less common.", "''The New Yorker'' magazine is a major publication that continues to use the diaeresis in place of a hyphen for clarity and economy of space.A few English words, often when used out of context, especially in isolation, can only be distinguished from other words of the same spelling by using a diacritic or modified letter.", "These include ''exposé'', ''lamé'', ''maté'', ''öre'', ''øre'', ''résumé'' and ''rosé.''", "In a few words, diacritics that did not exist in the original have been added for disambiguation, as in ''maté'' (''from Sp.", "and Port.''", "mate)'', saké'' (''the standard Romanization of the Japanese has no accent mark'')'', and'' Malé (''from Dhivehi މާލެ'')'','' to clearly distinguish them from the English words ''mate, sake,'' and ''male.", "''The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (''rébel'' vs. ''rebél'') or nonstandard for metrical reasons (''caléndar''), the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (''warnèd,'' ''parlìament'').In certain personal names such as ''Renée'' and ''Zoë'', often two spellings exist, and the person's own preference will be known only to those close to them.", "Even when the name of a person is spelled with a diacritic, like ''Charlotte Brontë'', this may be dropped in English-language articles, and even in official documents such as passports, due either to carelessness, the typist not knowing how to enter letters with diacritical marks, or technical reasons (California, for example, does not allow names with diacritics, as the computer system cannot process such characters).", "They also appear in some worldwide company names and/or trademarks, such as ''Nestlé'' and ''Citroën''.===Other languages===The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered independent letters.", "* Afrikaans uses a diaeresis to mark vowels that are pronounced separately and not as one would expect where they occur together, for example ''voel'' (to feel) as opposed to ''voël'' (bird).", "The circumflex is used in ''ê, î, ô'' and ''û'' generally to indicate long close-mid, as opposed to open-mid vowels, for example in the words ''wêreld'' (world) and ''môre'' (morning, tomorrow).", "The acute accent is used to add emphasis in the same way as underlining or writing in bold or italics in English, for example ''Dit is jóú boek'' (It is '''your''' book).", "The grave accent is used to distinguish between words that are different only in placement of the stress, for example ''appel'' (apple) and ''appèl'' (appeal) and in a few cases where it makes no difference to the pronunciation but distinguishes between homophones.", "The two most usual cases of the latter are in the sayings ''òf... òf'' (either... or) and ''nòg... nòg'' (neither... nor) to distinguish them from ''of'' (or) and ''nog'' (again, still).", "* Aymara uses a diacritical horn over ''p, q, t, k, ch''.", "* Catalan has the following composite characters: ''à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, l·l''.", "The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter ''u'' is pronounced when the graphemes ''gü, qü'' are followed by ''e'' or ''i'', the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of ''''.", "* Some orthographies of Cornish such as Kernowek Standard and Unified Cornish use diacritics, while others such as Kernewek Kemmyn and the Standard Written Form do not (or only use them optionally in teaching materials).", "* Dutch uses the diaeresis.", "For example, in ''ruïne'' it means that the ''u'' and the ''i'' are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ''ui'' is normally pronounced.", "Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the ''i''.", "Diacritics can be used for emphasis (''érg koud'' for ''very'' cold) or for disambiguation between a number of words that are spelled the same when context does not indicate the correct meaning (''één appel'' = one apple, ''een appel'' = an apple; ''vóórkomen'' = to occur, ''voorkómen'' = to prevent).", "Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords.", "The ç also appears in some loanwords.", "* Faroese.", "Non-Faroese accented letters are not added to the Faroese alphabet.", "These include ''é'', ''ö'', ''ü'', ''å'' and recently also letters like ''š'', ''ł'', and ''ć''.", "* Filipino has the following composite characters: ''á, à, â, é, è, ê, í, ì, î, ó, ò, ô, ú, ù, û''.", "Everyday use of diacritics for Filipino is, however, uncommon, and meant only to distinguish between homonyms between a word with the usual penultimate stress and one with a different stress placement.", "This aids both comprehension and pronunciation if both are relatively adjacent in a text, or if a word is itself ambiguous in meaning.", "The letter ''ñ'' (\"''eñe''\") is not a ''n'' with a diacritic, but rather collated as a separate letter, one of eight borrowed from Spanish.", "Diacritics appear in Spanish loanwords and names observing Spanish orthography rules.", "* Finnish.", "Carons in ''š'' and ''ž'' appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords, but may be substituted with ''sh'' or ''zh'' if and only if it is technically impossible to produce accented letters in the medium.", "Contrary to Estonian, ''š'' and ''ž'' are not considered distinct letters in Finnish.", "* French uses five diacritics.", "The grave (''accent grave'') marks the sound when over an e, as in ''père'' (\"father\") or is used to distinguish words that are otherwise homographs such as ''a''/''à'' (\"has\"/\"to\") or ''ou''/''où'' (\"or\"/\"where\").", "The acute (''accent aigu'') is only used in \"é\", modifying the \"e\" to make the sound , as in ''étoile'' (\"star\").", "The circumflex (''accent circonflexe'') generally denotes that an S once followed the vowel in Old French or Latin, as in ''fête'' (\"party\"), the Old French being ''feste'' and the Latin being ''festum''.", "Whether the circumflex modifies the vowel's pronunciation depends on the dialect and the vowel.", "The cedilla (''cédille'') indicates that a normally hard \"c\" (before the vowels \"a\", \"o\", and \"u\") is to be pronounced , as in ''ça'' (\"that\").", "The diaeresis diacritic () indicates that two adjacent vowels that would normally be pronounced as one are to be pronounced separately, as in ''Noël'' (\"Christmas\").", "* Galician vowels can bear an acute (''á, é, í, ó, ú'') to indicate stress or difference between two otherwise same written words (''é'', 'is' vs. ''e'', 'and'), but the diaeresis is only used with ''ï'' and ''ü'' to show two separate vowel sounds in pronunciation.", "Only in foreign words may Galician use other diacritics such as ''ç'' (common during the Middle Ages), ''ê'', or ''à''.", "* German uses the three umlauted characters ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü''.", "These diacritics indicate vowel changes.", "For instance, the word ''Ofen'' \"oven\" has the plural ''Öfen'' .", "The mark originated as a superscript ''e''; a handwritten blackletter ''e'' resembles two parallel vertical lines, like a diaeresis.", "Due to this history, \"ä\", \"ö\" and \"ü\" can be written as \"ae\", \"oe\" and \"ue\" respectively, if the umlaut letters are not available.", "* Hebrew has many various diacritic marks known as ''niqqud'' that are used above and below script to represent vowels.", "These must be distinguished from cantillation, which are keys to pronunciation and syntax.", "* The International Phonetic Alphabet uses diacritic symbols and characters to indicate phonetic features or secondary articulations.", "* Irish uses the acute to indicate that a vowel is long: ''á'', ''é'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú''.", "It is known as ''síneadh fada'' \"long sign\" or simply ''fada'' \"long\" in Irish.", "In the older Gaelic type, overdots are used to indicate lenition of a consonant: ''ḃ'', ''ċ'', ''ḋ'', ''ḟ'', ''ġ'', ''ṁ'', ''ṗ'', ''ṡ'', ''ṫ''.", "* Italian mainly has the acute and the grave (''à'', ''è''/''é'', ''ì'', ''ò''/''ó'', ''ù''), typically to indicate a stressed syllable that would not be stressed under the normal rules of pronunciation but sometimes also to distinguish between words that are otherwise spelled the same way (e.g.", "\"e\", and; \"è\", is).", "Despite its rare use, Italian orthography allows the circumflex (î) too, in two cases: it can be found in old literary context (roughly up to 19th century) to signal a syncope (fêro→fecero, they did), or in modern Italian to signal the contraction of ″-ii″ due to the plural ending -i whereas the root ends with another -i; e.g., s. demonio, p. demonii→demonî; in this case the circumflex also signals that the word intended is not demoni, plural of \"demone\" by shifting the accent (demònî, \"devils\"; dèmoni, \"demons\").", "* Lithuanian uses the acute, grave and tilde in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's pitch accent system.", "* Maltese also uses the grave on its vowels to indicate stress at the end of a word with two syllables or more:– lowercase letters: à, è, ì, ò, ù ; capital letters: À, È, Ì, Ò, Ù* Māori makes use of macrons to mark long vowels.", "* Occitan has the following composite characters: ''á, à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, n·h, s·h''.", "The acute and the grave indicate stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter ''u'' is pronounced when the graphemes ''gü, qü'' are followed by ''e'' or ''i'', and the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of ''nh/n·h'' and ''sh/s·h'' (i.e., that the letters are supposed to be pronounced separately, not combined into \"ny\" and \"sh\").", "* Portuguese has the following composite characters: ''à, á, â, ã, ç, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú''.", "The acute and the circumflex indicate stress and vowel height, the grave indicates crasis, the tilde represents nasalization, and the cedilla marks the result of a historical lenition.", "* Acutes are also used in Slavic language dictionaries and textbooks to indicate lexical stress, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable.", "This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian писа́ть (''pisáť'') means \"to write\", but пи́сать (''písať'') means \"to piss\"), or \"бо́льшая часть\" (the biggest part) vs \"больша́я часть\" (the big part).", "* Spanish uses the acute and the diaeresis.", "The acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns.", "It can also be used to \"break up\" a diphthong as in ''tío'' (pronounced , rather than as it would be without the accent).", "Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelled alike, such as ''si'' (\"if\") and ''sí'' (\"yes\"), and also to distinguish interrogative and exclamatory pronouns from homophones with a different grammatical function, such as ''donde/¿dónde?''", "(\"where\"/\"where?\")", "or ''como/¿cómo?''", "(\"as\"/\"how?\").", "The acute may also be used to avoid typographical ambiguity, as in ''1 ó 2'' (\"1 or 2\"; without the acute this might be interpreted as \"1 0 2\".", "The diaeresis is used only over ''u'' (''ü'') for it to be pronounced in the combinations ''gue'' and ''gui,'' where ''u'' is normally silent, for example ''ambigüedad.''", "In poetry, the diaeresis may be used on ''i'' and ''u'' as a way to force a hiatus.", "As foreshadowed above, in nasal ''ñ'' the tilde (squiggle) is not considered a diacritic sign at all, but a composite part of a distinct glyph, with its own chapter in the dictionary: a glyph that denotes the 15th letter of the Spanish alphabet.", "* Swedish uses the acute to show non-standard stress, for example in (café) and (résumé).", "This occasionally helps resolve ambiguities, such as ''ide'' (hibernation) versus ''idé'' (idea).", "In these words, the acute is not optional.", "Some proper names use non-standard diacritics, such as Carolina Klüft and Staël von Holstein.", "For foreign loanwords the original accents are strongly recommended, unless the word has been infused into the language, in which case they are optional.", "Hence ''crème fraîche'' but ''ampere''.", "Swedish also has the letters ''å'', ''ä'', and ''ö'', but these are considered distinct letters, not ''a'' and ''o'' with diacritics.", "* Tamil does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the Arabic numerals 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when Tamil script is used to write long passages in Sanskrit.", "* Thai has its own system of diacritics derived from Indian numerals, which denote different tones.", "* Vietnamese uses the acute (''dấu sắc''), the grave (''dấu huyền''), the tilde (''dấu ngã''), the underdot (''dấu nặng'') and the hook above (''dấu hỏi'') on vowels as tone indicators.", "* Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave on its seven vowels ''a, e, i, o, u, w, y''.", "The most common is the circumflex (which it calls ''to bach'', meaning \"little roof\", or ''acen grom'' \"crooked accent\", or ''hirnod'' \"long sign\") to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel or a semivowel.", "The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds that would usually be pronounced long.", "The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively.", "The ''w''-circumflex and the ''y''-circumflex are among the most commonly accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents." ], [ "Transliteration", "Several languages that are not written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics.", "Examples:* Arabic has several romanisations, depending on the type of the application, region, intended audience, country, etc.", "many of them extensively use diacritics, e.g., some methods use an underdot for rendering emphatic consonants (ṣ, ṭ, ḍ, ẓ, ḥ).", "The macron is often used to render long vowels.", "š is often used for , ġ for .", "* Chinese has several romanizations that use the umlaut, but only on ''u'' (''ü'').", "In Hanyu Pinyin, the four tones of Mandarin Chinese are denoted by the macron (first tone), acute (second tone), caron (third tone) and grave (fourth tone) diacritics.", "Example: ''ā, á, ǎ, à''.", "* Romanized Japanese (Rōmaji) occasionally uses macrons to mark long vowels.", "The Hepburn romanization system uses macrons to mark long vowels, and the Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki systems use a circumflex.", "* Sanskrit, as well as many of its descendants, like Hindi and Bengali, uses a lossless romanization system, IAST.", "This includes several letters with diacritical markings, such as the macron (ā, ī, ū), over- and underdots (ṛ, ḥ, ṃ, ṇ, ṣ, ṭ, ḍ) as well as a few others (ś, ñ)." ], [ "Limits", "===Orthographic===Possibly the greatest number of combining diacritics ''required'' to compose a valid character in any Unicode language is 8, for the \"well-known grapheme cluster in Tibetan and Ranjana scripts\" or .It consists of# # # # # # # # # An example of rendering, may be broken depending on browser:===Unorthographic/ornamental===Some users have explored the limits of rendering in web browsers and other software by \"decorating\" words with excessive nonsensical diacritics per character to produce so-called Zalgo text." ], [ "List of diacritics in Unicode {{anchor\|1=Diactritics in Unicode}}", "Diacritics for Latin script in Unicode:+ Diacritics in Unicode for Latin script Character Character name Mark General category Script" ], [ "See also", "* Latin-script alphabets* Alt code* :Category:Letters with diacritics* Collating sequence* Combining character* Compose key* English terms with diacritical marks* Heavy metal umlaut* ISO/IEC 8859 8-bit extended-Latin-alphabet European character encodings* Latin alphabet* List of Latin letters* List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode* List of U.S. cities with diacritics* Romanization* wikt:Appendix:English words with diacritics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Context of Diacritics \| A research project * Diacritics Project* Unicode* Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J. C. Wells* Notes on the use of the diacritics, by Markus Lång* Entering International Characters (in Linux, KDE)* Standard Character Set for Macintosh PDF at Adobe" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Digraph" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Digraph''' may refer to:* (typography) Digraph (orthography), a pair of characters used together to represent a single sound, such as \"sh\" in English* (Unicode) orthographic ligature, the joining of two letters as a single glyph, such as \"æ\"; considered a misnomer* Digraph (computing), a group of characters used in computer programming to symbolise one character* A directed graph, in graph theory* Digraph, component of a CIA cryptonym, a covert code name* As language codes in ISO 639-1* Diagraph, a combination of a protractor and a scale ruler" ], [ "See also", "* Digraphia, use of multiple complete writing systems for one language.", "* Digram (disambiguation) / Digramme* Bigram* Trigraph (disambiguation)* Multigraph (disambiguation)* Unigraph" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Didgeridoo" ], [ "Introduction", "Didgeridoo and clapstick players performing at Nightcliff, Northern TerritorySound of didgeridooA didgeribone, a sliding-type didgeridooThe '''didgeridoo''' (; also spelt '''didjeridu''', among other variants) is a wind instrument, played with vibrating lips to produce a continuous drone while using a special breathing technique called circular breathing.", "The didgeridoo was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia at least 1,000 years ago, and is now in use around the world, though still most strongly associated with Indigenous Australian music.", "In the Yolŋu languages of the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land the name for the instrument is the '''''yiḏaki''''', or more recently by some, '''''mandapul'''''.", "In the Bininj Kunwok language of West Arnhem Land it is known as '''''mako'''''.A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long.", "Most are around long.", "Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key.", "Flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length." ], [ "History", "There are no reliable sources of the exact age of the didgeridoo.", "Archaeological studies suggest that people of the Kakadu region in Northern Australia have been using the didgeridoo for less than 1,000 years, based on the dating of rock art paintings.", "A clear rock painting in Ginga Wardelirrhmeng, on the northern edge of the Arnhem Land plateau, from the freshwater period (that had begun 1500 years ago) shows a didgeridoo player and two song-men participating in an Ubarr ceremony.", "It is thus thought that it was developed by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, possibly in Arnhem Land.T.", "B. Wilson's ''Narrative of a Voyage Round the World'' (1835) includes a drawing of an Aboriginal man from Raffles Bay on the Cobourg Peninsula (about east of Darwin) playing the instrument.", "Others observed such an instrument in the same area, made of bamboo and about long.", "In 1893, English palaeontologist Robert Etheridge, Junior observed the use of \"three very curious trumpets\" made of bamboo in northern Australia.", "There were then two native species of bamboo growing along the Adelaide River, Northern Territory\".According to A. P. Elkin, in 1938, the instrument was \"only known in the eastern Kimberley region in Western Australia and the northern third of the Northern Territory\"." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''didgeridoo'' is not of Aboriginal Australian linguistic origin and is considered to be an onomatopoetic word.", "The earliest occurrences of the word in print include a 1908 edition of the ''Hamilton Spectator'' referring to a did-gery-do' (hollow bamboo)\", a 1914 edition of ''The Northern Territory Times and Gazette'', and a 1919 issue of ''Smith's Weekly'', in which it was referred to as a \"didjerry\" and was said to produce the sound \"didjerry, didjerry, didjerry and so on ad infinitum\".A rival explanation, that ''didgeridoo'' is a corruption of the Irish phrase or Scottish Gaelic , is controversial.", "Irish or , and Scottish Gaelic , are nouns that, depending on the context, may mean \"trumpeter\", \"hummer\", \"crooner\" or \"puffer\", while Irish means \"black\", and Scottish Gaelic means \"native\"." ], [ "Other names", "There are numerous names for the instrument among the Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, none of which closely resemble the word \"didgeridoo\" (see below).", "Some didgeridoo enthusiasts, scholars and Aboriginal people advocate using local language names for the instrument.", "''Yiḏaki'' (transcribed ''yidaki'' in English, sometimes spelt ''yirdaki'') is one of the most commonly used names although, strictly speaking, it refers to a specific type of the instrument made and used by the Yolngu peoples of north-east Arnhem Land.", "Some Yolngu people began using the word ''mandapul'' after 2011, out of respect for the passing of a Manggalili man who had a name sounding similar to yidaki.In west Arnhem Land, it is known as a ''mako'', a name popularised by virtuoso player David Blanasi, a Bininj man, whose language was Kunwinjku, and who brought the didgeridoo to world prominence.", "However the mako is slightly different from the Yiḏaki: usually shorter, and sounding somewhat different – a slightly fuller and richer sound, but without the \"overtone\" note.There are at least 45 names for the didgeridoo, several of which suggest its original construction of bamboo, such as ''bambu'', ''bombo'', ''kambu'', and ''pampu'', which are still used in the ''lingua franca'' by some Aboriginal people.", "The following are some of the more common regional names.", "People Region Local name Anindilyakwa Groote Eylandt ngarrriralkpwina Arrernte Alice Springs ilpirra Djinang (a Yolngu people) Arnhem Land yiḏaki Gagudju Arnhem Land / Kakadu garnbak Gupapuygu Arnhem Land yiraka Iwaidja Cobourg Peninsula artawirr Jawoyn Katherine / Nitmiluk / Kakadu gunbarrk Kunwinjku Arnhem Land / Kakadu mako Mayali Alligator Rivers martba Ngarluma Roebourne, W.A.", "kurmur Nyul Nyul Kimberleys ngaribi Pintupi Central Australia paampu Warray Adelaide River bambu Yolngu Arnhem Land mandapul (yiḏaki)" ], [ "Description and construction", "A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical, and can measure anywhere from long.", "Most are around long.", "Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower its pitch or key.", "However, flared instruments play a higher pitch than unflared instruments of the same length.The didgeridoo is classified as a wind instrument and is similar in form to a straight trumpet, but made of wood.", "It has also been called a dronepipe.===Traditional===A wax mouthpiece can soften during play, forming a better seal.Traditional didgeridoos are usually made from hardwoods, especially the various eucalyptus species that are endemic to northern and central Australia.", "Generally the main trunk of the tree is harvested, though a substantial branch may be used instead.", "Traditional didgeridoo makers seek suitably hollow live trees in areas with obvious termite activity.", "Termites attack these living eucalyptus trees, removing only the dead heartwood of the tree, as the living sapwood contains a chemical that repels the insects.", "Various techniques are employed to find trees with a suitable hollow, including knowledge of landscape and termite activity patterns, and a kind of tap or knock test, in which the bark of the tree is peeled back, and a fingernail or the blunt end of a tool, such as an axe, is knocked against the wood to determine if the hollow produces the right resonance.", "Once a suitably hollow tree is found, it is cut down and cleaned out, the bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and the exterior is shaped; this results in a finished instrument.", "A rim of beeswax may be applied to the mouthpiece end.===Modern===Non-traditional didgeridoos can be made from native or non-native hard woods (typically split, hollowed and rejoined), glass, fibreglass, metal, agave, clay, resin, PVC piping and carbon fibre.", "These typically have an upper inside diameter of around down to a bell end of anywhere between and have a length corresponding to the desired key.", "The end of the pipe can be shaped and smoothed to create a comfortable mouthpiece or an added mouthpiece can be made of any shaped and smoothed material such as rubber, a rubber stopper with a hole or beeswax.Modern didgeridoo designs are distinct from the traditional Australian Aboriginal didgeridoo, and are innovations recognised by musicologists.", "Didgeridoo design innovation started in the late 20th century, using non-traditional materials and non-traditional shapes.", "The practice has sparked, however, a good deal of debate among indigenous practitioners and non-indigenous people about its aesthetic, ethical, and legal issues.===Decoration===Didgeridoos can be painted by their maker or a dedicated artist using traditional or modern paints while others retain the natural wood grain design with minimal or no decoration." ], [ "Playing", " Ŋalkan Munuŋgurr performing with East JourneyA didgeridoo can be played simply by producing a vibrating sound of the lips to produce the basic drone.", "More advanced playing involves the technique known as circular breathing.", "The circular breathing technique requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously using the muscles of the cheeks to compress the cheeks and release the stored air out of the mouth.", "By using this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in their lungs, and with practice they can sustain a note for as long as desired.", "Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than 40 minutes; Mark Atkins on ''Didgeridoo Concerto'' (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously.", "Although circular breathing does eliminate the need to stop playing to take a breath, discomfort might still develop during a period of extended play due to chapped lips or other oral discomfort.", "The didgeridoo functions \"...as an aural kaleidoscope of timbres\" and \"the extremely difficult virtuoso techniques developed by expert performers find no parallel elsewhere.", "\"The didgeridoo virtuoso and composer William Barton has expanded the role of the instrument in the concert hall both with his own orchestral and chamber music works and with those written or arranged for him by prominent Australian composer Peter Sculthorpe." ], [ "Physics and operation", "Didgeridoo street player in SpainA termite-bored didgeridoo has an irregular shape that, overall, usually increases in diameter towards the lower end.", "This shape means that its resonances occur at frequencies that are not harmonically spaced in frequency.", "This contrasts with the harmonic spacing of the resonances in a cylindrical plastic pipe, whose resonant frequencies fall in the ratio 1:3:5 etc.", "The second resonance of a didgeridoo (the note sounded by overblowing) is usually around an 11th higher than the fundamental frequency (a frequency ratio of 8:3).The vibration produced by the player's lips has harmonics in the ratio 1:2:3 etc.", "However, the non-harmonic spacing of the instrument's resonances means that the harmonics of the fundamental note are not systematically assisted by instrument's resonances, as is usually the case for Western wind instruments (e.g., in the low range of the clarinet, the 1st, 3rd, and 5th harmonics of the reed are assisted by resonances of the bore).Sufficiently strong resonances of the vocal tract can strongly influence the timbre of the instrument.At some frequencies, whose values depend on the position of the player's tongue, resonances of the vocal tract inhibit the oscillatory flow of air into the instrument.Bands of frequencies that are not thus inhibited produce formants in the output sound.These formants, and especially their variation during the inhalation and exhalation phases of circular breathing, give the instrument its readily recognisable sound.Other variations in the didgeridoo's sound can be made by adding vocalisations to the drone.", "Most of the vocalisations are related to sounds emitted by Australian animals, such as the dingo or the kookaburra.", "To produce these sounds, the players use their vocal folds to produce the sounds of the animals whilst continuing to blow air through the instrument.", "The results range from very high-pitched sounds to much lower sounds involving interference between the lip and vocal fold vibrations.", "Adding vocalisations increases the complexity of the playing." ], [ "In popular culture", "Charlie McMahon, who formed the group Gondwanaland, was one of the first non-Aboriginal players to gain fame as a professional didgeridoo player.", "He has toured internationally with Midnight Oil.", "He invented the didjeribone, a sliding didgeridoo made from two lengths of plastic tubing; its playing style is somewhat in the manner of a trombone.The didgeridoo has been used by a number of modern bands in various types of music.", "Some examples include: It was featured on the British children's TV series ''Blue Peter''.Industrial music bands like Test Dept use the didgeridoo.", "Early songs by the acid jazz band Jamiroquai featured didgeridoo player Wallis Buchanan, including the band's first single \"When You Gonna Learn\", which features prominent didgeridoo in the introduction and solo sections.Ambient artist Steve Roach uses it in his collaborative work ''Australia: Sound of the Earth'' with Australian Aboriginal artist David Hudson and cellist Sarah Hopkins, as well as ''Dreamtime Return''.It is used in the Indian song \"Jaane Kyon\" from the film ''Dil Chahta Hai''.Chris Brooks, lead singer of the New Zealand hard rock band Like a Storm, uses the didgeridoo in some songs, including \"Love the Way You Hate Me\" from their album ''Chaos Theory: Part 1'' (2012).Kate Bush made extensive use of the didgeridoo, played by Australian musician Rolf Harris, on her album ''The Dreaming'' (1982), which was written and recorded after a holiday in Australia." ], [ "Cultural significance", "An Indigenous Australian man playing a didgeridooMusician playing a travel or reticulated didgeridooTraditionally, the didgeridoo was played as an accompaniment to ceremonial dancing and singing and for solo or recreational purposes.", "For Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia, the yidaki is still used to accompany singers and dancers in cultural ceremonies.", "For the Yolngu people, the yidaki is part of their whole physical and cultural landscape and environment, comprising the people and spirit beings which belong to their country, kinship system and the Yolngu Matha language.", "It is connected to Yolngu Law and underpinned by ceremony, in song, dance, visual art and stories.Pair sticks, sometimes called clapsticks (''bilma'' or ''bimla'' by some traditional groups), establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies.", "The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the clapsticks are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for many generations.", "In the Wangga genre, the song-man starts with vocals and then introduces ''bilma'' to the accompaniment of didgeridoo.===Gender-based traditional prohibition debate===Traditionally, only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions; playing by women is sometimes discouraged by Aboriginal communities and elders.", "In 2008, publisher HarperCollins apologised for its book ''The Daring Book for Girls'', which openly encouraged girls to play the instrument after Aboriginal academic Mark Rose described such encouragement as \"extreme cultural insensitivity\" and \"an extreme faux pas... part of a general ignorance that mainstream Australia has about Aboriginal culture.\"", "However, Linda Barwick, an ethnomusicologist, said that though traditionally women have not played the didgeridoo in ceremony, in informal situations there is no prohibition in the Dreaming Law.", "For example, in 1966, ethnomusicologist Alice Marshall Moyle made a recording in Borroloola of Jemima Wimalu, a Mara woman from the Roper River, proficiently playing the didgeridoo.", "In 1995, musicologist Steve Knopoff observed Yirrkala women performing ''djatpangarri'' songs that are traditionally performed by men and in 1996, ethnomusicologist Elizabeth MacKinley reported women of the Yanyuwa group giving public performances.Although there is no prohibition in the area of the didgeridoo's origin, such restrictions have been applied by other Indigenous communities.", "The didgeridoo was introduced to the Kimberleys in the early 20th century but it was only much later, such as in Rose's 2008 criticism of ''The Daring Book for Girls'', that Aboriginal men showed adverse reactions to women playing the instrument and prohibitions are especially evident in the South East of Australia.", "The belief that women are prohibited from playing is widespread among non-Aboriginal people and is also common among Aboriginal communities in Southern Australia; some ethnomusicologists believe that the dissemination of the taboo belief and other misconceptions is a result of commercial agendas and marketing.", "The majority of commercial didgeridoo recordings available are distributed by multinational recording companies and feature non-Aboriginal people playing a New Age style of music with liner notes promoting the instrument's spirituality which misleads consumers about the didgeridoo's secular role in traditional Aboriginal culture.The taboo is particularly strong among many Aboriginal groups in the South East of Australia, where it is forbidden and considered \"cultural theft\" for non-Aboriginal women, and especially performers of New Age music regardless of gender, to play or even touch a didgeridoo." ], [ "Health benefits", "A 2006 study reported in the ''British Medical Journal'' found that learning and practising the didgeridoo helped reduce snoring and obstructive sleep apnea by strengthening muscles in the upper airway, thus reducing their tendency to collapse during sleep.", "In the study, intervention subjects were trained in and practised didgeridoo playing, including circular breathing and other techniques.", "Control subjects were asked not to play the instrument.", "Subjects were surveyed before and after the study period to assess the effects of intervention.", "A small 2010 study noted marked improvements in the asthma management of 10 Aboriginal adults and children following a six-month programme of once-weekly didgeridoo lessons." ], [ "See also", "* Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts * Alphorn* William Barton didgeridoo virtuoso and orchestral composer* ''Digeridoo'' (EP) – song by Aphex Twin* Djalu Gurruwiwi, master maker and player of yiḏaki* Erke* List of didgeridoo players* Mayan trumpet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Ah Chee Ngala, P., Cowell C. (1996): ''How to Play the Didgeridoo – and history''.", "* Chaloupka, G. (1993): ''Journey in Time''.", "Reed, Sydney.", "* Cope, Jonathan (2000): ''How to Play the Didgeridoo: a practical guide for everyone''.", ".", "* Jones, T. A.", "(1967): \"The didjeridu.", "Some comparisons of its typology and musical functions with similar instruments throughout the world\".", "''Studies in Music'' 1, pp. 23–55.", "* Kaye, Peter (1987): ''How to Play the Didjeridu of the Australian Aboriginal – A Newcomer's Guide''.", "* Kennedy, K. (1933): \"Instruments of music used by the Australian Aborigines\".", "''Mankind'' (August edition), pp. 147–157.", "* Lindner, D. (ed) (2005): ''The Didgeridoo Phenomenon.", "From Ancient Times to the Modern Age''.", "Traumzeit-Verlag, Germany.", "* Moyle, A. M. (1981): \"The Australian didjeridu: A late musical intrusion\".", "in ''World Archaeology'', 12(3), 321–31.", "* Neuenfeldt, K. (ed) (1997): ''The didjeridu: From Arnhem Land to Internet''.", "Sydney: J. Libbey/Perfect Beat Publications." ], [ "External links", "* The Didjeridu W3 Server* The physics of the didj* Didgeridoo acoustics from the University of New South Wales* Database of audio recordings of traditional Arnhem Land music, samples included, many with didgeridoo* ''The Didjeridu: A Guide'' By Joe Cheal – General info on the didgeridoo, with citations and references* Yidakiwuy Dhawu Miwatjngurunydja comprehensive site by traditional owners of the instrument" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Developmental biology" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Developmental biology''' is the study of the process by which animals and plants grow and develop.", "Developmental biology also encompasses the biology of regeneration, asexual reproduction, metamorphosis, and the growth and differentiation of stem cells in the adult organism." ], [ "Perspectives", "The main processes involved in the embryonic development of animals are: tissue patterning (via regional specification and patterned cell differentiation); tissue growth; and tissue morphogenesis.", "* Regional specification refers to the processes that create the spatial patterns in a ball or sheet of initially similar cells.", "This generally involves the action of cytoplasmic determinants, located within parts of the fertilized egg, and of inductive signals emitted from signaling centers in the embryo.", "The early stages of regional specification do not generate functional differentiated cells, but cell populations committed to developing to a specific region or part of the organism.", "These are defined by the expression of specific combinations of transcription factors.", "* Cell differentiation relates specifically to the formation of functional cell types such as nerve, muscle, secretory epithelia, etc.", "Differentiated cells contain large amounts of specific proteins associated with cell function.", "* Morphogenesis relates to the formation of a three-dimensional shape.", "It mainly involves the orchestrated movements of cell sheets and of individual cells.", "Morphogenesis is important for creating the three germ layers of the early embryo (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) and for building up complex structures during organ development.", "* Tissue growth involves both an overall increase in tissue size, and also the differential growth of parts (allometry) which contributes to morphogenesis.", "Growth mostly occurs through cell proliferation but also through changes in cell size or the deposition of extracellular materials.", "The development of plants involves similar processes to that of animals.", "However, plant cells are mostly immotile so morphogenesis is achieved by differential growth, without cell movements.", "Also, the inductive signals and the genes involved are different from those that control animal development." ], [ "Developmental processes", "=== Cell differentiation ===The Notch-delta system in neurogenesis (Slack Essential Dev Biol Fig 14.12a)Cell differentiation is the process whereby different functional cell types arise in development.", "For example, neurons, muscle fibers and hepatocytes (liver cells) are well known types of differentiated cells.", "Differentiated cells usually produce large amounts of a few proteins that are required for their specific function and this gives them the characteristic appearance that enables them to be recognized under the light microscope.", "The genes encoding these proteins are highly active.", "Typically their chromatin structure is very open, allowing access for the transcription enzymes, and specific transcription factors bind to regulatory sequences in the DNA in order to activate gene expression.", "For example, NeuroD is a key transcription factor for neuronal differentiation, myogenin for muscle differentiation, and HNF4 for hepatocyte differentiation.Cell differentiation is usually the final stage of development, preceded by several states of commitment which are not visibly differentiated.", "A single tissue, formed from a single type of progenitor cell or stem cell, often consists of several differentiated cell types.", "Control of their formation involves a process of lateral inhibition, based on the properties of the Notch signaling pathway.", "For example, in the neural plate of the embryo this system operates to generate a population of neuronal precursor cells in which NeuroD is highly expressed.=== Regeneration ===Regeneration indicates the ability to regrow a missing part.", "This is very prevalent amongst plants, which show continuous growth, and also among colonial animals such as hydroids and ascidians.", "But most interest by developmental biologists has been shown in the regeneration of parts in free living animals.", "In particular four models have been the subject of much investigation.", "Two of these have the ability to regenerate whole bodies: ''Hydra'', which can regenerate any part of the polyp from a small fragment, and planarian worms, which can usually regenerate both heads and tails.", "Both of these examples have continuous cell turnover fed by stem cells and, at least in planaria, at least some of the stem cells have been shown to be pluripotent.", "The other two models show only distal regeneration of appendages.", "These are the insect appendages, usually the legs of hemimetabolous insects such as the cricket, and the limbs of urodele amphibians.", "Considerable information is now available about amphibian limb regeneration and it is known that each cell type regenerates itself, except for connective tissues where there is considerable interconversion between cartilage, dermis and tendons.", "In terms of the pattern of structures, this is controlled by a re-activation of signals active in the embryo.There is still debate about the old question of whether regeneration is a \"pristine\" or an \"adaptive\" property.", "If the former is the case, with improved knowledge, we might expect to be able to improve regenerative ability in humans.", "If the latter, then each instance of regeneration is presumed to have arisen by natural selection in circumstances particular to the species, so no general rules would be expected." ], [ "Embryonic development of animals", "Generalized scheme of embryonic development.", "Slack \"Essential Developmental Biology\".", "Fig.", "2.8.The initial stages of human embryogenesisThe sperm and egg fuse in the process of fertilization to form a fertilized egg, or zygote.", "This undergoes a period of divisions to form a ball or sheet of similar cells called a blastula or blastoderm.", "These cell divisions are usually rapid with no growth so the daughter cells are half the size of the mother cell and the whole embryo stays about the same size.", "They are called cleavage divisions.Mouse epiblast primordial germ cells (see Figure: “The initial stages of human embryogenesis”) undergo extensive epigenetic reprogramming.", "This process involves genome-wide DNA demethylation, chromatin reorganization and epigenetic imprint erasure leading to totipotency.", "DNA demethylation is carried out by a process that utilizes the DNA base excision repair pathway.Morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three layered structure consisting of multicellular sheets called ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.", "These sheets are known as germ layers.", "This is the process of gastrulation.", "During cleavage and gastrulation the first regional specification events occur.", "In addition to the formation of the three germ layers themselves, these often generate extraembryonic structures, such as the mammalian placenta, needed for support and nutrition of the embryo, and also establish differences of commitment along the anteroposterior axis (head, trunk and tail).Regional specification is initiated by the presence of cytoplasmic determinants in one part of the zygote.", "The cells that contain the determinant become a signaling center and emit an inducing factor.", "Because the inducing factor is produced in one place, diffuses away, and decays, it forms a concentration gradient, high near the source cells and low further away.", "The remaining cells of the embryo, which do not contain the determinant, are competent to respond to different concentrations by upregulating specific developmental control genes.", "This results in a series of zones becoming set up, arranged at progressively greater distance from the signaling center.", "In each zone a different combination of developmental control genes is upregulated.", "These genes encode transcription factors which upregulate new combinations of gene activity in each region.", "Among other functions, these transcription factors control expression of genes conferring specific adhesive and motility properties on the cells in which they are active.", "Because of these different morphogenetic properties, the cells of each germ layer move to form sheets such that the ectoderm ends up on the outside, mesoderm in the middle, and endoderm on the inside.", "Schema of the development of the axial twist in vertebratesMorphogenetic movements not only change the shape and structure of the embryo, but by bringing cell sheets into new spatial relationships they also make possible new phases of signaling and response between them.", "In addition, first morphogenetic movements of embryogenesis, such as gastrulation, epiboly and twisting, directly activate pathways involved in endomesoderm specification through mechanotransduction processes.", "This property was suggested to be evolutionary inherited from endomesoderm specification as mechanically stimulated by marine environmental hydrodynamic flow in first animal organisms (first metazoa).", "Twisting along the body axis by a left-handed chirality is found in all chordates (including vertebrates) and is addressed by the axial twist theory.Growth in embryos is mostly autonomous.", "For each territory of cells the growth rate is controlled by the combination of genes that are active.", "Free-living embryos do not grow in mass as they have no external food supply.", "But embryos fed by a placenta or extraembryonic yolk supply can grow very fast, and changes to relative growth rate between parts in these organisms help to produce the final overall anatomy.The whole process needs to be coordinated in time and how this is controlled is not understood.", "There may be a master clock able to communicate with all parts of the embryo that controls the course of events, or timing may depend simply on local causal sequences of events.=== Metamorphosis ===Developmental processes are very evident during the process of metamorphosis.", "This occurs in various types of animal.", "Well-known examples are seen in frogs, which usually hatch as a tadpole and metamorphoses to an adult frog, and certain insects which hatch as a larva and then become remodeled to the adult form during a pupal stage.All the developmental processes listed above occur during metamorphosis.", "Examples that have been especially well studied include tail loss and other changes in the tadpole of the frog ''Xenopus'', and the biology of the imaginal discs, which generate the adult body parts of the fly ''Drosophila melanogaster''." ], [ "Plant development", "Plant '''development''' is the process by which structures originate and mature as a plant grows.", "It is studied in plant anatomy and plant physiology as well as plant morphology.Plants constantly produce new tissues and structures throughout their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or between mature tissues.", "Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues.", "By contrast, an animal embryo will very early produce all of the body parts that it will ever have in its life.", "When the animal is born (or hatches from its egg), it has all its body parts and from that point will only grow larger and more mature.The properties of organization seen in a plant are emergent properties which are more than the sum of the individual parts.", "\"The assembly of these tissues and functions into an integrated multicellular organism yields not only the characteristics of the separate parts and processes but also quite a new set of characteristics which would not have been predictable on the basis of examination of the separate parts.", "\"=== Growth ===A vascular plant begins from a single celled zygote, formed by fertilisation of an egg cell by a sperm cell.", "From that point, it begins to divide to form a plant embryo through the process of embryogenesis.", "As this happens, the resulting cells will organize so that one end becomes the first root, while the other end forms the tip of the shoot.", "In seed plants, the embryo will develop one or more \"seed leaves\" (cotyledons).", "By the end of embryogenesis, the young plant will have all the parts necessary to begin its life.Once the embryo germinates from its seed or parent plant, it begins to produce additional organs (leaves, stems, and roots) through the process of organogenesis.", "New roots grow from root meristems located at the tip of the root, and new stems and leaves grow from shoot meristems located at the tip of the shoot.", "Branching occurs when small clumps of cells left behind by the meristem, and which have not yet undergone cellular differentiation to form a specialized tissue, begin to grow as the tip of a new root or shoot.", "Growth from any such meristem at the tip of a root or shoot is termed primary growth and results in the lengthening of that root or shoot.", "Secondary growth results in widening of a root or shoot from divisions of cells in a cambium.In addition to growth by cell division, a plant may grow through '''cell elongation'''.", "This occurs when individual cells or groups of cells grow longer.", "Not all plant cells will grow to the same length.", "When cells on one side of a stem grow longer and faster than cells on the other side, the stem will bend to the side of the slower growing cells as a result.", "This directional growth can occur via a plant's response to a particular stimulus, such as light (phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), water, (hydrotropism), and physical contact (thigmotropism).Plant growth and development are mediated by specific plant hormones and plant growth regulators (PGRs) (Ross et al.", "1983).", "Endogenous hormone levels are influenced by plant age, cold hardiness, dormancy, and other metabolic conditions; photoperiod, drought, temperature, and other external environmental conditions; and exogenous sources of PGRs, e.g., externally applied and of rhizospheric origin.=== Morphological variation ===Plants exhibit natural variation in their form and structure.", "While all organisms vary from individual to individual, plants exhibit an additional type of variation.", "Within a single individual, parts are repeated which may differ in form and structure from other similar parts.", "This variation is most easily seen in the leaves of a plant, though other organs such as stems and flowers may show similar variation.", "There are three primary causes of this variation: positional effects, environmental effects, and juvenility.=== Evolution of plant morphology ===Transcription factors and transcriptional regulatory networks play key roles in plant morphogenesis and their evolution.", "During plant landing, many novel transcription factor families emerged and are preferentially wired into the networks of multicellular development, reproduction, and organ development, contributing to more complex morphogenesis of land plants.Most land plants share a common ancestor, multicellular algae.", "An example of the evolution of plant morphology is seen in charophytes.", "Studies have shown that charophytes have traits that are homologous to land plants.", "There are two main theories of the evolution of plant morphology, these theories are the homologous theory and the antithetic theory.", "The commonly accepted theory for the evolution of plant morphology is the antithetic theory.", "The antithetic theory states that the multiple mitotic divisions that take place before meiosis, cause the development of the sporophyte.", "Then the sporophyte will development as an independent organism." ], [ "Developmental model organisms", "Much of developmental biology research in recent decades has focused on the use of a small number of model organisms.", "It has turned out that there is much conservation of developmental mechanisms across the animal kingdom.", "In early development different vertebrate species all use essentially the same inductive signals and the same genes encoding regional identity.", "Even invertebrates use a similar repertoire of signals and genes although the body parts formed are significantly different.", "Model organisms each have some particular experimental advantages which have enabled them to become popular among researchers.", "In one sense they are \"models\" for the whole animal kingdom, and in another sense they are \"models\" for human development, which is difficult to study directly for both ethical and practical reasons.", "Model organisms have been most useful for elucidating the broad nature of developmental mechanisms.", "The more detail is sought, the more they differ from each other and from humans.===Plants===* Thale cress (''Arabidopsis thaliana'')===Vertebrates===* Frog: ''Xenopus'' (''X.", "laevis'' and ''X.", "tropicalis'').", "Good embryo supply.", "Especially suitable for microsurgery.", "* Zebrafish: ''Danio rerio''.", "Good embryo supply.", "Well developed genetics.", "* Chicken: ''Gallus gallus''.", "Early stages similar to mammal, but microsurgery easier.", "Low cost.", "* Mouse: ''Mus musculus''.", "A mammal with well developed genetics.===Invertebrates===* Fruit fly: ''Drosophila melanogaster''.", "Good embryo supply.", "Well developed genetics.", "* Nematode: ''Caenorhabditis elegans''.", "Good embryo supply.", "Well developed genetics.", "Low cost.===Unicellular===* Algae: ''Chlamydomonas''* Yeast: ''Saccharomyces''===Others===Also popular for some purposes have been sea urchins and ascidians.", "For studies of regeneration urodele amphibians such as the axolotl ''Ambystoma mexicanum'' are used, and also planarian worms such as ''Schmidtea mediterranea''.", "Organoids have also been demonstrated as an efficient model for development.", "Plant development has focused on the thale cress ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' as a model organism." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * " ], [ "External links", " Society for Developmental Biology* Collaborative resources* Developmental Biology - 10th edition* Essential Developmental Biology 3rd edition* Embryo Project Encyclopedia" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "December 27" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 537 – The second Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is consecrated.", "1512 – The Spanish Crown issues the Laws of Burgos, governing the conduct of settlers with regard to native Indians in the New World.", "1521 – The Zwickau prophets arrive in Wittenberg, disturbing the peace and preaching the Apocalypse.===1601–1900===1655 – Second Northern War/the Deluge: Monks at the Jasna Góra Monastery in Częstochowa are successful in fending off a month-long siege.", "1657 – The Flushing Remonstrance articulates for the first time in North American history that freedom of religion is a fundamental right.", "1703 – Portugal and England sign the Methuen Treaty which allows Portugal to export wines to England on favorable trade terms.", "1814 – War of 1812: The destruction of the schooner brings to an end Commodore Daniel Patterson's makeshift fleet, which fought a series of delaying actions that contributed to Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of New Orleans.", "1831 – Charles Darwin embarks on his journey aboard , during which he will begin to formulate his theory of evolution.", "1836 – The worst ever avalanche in England occurs at Lewes, Sussex, killing eight people.", "1845 – Ether anesthetic is used for childbirth for the first time by Dr. Crawford Long in Jefferson, Georgia.", " 1845 – Having coined the phrase \"manifest destiny\" the previous July, journalist John L. O'Sullivan argued in his newspaper ''New York Morning News'' that the United States had the right to claim the entire Oregon Country.===1901–present===1911 – \"Jana Gana Mana\", the national anthem of India, is first sung in the Calcutta Session of the Indian National Congress.", "1918 – The Great Poland Uprising against the Germans begins.", "* 1918 – Ukrainian War of Independence: The Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine occupies Yekaterinoslav and seizes seven airplanes from the UPRAF, establishing an Insurgent Air Fleet.", "1922 – becomes the first purpose built aircraft carrier to be commissioned in the world.", "1927 – Kern and Hammerstein's musical play ''Show Boat'', considered to be the first true American musical play, opens at the Ziegfeld Theatre on Broadway.", "1929 – Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin orders the \"liquidation of the kulaks as a class\".", "1932 – Radio City Music Hall, \"Showplace of the Nation\", opens in New York City.", "1935 – Regina Jonas is ordained as the first female rabbi in the history of Judaism.", "1939 – The 7.8 Erzincan earthquake shakes eastern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme'').", "At least 32,700 people were killed.", "* 1939 – Winter War: Finland holds off a Soviet attack in the Battle of Kelja.", "1945 – The International Monetary Fund is created with the signing of an agreement by 29 nations.", "1949 – Indonesian National Revolution: The Netherlands officially recognizes Indonesian independence.", "End of the Dutch East Indies.", "1966 – The Cave of Swallows, the largest known cave shaft in the world, is discovered in Aquismón, San Luis Potosí, Mexico.", "1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 splashes down in the Pacific Ocean, ending the first orbital crewed mission to the Moon.", "1968 – North Central Airlines Flight 458 crashes at O'Hare International Airport, killing 28.", "1978 – Spain becomes a democracy after 40 years of fascist dictatorship.", "1983 – Pope John Paul II visits Mehmet Ali Ağca in Rebibbia's prison and personally forgives him for the 1981 attack on him in St. Peter's Square.", "1985 – Palestinian guerrillas kill eighteen people inside the airports of Rome, Italy, and Vienna, Austria.", "1989 – The Romanian Revolution concludes, as the last minor street confrontations and stray shootings abruptly end in the country's capital, Bucharest.", "1991 – Scandinavian Airlines System Flight 751 crashes in Gottröra in the Norrtälje Municipality in Sweden, injuring 92.", "1996 – Taliban forces retake the strategic Bagram Airfield which solidifies their buffer zone around Kabul, Afghanistan.", "1997 – Protestant paramilitary leader Billy Wright is assassinated in Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.", "2002 – Two truck bombs kill 72 and wound 200 at the pro-Moscow headquarters of the Chechen government in Grozny, Chechnya, Russia.", "2004 – Radiation from an explosion on the magnetar SGR 1806-20 reaches Earth.", "It is the brightest extrasolar event known to have been witnessed on the planet.", "2007 – Former Pakistani prime minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated in a shooting incident.", " 2007 – Riots erupt in Mombasa, Kenya, after Mwai Kibaki is declared the winner of the presidential election, triggering a political, economic, and humanitarian crisis.", "2008 – Operation Cast Lead: Israel launches three-week operation on Gaza.", "2009 – Iranian election protests: On the Day of Ashura in Tehran, Iran, government security forces fire upon demonstrators.", "2019 – Bek Air Flight 2100 crashes during takeoff from Almaty International Airport in Almaty, Kazakhstan, killing 13." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===1350 – John I of Aragon (d. 1395)1390 – Anne de Mortimer, claimant to the English throne (d. 1411)1459 – John I Albert, King of Poland (d. 1501)1481 – Casimir, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Margrave of Bayreuth (d. 1527)1493 – Johann Pfeffinger, German theologian (d. 1573)1566 – Jan Jesenius, Bohemian physician, politician and philosopher (d. 1621)1571 – Johannes Kepler, German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer (d. 1630)1572 – Johannes Vodnianus Campanus, Czech poet, playwright, and composer (d. 1622)1584 – Philipp Julius, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1625)1595 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, hetman of Ukraine (d. 1657)===1601–1900===1622 – Teofil Rutka, Polish philosopher (d. 1700)1633 – Jean de Lamberville, French missionary (d. 1714)1636 – William Whitelock, English gentleman, Member of Parliament (d. 1717)1637 – Petar Kanavelić, Venetian writer (d. 1719)1645 – Giovanni Antonio Viscardi, Swiss architect (d. 1713)1655 – Abstrupus Danby, English politician (d. 1727)1660 – Veronica Giuliani, Italian Capuchin mystic (d. 1727)1663 – Johann Melchior Roos, German painter (d. 1731)1683 – Conyers Middleton, English priest and theologian (d. 1750)1689 – Jacob August Franckenstein, Encyclopedia editor, professor (d. 1733)(baptised) 1692 – Francis Blake Delaval, British Royal Navy officer and Member of Parliament (d. 1752)1697 – Sollom Emlyn, Irish legal writer (d. 1754)1705 – Prince Frederick Henry Eugen of Anhalt-Dessau, German prince of the House of Ascania (d. 1781)1713 – Giovanni Battista Borra, Italian architect and engineer (d. 1770)1714 – George Whitefield, English preacher and saint (d. 1770)1715 – Philippe de Noailles, French general (d. 1794)1721 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher and author (d. 1790)(baptised) 1761 – Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, Russian field marshal and politician, Governor-General of Finland (d. 1818)1773 – George Cayley, English engineer and politician (d. 1857)1776 – Nikolay Kamensky, Russian general (d. 1811)1797 – Ghalib, Indian poet (d. 1869)* 1797 – Charles Hodge, American theologian (d. 1878)1803 – François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier, Canadian activist (d. 1839)1809 – Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Greek poet and politician, Foreign Minister of Greece (d. 1892)1822 – Louis Pasteur, French chemist and microbiologist (d. 1895)1823 – Mackenzie Bowell, English-Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1917)1827 – Stanisław Mieroszewski, Polish-born politician, writer, historian and member of the Imperial Council of Austria (d. 1900)1832 – Pavel Tretyakov, Russian businessman and philanthropist, founded the Tretyakov Gallery (d. 1897)1858 – Juan Luis Sanfuentes, Chilean lawyer and politician, 17th President of Chile (d. 1930)1863 – Louis Lincoln Emmerson, American lawyer and politician, 27th Governor of Illinois (d. 1941)1864 – Hermann-Paul, French painter and illustrator (d. 1940)1878 – Kalle Korhonen, Finnish politician (d. 1938)1879 – Sydney Greenstreet, English-American actor (d. 1954)1882 – Mina Loy, British modernist poet and artist (d. 1966)1883 – Cyrus S. Eaton, Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1979)1888 – Thea von Harbou, German actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 1954)1892 – Alfred Edwin McKay, Canadian captain and pilot (d. 1917)1896 – Louis Bromfield, American author and theorist (d. 1956)* 1896 – Maurice De Waele, Belgian cyclist (d. 1952)* 1896 – Carl Zuckmayer, German author and playwright (d. 1977)1898 – Inejiro Asanuma, Japanese politician (d. 1960)1900 – Hans Stuck, German race car driver (d. 1978)===1901–present===1901 – Marlene Dietrich, German-American actress and singer (d. 1992) 1901 – Irene Handl, English actress (d. 1987)1904 – René Bonnet, French race car driver and engineer (d. 1983)1905 – Cliff Arquette, American actor and comedian (d. 1974)1906 – Oscar Levant, American pianist, composer, and actor (d. 1972)1907 – Asaf Halet Çelebi, Turkish poet (d. 1958)* 1907 – Sebastian Haffner, German journalist and author (d. 1999)* 1907 – Mary Howard, English author (d. 1991)* 1907 – Conrad L. Raiford, American baseball player and activist (d. 2002)* 1907 – Willem van Otterloo, Dutch conductor and composer (d. 1978)1909 – James Riddell, English skier and author (d. 2000)1910 – Charles Olson, American poet and educator (d. 1970)1911 – Anna Russell, English-Canadian singer and actress (d. 2006)1913 – Elizabeth Smart, Canadian poet and novelist (d. 1986)1915 – William Masters, American gynecologist, author, and academic (d. 2001) 1915 – Gyula Zsengellér, Hungarian-Cypriot footballer and manager (d. 1999)1916 – Werner Baumbach, German pilot (d. 1953) 1916 – Cathy Lewis, American actress (d. 1968)1917 – Buddy Boudreaux, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 2015) 1917 – T. Nadaraja, Sri Lankan lawyer and academic (d. 2004)* 1917 – Onni Palaste, Finnish soldier and author (d. 2009)1918 – John Celardo, American captain and illustrator (d. 2012)1919 – Charles Sweeney, American general and pilot (d. 2004)1920 – Bruce Hobbs, American jockey and trainer (d. 2005)1921 – John Whitworth, English countertenor (d. 2013)1923 – Bruno Bobak, Polish-Canadian painter and educator (d. 2012) 1923 – Lucas Mangope, South African politician (d. 2018)1924 – Jean Bartik, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2011) 1924 – James A. McClure, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (d. 2011)1925 – Michel Piccoli, French actor, singer, director, and producer (d. 2020)1926 – Jerome Courtland, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2012)1927 – Antony Gardner, English engineer and politician (d. 2011) 1927 – Nityanand Swami, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Uttarakhand (d. 2012)* 1927 – Audrey Wagner, American baseball player, obstetrician, and gynecologist (d. 1984)1930 – Marshall Sahlins, American anthropologist and academic (d. 2021) 1930 – Wilfrid Sheed, English-born American novelist and essayist (d. 2011)1931 – Scotty Moore, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2016)1933 – Dave Marr, American golfer (d. 1997)1934 – Larisa Latynina, Ukrainian gymnast and coach 1934 – Jeffrey Sterling, Baron Sterling of Plaistow, English businessman1935 – Michael Turnbull, English bishop1936 – Phil Sharpe, English cricketer (d. 2014)* 1936 – Eve Uusmees, Estonian swimmer and coach1939 – John Amos, American actor 1940 – David Shepherd, English cricketer and umpire (d. 2009)1941 – Miles Aiken, American basketball player and coach 1941 – Mike Pinder, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player * 1941 – Nolan Richardson, American basketball player and coach1942 – Byron Browne, American baseball player 1942 – Thomas Menino, American politician, 53rd Mayor of Boston (d. 2014)* 1942 – Ron Rothstein, American basketball player and coach1943 – Cokie Roberts, American journalist and author (d. 2019) 1943 – Joan Manuel Serrat, Spanish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1943 – Peter Sinfield, English songwriter and producer* 1943 – Roy White, American baseball player and coach1944 – Mick Jones, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer1946 – Lenny Kaye, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1946 – Joe Kinnear, Irish footballer and manager* 1946 – Janet Street-Porter, English journalist and producer* 1946 – Polly Toynbee, English journalist and author1947 – Bill Eadie, American wrestler and coach 1947 – Doug Livermore, English footballer and manager* 1947 – Willy Polleunis, Belgian runner1948 – Gérard Depardieu, French-Russian actor1949 – Terry Ito, Japanese director, producer, and critic1950 – Haris Alexiou, Greek singer-songwriter 1950 – Roberto Bettega, Italian footballer and manager* 1950 – Terry Bozzio, American drummer and songwriter 1951 – Karla Bonoff, American singer-songwriter 1951 – Ernesto Zedillo, Mexican economist and politician, 54th President of Mexico1952 – Jay Hill, Canadian farmer and politician 1952 – David Knopfler, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1954 – Kent Benson, American basketball player 1954 – Mandie Fletcher, English director, producer, and production manager* 1954 – Teo Chee Hean, Singaporean politician and 5th Senior Minister of Singapore1955 – Brad Murphey, American race car driver 1955 – Barbara Olson, American journalist and author (d. 2001)1956 – Doina Melinte, Romanian runner1958 – Steve Jones, American golfer1959 – Gerina Dunwich, American astrologer, historian, and author 1959 – Andre Tippett, American football player and coach1960 – Maryam d'Abo, English actress 1960 – Donald Nally, American conductor and academic* 1960 – Terry Price, Australian golfer 1961 – Guido Westerwelle, German lawyer and politician, 15th Vice-Chancellor of Germany (d. 2016)1962 – Mark Few, American basketball player and coach* 1962 – John Kampfner, Singaporean journalist and author* 1962 – Bill Self, American basketball player and coach* 1962 – Sherri Steinhauer, American golfer1963 – Gaspar Noé, Argentine-French director and screenwriter1964 – Ian Gomez, American actor* 1964 – Theresa Randle, American actress1965 – Salman Khan, Indian film actor and producer1966 – Marianne Elliott, English director and producer* 1966 – Bill Goldberg, American football player, wrestler and actor* 1966 – Eva LaRue, American model and actress* 1966 – Fabian Núñez, American politician1969 – Jean-Christophe Boullion, French race car driver 1969 – Chyna, American professional wrestler and actress (d. 2016)* 1969 – Sarah Vowell, American author and journalist1970 – Brendon Cook, Australian race car driver and rugby player 1970 – Lorenzo Neal, American football player and radio host* 1970 – Naoko Yamazaki, Japanese pilot and astronaut1971 – Duncan Ferguson, Scottish footballer and coach 1971 – Guthrie Govan, English guitarist and educator * 1971 – Savannah Guthrie, American television journalist* 1971 – Jason Hawes, American paranormal investigator and author, founded The Atlantic Paranormal Society* 1971 – Bryan Smolinski, American ice hockey player and coach1972 – Colin Charvis, Welsh rugby union player and coach 1972 – Kevin Ollie, American basketball player and coach* 1972 – Matt Slocum, American guitarist and songwriter 1973 – Wilson Cruz, American actor 1973 – Kristoffer Zegers, Dutch pianist and composer1974 – Tomáš Janků, Czech high jumper 1974 – Masi Oka, Japanese-American actor and visual effects designer* 1974 – Fumiko Orikasa, Japanese voice actress and singer* 1974 – Jay Pandolfo, American ice hockey player and coach1975 – Aigars Fadejevs, Latvian race walker and therapist 1975 – Heather O'Rourke, American actress (d. 1988)1976 – Nikolaos Georgeas, Greek footballer 1976 – Piotr Morawski, Polish mountaineer (d. 2009)* 1976 – Daimí Pernía, Cuban basketball player and hurdler* 1976 – Fernando Pisani, Canadian-Italian ice hockey player1977 – Jacqueline Pillon, Canadian actress 1977 – Chris Tate, English footballer1978 – Deuce McAllister, American football player 1978 – Lisa Jakub, Canadian actress 1979 – Pascale Dorcelus, Canadian weightlifter 1979 – David Dunn, English footballer and manager* 1979 – Carson Palmer, American football player1980 – Bernard Berrian, American football player 1980 – Claudio Castagnoli, Swiss wrestler* 1980 – Dahntay Jones, American basketball player* 1980 – Meelis Kompus, Estonian journalist1981 – David Aardsma, American baseball player 1981 – Emilie de Ravin, Australian actress* 1981 – Jay Ellis, American actor* 1981 – Moise Joseph, American-Haitian runner* 1981 – Patrick Sharp, Canadian ice hockey player1982 – Erin E. Stead, American illustrator1983 – Anthony Boric, New Zealand rugby union player* 1983 – Cole Hamels, American baseball player* 1983 – Jesse Williams, American high jumper1984 – Andrejs Perepļotkins, Ukrainian-Latvian footballer 1984 – Gilles Simon, French tennis player1985 – Logan Bailly, Belgian footballer 1985 – Jérôme d'Ambrosio, Belgian race car driver* 1985 – Halley Gross, American screenwriter* 1985 – Paul Stastny, Canadian-American ice hockey player1986 – Torah Bright, Australian snowboarder 1986 – Jamaal Charles, American football player* 1986 – Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, Jamaican sprinter1987 – Tim Browne, Australian rugby league player 1987 – Lily Cole, English model1988 – Jorge Gutiérrez, Mexican basketball player 1988 – Hera Hilmar, Icelandic actress* 1988 – Zavon Hines, Jamaican-English footballer* 1988 – Ok Taec-yeon, South Korean singer and actor* 1988 – Rick Porcello, American baseball player* 1988 – Hayley Williams, American singer-songwriter1989 – Ingrid Várgas Calvo, Peruvian tennis player1990 – Max Lindholm, Finnish figure skater* 1990 – Jonathan Marchessault, Canadian ice hockey player* 1990 – Milos Raonic, Canadian tennis player* 1990 – Zelina Vega, American wrestler1991 – Chloe Bridges, American actress 1991 – Michael Morgan, Australian rugby league player* 1991 – Danny Wilson, Scottish footballer1992 – Joel Indermitte, Estonian footballer 1992 – Maicel Uibo, Estonian decathlete1993 – Olivia Cooke, English actress1995 – Timothée Chalamet, French-American actor* 1995 – Nick Chubb, American football player* 1995 – Mark Lapidus, Estonian chess player1997 – Vachirawit Chivaaree, Thai actor and singer 1997 – Ana Konjuh, Croatian tennis player1998 – Luka Garza, American basketball player1999 – Brock Purdy, American football player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 683 – Gaozong of Tang, founding emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty (b.", "628)* 870 – Aeneas of Paris, Frankish bishop* 975 – Balderic, bishop of Utrecht (b.", "897)1003 – Emma of Blois, French duchess and regent1005 – Nilus the Younger, Byzantine abbot (b.", "910)1076 – Sviatoslav II, Grand Prince of Kiev (b.", "1027)1087 – Bertha of Savoy, Holy Roman Empress (b.", "1051)1381 – Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, English politician (b.", "1352)1518 – Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate (b. c. 1470)1543 – George, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (b.", "1484)1548 – Francesco Spiera, Italian lawyer and jurist (b.", "1502)===1601–1900===1603 – Thomas Cartwright, English minister and theologian (b.", "1535)1637 – Vincenzo Giustiniani, Italian banker (b.", "1564)1641 – Francis van Aarssens, Dutch diplomat (b.", "1572)1642 – Herman op den Graeff, Dutch bishop (b.", "1585)1656 – Andrew White, English Jesuit missionary (b.", "1579)1660 – Hervey Bagot, English politician (b.", "1591)1663 – Christine of France, Duchess of Savoy (b.", "1606)1672 – Jacques Rohault, French philosopher (b.", "1618)1683 – Maria Francisca of Savoy, Queen consort of Portugal (b.", "1646)1689 – Gervase Bryan, English clergyman (b.", "1622)1693 – Henri de Villars, French prelate (b.", "1621)1694 – Henrik Span, naval officer in the Dutch (b.", "1634)1704 – Hans Albrecht von Barfus, Prussian field marshal and politician (b.", "1635)1707 – Jean Mabillon, French monk and scholar (b.", "1632)1707 – Robert Leke, 3rd Earl of Scarsdale, English earl, politician (b.", "1654)1737 – William Bowyer, English printer (b.", "1663)1743 – Hyacinthe Rigaud, French painter (b.", "1659)1771 – Henri Pitot, French engineer, invented the Pitot tube (b.", "1695)1776 – Johann Rall, Hessian colonel (b.", ")1782 – Henry Home, Lord Kames, Scottish judge and philosopher (b.", "1697)1800 – Hugh Blair, Scottish minister and author (b.", "1718)1812 – Joanna Southcott, English religious leader (b.", "1750)1834 – Charles Lamb, English essayist and poet (b.", "1775)1836 – Stephen F. Austin, American soldier and politician (b.", "1793)1858 – Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, French pianist and composer (b.", "1785)1896 – John Brown, English businessman and politician (b.", "1816)1900 – William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong, English engineer and businessman, founded Armstrong Whitworth (b.", "1810)===1901–present===1914 – Charles Martin Hall, American chemist and engineer (b.", "1863)1919 – Achilles Alferaki, Russian-Greek composer and politician, Governor of Taganrog (b.", "1846)1923 – Gustave Eiffel, French architect and engineer, co-designed the Eiffel Tower (b.", "1832)1924 – Agda Meyerson, Swedish nurse and healthcare activist (b.", "1866)1936 – Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Turkish poet, academic, and politician (b.", "1873)1938 – Calvin Bridges, American geneticist and academic (b.", "1889) 1938 – Osip Mandelstam, Polish-Russian poet and critic (b.", "1891)* 1938 – Zona Gale, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b.", "1874)1939 – Rinaldo Cuneo, American painter (b.", "1877)1943 – Ants Kurvits, Estonian general and politician, 10th Estonian Minister of War (b.", "1887)1950 – Max Beckmann, German-American painter and sculptor (b.", "1884)1952 – Patrick Joseph Hartigan, Australian priest, author, and educator (b.", "1878)1953 – Şükrü Saracoğlu, Turkish soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1887) 1953 – Julian Tuwim, Polish poet and author (b.", "1894)1955 – Alfred Carpenter, English admiral, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1881)1956 – Lambert McKenna, Irish priest and lexicographer (b.", "1870)1965 – Edgar Ende, German painter (b.", "1901)1972 – Lester B. Pearson, Canadian historian and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1897)1974 – Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist and mathematician (b.", "1898) 1974 – Amy Vanderbilt, American author (b.", "1908)1978 – Chris Bell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1951) 1978 – Houari Boumediene, Algerian colonel and politician, 2nd President of Algeria (b.", "1932)* 1978 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1937)1979 – Hafizullah Amin, Afghan educator and politician, 2nd General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (b.", "1929)1981 – Hoagy Carmichael, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and actor (b.", "1899)1982 – Jack Swigert, American pilot, astronaut, and politician (b.", "1931)1985 – Jean Rondeau, French race car driver (b.", "1946)1986 – George Dangerfield, English-American historian and journalist (b.", "1904) 1986 – Dumas Malone, American historian and author (b.", "1892)1987 – Rewi Alley, New Zealand writer and political activist (b.", "1897)1988 – Hal Ashby, American director and producer (b.", "1929)1992 – Kay Boyle, American novelist, poet, and educator (b.", "1902)1993 – Feliks Kibbermann, Estonian chess player and philologist (b.", "1902)* 1993 – Evald Mikson, Estonian footballer (b.", "1911)* 1993 – André Pilette, Belgian race car driver (b.", "1918)1994 – Fanny Cradock, English author and critic (b.", "1909) 1994 – J.", "B. L. Reyes, Filipino lawyer and jurist (b.", "1902)1995 – Shura Cherkassky, Ukrainian-American pianist (b.", "1909) 1995 – Genrikh Kasparyan, Armenian chess player and composer (b.", "1910)1997 – Brendan Gill, American journalist and essayist (b.", "1914) 1997 – Billy Wright, Northern Irish loyalist leader (b.", "1960)1999 – Michael McDowell, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1950)2002 – George Roy Hill, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921)2003 – Alan Bates, English actor (b.", "1934) 2003 – Iván Calderón, Puerto Rican-American baseball player (b.", "1962)2004 – Hank Garland, American guitarist (b.", "1930)2007 – Benazir Bhutto, Pakistani politician, Prime Minister of Pakistan (b.", "1953)* 2007 – Jerzy Kawalerowicz, Polish director and screenwriter (b.", "1922)* 2007 – Jaan Kross, Estonian author and poet (b.", "1920)2008 – Delaney Bramlett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1939) 2008 – Robert Graham, Mexican-American sculptor (b.", "1938) 2009 – Isaac Schwartz, Ukrainian-Russian composer and educator (b.", "1923) 2011 – Catê, Brazilian footballer and manager (b.", "1973)* 2011 – Michael Dummett, English soldier, philosopher, and academic (b.", "1925)* 2011 – Helen Frankenthaler, American painter and educator (b.", "1928)* 2011 – Johnny Wilson, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1929)2012 – Harry Carey, Jr., American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1921) 2012 – Lloyd Charmers, Jamaican singer, keyboard player, and producer (b.", "1938)* 2012 – Tingye Li, Chinese-American physicist and engineer (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Archie Roy, Scottish astronomer and academic (b.", "1924)* 2012 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (b.", "1934)* 2012 – Salt Walther, American race car driver (b.", "1947)2013 – Richard Ambler, English-Scottish biologist and academic (b.", "1933) 2013 – Mohamad Chatah, Lebanese economist and politician, Lebanese Minister of Finance (b.", "1951)* 2013 – Gianna D'Angelo, American soprano and educator (b.", "1929)* 2013 – John Matheson, Canadian colonel, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1917)* 2013 – Farooq Sheikh, Indian actor, philanthropist and a popular television presenter (b.", "1948)2014 – Ben Ammi Ben-Israel, American-Israeli religious leader, founded the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem (b.", "1939) 2014 – Ulises Estrella, Ecuadorian poet and academic (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Ronald Li, Hong Kong accountant and businessman (b.", "1929)* 2014 – Karel Poma, Belgian bacteriologist and politician (b.", "1920)2015 – Stein Eriksen, Norwegian-American skier (b.", "1927) 2015 – Dave Henderson, American baseball player and sportscaster (b.", "1958)* 2015 – Ellsworth Kelly, American painter and sculptor (b.", "1923)* 2015 – Meadowlark Lemon, American basketball player and minister (b.", "1932)* 2015 – Alfredo Pacheco, Salvadoran footballer (b.", "1982)* 2015 – Stevie Wright, English-Australian singer-songwriter (b.", "1947) 2016 – Carrie Fisher, American actress, screenwriter, author, producer, and speaker (b.", "1956) 2016 – Ratnasiri Wickremanayake, Sri Lankan politician (b.", "1933)2018 – Frank Blaichman, Polish resistance fighter (b.", "1922)2019 – Maria Creveling, American ''League of Legends'' player (b.", "1995)2023 – Lee Sun-kyun, South Korean actor (b.", "1975)2023 – Gaston Glock, Austrian firearm engineer and founder of Glock (b.", "1929)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day: Blessed Francesco Spoto Blessed Sára Salkaházi Fabiola John the Apostle Pope Maximus of Alexandria Nicarete Theodorus and Theophanes December 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (North Korea)* Emergency Rescuer's Day (Russia)* St. Stephen's Day (Eastern Orthodox Church; a public holiday in Romania)* The third of the Twelve Days of Christmas (Western Christianity)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 27" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Double planet" ], [ "Introduction", "Visual comparison of the sizes of Earth and the Moon (above right) and Pluto–Charon (below right)In astronomy, a '''double planet''' (also '''binary planet''') is a binary satellite system where both objects are planets, or planetary-mass objects, that share an orbital axis external to both planetary bodies.", "Although up to a third of the star systems in the Milky Way are binary, double planets are expected to be much rarer given the typical planet to satellite mass ratio is around 1:10000, they are influenced heavily by the gravitational pull of the parent star and according to the giant-impact hypothesis are gravitationally stable only under particular circumstances.The Solar System does not have an official double planet, however the Earth–Moon system is sometimes considered to be one.", "In promotional materials advertising the SMART-1 mission, the European Space Agency referred to the Earth–Moon system as a double planet.Several dwarf planet candidates can be described as binary planets.", "At its 2006 General Assembly, the International Astronomical Union considered a proposal that Pluto and Charon be reclassified as a double planet, but the proposal was abandoned in favor of the current IAU definition of planet.", "Other trans-Neptunian systems with proportionally large planetary-mass satellites include Eris–Dysnomia, Orcus–Vanth and Varda–Ilmarë.Binary asteroids with components of roughly equal mass are sometimes referred to as double minor planets.", "These include binary asteroids 69230 Hermes and 90 Antiope and binary Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) 79360 Sila–Nunam and ." ], [ "Definition of \"double planet\"", "There is debate as to what criteria should be used to distinguish a \"double planet\" from a \"planet–moon system\".", "The following are considerations.=== Both bodies satisfy planet criterion ===A definition proposed in the ''Astronomical Journal'' calls for both bodies to individually satisfy an orbit-clearing criterion in order to be called a double planet.=== Mass ratios closer to 1 ===One important consideration in defining \"double planet\" is the ratio of the masses of the two bodies.", "A mass ratio of 1 would indicate bodies of equal mass, and bodies with mass ratios closer to 1 are more attractive to label as \"doubles\".", "Using this definition, the satellites of Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune can all easily be excluded; they all have masses less than 0.00025 () of the planets around which they revolve.", "Some dwarf planets, too, have satellites substantially less massive than the dwarf planets themselves.The most notable exception is the Pluto–Charon system.", "The Charon-to-Pluto mass ratio of 0.122 (≈ ) is close enough to 1 that Pluto and Charon have frequently been described by many scientists as \"double dwarf planets\" (\"double planets\" prior to the 2006 definition of \"planet\").", "The International Astronomical Union (IAU) earlier classified Charon as a satellite of Pluto, but had also explicitly expressed the willingness to reconsider the bodies as double dwarf planets in the future.", "But a report in 2006 classified Charon–Pluto as a double planet.", "Artists impression of the Eris-Dysnomia systemThe Moon-to-Earth mass ratio of 0.01230 (≈ ) is also notably close to 1 when compared to all other satellite-to-planet ratios.", "Consequently, some scientists view the Earth–Moon system as a double planet as well, though this is a minority view.", "Eris's lone satellite, Dysnomia, has a radius somewhere around that of Eris; assuming similar densities (Dysnomia's compositional make-up may or may not differ substantially from Eris's), the mass ratio would be near , a value intermediate to the Moon–Earth and Charon–Pluto ratios.The next criteria both attempt to answer the question \"How close to 1 must the mass ratio be?", "\".=== Center-of-mass position ===Currently, the most commonly proposed definition for a double-planet system is one in which the barycenter, around which both bodies orbit, lies outside both bodies.", "Under this definition, Pluto and Charon are double dwarf planets, since they orbit a point clearly outside of Pluto, as visible in animations created from images of the ''New Horizons'' space probe in June 2015.Under this definition, the Earth–Moon system is not currently a double planet; although the Moon is massive enough to cause the Earth to make a noticeable revolution around this center of mass, this point nevertheless lies well within Earth.", "However, the Moon currently migrates outward from Earth at a rate of approximately per year; in a few billion years, the Earth–Moon system's center of mass will lie outside Earth, which would make it a double-planet system.Pluto–Charon system: the barycenter lies outside of Pluto.The center of mass of the Jupiter–Sun system lies outside the surface of the Sun, though arguing that Jupiter and the Sun are a double star is not analogous to arguing Pluto–Charon is a double dwarf planet.", "Jupiter is too light to be a fusor; were it thirteen times heavier, it would achieve deuterium fusion and become a brown dwarf.=== Tug-of-war value ===Isaac Asimov suggested a distinction between planet–moon and double-planet structures based in part on what he called a \"tug-of-war\" value, which does not consider their relative sizes.", "This quantity is simply the ratio of the force exerted on the smaller body by the larger (primary) body to the force exerted on the smaller body by the Sun.", "This can be shown to equalwhere is the mass of the primary (the larger body), is the mass of the Sun, is the distance between the smaller body and the Sun, and is the distance between the smaller body and the primary.", "The tug-of-war value does not rely on the mass of the satellite (the smaller body).This formula actually reflects the relation of the gravitational effects on the smaller body from the larger body and from the Sun.", "The tug-of-war figure for Saturn's moon Titan is 380, which means that Saturn's hold on Titan is 380 times as strong as the Sun's hold on Titan.", "Titan's tug-of-war value may be compared with that of Saturn's moon Phoebe, which has a tug-of-war value of just 3.5; that is, Saturn's hold on Phoebe is only 3.5 times as strong as the Sun's hold on Phoebe.Asimov calculated tug-of-war values for several satellites of the planets.", "He showed that even the largest gas giant, Jupiter, had only a slightly better hold than the Sun on its outer captured satellites, some with tug-of-war values not much higher than one.", "In nearly every one of Asimov's calculations the tug-of-war value was found to be greater than one, so in those cases the Sun loses the tug-of-war with the planets.", "The one exception was Earth's Moon, where the Sun wins the tug-of-war with a value of 0.46, which means that Earth's hold on the Moon is less than half as strong as the Sun's.", "Asimov included this with his other arguments that Earth and the Moon should be considered a binary planet.See the Path of Earth and Moon around Sun section in the \"Orbit of the Moon\" article for a more detailed explanation.This definition of double planet depends on the pair's distance from the Sun.", "If the Earth–Moon system happened to orbit farther away from the Sun than it does now, then Earth would win the tug of war.", "For example, at the orbit of Mars, the Moon's tug-of-war value would be 1.05.Also, several tiny moons discovered since Asimov's proposal would qualify as double planets by this argument.", "Neptune's small outer moons Neso and Psamathe, for example, have tug-of-war values of 0.42 and 0.44, less than that of Earth's Moon.", "Yet their masses are tiny compared to Neptune's, with an estimated ratio of 1.5 () and 0.4 ().=== Formation of the system ===A final consideration is the way in which the two bodies came to form a system.", "Both the Earth–Moon and Pluto–Charon systems are thought to have been formed as a result of giant impacts: one body was impacted by a second body, resulting in a debris disk, and through accretion, either two new bodies formed or one new body formed, with the larger body remaining (but changed).", "However, a giant impact is not a sufficient condition for two bodies being \"double planets\" because such impacts can also produce tiny satellites, such as the four small outer satellites of Pluto.A now-abandoned hypothesis for the origin of the Moon was actually called the \"double-planet hypothesis\"; the idea was that the Earth and the Moon formed in the same region of the Solar System's proto-planetary disk, forming a system under gravitational interaction.", "This idea, too, is a problematic condition for defining two bodies as \"double planets\" because planets can \"capture\" moons through gravitational interaction.", "For example, the moons of Mars (Phobos and Deimos) are thought to be asteroids captured long ago by Mars.", "Such a definition would also deem Neptune–Triton a double planet, since Triton was a Kuiper belt body the same size and of similar composition to Pluto, later captured by Neptune." ], [ "See also", "* 2006 definition of planet* 3753 Cruithne* Co-orbital configuration* Definition of a planet* Ecliptic* Hill sphere* Natural satellite* Orbit of the Moon* Quasi-satellite* Satellite system (astronomy)" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations''''''Bibliography'''* * '''Further reading'''* * " ], [ "External links", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Denaturation (biochemistry)" ], [ "Introduction", "The effects of temperature on enzyme activity.", "'''Top''': increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction (Q10 coefficient).", "'''Middle''': the fraction of folded and functional enzyme decreases above its denaturation temperature.", "'''Bottom''': consequently, an enzyme's optimal rate of reaction is at an intermediate temperature.IUPAC definition for denaturation (of a macromolecule)In biochemistry, '''denaturation''' is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), agitation and radiation or heat.", "If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death.", "Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death.", "Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups.", "The loss of solubility as a result of denaturation is called ''coagulation''.", "Denatured proteins lose their 3D structure and therefore cannot function.Protein folding is key to whether a globular or membrane protein can do its job correctly; it must be folded into the right shape to function.", "However, hydrogen bonds, which play a big part in folding, are rather weak and thus easily affected by heat, acidity, varying salt concentrations, and other stressors which can denature the protein.", "This is one reason why homeostasis is physiologically necessary in many life forms.This concept is unrelated to denatured alcohol, which is alcohol that has been mixed with additives to make it unsuitable for human consumption." ], [ "<span id=\"Cooking\"></span> Common examples", "(Top) The protein ''albumin'' in the egg white undergoes denaturation and loss of solubility when the egg is cooked.", "(Bottom) Paperclips provide a visual analogy to help with the conceptualization of the denaturation process.When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured.", "This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, which are typically largely egg albumins in water.", "Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid.", "Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming an interconnected solid mass.", "The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical.", "Pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid.", "The skin that forms on curdled milk is another common example of denatured protein.", "The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by chemically \"cooking\" raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade, without heat." ], [ "Protein denaturation", "Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to protein aggregation.", "Functional proteins have four levels of structural organization:Process of denaturation:=== Background ===Proteins or polypeptides are polymers of amino acids.", "A protein is created by ribosomes that \"read\" RNA that is encoded by codons in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the genetic instruction, in a process known as translation.", "The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for example copper, zinc, or iron.", "Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (sometimes spontaneously and sometimes with enzymatic assistance), curling up on itself so that hydrophobic elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and hydrophilic elements end up on the outside.", "The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment.Protein folding consists of a balance between a substantial amount of weak intra-molecular interactions within a protein (Hydrophobic, electrostatic, and Van Der Waals Interactions) and protein-solvent interactions.", "As a result, this process is heavily reliant on environmental state that the protein resides in.", "These environmental conditions include, and are not limited to, temperature, salinity, pressure, and the solvents that happen to be involved.", "Consequently, any exposure to extreme stresses (e.g.", "heat or radiation, high inorganic salt concentrations, strong acids and bases) can disrupt a protein's interaction and inevitably lead to denaturation.When a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact.", "Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured.", "This is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active and tend to fold upon binding to their biological target.=== How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure ===* In '''quaternary structure''' denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted.", "* '''Tertiary structure''' denaturation involves the disruption of: Covalent interactions between amino acid side-chains (such as disulfide bridges between cysteine groups) Non-covalent dipole-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side-chains (and the surrounding solvent)** Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions between nonpolar amino acid side-chains.", "* In '''secondary structure''' denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration.", "* '''Primary structure''', such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation.==== Loss of function ====Most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured.", "For example, enzymes lose their activity, because the substrates can no longer bind to the active site, and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' transition states are no longer positioned to be able to do so.", "The denaturing process and the associated loss of activity can be measured using techniques such as dual-polarization interferometry, CD, QCM-D and MP-SPR.==== Loss of activity due to heavy metals and metalloids ====By targeting proteins, heavy metals have been known to disrupt the function and activity carried out by proteins.", "It is important to note that heavy metals fall into categories consisting of transition metals as well as a select amount of metalloid.", "These metals, when interacting with native, folded proteins, tend to play a role in obstructing their biological activity.", "This interference can be carried out in a different number of ways.", "These heavy metals can form a complex with the functional side chain groups present in a protein or form bonds to free thiols.", "Heavy metals also play a role in oxidizing amino acid side chains present in protein.", "Along with this, when interacting with metalloproteins, heavy metals can dislocate and replace key metal ions.", "As a result, heavy metals can interfere with folded proteins, which can strongly deter protein stability and activity.==== Reversibility and irreversibility ====In many cases, denaturation is reversible (the proteins can regain their native state when the denaturing influence is removed).", "This process can be called renaturation.", "This understanding has led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the DNA that codes for the protein, the so-called \"Anfinsen's thermodynamic hypothesis\".Denaturation can also be irreversible.", "This irreversibility is typically a kinetic, not thermodynamic irreversibility, as a folded protein generally has lower free energy than when it is unfolded.", "Through kinetic irreversibility, the fact that the protein is stuck in a local minimum can stop it from ever refolding after it has been irreversibly denatured.==== Protein denaturation due to pH ====Denaturation can also be caused by changes in the pH which can affect the chemistry of the amino acids and their residues.", "The ionizable groups in amino acids are able to become ionized when changes in pH occur.", "A pH change to more acidic or more basic conditions can induce unfolding.", "Acid-induced unfolding often occurs between pH 2 and 5, base-induced unfolding usually requires pH 10 or higher." ], [ "Nucleic acid denaturation", "Nucleic acids (including RNA and DNA) are nucleotide polymers synthesized by polymerase enzymes during either transcription or DNA replication.", "Following 5'-3' synthesis of the backbone, individual nitrogenous bases are capable of interacting with one another via hydrogen bonding, thus allowing for the formation of higher-order structures.", "Nucleic acid denaturation occurs when hydrogen bonding between nucleotides is disrupted, and results in the separation of previously annealed strands.", "For example, denaturation of DNA due to high temperatures results in the disruption of base pairs and the separation of the double stranded helix into two single strands.", "Nucleic acid strands are capable of re-annealling when \"normal\" conditions are restored, but if restoration occurs too quickly, the nucleic acid strands may re-anneal imperfectly resulting in the improper pairing of bases.=== Biologically-induced denaturation ===DNA denaturation occurs when hydrogen bonds between base pairs are disturbed.The non-covalent interactions between antiparallel strands in DNA can be broken in order to \"open\" the double helix when biologically important mechanisms such as DNA replication, transcription, DNA repair or protein binding are set to occur.", "The area of partially separated DNA is known as the denaturation bubble, which can be more specifically defined as the opening of a DNA double helix through the coordinated separation of base pairs.The first model that attempted to describe the thermodynamics of the denaturation bubble was introduced in 1966 and called the Poland-Scheraga Model.", "This model describes the denaturation of DNA strands as a function of temperature.", "As the temperature increases, the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs are increasingly disturbed and \"denatured loops\" begin to form.", "However, the Poland-Scheraga Model is now considered elementary because it fails to account for the confounding implications of DNA sequence, chemical composition, stiffness and torsion.Recent thermodynamic studies have inferred that the lifetime of a singular denaturation bubble ranges from 1 microsecond to 1 millisecond.", "This information is based on established timescales of DNA replication and transcription.", "Currently, biophysical and biochemical research studies are being performed to more fully elucidate the thermodynamic details of the denaturation bubble.=== Denaturation due to chemical agents ===Formamide denatures DNA by disrupting the hydrogen bonds between base pairs.", "Orange, blue, green, and purple lines represent adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine respectively.", "The three short black lines between the bases and the formamide molecules represent newly formed hydrogen bonds.With polymerase chain reaction (PCR) being among the most popular contexts in which DNA denaturation is desired, heating is the most frequent method of denaturation.", "Other than denaturation by heat, nucleic acids can undergo the denaturation process through various chemical agents such as formamide, guanidine, sodium salicylate, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), propylene glycol, and urea.", "These chemical denaturing agents lower the melting temperature (Tm) by competing for hydrogen bond donors and acceptors with pre-existing nitrogenous base pairs.", "Some agents are even able to induce denaturation at room temperature.", "For example, alkaline agents (e.g.", "NaOH) have been shown to denature DNA by changing pH and removing hydrogen-bond contributing protons.", "These denaturants have been employed to make Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis gel (DGGE), which promotes denaturation of nucleic acids in order to eliminate the influence of nucleic acid shape on their electrophoretic mobility.==== Chemical denaturation as an alternative ====The optical activity (absorption and scattering of light) and hydrodynamic properties (translational diffusion, sedimentation coefficients, and rotational correlation times) of formamide denatured nucleic acids are similar to those of heat-denatured nucleic acids.", "Therefore, depending on the desired effect, chemically denaturing DNA can provide a gentler procedure for denaturing nucleic acids than denaturation induced by heat.", "Studies comparing different denaturation methods such as heating, beads mill of different bead sizes, probe sonication, and chemical denaturation show that chemical denaturation can provide quicker denaturation compared to the other physical denaturation methods described.", "Particularly in cases where rapid renaturation is desired, chemical denaturation agents can provide an ideal alternative to heating.", "For example, DNA strands denatured with alkaline agents such as NaOH renature as soon as phosphate buffer is added.==== Denaturation due to air ====Small, electronegative molecules such as nitrogen and oxygen, which are the primary gases in air, significantly impact the ability of surrounding molecules to participate in hydrogen bonding.", "These molecules compete with surrounding hydrogen bond acceptors for hydrogen bond donors, therefore acting as \"hydrogen bond breakers\" and weakening interactions between surrounding molecules in the environment.", "Antiparellel strands in DNA double helices are non-covalently bound by hydrogen bonding between base pairs; nitrogen and oxygen therefore maintain the potential to weaken the integrity of DNA when exposed to air.", "As a result, DNA strands exposed to air require less force to separate and exemplify lower melting temperatures.=== Applications ===Many laboratory techniques rely on the ability of nucleic acid strands to separate.", "By understanding the properties of nucleic acid denaturation, the following methods were created:* PCR* Southern blot* Northern blot* DNA sequencing" ], [ "Denaturants", "=== Protein denaturants ======= Acids ====Acidic protein denaturants include:* Acetic acid* Trichloroacetic acid 12% in water* Sulfosalicylic acid==== Bases ====Bases work similarly to acids in denaturation.", "They include:* Sodium bicarbonate==== Solvents ====Most organic solvents are denaturing, including:* Ethanol==== Cross-linking reagents ====Cross-linking agents for proteins include:* Formaldehyde* Glutaraldehyde==== Chaotropic agents ====Chaotropic agents include:* Urea 6–8 mol/L* Guanidinium chloride 6 mol/L* Lithium perchlorate 4.5 mol/L* Sodium dodecyl sulfate==== Disulfide bond reducers ====Agents that break disulfide bonds by reduction include:* 2-Mercaptoethanol* Dithiothreitol* TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine)==== Chemically reactive agents ====Agents such as hydrogen peroxide, elemental chlorine, hypochlorous acid (chlorine water), bromine, bromine water, iodine, nitric and oxidising acids, and ozone react with sensitive moieties such as sulfide/thiol, activated aromatic rings (phenylalanine) in effect damage the protein and render it useless.==== Other ====* Mechanical agitation* Picric acid* Radiation* Temperature=== Nucleic acid denaturants ======= Chemical ====Acidic nucleic acid denaturants include:* Acetic acid* HCl* Nitric acidBasic nucleic acid denaturants include:* NaOHOther nucleic acid denaturants include:* DMSO* Formamide* Guanidine* Sodium salicylate* Propylene glycol* Urea==== Physical ====* Thermal denaturation* Beads mill* Probe sonication* Radiation" ], [ "See also", "* Denatured alcohol* Equilibrium unfolding* Fixation (histology)* Protein folding* Random coil" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center — Animation: Protein Denaturation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dwight L. Moody" ], [ "Introduction", "Edward Kimball in 1855'''Dwight Lyman Moody''' (February 5, 1837 – December 26, 1899), also known as '''D. L.", "Moody''', was an American evangelist and publisher connected with Keswickianism, who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now Northfield Mount Hermon School), Moody Bible Institute, and Moody Publishers.", "One of his most famous quotes was \"Faith makes all things possible... Love makes all things easy.\"", "Moody gave up his lucrative boot and shoe business to devote his life to revivalism, working first in the Civil War with Union troops through YMCA in the United States Christian Commission.", "In Chicago, he built one of the major evangelical centers in the nation, which is still active.", "Working with singer Ira Sankey, he toured the country and the British Isles, drawing large crowds with a dynamic speaking style." ], [ "Early life", "Dwight Moody was born in Northfield, Massachusetts, as the seventh child of a large family.", "His father, Edwin J. Moody (1800–1841), was a small farmer and stonemason.", "His mother was Betsey Moody (née Holton; 1805–1896).", "They had five sons and a daughter before Dwight's birth.", "His father died when Dwight was age four; fraternal twins, a boy, and a girl were born one month after the father's death.", "Their mother struggled to support the nine children but had to send some off to work for their room and board.", "Dwight too was sent off, where he received cornmeal, porridge, and milk three times a day.", "He complained to his mother, but when she learned that he was getting all he wanted to eat, she sent him back.", "During this time, she continued to send the children to church.", "Together with his eight siblings, Dwight was raised in the Unitarian church.", "His oldest brother ran away and was not heard from by the family until many years later.When Moody turned 17, he moved to Boston to work (after receiving many job rejections locally) in an uncle's shoe store.", "One of the uncle's requirements was that Moody attend the Congregational Church of Mount Vernon, where Dr. Edward Norris Kirk served as the pastor.", "In April 1855 Moody was converted to evangelical Christianity when his Sunday school teacher, Edward Kimball, talked to him about how much God loved him.", "His conversion sparked the start of his career as an evangelist.", "Moody first applied to the church in May 1855, but he was not received as a church member until May 4, 1856.According to Moody's memoir, his teacher, Edward Kimball, said:" ], [ "Civil War", "Dwight Lyman Moody D. L. Moody \"could not conscientiously enlist\" in the Union Army during the Civil War, later describing himself as \"a Quaker\" in this respect.", "After the Civil War started, he became involved with the United States Christian Commission of YMCA.", "He paid nine visits to the battlefront, being present among the Union soldiers after the Battle of Shiloh (a.k.a.", "Pittsburg Landing) and the Battle of Stones River; he also entered Richmond, Virginia, with the troops of General Grant.On August 28, 1862, Moody married Emma C. Revell, with whom he had a daughter, Emma Reynolds Moody, and two sons, William Revell Moody and Paul Dwight Moody." ], [ "Chicago and the postwar years", "Moody's first Sunday school class, North Market Hall, Chicago, 1876In 1858, he started a Sunday school.", "The growing Sunday School congregation needed a permanent home, so Moody started a church in Chicago, the Illinois Street Church in 1864.In June 1871 at an International Sunday School Convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, Dwight Moody met Ira D. Sankey.", "He was a gospel singer, with whom Moody soon began to cooperate and collaborate.Four months later, in October 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed Moody's church building, as well as his house and those of most of his congregation.", "Many had to flee the flames, saving only their lives, and ending up completely destitute.", "Moody, reporting on the disaster, said about his own situation that: \"...he saved nothing but his reputation and his Bible.", "\"In the years after the fire, Moody's wealthy Chicago patron John V. Farwell tried to persuade him to make his permanent home in the city, offering to build a new house for Moody and his family.", "But the newly famous Moody, also sought by supporters in New York, Philadelphia, and elsewhere, chose a tranquil farm he had purchased near his birthplace in Northfield, Massachusetts.", "He felt he could better recover in a rural setting from his lengthy preaching trips.Northfield became an important location in evangelical Christian history in the late 19th century as Moody organized summer conferences.", "These were led and attended by prominent Christian preachers and evangelists from around the world.", "Western Massachusetts has had a rich evangelical tradition including Jonathan Edwards preaching in colonial Northampton and C.I.", "Scofield preaching in Northfield.", "A protégé of Moody founded Moores Corner Church, in Leverett, Massachusetts.Moody founded two schools here: Northfield School for Girls, founded in 1879, and the Mount Hermon School for Boys, founded in 1881.In the late 20th century, these merged, forming today's co-educational, nondenominational Northfield Mount Hermon School.===Evangelistic travels===Vanity Fair'', April 3, 1875During a trip to the United Kingdom in the spring of 1872, Moody became well known as an evangelist.", "Literary works published by the Moody Bible Institute claim that he was the greatest evangelist of the 19th century.", "He preached almost a hundred times and came into communion with the Plymouth Brethren.", "On several occasions, he filled stadia of a capacity of 2,000 to 4,000.According to his memoir, in the Botanic Gardens Palace, he attracted an audience estimated at between 15,000 and 30,000.That turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings.", "During his visit to Scotland, Moody was helped and encouraged by Andrew A. Bonar.", "The famous London Baptist preacher, Charles Spurgeon, invited him to speak, and he promoted the American as well.", "When Moody returned to the US, he was said to frequently attract crowds of 12,000 to 20,000 were as common as they had been in England.", "President Grant and some of his cabinet officials attended a Moody meeting on January 19, 1876.He held evangelistic meetings from Boston to New York, throughout New England, and as far west as San Francisco, also visiting other West Coast towns from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to San Diego.Moody aided the work of cross-cultural evangelism by promoting \"The Wordless Book\", a teaching tool developed in 1866 by Charles Spurgeon.", "In 1875, Moody added a fourth color to the design of the three-color evangelistic device: gold — to \"represent heaven.\"", "This \"book\" has been and is still used to teach uncounted thousands of illiterate people, young and old, around the globe about the gospel message.Missionary preaching in China using Moody's version of ''The Wordless Book''Moody visited Britain with Ira D. Sankey, with Moody preaching and Sankey singing at meetings.", "Together they published books of Christian hymns.", "In 1883, they visited Edinburgh and raised £10,000 for the building of a new home for the Carrubbers Close Mission.", "Moody later preached at the laying of the foundation stone for what is now called the Carrubbers Christian Centre, one of the few buildings on the Royal Mile which continues to be used for its original purpose.Moody greatly influenced the cause of cross-cultural Christian missions after he met Hudson Taylor, a pioneer missionary to China.", "He actively supported the China Inland Mission and encouraged many of his congregation to volunteer for service overseas.===International acclaim===His influence was felt among Swedes.", "Being of English heritage, never visiting Sweden or any other Scandinavian country, and never speaking a word of Swedish, nonetheless, he became a hero revivalist among Swedish Mission Friends () in Sweden and America.News of Moody's large revival campaigns in Great Britain from 1873 through 1875 traveled quickly to Sweden, making \"Mr. Moody\" a household name in homes of many Mission Friends.", "Moody's sermons published in Sweden were distributed in books, newspapers, and colporteur tracts, and they led to the spread of Sweden's \"Moody fever\" from 1875 through 1880.He preached his last sermon on November 16, 1899, in Kansas City, Missouri.", "Becoming ill, he returned home by train to Northfield.", "During the preceding several months, friends had observed he had added some to his already ample frame.", "Although his illness was never diagnosed, it has been speculated that he suffered from congestive heart failure.", "He died on December 26, 1899, surrounded by his family.", "Already installed as the leader of his Chicago Bible Institute, R. A. Torrey succeeded Moody as its pastor." ], [ "Works", "''Heaven'' Diggory Press '' Prevailing Prayer—What Hinders it?''", "Diggory Press ''Secret Power'' Diggory Press ''The Ten Commandments''Also, A Life for Christ—What a Normal Christian Life Looks Like.", " ''The Way to God and How to Find it''" ], [ "Legacy", "Religious historian James Findlay says that:: Speaking before thousands in the dark business suit, bearded, rotund Dwight L. Moody seemed the epitome of the \"businessman in clerical garb\" who typified popular religion in late 19th-century America... Earthy, unlettered, a dynamo of energy, the revivalist was very much a man of his times... Moody adapted revivalism, one of the major institutions of evangelical Protestantism, to the urban context.", "... His organizational ability, demonstrated in the great revivals he conducted in England, combined to fashion his spectacular career as the creator of modern mass revivalism.Ten years after Moody's death the Chicago Avenue Church was renamed the Moody Church in his honor, and the Chicago Bible Institute has likewise renamed the Moody Bible Institute.Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was born in 1890, was named after him.", "During World War II, the Liberty ship was built in Panama City, Florida, and named in his honor." ], [ "See also", "William Phillips Hall, a close friend that was influenced to become an evangelist and lay preacher.", "Horatio Spafford, a friend of Moody who wrote the words to the hymn ''It Is Well With My Soul''Northfield Mount Hermon School" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", " \"Dwight Moody: evangelist with a common touch\" ''Christianity Today'', August 8, 2008.", "* Christian Biography Resources* Dorsett, L. W. ''A Passion for Souls: The Life of D. L.", "Moody.''", "(1997)* Findlay, J. F. Jr. ''Dwight L. Moody: American Evangelist 1837–1899.''", "(1969)* Gundry, S. N. ''Love them in: The Proclamation Theology of D. L.", "Moody.''", "(1976)* Evensen, B. J.", "''God's Man for Gilded Age: D. L. Moody and the Rise of Mass Evangelism.''", "(2003)* Gloege, Timothy.", "''Guaranteed Pure: The Moody Bible Institute, Business, and the Making of Modern Evangelicalism'' (2017)* Gustafson, David M. \"D.L.", "Moody and the Swedish-American Evangelical Free.\"", "''Swedish-American Historical Quarterly'' 55 (2004): 107–135.online* Hamilton, Michael S. \"The Interdenominational Evangelicalism of D.L.", "Moody and the Problem of Fundamentalism\" in Darren Dochuk et al.", "eds.", "''American Evangelicalism: George Marsden and the State of American Religious History'' (2014) ch 11.", "* * Moody, Paul Dwight.", "''The Shorter Life of D. L.", "Moody.''", "(1900) online* Moody, W. R. ''The Life of Dwight L. Moody'' (1900)" ], [ "External links", "* Recording of Moody reading the Beatitudes* Sample sermons by D. L. Moody* \"Shall I enter the Army?\"", "Moody said, \"No.", "\"* * * Glad Tidings, sermons by D. L. Moody The Gospel Awakening, sermons by D. L. Moody* books by D. L. Moody" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dieting" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dieting''' is the practice of eating food in a regulated way to decrease, maintain, or increase body weight, or to prevent and treat diseases such as diabetes and obesity.", "As weight loss depends on calorie intake, different kinds of calorie-reduced diets, such as those emphasising particular macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.", "), have been shown to be no more effective than one another.", "As weight regain is common, diet success is best predicted by long-term adherence.", "Regardless, the outcome of a diet can vary widely depending on the individual.The first popular diet was \"Banting\", named after William Banting.", "In his 1863 pamphlet, ''Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public'', he outlined the details of a particular low-carbohydrate, low-calorie diet that led to his own dramatic weight loss.Some guidelines recommend dieting to lose weight for people with weight-related health problems, but not for otherwise healthy people.", "One survey found that almost half of all American adults attempt to lose weight through dieting, including 66.7% of obese adults and 26.5% of normal weight or underweight adults.", "Dieters who are overweight (but not obese), who are normal weight, or who are underweight may have an increased mortality rate as a result of dieting." ], [ "History", "William Banting popularized one of the first weight loss diets in the 19th century.The word ''diet'' comes from the Greek ''δίαιτα (diaita)'', which represents a notion of a whole way healthy lifestyle including both mental and physical health, rather than a narrow weight-loss regimen.One of the first dietitians was the English doctor George Cheyne.", "He himself was tremendously overweight and would constantly eat large quantities of rich food and drink.", "He began a meatless diet, taking only milk and vegetables, and soon regained his health.", "He began publicly recommending his diet for everyone who was obese.", "In 1724, he wrote ''An Essay of Health and Long Life'', in which he advises exercise and fresh air and avoiding luxury foods.The Scottish military surgeon, John Rollo, published ''Notes of a Diabetic Case'' in 1797.It described the benefits of a meat diet for those with diabetes, basing this recommendation on Matthew Dobson's discovery of glycosuria in diabetes mellitus.", "By means of Dobson's testing procedure (for glucose in the urine) Rollo worked out a diet that had success for what is now called type 2 diabetes.The first popular diet was \"Banting\", named after the English undertaker William Banting.", "In 1863, he wrote a booklet called ''Letter on Corpulence, Addressed to the Public'', which contained the particular plan for the diet he had successfully followed.", "His own diet was four meals per day, consisting of meat, greens, fruits, and dry wine.", "The emphasis was on avoiding sugar, sweet foods, starch, beer, milk and butter.", "Banting's pamphlet was popular for years to come, and would be used as a model for modern diets.", "The pamphlet's popularity was such that the question \"Do you bant?\"", "referred to his method, and eventually to dieting in general.", "His booklet remains in print as of 2007.The first weight-loss book to promote calorie counting, and the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller, was the 1918 ''Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories'' by American physician and columnist Lulu Hunt Peters.It was estimated that over 1000 weight-loss diets have been developed up to 2014." ], [ "Types", "A restricted diet is most commonly pursued by those who want to lose weight.", "Some people follow a diet to gain weight (such as people who are underweight or who are attempting to gain more muscle).", "Diets can also be used to maintain a stable body weight or to improve health.===Low-fat===Low-fat diets involve the reduction of the percentage of fat in one's diet.", "Calorie consumption is reduced because less fat is consumed.", "Diets of this type include NCEP Step I and II.", "A meta-analysis of 16 trials of 2–12 months' duration found that low-fat diets (without intentional restriction of caloric intake) resulted in average weight loss of over habitual eating.A low-fat, plant-based diet has been found to improve control of weight, blood sugar levels, and cardiovascular health.===Low-carbohydrate======Low-calorie===Low-calorie diets usually produce an energy deficit of 500–1,000 calories per day, which can result in a weight loss per week.", "The National Institutes of Health reviewed 34 randomized controlled trials to determine the effectiveness of low-calorie diets.", "They found that these diets lowered total body mass by 8% in the short term, over 3–12 months.", "Women doing low-calorie diets should have at least 1,000 calories per day and men should have approximately 1,200 calories per day.", "These caloric intake values vary depending on additional factors, such as age and weight.===Very low-calorie===Very low calorie diets provide 200–800 calories per day, maintaining protein intake but limiting calories from both fat and carbohydrates.", "They subject the body to starvation and produce an average loss of per week.", "\"2-4-6-8\", a popular diet of this variety, follows a four-day cycle in which only 200 calories are consumed the first day, 400 the second day, 600 the third day, 800 the fourth day, and then totally fasting, after which the cycle repeats.", "There is some evidence that these diets results in considerable weight loss.", "These diets are not recommended for general use and should be reserved for the management of obesity as they are associated with adverse side effects such as loss of lean muscle mass, increased risks of gout, and electrolyte imbalances.", "People attempting these diets must be monitored closely by a physician to prevent complications.The concept of crash dieting is to drastically reduce calories, using a very-low-calorie diet.", "Crash dieting can be highly dangerous because it can cause various kind of issues for the human body.", "Crash dieting can produce weight loss but without professional supervision all along, the extreme reduction in calories and potential unbalance in the diet's composition can lead to detrimental effects, including sudden death.===Fasting===Fasting is the act of intentional taking a long time interval between meals.", "Lengthy fasting (multiple days in a week) might be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition.", "During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores.", "Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolizing body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body.", "Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting, although some dispute this.", "The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting, have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent the issues of long fasting.Intermittent fasting commonly takes the form of periodic fasting, alternate-day fasting, time-restricted feeding, and/or religious fasting.", "It can be a form of reduced-calorie dieting but pertains entirely to when the metabolism is activated during the day for digestion.", "The changes to eating habits on a regular basis do not have to be severe or absolutely restrictive to see benefits to cardiovascular health, such as improved glucose metabolism, reduced inflammation, and reduced blood pressure.", "Studies have suggested that for people in intensive care, an intermittent fasting regimen might \"preserve energy supply to vital organs and tissues... and powerfully activates cell-protective and cellular repair pathways, including autophagy, mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant defenses, which may promote resilience to cellular stress.\"", "The effects of decreased serum glucose and depleted hepatic glycogen causing the body to switch to ketogenic metabolism are similar to the effects of reduced carbohydrate-based diets.", "There is evidence demonstrating profound metabolic benefits of intermittent fasting in rodents.", "However, evidence is lacking or contradictory in humans and requires further investigation, especially over the long-term.", "Some evidence suggests that intermittent restriction of caloric intake has no weight-loss advantages over continuous calorie restriction plans.", "For adults, fasting diets appear to be safe and tolerable, however there is a possibility that periods of fasting and hunger could lead to overeating and to weight regain after the fasting period.", "Adverse effects of fasting are often moderate and include halitosis, fatigue, weakness, and headaches.", "Fasting diets may be harmful to children and the elderly.=== Exclusion Diet ===This type of diet is based on the restriction of specific foods or food groups.", "Examples include gluten-free, Paleo, plant-based, and Mediterranean diets.Plant-based diets include vegetarian and vegan diets, and can range from the simple exclusion of meat products to diets that only include raw vegetables, fruits, nuts, seeds, legumes, and sprouted grains.", "Exclusion of animal products can reduce the intake of certain nutrients, which might lead to nutritional deficiencies of protein, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins D and B12.Therefore, long term implementation of a plant-based diet requires effective counseling and nutritional supplementation as necessary.", "Plant-based diets are effective for short-term treatment of overweight and obesity, likely due to the high consumption of low energy density foods.", "However, evidence for long-term efficacy is limited.The Paleo diet includes foods that were available to our hunter-gatherer ancestors including meat, nuts, eggs, some oils, fresh fruits, and vegetables.", "Overall, it is high in protein and moderate in fats and carbohydrates.", "Some limited evidence suggests various health benefits and effective weight loss with this diet.", "However, similar to the plant-based diet, the Paleo diet has potential nutritional deficiency risks, specifically with vitamin D, calcium, and iodine.Gluten-free diets are often used for weight loss but little has been studied about the efficacy of this diet and metabolic mechanism for its effectiveness is unclear.The Mediterranean diet is characterized by high consumption of vegetables, fruits, legumes, whole-grain cereals, seafood, olive oil, and nuts.", "Red meat, dairy and alcohol are only recommended in moderation.", "Studies show that the Mediterranean diet is associated with short term as well as long term weight loss in addition to health and metabolic benefits.===Detox===Detox diets are promoted with unsubstantiated claims that they can eliminate \"toxins\" from the human body.", "Many of these diets use herbs or celery and other juicy low-calorie vegetables.", "Detox diets can include fasting or exclusion (as in juice fasting).", "Detox diets tend to result in short-term weight loss (because of calorie restriction), followed by weight gain.===Environmentally sustainable===Another kind of diet focuses not on the dieter's health effects, but on its environment.", "The One Blue Dot plan of the BDA offers recommendations towards reducing diets' environmental impacts, by:# Reducing meat to 70g per person per day.# Prioritising plant proteins.# Promoting fish from sustainable sources.# Moderate dairy consumption.# Focusing on wholegrain starchy foods.# Promoting seasonal locally sourced fruits and vegetables.# Reducing high fat, sugar and salty foods overconsumption.# Promoting tap water and unsweetened tea/coffee as the de facto choice for healthy hydration.# Reducing food waste." ], [ "Effectiveness", "Several diets are effective for short-term weight loss for obese individuals, with diet success most predicted by adherence and little effect resulting from the type or brand of diet.", "As weight maintenance depends on calorie intake, diets emphasising certain macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.)", "have been shown to be no more effective than one another and no more effective than diets that maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g.", "low-fat milk, or less salad dressing).", "A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between low-calorie, low-carbohydrate, and low-fat diets in terms of short-term weight loss, with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss over 12–18 months in all studies.", "Diets that severely restrict calorie intake do not lead to long term weight loss.", "Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition.A major challenge regarding weight loss and dieting relates to compliance.", "While dieting can effectively promote weight loss in the short term, the intervention is hard to maintain over time and suppresses skeletal muscle thermogenesis.", "Suppressed thermogenesis accelerates weight regain once the diet stops, unless that phase is accompanied by a well-timed exercise intervention, as described by the Summermatter cycle.", "Most diet studies do not assess long-term weight loss.Some studies have found that, on average, short-term dieting results in a \"meaningful\" long-term weight-loss, although limited because of gradual 1 to 2 kg/year weight regain.", "Because people who do not participate in weight-loss programs also tend to gain weight over time, and baseline data from such \"untreated\" participants are typically not included in diet studies, it is possible that diets do result in lower weights in the long-term relative to people who do not diet.", "Others have suggested that dieting is ineffective as a long-term intervention.", "For each individual, the results will be different, with some even regaining more weight than they lost, while a few others achieve a tremendous loss, so that the \"average weight loss\" of a diet is not indicative of the results other dieters may achieve.", "A 2001 meta-analysis of 29 American studies found that participants of structured weight-loss programs maintained an average of 23% (3 kg) of their initial weight loss after five years, representing a sustained 3.2% reduction in body mass.", "Unfortunately, patients are generally unhappy with weight loss of <10%, and reductions even as high as 10% are insufficient for changing someone with an \"obese\" BMI to a \"normal weight\" BMI.Partly because diets do not reliably produce long-term positive health outcomes, some argue against using weight loss as a goal, preferring other measures of health such as improvements in cardiovascular biomarkers, sometimes called a Health at Every Size (HAES) approach or a \"weight neutral\" approach.Long term losses from dieting are best maintained with continuing professional support, long term increases in physical activity, the use of anti-obesity medications, continued use of meal replacements, and additional periods of dieting to undo weight regain.", "The most effective approach to weight loss is an in-person, high-intensity, comprehensive lifestyle intervention: overweight or obese adults should maintain regular (at least monthly) contact with a trained interventionalist who can help them engage in exercise, monitor their body weight, and reduce their calorie consumption.", "Even with high-intensity, comprehensive lifestyle interventions (consisting of diet, physical exercise, and bimonthly or even more frequent contact with trained interventionists), gradual weight regain of 1–2 kg/year still occurs.", "For patients at high medical risk, bariatric surgery or medications may be warranted in addition to the lifestyle intervention, as dieting by itself may not lead to sustained weight loss.Many studies overestimate the benefits of calorie restriction because the studies confound exercise and diet (testing the effects of diet and exercise as a combined intervention, rather than the effects of diet alone).=== Adverse effects ======= Increased mortality rate ====A number of studies have found that intentional weight loss is associated with an increase in mortality in people without weight-related health problems.", "A 2009 meta-analysis of 26 studies found that \"intentional weight loss had a small benefit for individuals classified as unhealthy (with obesity-related risk factors), especially unhealthy obese, but appeared to be associated with slightly increased mortality for healthy individuals, and for those who were overweight but not obese.", "\"==== Dietary supplements ====Due to extreme or unbalanced diets, dietary supplements are sometimes taken in an attempt to replace missing vitamins or minerals.", "While some supplements could be helpful for people eating an unbalanced diet (if replacing essential nutrients, for example), overdosing on any dietary supplement can cause a range of side effects depending on the supplement and dose that is taken.", "Supplements should not replace foods that are important to a healthy diet.====Eating disorders====In an editorial for ''Psychological Medicine'', George Hsu concludes that dieting is likely to lead to the development of an eating disorder in the presence of certain risk factors.", "A 2006 study found that dieting and unhealthy weight-control behaviors were predictive of obesity and eating disorders five years later, with the authors recommending a \"shift away from dieting and drastic weight-control measures toward the long-term implementation of healthful eating and physical activity\"." ], [ "Mechanism", "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g.", "when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy.", "The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis).", "Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body).", "It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates.", "When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy.", "In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy.", "The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.=== Set-Point Theory ===The Set-Point Theory, first introduced in 1953, postulated that each body has a preprogrammed fixed weight, with regulatory mechanisms to compensate.", "This theory was quickly adopted and used to explain failures in developing effective and sustained weight loss procedures.", "A 2019 systematic review of multiple weight change procedures, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding but also exercise and overeating, found systematic \"energetic errors\" for all these procedures.", "This shows that the body cannot precisely compensate for errors in energy/calorie intake, countering the Set-Point Theory and potentially explaining both weight loss and weight gain such as obesity.", "This review was conducted on short-term studies, therefore such a mechanism cannot be excluded in the long term, as evidence is currently lacking on this timeframe." ], [ "Methods", "===Meals timing===Meals timing schedule is known to be an important factor of any diet.", "Recent evidence suggest that new scheduling strategies, such as intermittent fasting or skipping meals, and strategically placed snacks before meals, may be recommendable to reduce cardiovascular risks as part of a broader lifestyle and dietary change.===Food diary===A 2008 study published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine showed that dieters who kept a daily food diary (or diet journal), lost twice as much weight as those who did not keep a food log, suggesting that if a person records their eating, they are more aware of what they consume and therefore eat fewer calories.===Water===A 2009 review found limited evidence suggesting that encouraging water consumption and substituting energy-free beverages for energy-containing beverages (i.e., reducing caloric intake) may facilitate weight management.", "A 2009 article found that drinking 500 ml of water prior to meals for a 12-week period resulted in increased long-term weight reduction.", "(References given in main article.)" ], [ "Society", "It is estimated that about 1 out of 3 Americans is dieting at any given time.", "85% of dieters are women.", "Approximately sixty billion dollars are spent every year in the USA on diet products, including \"diet foods,\" such as light sodas, gym memberships or specific regimes.", "80% of dieters start by themselves, whereas 20% see a professional or join a paid program.", "The typical dieter attempts 4 tries per year.===Weight loss groups===Some weight loss groups aim to make money, others work as charities.", "The former include Weight Watchers and Peertrainer.", "The latter include Overeaters Anonymous, TOPS Club and groups run by local organizations.These organizations' customs and practices differ widely.", "Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal.", "Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.Attending group meetings for weight reduction programmes rather than receiving one-on-one support may increase the likelihood that obese people will lose weight.", "Those who participated in groups had more treatment time and were more likely to lose enough weight to improve their health.", "Study authors suggested that one explanation for the difference is that group participants spent more time with the clinician (or whoever delivered the programme) than those receiving one-on-one support." ], [ "See also", "Body imageCarbon footprintDietary Guidelines for AmericansFood faddismHigh residue dietIntuitive eatingList of dietsNational Weight Control RegistryNutrigenomicsNutrition psychologyNutrition scaleNutritional rating systemsOnline weight loss plansSuperfoodTable of food nutrientsUnderweight" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Schwartz, Hillel.", "''Never Satisfied: A Cultural History of Diets, Fantasies, and Fat''.", "New York: Free Press/Macmillan, 1986." ], [ "External links", " Diet reviews by the Harvard School of Public Health" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diet" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diet''' may refer to:" ], [ "Food", "* Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group* Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake** Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss or gain* Healthy diet, the process of helping to maintain or improve overall health" ], [ "Politics", "Diet (assembly), a formal deliberative assembly===Current=== National Diet, Japan's bicameral legislature, in its current form since 1947, composed of the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors* Landtag, a diet of states and provinces in Germany, Austria, South Tyrol in Italy, and the national parliament of Liechtenstein* Bundestag (''Deutscher Bundestag''), the lower house of Germany's Parliament, was established in West Germany in 1949, and all of Germany in 1990===Historical===* Diet of Finland, the legislative assembly of the Grand Duchy of Finland from 1809 to 1906* Diet of Hungary, the legislative assembly of the Kingdom of Hungary from 15th century to 1946* Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire), the imperial assembly of the princes of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806* Federal Convention (German Confederation), or Confederate Diet (German: Bundesversammlung or Bundestag) was the only central institution of the German Confederation (1815–1848 and 1850–1866)* Reichstag Reichstag (German Empire) (''Reichstag''), the Diet of the Empire, the legislative assembly of the German Empire, 1871–1917 Reichstag (Weimar Republic), (''Reichstag''), the Diet of the Weimar Republic, from 1919 to 1933** Reichstag (Nazi Germany), (''Reichstag''), the Diet of Nazi Germany, from 1933 to 1945, a purely ceremonial \"parliament\" in a totalitarian dictatorship without elections" ], [ "Television, film, or music", "* \"Diet\", an episode of the Adult Swim animated television series, ''Aqua Teen Hunger Force''* ''The Diet'' (cartoon), a Beetle Bailey animated short* \"Diet\", a 2020 single by Peakboy" ], [ "Other uses", "* DIET, an open-source middleware for high-performance computing" ], [ "See also", "* Diets, a historical name for the Dutch language in general* Dietsch (disambiguation), distinguishes the southern dialects in the Middle Dutch language* *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dubnium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dubnium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Db''' and atomic number 105.It is highly radioactive: the most stable known isotope, dubnium-268, has a half-life of about 16 hours.", "This greatly limits extended research on the element.Dubnium does not occur naturally on Earth and is produced artificially.", "The Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) claimed the first discovery of the element in 1968, followed by the American Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1970.Both teams proposed their names for the new element and used them without formal approval.", "The long-standing dispute was resolved in 1993 by an official investigation of the discovery claims by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, resulting in credit for the discovery being officially shared between both teams.", "The element was formally named ''dubnium'' in 1997 after the town of Dubna, the site of the JINR.Theoretical research establishes dubnium as a member of group 5 in the 6d series of transition metals, placing it under vanadium, niobium, and tantalum.", "Dubnium should share most properties, such as its valence electron configuration and having a dominant +5 oxidation state, with the other group 5 elements, with a few anomalies due to relativistic effects.", "A limited investigation of dubnium chemistry has confirmed this." ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Discovery", "===Background===Uranium, element 92, is the heaviest element to occur in significant quantities in nature; heavier elements can only be practically produced by synthesis.", "The first synthesis of a new element—neptunium, element 93—was achieved in 1940 by a team of researchers in the United States.", "In the following years, American scientists synthesized the elements up to mendelevium, element 101, which was synthesized in 1955.From element 102, the priority of discoveries was contested between American and Soviet physicists.", "Their rivalry resulted in a race for new elements and credit for their discoveries, later named the Transfermium Wars.=== Reports ===104, 105, and 106The first report of the discovery of element 105 came from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Soviet Union, in April 1968.The scientists bombarded 243Am with a beam of 22Ne ions, and reported 9.4 MeV (with a half-life of 0.1–3 seconds) and 9.7 MeV (''t''1/2 > 0.05 s) alpha activities followed by alpha activities similar to those of either 256103 or 257103.Based on prior theoretical predictions, the two activity lines were assigned to 261105 and 260105, respectively.", ": + → 265−''x''105 + ''x'' (''x'' = 4, 5)After observing the alpha decays of element 105, the researchers aimed to observe spontaneous fission (SF) of the element and study the resulting fission fragments.", "They published a paper in February 1970, reporting multiple examples of two such activities, with half-lives of 14 ms and .", "They assigned the former activity to 242mfAm and ascribed the latter activity to an isotope of element 105.They suggested that it was unlikely that this activity could come from a transfer reaction instead of element 105, because the yield ratio for this reaction was significantly lower than that of the 242mfAm-producing transfer reaction, in accordance with theoretical predictions.", "To establish that this activity was not from a (22Ne,''x''n) reaction, the researchers bombarded a 243Am target with 18O ions; reactions producing 256103 and 257103 showed very little SF activity (matching the established data), and the reaction producing heavier 258103 and 259103 produced no SF activity at all, in line with theoretical data.", "The researchers concluded that the activities observed came from SF of element 105.In April 1970, a team at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL), in Berkeley, California, United States, claimed to have synthesized element 105 by bombarding californium-249 with nitrogen-15 ions, with an alpha activity of 9.1 MeV.", "To ensure this activity was not from a different reaction, the team attempted other reactions: bombarding 249Cf with 14N, Pb with 15N, and Hg with 15N.", "They stated no such activity was found in those reactions.", "The characteristics of the daughter nuclei matched those of 256103, implying that the parent nuclei were of 260105.: + → 260105 + 4 These results did not confirm the JINR findings regarding the 9.4 MeV or 9.7 MeV alpha decay of 260105, leaving only 261105 as a possibly produced isotope.JINR then attempted another experiment to create element 105, published in a report in May 1970.They claimed that they had synthesized more nuclei of element 105 and that the experiment confirmed their previous work.", "According to the paper, the isotope produced by JINR was probably 261105, or possibly 260105.This report included an initial chemical examination: the thermal gradient version of the gas-chromatography method was applied to demonstrate that the chloride of what had formed from the SF activity nearly matched that of niobium pentachloride, rather than hafnium tetrachloride.", "The team identified a 2.2-second SF activity in a volatile chloride portraying eka-tantalum properties, and inferred that the source of the SF activity must have been element 105.In June 1970, JINR made improvements on their first experiment, using a purer target and reducing the intensity of transfer reactions by installing a collimator before the catcher.", "This time, they were able to find 9.1 MeV alpha activities with daughter isotopes identifiable as either 256103 or 257103, implying that the original isotope was either 260105 or 261105.=== Naming controversy ===JINR did not propose a name after their first report claiming synthesis of element 105, which would have been the usual practice.", "This led LBL to believe that JINR did not have enough experimental data to back their claim.", "After collecting more data, JINR proposed the name ''bohrium'' (Bo) in honor of the Danish nuclear physicist Niels Bohr, a founder of the theories of atomic structure and quantum theory; they soon changed their proposal to ''nielsbohrium'' (Ns) to avoid confusion with boron.", "Another proposed name was ''dubnium''.", "When LBL first announced their synthesis of element 105, they proposed that the new element be named ''hahnium'' (Ha) after the German chemist Otto Hahn, the \"father of nuclear chemistry\", thus creating an element naming controversy.In the early 1970s, both teams reported synthesis of the next element, element 106, but did not suggest names.", "JINR suggested establishing an international committee to clarify the discovery criteria.", "This proposal was accepted in 1974 and a neutral joint group formed.", "Neither team showed interest in resolving the conflict through a third party, so the leading scientists of LBL—Albert Ghiorso and Glenn Seaborg—traveled to Dubna in 1975 and met with the leading scientists of JINR—Georgy Flerov, Yuri Oganessian, and others—to try to resolve the conflict internally and render the neutral joint group unnecessary; after two hours of discussions, this failed.", "The joint neutral group never assembled to assess the claims, and the conflict remained unresolved.", "In 1979, IUPAC suggested systematic element names to be used as placeholders until permanent names were established; under it, element 105 would be ''unnilpentium'', from the Latin roots ''un-'' and ''nil-'' and the Greek root ''pent-'' (meaning \"one\", \"zero\", and \"five\", respectively, the digits of the atomic number).", "Both teams ignored it as they did not wish to weaken their outstanding claims.In 1981, the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; ''Society for Heavy Ion Research'') in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, claimed synthesis of element 107; their report came out five years after the first report from JINR but with greater precision, making a more solid claim on discovery.", "GSI acknowledged JINR's efforts by suggesting the name ''nielsbohrium'' for the new element.", "JINR did not suggest a new name for element 105, stating it was more important to determine its discoverers first.In 1985, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) formed a Transfermium Working Group (TWG) to assess discoveries and establish final names for the controversial elements.", "The party held meetings with delegates from the three competing institutes; in 1990, they established criteria on recognition of an element, and in 1991, they finished the work on assessing discoveries and disbanded.", "These results were published in 1993.According to the report, the first definitely successful experiment was the April 1970 LBL experiment, closely followed by the June 1970 JINR experiment, so credit for the discovery of the element should be shared between the two teams.LBL said that the input from JINR was overrated in the review.", "They claimed JINR was only able to unambiguously demonstrate the synthesis of element 105 a year after they did.", "JINR and GSI endorsed the report.In 1994, IUPAC published a recommendation on naming the disputed elements.", "For element 105, they proposed ''joliotium'' (Jl) after the French physicist Frédéric Joliot-Curie, a contributor to the development of nuclear physics and chemistry; this name was originally proposed by the Soviet team for element 102, which by then had long been called nobelium.", "This recommendation was criticized by the American scientists for several reasons.", "Firstly, their suggestions were scrambled: the names ''rutherfordium'' and ''hahnium'', originally suggested by Berkeley for elements 104 and 105, were respectively reassigned to elements 106 and 108.Secondly, elements 104 and 105 were given names favored by JINR, despite earlier recognition of LBL as an equal co-discoverer for both of them.", "Thirdly and most importantly, IUPAC rejected the name ''seaborgium'' for element 106, having just approved a rule that an element could not be named after a living person, even though the 1993 report had given the LBL team the sole credit for its discovery.In 1995, IUPAC abandoned the controversial rule and established a committee of national representatives aimed at finding a compromise.", "They suggested ''seaborgium'' for element 106 in exchange for the removal of all the other American proposals, except for the established name ''lawrencium'' for element 103.The equally entrenched name ''nobelium'' for element 102 was replaced by ''flerovium'' after Georgy Flerov, following the recognition by the 1993 report that that element had been first synthesized in Dubna.", "This was rejected by American scientists and the decision was retracted.", "The name ''flerovium'' was later used for element 114.In 1996, IUPAC held another meeting, reconsidered all names in hand, and accepted another set of recommendations; it was approved and published in 1997.Element 105 was named ''dubnium'' (Db), after Dubna in Russia, the location of the JINR; the American suggestions were used for elements 102, 103, 104, and 106.The name ''dubnium'' had been used for element 104 in the previous IUPAC recommendation.", "The American scientists \"reluctantly\" approved this decision.", "IUPAC pointed out that the Berkeley laboratory had already been recognized several times, in the naming of berkelium, californium, and americium, and that the acceptance of the names ''rutherfordium'' and ''seaborgium'' for elements 104 and 106 should be offset by recognizing JINR's contributions to the discovery of elements 104, 105, and 106.Even after 1997, LBL still sometimes used the name ''hahnium'' for element 105 in their own material, doing so as recently as 2014.However, the problem was resolved in the literature as Jens Volker Kratz, editor of ''Radiochimica Acta'', refused to accept papers not using the 1997 IUPAC nomenclature." ], [ "Isotopes", "A chart of nuclide stability as used by JINR in 2012.Characterized isotopes are shown with borders.Dubnium, having an atomic number of 105, is a superheavy element; like all elements with such high atomic numbers, it is very unstable.", "The longest-lasting known isotope of dubnium, 268Db, has a half-life of around a day.", "No stable isotopes have been seen, and a 2012 calculation by JINR suggested that the half-lives of all dubnium isotopes would not significantly exceed a day.", "Dubnium can only be obtained by artificial production.The short half-life of dubnium limits experimentation.", "This is exacerbated by the fact that the most stable isotopes are the hardest to synthesize.", "Elements with a lower atomic number have stable isotopes with a lower neutron–proton ratio than those with higher atomic number, meaning that the target and beam nuclei that could be employed to create the superheavy element have fewer neutrons than needed to form these most stable isotopes.", "(Different techniques based on rapid neutron capture and transfer reactions are being considered as of the 2010s, but those based on the collision of a large and small nucleus still dominate research in the area.", ")Only a few atoms of 268Db can be produced in each experiment, and thus the measured lifetimes vary significantly during the process.", "As of 2022, following additional experiments performed at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory (which started operations in 2019), the half-life of 268Db is measured to be hours.", "The second most stable isotope, 270Db, has been produced in even smaller quantities: three atoms in total, with lifetimes of 33.4 h, 1.3 h, and 1.6 h. These two are the heaviest isotopes of dubnium to date, and both were produced as a result of decay of the heavier nuclei 288Mc and 294Ts rather than directly, because the experiments that yielded them were originally designed in Dubna for 48Ca beams.", "For its mass, 48Ca has by far the greatest neutron excess of all practically stable nuclei, both quantitative and relative, which correspondingly helps synthesize superheavy nuclei with more neutrons, but this gain is compensated by the decreased likelihood of fusion for high atomic numbers." ], [ "Predicted properties", "According to the periodic law, dubnium should belong to group 5, with vanadium, niobium, and tantalum.", "Several studies have investigated the properties of element 105 and found that they generally agreed with the predictions of the periodic law.", "Significant deviations may nevertheless occur, due to relativistic effects, which dramatically change physical properties on both atomic and macroscopic scales.", "These properties have remained challenging to measure for several reasons: the difficulties of production of superheavy atoms, the low rates of production, which only allows for microscopic scales, requirements for a radiochemistry laboratory to test the atoms, short half-lives of those atoms, and the presence of many unwanted activities apart from those of synthesis of superheavy atoms.", "So far, studies have only been performed on single atoms.=== Atomic and physical ===Relativistic (solid line) and nonrelativistic (dashed line) radial distribution of the 7s valence electrons in dubnium.A direct relativistic effect is that as the atomic numbers of elements increase, the innermost electrons begin to revolve faster around the nucleus as a result of an increase of electromagnetic attraction between an electron and a nucleus.", "Similar effects have been found for the outermost s orbitals (and p1/2 ones, though in dubnium they are not occupied): for example, the 7s orbital contracts by 25% in size and is stabilized by 2.6 eV.A more indirect effect is that the contracted s and p1/2 orbitals shield the charge of the nucleus more effectively, leaving less for the outer d and f electrons, which therefore move in larger orbitals.", "Dubnium is greatly affected by this: unlike the previous group 5 members, its 7s electrons are slightly more difficult to extract than its 6d electrons.Relativistic stabilization of the ''n''s orbitals, the destabilization of the orbitals and their spin–orbit splitting for the group 5 elements.Another effect is the spin–orbit interaction, particularly spin–orbit splitting, which splits the 6d subshell—the azimuthal quantum number ℓ of a d shell is 2—into two subshells, with four of the ten orbitals having their ℓ lowered to 3/2 and six raised to 5/2.All ten energy levels are raised; four of them are lower than the other six.", "(The three 6d electrons normally occupy the lowest energy levels, 6d3/2.", ")A singly ionized atom of dubnium (Db+) should lose a 6d electron compared to a neutral atom; the doubly (Db2+) or triply (Db3+) ionized atoms of dubnium should eliminate 7s electrons, unlike its lighter homologs.", "Despite the changes, dubnium is still expected to have five valence electrons.", "As the 6d orbitals of dubnium are more destabilized than the 5d ones of tantalum, and Db3+ is expected to have two 6d, rather than 7s, electrons remaining, the resulting +3 oxidation state is expected to be unstable and even rarer than that of tantalum.", "The ionization potential of dubnium in its maximum +5 oxidation state should be slightly lower than that of tantalum and the ionic radius of dubnium should increase compared to tantalum; this has a significant effect on dubnium's chemistry.Atoms of dubnium in the solid state should arrange themselves in a body-centered cubic configuration, like the previous group 5 elements.", "The predicted density of dubnium is 21.6 g/cm3.=== Chemical ===Relativistic (rel) and nonrelativistic (nr) values of the effective charge (QM) and overlap population (OP) in MCl5, where M = V, Nb, Ta, and DbComputational chemistry is simplest in gas-phase chemistry, in which interactions between molecules may be ignored as negligible.", "Multiple authors have researched dubnium pentachloride; calculations show it to be consistent with the periodic laws by exhibiting the properties of a compound of a group 5 element.", "For example, the molecular orbital levels indicate that dubnium uses three 6d electron levels as expected.", "Compared to its tantalum analog, dubnium pentachloride is expected to show increased covalent character: a decrease in the effective charge on an atom and an increase in the overlap population (between orbitals of dubnium and chlorine).Calculations of solution chemistry indicate that the maximum oxidation state of dubnium, +5, will be more stable than those of niobium and tantalum and the +3 and +4 states will be less stable.", "The tendency towards hydrolysis of cations with the highest oxidation state should continue to decrease within group 5 but is still expected to be quite rapid.", "Complexation of dubnium is expected to follow group 5 trends in its richness.", "Calculations for hydroxo-chlorido- complexes have shown a reversal in the trends of complex formation and extraction of group 5 elements, with dubnium being more prone to do so than tantalum." ], [ "Experimental chemistry", "Experimental results of the chemistry of dubnium date back to 1974 and 1976.JINR researchers used a thermochromatographic system and concluded that the volatility of dubnium bromide was less than that of niobium bromide and about the same as that of hafnium bromide.", "It is not certain that the detected fission products confirmed that the parent was indeed element 105.These results may imply that dubnium behaves more like hafnium than niobium.The next studies on the chemistry of dubnium were conducted in 1988, in Berkeley.", "They examined whether the most stable oxidation state of dubnium in aqueous solution was +5.Dubnium was fumed twice and washed with concentrated nitric acid; sorption of dubnium on glass cover slips was then compared with that of the group 5 elements niobium and tantalum and the group 4 elements zirconium and hafnium produced under similar conditions.", "The group 5 elements are known to sorb on glass surfaces; the group 4 elements do not.", "Dubnium was confirmed as a group 5 member.", "Surprisingly, the behavior on extraction from mixed nitric and hydrofluoric acid solution into methyl isobutyl ketone differed between dubnium, tantalum, and niobium.", "Dubnium did not extract and its behavior resembled niobium more closely than tantalum, indicating that complexing behavior could not be predicted purely from simple extrapolations of trends within a group in the periodic table.This prompted further exploration of the chemical behavior of complexes of dubnium.", "Various labs jointly conducted thousands of repetitive chromatographic experiments between 1988 and 1993.All group 5 elements and protactinium were extracted from concentrated hydrochloric acid; after mixing with lower concentrations of hydrogen chloride, small amounts of hydrogen fluoride were added to start selective re-extraction.", "Dubnium showed behavior different from that of tantalum but similar to that of niobium and its pseudohomolog protactinium at concentrations of hydrogen chloride below 12 moles per liter.", "This similarity to the two elements suggested that the formed complex was either or .", "After extraction experiments of dubnium from hydrogen bromide into diisobutyl carbinol (2,6-dimethylheptan-4-ol), a specific extractant for protactinium, with subsequent elutions with the hydrogen chloride/hydrogen fluoride mix as well as hydrogen chloride, dubnium was found to be less prone to extraction than either protactinium or niobium.", "This was explained as an increasing tendency to form non‐extractable complexes of multiple negative charges.", "Further experiments in 1992 confirmed the stability of the +5 state: Db(V) was shown to be extractable from cation‐exchange columns with α‐hydroxyisobutyrate, like the group 5 elements and protactinium; Db(III) and Db(IV) were not.", "In 1998 and 1999, new predictions suggested that dubnium would extract nearly as well as niobium and better than tantalum from halide solutions, which was later confirmed.The first isothermal gas chromatography experiments were performed in 1992 with 262Db (half-life 35 seconds).", "The volatilities for niobium and tantalum were similar within error limits, but dubnium appeared to be significantly less volatile.", "It was postulated that traces of oxygen in the system might have led to formation of , which was predicted to be less volatile than .", "Later experiments in 1996 showed that group 5 chlorides were more volatile than the corresponding bromides, with the exception of tantalum, presumably due to formation of .", "Later volatility studies of chlorides of dubnium and niobium as a function of controlled partial pressures of oxygen showed that formation of oxychlorides and general volatility are dependent on concentrations of oxygen.", "The oxychlorides were shown to be less volatile than the chlorides.In 2004–05, researchers from Dubna and Livermore identified a new dubnium isotope, 268Db, as a fivefold alpha decay product of the newly created element 115.This new isotope proved to be long-lived enough to allow further chemical experimentation, with a half-life of over a day.", "In the 2004 experiment, a thin layer with dubnium was removed from the surface of the target and dissolved in aqua regia with tracers and a lanthanum carrier, from which various +3, +4, and +5 species were precipitated on adding ammonium hydroxide.", "The precipitate was washed and dissolved in hydrochloric acid, where it converted to nitrate form and was then dried on a film and counted.", "Mostly containing a +5 species, which was immediately assigned to dubnium, it also had a +4 species; based on that result, the team decided that additional chemical separation was needed.", "In 2005, the experiment was repeated, with the final product being hydroxide rather than nitrate precipitate, which was processed further in both Livermore (based on reverse phase chromatography) and Dubna (based on anion exchange chromatography).", "The +5 species was effectively isolated; dubnium appeared three times in tantalum-only fractions and never in niobium-only fractions.", "It was noted that these experiments were insufficient to draw conclusions about the general chemical profile of dubnium.In 2009, at the JAEA tandem accelerator in Japan, dubnium was processed in nitric and hydrofluoric acid solution, at concentrations where niobium forms and tantalum forms .", "Dubnium's behavior was close to that of niobium but not tantalum; it was thus deduced that dubnium formed .", "From the available information, it was concluded that dubnium often behaved like niobium, sometimes like protactinium, but rarely like tantalum.In 2021, the volatile heavy group 5 oxychlorides MOCl3 (M = Nb, Ta, Db) were experimentally studied at the JAEA tandem accelerator.", "The trend in volatilities was found to be NbOCl3 > TaOCl3 ≥ DbOCl3, so that dubnium behaves in line with periodic trends." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disaccharide" ], [ "Introduction", "Sucrose, a disaccharide formed from condensation of a molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructoseA '''disaccharide''' (also called a '''double sugar''' or '''''biose''''') is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage.", "Like monosaccharides, disaccharides are simple sugars soluble in water.", "Three common examples are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides).", "The most common types of disaccharides—sucrose, lactose, and maltose—have 12 carbon atoms, with the general formula C12H22O11.The differences in these disaccharides are due to atomic arrangements within the molecule.The joining of monosaccharides into a double sugar happens by a condensation reaction, which involves the elimination of a water molecule from the functional groups only.", "Breaking apart a double sugar into its two monosaccharides is accomplished by hydrolysis with the help of a type of enzyme called a disaccharidase.", "As building the larger sugar ejects a water molecule, breaking it down consumes a water molecule.", "These reactions are vital in metabolism.", "Each disaccharide is broken down with the help of a corresponding disaccharidase (sucrase, lactase, and maltase)." ], [ "Classification", "There are two functionally different classes of disaccharides: '''Reducing disaccharides''', in which one monosaccharide, the reducing sugar of the pair, still has a free hemiacetal unit that can perform as a reducing aldehyde group; lactose, maltose and cellobiose are examples of reducing disaccharides, each with one hemiacetal unit, the other occupied by the glycosidic bond, which prevents it from acting as a reducing agent.", "They can easily be detected by the Woehlk test or Fearon's test on methylamine.", "'''Non-reducing disaccharides''', in which the component monosaccharides bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers.", "This results in neither monosaccharide being left with a hemiacetal unit that is free to act as a reducing agent.", "Sucrose and trehalose are examples of non-reducing disaccharides because their glycosidic bond is between their respective hemiacetal carbon atoms.", "The reduced chemical reactivity of the non-reducing sugars, in comparison to reducing sugars, may be an advantage where stability in storage is important." ], [ "Formation", "The formation of a disaccharide molecule from two monosaccharide molecules proceeds by displacing a hydroxy group from one molecule and a hydrogen nucleus (a proton) from the other, so that the new vacant bonds on the monosaccharides join the two monomers together.", "Because of the removal of the water molecule from the product, the term of convenience for such a process is \"dehydration reaction\" (also \"condensation reaction\" or \"dehydration synthesis\").", "For example, milk sugar (lactose) is a disaccharide made by condensation of one molecule of each of the monosaccharides glucose and galactose, whereas the disaccharide sucrose in sugar cane and sugar beet, is a condensation product of glucose and fructose.", "Maltose, another common disaccharide, is condensed from two glucose molecules.The dehydration reaction that bonds monosaccharides into disaccharides (and also bonds monosaccharides into more complex polysaccharides) forms what are called glycosidic bonds." ], [ "Properties", "The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxy group on the component monosaccharide.", "So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (''alpha-'' or ''beta-'') result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties.", "Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling.", "Disaccharides can serve as functional groups by forming glycosidic bonds with other organic compounds, forming glycosides." ], [ "Assimilation", "Digestion of disaccharides involves breakdown into monosaccharides." ], [ "Common disaccharides", ": Disaccharide Unit 1 Unit 2 Bond Sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar, beet sugar, or saccharose) Glucose Fructose α(1→2)β Lactose (milk sugar) Galactose Glucose β(1→4) Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose Glucose α(1→4) Trehalose Glucose Glucose α(1→1)α Cellobiose Glucose Glucose β(1→4) Chitobiose Glucosamine Glucosamine β(1→4)Maltose, cellobiose, and chitobiose are hydrolysis products of the polysaccharides starch, cellulose, and chitin, respectively.Less common disaccharides include:: Disaccharide Units Bond Kojibiose Two glucoses α(1→2) Nigerose Two glucoses α(1→3) Isomaltose Two glucoses α(1→6) β,β-Trehalose Two glucoses β(1→1)β α,β-Trehalose Two glucoses α(1→1)β Sophorose Two glucoses β(1→2) Laminaribiose Two glucoses β(1→3) Gentiobiose Two glucoses β(1→6) Trehalulose One glucose and one fructose α(1→1) Turanose One glucose and one fructose α(1→3) Maltulose One glucose and one fructose α(1→4) Leucrose One glucose and one fructose α(1→5) Isomaltulose One glucose and one fructose α(1→6) Gentiobiulose One glucose and one fructose β(1→6) Mannobiose Two mannoses Either α(1→2), α(1→3), α(1→4), or α(1→6) Melibiose One galactose and one glucose α(1→6) Allolactose One galactose and one glucose β(1→6) Melibiulose One galactose and one glucose α(1→6) Lactulose One galactose and one fructose β(1→4) Rutinose One rhamnose and one glucose α(1→6) Rutinulose One rhamnose and one fructose β(1→6) Xylobiose Two xylopyranoses β(1→4)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dactylic hexameter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dactylic hexameter''' (also known as heroic hexameter and the meter of epic) is a form of meter or rhythmic scheme frequently used in Ancient Greek and Latin poetry.", "The scheme of the hexameter is usually as follows (writing – for a long syllable, u for a short, and u u for a position that may be a long or two shorts)::\| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – –Here, \"\|\" (pipe symbol) marks the beginning of a foot in the line.Thus there are six feet, each of which is either a dactyl (– u u) or a spondee (– –).", "The first four feet can either be dactyls, spondees, or a mix.", "The fifth foot can also sometimes be a spondee, but this is rare, as it most often is a dactyl.", "The last foot is a spondee.The hexameter is traditionally associated with classical epic poetry in both Greek and Latin and was consequently considered to be ''the'' grand style of Western classical poetry.", "Some well known examples of its use are Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'', Apollonius of Rhodes's ''Argonautica'', Virgil's ''Aeneid'', Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', Lucan's ''Pharsalia'' (an epic on Caesar's civil war), Valerius Flaccus's ''Argonautica'', and Statius's ''Thebaid''.However, hexameters had a wide use outside of epic.", "Greek works in hexameters include Hesiod's ''Works and Days'' and ''Theogony'', Theocritus's ''Idylls'', and Callimachus's hymns.", "In Latin famous works include Lucretius's philosophical , Virgil's ''Eclogues'' and ''Georgics'', book 10 of Columella's manual on agriculture, as well as Latin satirical poems by the poets Lucilius, Horace, Persius, and Juvenal.", "The hexameter continued to be used in Christian times, for example in the of the 5th-century Irish poet Sedulius and Bernard of Cluny's 12th-century satire among many others.Hexameters also form part of elegiac poetry in both languages, the elegiac couplet being a dactylic hexameter line paired with a dactylic pentameter line.", "This form of verse was used for love poetry by Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, for Ovid's letters from exile, and for many of the epigrams of Martial." ], [ "Structure", "===Syllables===Ancient Greek and Latin poetry is made up of long and short syllables arranged in various patterns.", "In Greek, a long syllable is () and a short syllable is ().", "In Latin the terms are and .", "The process of deciding which syllables are long and which are short is known as scansion.A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong: , .", "It is also long (with certain exceptions) if it has a short vowel followed by two consonants, even if these are in different words: , , .", "In this case a syllable like ''et'' is said to be long by position.There are some exceptions to the above rules, however.", "For example, ''tr'', ''cr'', ''pr'', ''gr'', and ''pl'' (and other combinations of a consonant with ''r'' or ''l'') can count as a single consonant, so that the word could be pronounced either with the first syllable short or with the first syllable long.", "Also the letter ''h'' is ignored in scansion, so that in the phrase the syllable ''et'' remains short.", "''qu'' counts as a single consonant, so that in the word \"water\" the first syllable is short, not like the Italian .In certain words like , , , , and , ''i'' is a consonant, pronounced like the English ''y,'' so has three syllables and \"he threw\" has two.", "But in , the name of Aeneas's son, ''I'' is a vowel and forms a separate syllable.", "\"Trojan\" has three syllables, but \"of Troy\" has two.In some editions of Latin texts the consonant ''v'' is written as ''u'', in which case ''u'' is also often consonantal.", "This can sometimes cause ambiguity; e.g., in the word (= ) \"he rolls\" the second ''u'' is a consonant, but in (= ) \"he wanted\" the second ''u'' is a vowel.===Feet===A hexameter line can be divided into six feet (Greek ἕξ ''hex'' = \"six\").", "In strict dactylic hexameter, each foot would be a dactyl (a long and two short syllables, i.e.", "– u u), but classical meter allows for the substitution of a spondee (two long syllables, i.e.", "– –) in place of a dactyl in most positions.", "Specifically, the first four feet can either be dactyls or spondees more or less freely.", "The fifth foot is usually a dactyl (around 95% of the lines in Homer).The sixth foot can be filled by either a trochee (a long then short syllable) or a spondee.", "Thus the dactylic line most normally is scanned as follows::\| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – x \|(Here \"–\" = a long syllable, \"u\" = a short syllable, \"u u\" = either one long or two shorts, and \"x\" = an ''anceps'' syllable, which can be long or short.", ")An example of this in Latin is the first line of Virgil's ''Aeneid'':::\"I sing of arms, and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ...\"The scansion is generally marked as follows, by placing long and short marks above the central vowel of each syllable: – u u – – ar ma vi \| rum que ca \| nō Troj \| jae quī \| prī mu sa \| bō rīs ''dactyl'' ''spondee''(Spaces mark syllable breaks)In dactylic verse, short syllables always come in pairs, so words such as \"soldiers\" or \"more easily\" cannot be used in a hexameter.===Elision===In Latin, when a word ends in a vowel or -m and is followed by a word starting with a vowel, the last vowel is usually elided (i.e.", "removed or pronounced quickly enough not to add to the length of the syllable), for example, .", "Again, \"h\" is ignored and does not prevent elision: .In Greek, short vowels elide freely, and the elision is shown by an apostrophe, for example in line 2 of the ''Iliad'': () \"which caused countless sufferings for the Achaeans\".", "However, a long vowel is not elided: ().", "This feature is sometimes imitated in Latin for special effect, for example, \"with womanly wailing\" (''Aen''.", "9.477).When a vowel is elided, it does not count in the scansion; so for the purposes of scansion, has four syllables.===Caesura===Almost every hexameter has a word break, known as a caesura , in the middle of the 3rd foot, sometimes (but not always) coinciding with a break in sense.", "In most cases (85% of lines in Virgil) this comes after the first syllable of the 3rd foot, as in in the above example.", "This is known as a strong or masculine caesura.When the 3rd foot is a dactyl, the caesura can come after the second syllable of the 3rd foot; this is known as a weak or feminine caesura.", "It is more common in Greek than in Latin.", "An example is the first line of Homer's ''Odyssey''::::\"Tell me, Muse, of the man of many wiles, who very much ...\"In Latin (but not in Greek, as the above example shows), whenever a feminine caesura is used in the 3rd foot, it is usually accompanied by masculine caesuras in the 2nd and 4th feet also:::\"You are bidding me, o queen, to renew an unspeakable sorrow\"Sometimes a line is found without a 3rd foot caesura, such as the following.", "In this case the 2nd and 4th foot caesuras are obligatory:::\"then from his high couch Father Aeneas began as follows\"" ], [ "In Greek", "The hexameter was first used by early Greek poets of the oral tradition, and the most complete extant examples of their works are the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', which influenced the authors of all later classical epics that survive today.", "Early epic poetry was also accompanied by music, and pitch changes associated with the accented Greek must have highlighted the melody, though the exact mechanism is still a topic of discussion.The first line of Homer’s ''Iliad'' provides an example::::\"Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’ son Achilles\"Dividing the line into metrical units or feet it can be scanned as follows::: (-''deō'' is one syllable):dactyl, dactyl, spondee, dactyl, dactyl, spondee: \| – u u \| – u u \| –, – \| – u u \| – u u \| – – \|This line also includes a masculine caesura after , a break that separates the line into two parts.", "Homer employs a feminine caesura more commonly than later writers.", "An example occurs in ''Iliad'' 1.5:::\"... and every bird; and the plan of Zeus was fulfilled\":::\| – – \| – u u \| – u, u \| – u u \| – u u \| – – \|Homer’s hexameters contain a higher proportion of dactyls than later hexameter poetry.", "They are also characterised by a laxer following of verse principles than later epicists almost invariably adhered to.", "For example, Homer allows spondaic fifth feet (albeit not often), whereas many later authors do not.Homer also altered the forms of words to allow them to fit the hexameter, typically by using a dialectal form: ''ptolis'' is an epic form used instead of the Attic ''polis'' as necessary for the meter.", "Proper names sometimes take forms to fit the meter, for example ''Pouludamas'' instead of the metrically unviable ''Poludamas''.Some lines require a knowledge of the digamma for their scansion, e.g.", "''Iliad'' 1.108::::\"you have not yet spoken a good word nor brought one to pass\"::: \| – – \| – u u \| – – \| – u u \| – u u \| – – \|Here the word (''epos'') was originally (''wepos'') in Ionian; the digamma, later lost, lengthened the last syllable of the preceding (''eipas'') and removed the apparent defect in the meter.", "A digamma also saved the hiatus in the third foot.", "This example demonstrates the oral tradition of the Homeric epics that flourished before they were written down sometime in the 7th century BC.Most of the later rules of hexameter composition have their origins in the methods and practices of Homer." ], [ "In Latin", "Diagramming of the opening lines of the ''Aeneid''The hexameter came into Latin as an adaptation from Greek long after the practice of singing the epics had faded.", "Consequentially, the properties of the meter were learned as specific rules rather than as a natural result of musical expression.", "Also, because the Latin language generally has a higher proportion of long syllables than Greek, it is by nature more spondaic.", "Thus the Latin hexameter took on characteristics of its own.===Ennius===The earliest example of hexameter in Latin poetry is the ''Annales'' of Ennius (now mostly lost except for about 600 lines), which established it as the standard for later Latin epics; it was written towards the end of Ennius's life about 172 BC.", "Ennius experimented with different kinds of lines, for example, lines with five dactyls:::\"Then the trumpet with terrifying sound went 'taratantara!", "'\"or lines consisting entirely of spondees:::\"To him replied the king of Alba Longa\"lines without a caesura:::\"With scattered long spears the plain gleams and bristles\"lines ending in a one-syllable word or in words of more than three syllables:::\"A single man, by delaying, restored the situation for us.", "\":::\"I do not demand gold for myself nor should you give me a price::not buying and selling war, but waging it\"or even lines starting with two short syllables::: \| u u – \| – – \| –, u u \| – – \| – u u \| – –:\"the blacktail, the rainbow wrasse, the bird wrasse, and the maigre\" (kinds of fish)However, most of these features were abandoned by later writers or used only occasionally for special effect.===Later writers===Later Republican writers, such as Lucretius, Catullus, and even Cicero, wrote hexameter compositions, and it was at this time that the principles of Latin hexameter were firmly established and followed by later writers such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, and Juvenal.", "Virgil's opening line for the ''Aeneid'' is a classic example:: :\"I sing of arms and of the man who first from the shores of Troy ...\"In Latin, lines were arranged so that the metrically long syllables—those occurring at the beginning of a foot—often avoided the natural stress of a word.", "In the earlier feet of a line, meter and stress were expected to clash, while in the last two feet they were expected to coincide, as in above.", "The coincidence of word accent and meter in the last two feet could be achieved by restricting the last word to one of two or three syllables.Most lines (about 85% in Virgil) have a caesura or word division after the first syllable of the 3rd foot, as above .", "This is known as a strong or masculine caesura.", "Because of the penultimate accent in Latin, this ensures that the word accent and meter will not coincide in the 3rd foot.", "But in those lines with a feminine or weak caesura, such as the following, there is inevitably a coincidence of meter and accent in the 3rd foot:::\"there follows shouting of men and rattling of ropes\"To offset this, whenever there was a feminine caesura in the 3rd foot, there was usually also a masculine caesura in the 2nd and 4th feet, to ensure that in those feet at least, the word accent and meter did not coincide.===Metrical effects===By the age of Augustus, poets like Virgil closely followed the rules of the meter and approached it in a highly rhetorical way, looking for effects that can be exploited in skilled recitation.", "For example, the following line from the ''Aeneid'' (8.596) describes the movement and sound of galloping horses:::\"with four-footed sound the hoof shakes the crumbling plain\"This line is made up of five dactyls and a closing spondee, an unusual rhythmic arrangement that imitates the described action.", "A different effect is found in 8.452, where Virgil describes how the blacksmith sons of Vulcan forged Aeneas' shield.", "The five spondees and the word accents cutting across the verse rhythm give an impression of huge effort:::\"They with much force raise their arms one after another\"A slightly different effect is found in the following line (3.658), describing the terrifying one-eyed giant Polyphemus, blinded by Ulysses.", "Here again there are five spondees but there are also three elisions, which cause the word accent of all the words but to coincide with the beginning of each foot:::\"A horrendous huge shapeless monster, whose eye (lit.", "light) had been removed\"A succession of long syllables in some lines indicates slow movement, as in the following example where Aeneas and his companion the Sibyl (a priestess of Apollo) were entering the darkness of the world of the dead:::\"they were going in the darkness beneath the lonely night through the shadow\"The following example (''Aeneid'' 2.9) describes how Aeneas is reluctant to begin his narrative, since it is already past midnight.", "The feminine caesura after without a following 4th-foot caesura ensures that all the last four feet have word accent at the beginning, which is unusual.", "The monotonous effect is reinforced by the assonance of ''dent ... dent'' and the alliteration of S ... S::::\"And already the moist night is falling from the sky:and the setting constellations are inviting sleep\"Dactyls are associated with sleep again in the following unusual line, which describes the activity of a priestess who is feeding a magic serpent (''Aen.''", "4.486).", "In this line, there are five dactyls, and every one is accented on the first syllable:::\"sprinkling moist honey and sleep-inducing poppy\"A different technique, at 1.105, is used when describing a ship at sea during a storm.", "Here Virgil places a single-syllable word at the end of the line.", "This produces a jarring rhythm that echoes the crash of a large wave against the side of the ship::::\"(The boat) gives its side to the waves; there immediately follows in a heap a steep mountain of water.", "\"The Roman poet Horace uses a similar trick to highlight the comedic irony in this famous line from his ''Ars Poetica'' (line 139):::\"The mountains will be in labor, but all that will be born is a ridiculous ... mouse\"Usually in Latin the 5th foot of a hexameter is a dactyl.", "However, in his poem 64, Catullus several times uses a 5th foot spondee, which gives a Greek flavour to his verse, as in this line describing the forested Vale of Tempe in northern Greece:::\"Tempe, which woods surround, hanging over it\"Virgil also occasionally imitates Greek practice, for example, in the first line of his 3rd Eclogue:::\"Tell me, Damoetas, whose cattle are these?", "Are they Meliboeus's?", "\"Here there is a break in sense after a 4th-foot dactyl, a feature known as a bucolic diaeresis, because it is frequently used in Greek pastoral poetry.", "In fact it is common in Homer too (as in the first line of the ''Odyssey'' quoted above), but rare in Latin epic.===Stylistic features of epic===Certain stylistic features are characteristic of epic hexameter poetry, especially as written by Virgil.====Enjambment====Hexameters are frequently enjambed—the meaning runs over from one line to the next, without terminal punctuation—which helps to create the long, flowing narrative of epic.", "Sentences can also end in different places in the line, for example, after the first foot.", "In this, classical epic differs from medieval Latin, where the lines are often composed individually, with a break in sense at the end of each one.====Poetic vocabulary====Often in poetry ordinary words are replaced by poetic ones, for example or for water, for sea, for ship, for river, and so on.", "Some ordinary Latin words are avoided, e.g.", "etc., simply because they cannot be fitted into a hexameter verse.====Hyperbaton====It is common in poetry for adjectives to be widely separated from their nouns, and quite often one adjective–noun pair is interleaved with another.", "This feature is known as hyperbaton \"stepping over\".", "An example is the opening line of Lucan's epic on the Civil War:::\"Wars through the Emathian – more than civil – plains\"Another example is the opening of Ovid's mythological poem Metamorphoses where the word \"new\" is in a different line from \"bodies\" which it describes:: (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.1):\"My spirit leads me to tell of forms transformed into new bodies.", "\"One particular arrangement of words that seems to have been particularly admired is the golden line, a line which contains two adjectives, a verb, and two nouns, with the first adjective corresponding to the first noun such as:::\"and the barbarian pipe was strident with horrible music\"Catullus was the first to use this kind of line, as in the above example.", "Later authors used it rarely (1% of lines in Ovid), but in silver Latin it became increasingly popular.====Alliteration and assonance====Virgil in particular used alliteration and assonance frequently, although it is much less common in Ovid.", "Often more than one consonant was alliterated and not necessarily at the beginning of words, for example::::\"But the queen, now long wounded by grave anxiety,:feeds the wound in her veins and is tormented by an unseen fire\"Also in Virgil:: \"places silent with night everywhere\": \"those ones with oars sweep the dark shallows\"Sometimes the same vowel is repeated:::\"on me, me, I who did it am here, turn your swords on me!", "\"::\"he does not let go of the reins, but he is not strong enough to hold them back, and he does not know the names of the horses\"====Rhetorical techniques====Rhetorical devices such as anaphora, antithesis, and rhetorical questions are frequently used in epic poetry.", "Tricolon is also common::::\"All this crowd that you see, are the poor and unburied;:that ferryman is Charon; these, that the wave is carrying, are the buried.", "\"====Genre of subject matter====The poems of Homer, Virgil, and Ovid often vary their narrative with speeches.", "Well known examples are the speech of Queen Dido cursing Aeneas in book 4 of the ''Aeneid'', the lament of the nymph Juturna when she is unable to save her brother Turnus in book 12 of the ''Aeneid'', and the quarrel between Ajax and Ulysses over the arms of Achilles in book 13 of Ovid's ''Metamorphoses''.", "Some speeches are themselves narratives, as when Aeneas tells Queen Dido about the fall of Troy and his voyage to Africa in books 2 and 3 of the ''Aeneid''.", "Other styles of writing include vivid descriptions, such as Virgil's description of the god Charon in ''Aeneid'' 6, or Ovid's description of Daedalus's labyrinth in book 8 of the ''Metamorphoses''; similes, such as Virgil's comparison of the souls of the dead to autumn leaves or clouds of migrating birds in ''Aeneid'' 6; and lists of names, such as when Ovid names 36 of the dogs who tore their master Actaeon to pieces in book 3 of the ''Metamorphoses''.===Conversational style===Raven divides the various styles of the hexameter in classical Latin into three types: the early stage (Ennius), the fully developed type (Cicero, Catullus, Virgil, and Ovid, with Lucretius about midway between Ennius and Cicero), and the conversational type, especially Horace, but also to an extent Persius and Juvenal.", "One feature which marks these off is their often irregular line endings (for example, words of one syllable) and also the very conversational, un-epic style.", "Horace in fact called his satires (\"conversations\").", "The word order and vocabulary is much as might be expected in prose.", "An example is the opening of the 9th satire of book 1::::::\"I was walking by chance along the Sacred Way, as is my custom,:meditating on some trifle or other, completely absorbed in it,:when suddenly up ran a certain person known to me by name only.", ":He grabbed my hand and said 'How are you, sweetest of things?", "'\"===Silver Age and Late Empire===The verse innovations of the Augustan writers were carefully imitated by their successors in the Silver Age of Latin literature.", "The verse form itself then was little changed as the quality of a poet's hexameter was judged against the standard set by Virgil and the other Augustan poets, a respect for literary precedent encompassed by the Latin word ''''.", "Deviations were generally regarded as idiosyncrasies or hallmarks of personal style and were not imitated by later poets.", "Juvenal, for example, was fond of occasionally creating verses that placed a sense break between the fourth and fifth foot (instead of in the usual caesura positions), but this technique—known as the bucolic diaeresis—did not catch on with other poets.In the late empire, writers experimented again by adding unusual restrictions to the standard hexameter.", "The rhopalic verse of Ausonius is a good example; besides following the standard hexameter pattern, each word in the line is one syllable longer than the previous, e.g.", ":::::\"O God, Hope of Eternal Life, Conciliator,:if, with chaste entreaties, hoping for pardon, we keep vigil,:look kindly on us and grant these prayers.", "\"Also notable is the tendency among late grammarians to thoroughly dissect the hexameters of Virgil and earlier poets.", "A treatise on poetry by Diomedes Grammaticus is a good example, as this work categorizes dactylic hexameter verses in ways that were later interpreted under the golden line rubric.", "Independently, these two trends show the form becoming highly artificial—more like a puzzle to solve than a medium for personal poetic expression.===Middle Ages===By the Middle Ages, some writers adopted more relaxed versions of the meter.", "Bernard of Cluny, in the 12th century, for example, employs it in his ''De Contemptu Mundi'', but ignores classical conventions in favor of accentual effects and predictable rhyme both within and between verses, e.g.", "::::::\"These are the last days, the worst of times: let us keep watch.", ":Behold the menacing arrival of the supreme Judge.", ":He is coming, he is coming to end evil, to crown just actions,:Reward what is right, free us from anxieties, and give the heavens.", "\"Not all medieval writers are so at odds with the Virgilian standard, and with the rediscovery of classical literature, later Medieval and Renaissance writers are far more orthodox, but by then the form had become an academic exercise.", "Petrarch, for example, devoted much time to his ''Africa'', a dactylic hexameter epic on Scipio Africanus, completed in 1341, but this work was unappreciated in his time and remains little read today.", "It begins as follows:::::\"To me also, o Muse, tell of the man, :conspicuous for his merits and fearsome in war,:to whom noble Africa, broken beneath Italian arms,:first gave its eternal name.", "\"In contrast, Dante decided to write his epic, the ''Divine Comedy'' in Italian—a choice that defied the traditional epic choice of Latin dactylic hexameters—and produced a masterpiece beloved both then and now.With the Neo-Latin period, the language itself came to be regarded as a medium only for serious and learned expression, a view that left little room for Latin poetry.", "The emergence of Recent Latin in the 20th century restored classical orthodoxy among Latinists and sparked a general (if still academic) interest in the beauty of Latin poetry.", "Today, the modern Latin poets who use the dactylic hexameter are generally as faithful to Virgil as Rome's Silver Age poets." ], [ "In modern languages", "===In English===Many poets have attempted to write dactylic hexameters in English, though few works composed in the meter have stood the test of time.", "Most such works are accentual rather than quantitative.", "Perhaps the most famous is Longfellow's \"Evangeline\", whose first lines are as follows::\"This is the / forest pri/meval.", "The / murmuring / pines and the / hemlocks:Bearded with / moss, and in / garments / green, indis/tinct in the / twilight,:Stand like / Druids of / eld, with / voices / sad and pro/phetic...\"Contemporary poet Annie Finch wrote her epic libretto ''Among the Goddesses'' in dactylic tetrameter, which she claims is the most accurate English accentual equivalent of dactylic hexameter.", "Poets who have written quantitative hexameters in English include Robert Bridges and Rodney Merrill, whose translation of part of the ''Iliad'' begins as follows (see External links below)::\"Sing now, / goddess, the / wrath of A/chilles the / scion of / Peleus,:Ruinous / rage, which / brought the A/chaeans un/counted af/flictions;:Many the / powerful / souls it / sent to the / dwelling of / Hades...\"Although the rules seem simple, it is hard to use classical hexameter in English, because English is a stress-timed language that condenses vowels and consonants between stressed syllables, while hexameter relies on the regular timing of the phonetic sounds.", "Languages having the latter properties (i.e., languages that are not stress timed) include Ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian and Hungarian.===In German===Dactylic hexameter has proved more successful in German than in most modern languages.", "Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's epic ''Der Messias'' popularized accentual dactylic hexameter in German.", "Subsequent German poets to employ the form include Goethe (notably in his ''Reineke Fuchs'') and Schiller.The opening lines of Goethe's (\"Reynard the Fox\"), written in 1793–1794 are these:::::::\"Pentecost, the lovely festival, had come; field and forest:grew green and bloomed; on hills and ridges, in bushes and hedges:The newly encouraged birds practised a merry song;:Every meadow sprouted with flowers in fragrant grounds,:The sky shone festively cheerfully and the earth was colourful.", "\"===In French===Jean-Antoine de Baïf (1532–1589) wrote poems regulated by quantity on the Greco–Roman model, a system which came to be known as ''vers mesurés'', or ''vers mesurés à l'antique'', which the French language of the Renaissance permitted.", "To do this, he invented a special phonetic alphabet.", "In works like his ''Étrénes de poézie Franzoęze an vęrs mezurés'' (1574) or ''Chansonnettes'' he used the dactylic hexameter, and other meters, in a quantitative way.An example of one of his elegiac couplets is as follows.", "The final -e of , , and is sounded, and the word is pronounced /i/::::\| – u u \| – – \| – u u \| – – \| – u u \| – –:\| – u u \| – u u \| – –:\"Let the handsome Narcissus come, who never loved another except himself,:and let him look at your eyes, and let him try not to love you.", "\"A modern attempt at reproducing the dactylic hexameter in French is this one, by André Markowicz (1985), translating Catullus's poem 63.Again the final -e and -es of , , and are sounded::::\| – – \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – – \|:\| – u u \| – – \| – u u \| – u u \| – u u \| – – \|:\"Is it for this that you have snatched me from the altars of my ancestors,:to abandon me, traitorous Theseus, on these deserted shores?", "\"===In Hungarian===Hungarian is extremely suitable to hexameter (and other forms of poetry based on quantitative meter).", "It has been applied to Hungarian since 1541, introduced by the grammarian János Sylvester.A hexameter can even occur spontaneously.", "For example, a student may extricate themselves from failing to remember a poem by saying the following, which is a hexameter in Hungarian::Itt ela/kadtam, / sajnos / nem jut e/szembe a / többi.", ":\"I'm stuck here, unfortunately the rest won't come into my mind.", "\"Sándor Weöres included an ordinary nameplate text in one of his poems (this time, a pentameter)::Tóth Gyula / bádogos / és // vízveze/ték-szere/lő.", ":\"Gyula Tóth tinsmith and plumber\"A label on a bar of chocolate went as follows, another hexameter, noticed by the poet Dániel Varró::Tejcsoko/ládé / sárgaba/rack- és / kekszdara/bokkal:\"Milk chocolate with apricot and biscuit bits\"Due to this feature, the hexameter has been widely used both in translated (Greek and Roman) and in original Hungarian poetry up to the twentieth century (e.g.", "by Miklós Radnóti).===In Lithuanian===''The Seasons'' (''Metai'') by Kristijonas Donelaitis is a famous Lithuanian poem in quantitative dactylic hexameters.", "Because of the nature of Lithuanian, more than half of the lines of the poem are entirely spondaic save for the mandatory dactyl in the fifth foot." ], [ "See also", "* Latin rhythmic hexameter* Prosody (Greek)* Prosody (Latin)* Meters of Roman comedy* Trochaic septenarius* Brevis in longo* Anceps* Biceps* Resolution (meter)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bassett, S. E. (1905).", "\"Notes on the Bucolic Diaeresis\".", "''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' Vol.", "36 (1905), pp. 111–124.", "* Butcher, W. G. D. (1914).", "\"The Caesvra in Virgil, and Its Bearing on the Authenticity of the Pseudo-Vergiliana\".", "''The Classical Quarterly'', Vol.", "8, No.", "2, pp. 123–131.", "* Heikkinen, S. (2015).", "''From Persius to Wilkinson: The Golden Line Revisited''.", "''Arctos'' 49, pp. 57–77.", "* Raven, D. S. (1962).", "''Greek Metre: An Introduction''.", "(Routledge)* Raven, D. S. (1965).", "''Latin Metre: An Introduction''.", "(Routledge)* West, M. L. (1987).", "''Introduction to Greek Metre''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press." ], [ "External links", "* Introduction to dactylic hexameter for Latin verse.", "* Reading dactylic hexameter, specifically Homer.", "* Recitation of Homer Iliad 23.62-107 (in Greek), by Stanley Lombardo.", "* Oral reading of Virgil's ''Aeneid'', by Robert Sonkowsky, University of Minnesota.", "* Greek hexameter analysis online tool, University of Vilnius.", "* Audio/Visual Tutorials for Vergil's Hexameter, by Dale Grote, UNC Charlotte.", "* Hexameter.co, practice scanning lines of dactylic hexameter from a variety of Latin authors.", "* Rodney Merrill reading his translation of Homer's Iliad, in English dactylic hexameter verse." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dorado" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dorado''' (, ) is a constellation in the Southern Sky.", "It was named in the late 16th century and is now one of the 88 modern constellations.", "Its name refers to the mahi-mahi (''Coryphaena hippurus''), which is known as ''dorado'' (\"golden\") in Spanish, although it has also been depicted as a swordfish.", "Dorado contains most of the Large Magellanic Cloud, the remainder being in the constellation Mensa.", "The South Ecliptic pole also lies within this constellation.Even though the name Dorado is not Latin but Spanish, astronomers give it the Latin genitive form ''Doradus'' when naming its stars; it is treated (like the adjacent asterism Argo Navis) as a feminine proper name of Greek origin ending in -ō (like ''Io'' or ''Callisto'' or ''Argo''), which have a genitive ending ''-ūs''." ], [ "History", "Dorado was one of twelve constellations named by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman.", "It appeared:* On a celestial globe published in 1597 (or 1598) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius.", "* First depiction in a celestial atlas, in Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'' of 1603.", "* In Johannes Kepler's edition of Tycho Brahe's star list in the ''Rudolphine Tables'' of 1627; this was the first time that it was given the alternative name Xiphias, the swordfish.", "The name Dorado ultimately became dominant and was adopted by the IAU.Dorado represents a dolphinfish; it has also been called the goldfish because Dorado are gold-colored.In early 2020, TOI-700 d, the first Earth-sized exoplanet was discovered in Dorado by astronomers of the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Dorado as it can be seen by the naked eye===Stars===Alpha Doradus is a blue-white star of magnitude 3.3, 176 light-years from Earth.", "It is the brightest star in Dorado.", "Beta Doradus is a notably bright Cepheid variable star.", "It is a yellow-tinged supergiant star that has a minimum magnitude of 4.1 and a maximum magnitude of 3.5.One thousand and forty light-years from Earth, Beta Doradus has a period of 9 days and 20 hours.R Doradus is one of the many variable stars in Dorado.", "S Dor, 9.721 hypergiant in the Large Magellanic Cloud, is the prototype of S Doradus variable stars.", "The variable star R Doradus 5.73 has the largest-known apparent size of any star other than the Sun.", "Gamma Doradus is the prototype of the Gamma Doradus variable stars.Supernova 1987A was the closest supernova to occur since the invention of the telescope.", "SNR 0509-67.5 is the remnant of an unusually energetic Type 1a supernova from about 400 years ago.HE 0437-5439 is a hypervelocity star escaping from the Milky Way/Magellanic Cloud system.Dorado is also the location of the South Ecliptic pole, which lies near the fish's head.", "The pole was called \"Polus Doradinalis\" by Philipp von Zesen, aka Caesius.===Deep-sky objects===Because Dorado contains part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, it is rich in deep sky objects.", "The Large Magellanic Cloud, 25,000 light-years in diameter, is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way Galaxy, located at a distance of 179,000 light-years.", "It has been deformed by its gravitational interactions with the larger Milky Way.", "In 1987, it became host to SN 1987A, the first supernova of 1987 and the closest since 1604.This 25,000-light-year-wide galaxy contains over 10,000 million stars.", "All coordinates given are for Epoch J2000.0.NGC 1566 is an intermediate spiral galaxy.", "* N 180B is an emission nebula located in the Large Magellanic Cloud.", "* NGC 1566 (RA 04h 20m 00s Dec -56° 56.3′) is a face-on spiral galaxy.", "It gives its name to the NGC 1566 Group of galaxies.", "* NGC 1755 (RA 04h 55m 13s Dec -68° 12.2′) is a globular cluster.", "* NGC 1763 (RA 04h 56m 49s Dec -68° 24.5′) is a bright nebula associated with three type B stars.", "* NGC 1820 (RA 05h 04m 02s Dec -67° 15.9′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 1850 (RA 05h 08m 44s Dec -68° 45.7′) is a globular cluster.", "* NGC 1854 (RA 05h 09m 19s Dec -68° 50.8′) is a globular cluster.", "* NGC 1869 (RA 05h 13m 56s Dec -67° 22.8′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 1901 (RA 05h 18m 15s Dec -68° 26.2′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 1910 (RA 05h 18m 43s Dec -69° 13.9′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 1936 (RA 05h 22m 14s Dec -67° 58.7′) is a bright nebula and is one of four NGC objects in close proximity, the others being NGC 1929, NGC 1934 and NGC 1935.", "* NGC 1978 (RA 05h 28m 36s Dec -66° 14.0′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 2002 (RA 05h 30m 17s Dec -66° 53.1′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 2014 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is a red emission nebula.", "* NGC 2020 (RA 05h 44m 12.7s Dec −67° 42′ 57″) is an HII region surrounding a Wolf–Rayet star.", "* NGC 2027 (RA 05h 35m 00s Dec -66° 55.0′) is an open cluster.", "* NGC 2032 (RA 05h 35m 21s Dec -67° 34.1′; also known as \"Seagull Nebula\") is a nebula complex that contains four NGC designations: NGC 2029, NGC 2032, NGC 2035 and NGC 2040.LEDA 89996 is a classic example of a spiral galaxy.", "* NGC 2074 (RA 05h 39m 03.0s Dec −69° 29′ 54″) is an emission nebula.", "* NGC 2078 (RA 05h 39m 54s Dec −69° 44′ 54″) is an emission nebula.", "* NGC 2080, also called the \"Ghost Head Nebula\", is an emission nebula that is 50 light-years wide in the Large Magellanic Cloud.", "It is named for the two distinct white patches that it possesses, which are regions of recent star formation.", "The western portion is colored green from doubly ionized oxygen, the southern portion is red from hydrogen alpha emissions, and the center region is colored yellow from both oxygen and hydrogen emissions.", "The western white patch, A1, has one massive, recently formed star inside.", "The eastern patch, A2, has several stars hidden in its dust.", "* Tarantula Nebula is in the Large Magellanic Cloud, named for its spiderlike shape.", "It is also designated 30 Doradus, as it is visible to the naked eye as a slightly out-of-focus star.", "Larger than any nebula in the Milky Way at 1,000 light-years in diameter, it is also brighter, because it is illuminated by the open star cluster NGC 2070, which has at its center the star cluster R136.The illuminating stars are supergiants.", "* NGC 2164 (RA 05h 58m 53s Dec -68° 30.9′) is a globular cluster.", "* N44 is a superbubble in the Large Magellanic Cloud that is 1,000 light-years wide.", "Its overall structure is shaped by the 40 hot stars towards its center.", "Within the superbubble of N44 is a smaller bubble catalogued as N44F.", "It is approximately 35 light-years in diameter and is shaped by an incredibly hot star at its center, which has a stellar wind speed of 7 million kilometers per hour.", "N44F also features dust columns with probable star formation hidden inside." ], [ "Equivalents", "In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Dorado are in two of Xu Guangqi's Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, ''Jìnnánjíxīngōu''): the White Patches Attached (夾白, ''Jiābái'') and the Goldfish (金魚, ''Jīnyú'')." ], [ "Namesakes", "* ''Dorado ''(SS-248) and ''Dorado'' (SS-526), two United States Navy submarines, were named after the same sea creature as the constellation." ], [ "Gallery", "NGC1706 - HST - Potw1943a.tif\|NGC 1706 is a spiral galaxy, about 230 million light-years away." ], [ "See also", "* Dorado in Chinese astronomy* Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration* IAU-recognized constellations" ], [ "References", ";Notes* The above deep sky objects appear in ''Norton's Star Atlas'', 1973 edition.", "* Co-ordinates are obtained from Uranometria Chart Index and Skyview.", "* Images of the deep sky objects described herein may be viewed at Skyview.", ";Citations" ], [ "Sources", "* " ], [ "External links", " The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Dorado* The clickable Dorado* Peoria Astronomical Society - Dorado* Star Tales – Dorado" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Draco (lawgiver)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Draco''' (; , ''Drakōn''; fl.", "c. 625-600 BC), also called '''Drako''' or '''Drakon''', was the first recorded legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece.", "He replaced the prevailing system of oral law and blood feud by the Draconian constitution, a written code to be enforced only by a court of law.His name may be a metaphor (δράκων literally means \"sharp-sighted\"), not the name of an actual person, since there are reasons to believe that he is also a fiction, entirely or in part.", "This is supported by the lack of a patronymic and any biographical information.Since the 19th century, the adjective ''draconian'' (Greek: ''δρακόντειος'' ''drakónteios'') refers to similarly unforgiving rules or laws, in Greek, English, and other European languages." ], [ "Life", "During the 39th Olympiad, in 622 or 621 BC, Draco established the legal code with which he is identified.Little is known about Draco’s life.", "He may have belonged to the Greek nobility of Attica prior to the period of the Seven Sages of Greece, as per the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, the Suda.", "The Suda chronicles a folkloric story of his death in the Aeginetan theatre: in a traditional ancient Greek show of approval, his supporters \"threw so many hats and shirts and cloaks on his head that he suffocated, and was buried in that same theatre\".", "The truth about his death is still unclear, but it is known that Draco was driven out of Athens by the Athenians to the neighbouring island of Aegina, where he spent the remainder of his life." ], [ "Draconian constitution", "The laws ( – ) that he laid were the first written constitution of Athens.", "So that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets ( – ), where they were preserved for almost two centuries on steles of the shape of four-sided pyramids ( – ).", "The tablets were called , perhaps because they could be pivoted along the pyramid's axis to read any side.The constitution featured several major innovations:Instead of oral laws known to a special class, arbitrarily applied and interpreted, all laws were written, thus being made known to all literate citizens (who could appeal to the Areopagus for injustices): \"the constitution formed under Draco, when the first code of laws was drawn up\".", "(Aristotle: Athenian Constitution, Part 5, Section 41)The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide, a novel concept at that time.The laws were particularly harsh.", "For example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery.", "The punishment was more lenient for those owing a debt to a member of a lower class.", "The death penalty was the punishment for even minor offences, such as stealing a cabbage.", "Concerning the liberal use of the death penalty in the Draconic code, Plutarch states:All Draco's laws were repealed by Solon in the early 6th century BC, with the exception of the homicide law." ], [ "Homicide law", "After much debate, the Athenians decided to revise the laws, including the homicide law, in 409 BC.", "The homicide law is a highly fragmented inscription, but states that it is up to the victim's relatives to prosecute a killer.According to the preserved part of the inscription, unintentional homicides received a sentence of exile.", "It is not clear whether Draco's law specified the punishment for intentional homicide.", "In 409 BC, intentional homicide was punished by death, but Draco's law begins: \".\"", "Although ambiguous and difficult to translate, one suggested translation is: \"Even if a man not intentionally kills another, he is exiled.\"" ], [ "Council of Four Hundred", "Draco introduced the lot-chosen Council of Four Hundred, distinct from the Areopagus, which evolved in later constitutions to play a large role in Athenian democracy.", "Aristotle notes that Draco, while having the laws written, merely legislated for an existing unwritten Athenian constitution such as setting exact qualifications for eligibility for office.Draco extended the franchise to all free men who could furnish themselves with a set of military equipment.", "They elected the Council of Four Hundred from among their number; nine archons and the treasurers were drawn from persons possessing an unencumbered property of not less than ten ''minas'', the generals (''strategoi'') and commanders of cavalry (''hipparchoi'') from those who could show an unencumbered property of not less than a hundred ''minas'' and had children born in lawful wedlock over ten years of age.", "Thus, in the event of their death, their estate could pass to a competent heir.", "These officers were required to hold to account the ''prytanes'' (councillors), ''strategoi'' (generals) and ''hipparchoi'' (cavalry officers) of the preceding year until their accounts had been audited.", "\"The Council of Areopagus was guardian of the laws, and kept watch over the magistrates to see that they executed their offices in accordance with the laws.", "Any person who felt himself wronged might lay an information before the Council of Areopagus, on declaring what law was broken by the wrong done to him.", "But, as has been said before, loans were secured upon the persons of the debtors, and the land was in the hands of a few.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Ancient Greek law* Hammurabi, a Babylonian who wrote some of the earliest codes of law* Cruel and unusual punishment* Retributive justice* List of Ancient Greeks* List of eponymous laws (those named after their inventor)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Decree to republish Draco’s law on homicide—Translation of original inscription*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Determinant" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, the '''determinant''' is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square matrix.", "The determinant of a matrix is commonly denoted , , or .", "Its value characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented by the matrix.", "In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and only if the matrix is invertible and the linear map represented by the matrix is an isomorphism.", "The determinant of a product of matrices is the product of their determinants.The determinant of a matrix is:and the determinant of a matrix is:The determinant of an matrix can be defined in several equivalent ways, the most common being Leibniz formula, which expresses the determinant as a sum of (the factorial of ) signed products of matrix entries.", "It can be computed by the Laplace expansion, which expresses the determinant as a linear combination of determinants of submatrices, or with Gaussian elimination, which expresses the determinant as the product of the diagonal entries of a diagonal matrix that is obtained by a succession of elementary row operations.Determinants can also be defined by some of their properties.", "Namely, the determinant is the unique function defined on the matrices that has the four following properties: # The determinant of the identity matrix is .# The exchange of two rows multiplies the determinant by .# Multiplying a row by a number multiplies the determinant by this number.", "# Adding to a row a multiple of another row does not change the determinant.", "The above properties relating to rows (properties 2-4) may be replaced by the corresponding statements with respect to columns.Determinants occur throughout mathematics.", "For example, a matrix is often used to represent the coefficients in a system of linear equations, and determinants can be used to solve these equations (Cramer's rule), although other methods of solution are computationally much more efficient.", "Determinants are used for defining the characteristic polynomial of a matrix, whose roots are the eigenvalues.", "In geometry, the signed -dimensional volume of a -dimensional parallelepiped is expressed by a determinant, and the determinant of (the matrix of) a linear transformation determines how the orientation and the -dimensional volume are transformed.", "This is used in calculus with exterior differential forms and the Jacobian determinant, in particular for changes of variables in multiple integrals." ], [ "Two by two matrices", "The determinant of a matrix is denoted either by \"\" or by vertical bars around the matrix, and is defined as:For example,:=== First properties ===The determinant has several key properties that can be proved by direct evaluation of the definition for -matrices, and that continue to hold for determinants of larger matrices.", "They are as follows: first, the determinant of the identity matrix is 1.Second, the determinant is zero if two rows are the same::This holds similarly if the two columns are the same.", "Moreover,:Finally, if any column is multiplied by some number (i.e., all entries in that column are multiplied by that number), the determinant is also multiplied by that number::" ], [ "Geometric meaning", "The area of the parallelogram is the absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by the vectors representing the parallelogram's sides.If the matrix entries are real numbers, the matrix can be used to represent two linear maps: one that maps the standard basis vectors to the rows of , and one that maps them to the columns of .", "In either case, the images of the basis vectors form a parallelogram that represents the image of the unit square under the mapping.", "The parallelogram defined by the rows of the above matrix is the one with vertices at , , , and , as shown in the accompanying diagram.The absolute value of is the area of the parallelogram, and thus represents the scale factor by which areas are transformed by .", "(The parallelogram formed by the columns of is in general a different parallelogram, but since the determinant is symmetric with respect to rows and columns, the area will be the same.", ")The absolute value of the determinant together with the sign becomes the ''oriented area'' of the parallelogram.", "The oriented area is the same as the usual area, except that it is negative when the angle from the first to the second vector defining the parallelogram turns in a clockwise direction (which is opposite to the direction one would get for the identity matrix).To show that is the signed area, one may consider a matrix containing two vectors and representing the parallelogram's sides.", "The signed area can be expressed as for the angle ''θ'' between the vectors, which is simply base times height, the length of one vector times the perpendicular component of the other.", "Due to the sine this already is the signed area, yet it may be expressed more conveniently using the cosine of the complementary angle to a perpendicular vector, e.g.", ", so that becomes the signed area in question, which can be determined by the pattern of the scalar product to be equal to according to the following equations:: The volume of this parallelepiped is the absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by the columns constructed from the vectors r1, r2, and r3.Thus the determinant gives the scaling factor and the orientation induced by the mapping represented by ''A''.", "When the determinant is equal to one, the linear mapping defined by the matrix is equi-areal and orientation-preserving.The object known as the ''bivector'' is related to these ideas.", "In 2D, it can be interpreted as an ''oriented plane segment'' formed by imagining two vectors each with origin , and coordinates and .", "The bivector magnitude (denoted by ) is the ''signed area'', which is also the determinant .If an real matrix ''A'' is written in terms of its column vectors , then:This means that maps the unit ''n''-cube to the ''n''-dimensional parallelotope defined by the vectors the region The determinant gives the signed ''n''-dimensional volume of this parallelotope, and hence describes more generally the ''n''-dimensional volume scaling factor of the linear transformation produced by ''A''.", "(The sign shows whether the transformation preserves or reverses orientation.)", "In particular, if the determinant is zero, then this parallelotope has volume zero and is not fully ''n''-dimensional, which indicates that the dimension of the image of ''A'' is less than ''n''.", "This means that ''A'' produces a linear transformation which is neither onto nor one-to-one, and so is not invertible." ], [ "Definition", "Let ''A'' be a square matrix with ''n'' rows and ''n'' columns, so that it can be written as:The entries etc.", "are, for many purposes, real or complex numbers.", "As discussed below, the determinant is also defined for matrices whose entries are in a commutative ring.The determinant of ''A'' is denoted by det(''A''), or it can be denoted directly in terms of the matrix entries by writing enclosing bars instead of brackets::There are various equivalent ways to define the determinant of a square matrix ''A'', i.e.", "one with the same number of rows and columns: the determinant can be defined via the Leibniz formula, an explicit formula involving sums of products of certain entries of the matrix.", "The determinant can also be characterized as the unique function depending on the entries of the matrix satisfying certain properties.", "This approach can also be used to compute determinants by simplifying the matrices in question.===Leibniz formula======= 3 × 3 matrices ====The ''Leibniz formula'' for the determinant of a matrix is the following::In this expression, each term has one factor from each row, all in different columns, arranged in increasing row order.", "For example, ''bdi'' has ''b'' from the first row second column, ''d'' from the second row first column, and ''i'' from the third row third column.", "The signs are determined by how many transpositions of factors are necessary to arrange the factors in increasing order of their columns (given that the terms are arranged left-to-right in increasing row order): positive for an even number of transpositions and negative for an odd number.", "For the example of ''bdi'', the single transposition of ''bd'' to ''db'' gives ''dbi,'' whose three factors are from the first, second and third columns respectively; this is an odd number of transpositions, so the term appears with negative sign.Rule of SarrusThe rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic for the expanded form of this determinant: the sum of the products of three diagonal north-west to south-east lines of matrix elements, minus the sum of the products of three diagonal south-west to north-east lines of elements, when the copies of the first two columns of the matrix are written beside it as in the illustration.", "This scheme for calculating the determinant of a matrix does not carry over into higher dimensions.==== ''n'' × ''n'' matrices ====Generalizing the above to higher dimensions, the determinant of an matrix is an expression involving permutations and their signatures.", "A permutation of the set is a bijective function from this set to itself, with values exhausting the entire set.", "The set of all such permutations, called the symmetric group, is commonly denoted .", "The signature of a permutation is if the permutation can be obtained with an even number of transpositions (exchanges of two entries); otherwise, it is Given a matrix:the Leibniz formula for its determinant is, using sigma notation for the sum,:Using pi notation for the product, this can be shortened into:.The Levi-Civita symbol is defined on the -tuples of integers in as if two of the integers are equal, and otherwise as the signature of the permutation defined by the ''n-''tuple of integers.", "With the Levi-Civita symbol, the Leibniz formula becomes :where the sum is taken over all -tuples of integers in" ], [ "Properties of the determinant", "===Characterization of the determinant===The determinant can be characterized by the following three key properties.", "To state these, it is convenient to regard an -matrix ''A'' as being composed of its columns, so denoted as:where the column vector (for each ''i'') is composed of the entries of the matrix in the ''i''-th column.# , where is an identity matrix.# The determinant is ''multilinear'': if the ''j''th column of a matrix is written as a linear combination of two column vectors ''v'' and ''w'' and a number ''r'', then the determinant of ''A'' is expressible as a similar linear combination:#: # The determinant is ''alternating'': whenever two columns of a matrix are identical, its determinant is 0:#: If the determinant is defined using the Leibniz formula as above, these three properties can be proved by direct inspection of that formula.", "Some authors also approach the determinant directly using these three properties: it can be shown that there is exactly one function that assigns to any -matrix ''A'' a number that satisfies these three properties.", "This also shows that this more abstract approach to the determinant yields the same definition as the one using the Leibniz formula.To see this it suffices to expand the determinant by multi-linearity in the columns into a (huge) linear combination of determinants of matrices in which each column is a standard basis vector.", "These determinants are either 0 (by property 9) or else ±1 (by properties 1 and 12 below), so the linear combination gives the expression above in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol.", "While less technical in appearance, this characterization cannot entirely replace the Leibniz formula in defining the determinant, since without it the existence of an appropriate function is not clear.===Immediate consequences===These rules have several further consequences:* The determinant is a homogeneous function, i.e., (for an matrix ).", "* Interchanging any pair of columns of a matrix multiplies its determinant by −1.This follows from the determinant being multilinear and alternating (properties 2 and 3 above): This formula can be applied iteratively when several columns are swapped.", "For example Yet more generally, any permutation of the columns multiplies the determinant by the sign of the permutation.", "* If some column can be expressed as a linear combination of the ''other'' columns (i.e.", "the columns of the matrix form a linearly dependent set), the determinant is 0.As a special case, this includes: if some column is such that all its entries are zero, then the determinant of that matrix is 0.", "* Adding a scalar multiple of one column to ''another'' column does not change the value of the determinant.", "This is a consequence of multilinearity and being alternative: by multilinearity the determinant changes by a multiple of the determinant of a matrix with two equal columns, which determinant is 0, since the determinant is alternating.", "* If is a triangular matrix, i.e.", ", whenever or, alternatively, whenever , then its determinant equals the product of the diagonal entries: Indeed, such a matrix can be reduced, by appropriately adding multiples of the columns with fewer nonzero entries to those with more entries, to a diagonal matrix (without changing the determinant).", "For such a matrix, using the linearity in each column reduces to the identity matrix, in which case the stated formula holds by the very first characterizing property of determinants.", "Alternatively, this formula can also be deduced from the Leibniz formula, since the only permutation which gives a non-zero contribution is the identity permutation.====Example====These characterizing properties and their consequences listed above are both theoretically significant, but can also be used to compute determinants for concrete matrices.", "In fact, Gaussian elimination can be applied to bring any matrix into upper triangular form, and the steps in this algorithm affect the determinant in a controlled way.", "The following concrete example illustrates the computation of the determinant of the matrix using that method::+ Computation of the determinant of matrix Matrix Obtained by add the second column to the firstadd 3 times the third column to the secondswap the first two columnsadd times the second column to the first Determinant Combining these equalities gives ===Transpose===The determinant of the transpose of equals the determinant of ''A''::.This can be proven by inspecting the Leibniz formula.", "This implies that in all the properties mentioned above, the word \"column\" can be replaced by \"row\" throughout.", "For example, viewing an matrix as being composed of ''n'' rows, the determinant is an ''n''-linear function.=== Multiplicativity and matrix groups ===The determinant is a ''multiplicative map'', i.e., for square matrices and of equal size, the determinant of a matrix product equals the product of their determinants::This key fact can be proven by observing that, for a fixed matrix , both sides of the equation are alternating and multilinear as a function depending on the columns of .", "Moreover, they both take the value when is the identity matrix.", "The above-mentioned unique characterization of alternating multilinear maps therefore shows this claim.A matrix with entries in a field is invertible precisely if its determinant is nonzero.", "This follows from the multiplicativity of the determinant and the formula for the inverse involving the adjugate matrix mentioned below.", "In this event, the determinant of the inverse matrix is given by:.In particular, products and inverses of matrices with non-zero determinant (respectively, determinant one) still have this property.", "Thus, the set of such matrices (of fixed size over a field ) forms a group known as the general linear group (respectively, a subgroup called the special linear group .", "More generally, the word \"special\" indicates the subgroup of another matrix group of matrices of determinant one.", "Examples include the special orthogonal group (which if ''n'' is 2 or 3 consists of all rotation matrices), and the special unitary group.Because the determinant respects multiplication and inverses, it is in fact a group homomorphism from into the multiplicative group of nonzero elements of .", "This homomorphism is surjective and its kernel is (the matrices with determinant one).", "Hence, by the first isomorphism theorem, this shows that is a normal subgroup of , and that the quotient group is isomorphic to .The Cauchy–Binet formula is a generalization of that product formula for ''rectangular'' matrices.", "This formula can also be recast as a multiplicative formula for compound matrices whose entries are the determinants of all quadratic submatrices of a given matrix.=== Laplace expansion ===Laplace expansion expresses the determinant of a matrix recursively in terms of determinants of smaller matrices, known as its minors.", "The minor is defined to be the determinant of the -matrix that results from by removing the -th row and the -th column.", "The expression is known as a cofactor.", "For every , one has the equality:which is called the ''Laplace expansion along the th row''.", "For example, the Laplace expansion along the first row () gives the following formula::Unwinding the determinants of these -matrices gives back the Leibniz formula mentioned above.", "Similarly, the ''Laplace expansion along the -th column'' is the equality:Laplace expansion can be used iteratively for computing determinants, but this approach is inefficient for large matrices.", "However, it is useful for computing the determinants of highly symmetric matrix such as the Vandermonde matrixThe ''n''-term Laplace expansion along a row or column can be generalized to write an ''n'' x ''n'' determinant as a sum of terms, each the product of the determinant of a ''k'' x ''k'' submatrix and the determinant of the complementary (''n−k'') x (''n−k'') submatrix.====Adjugate matrix====The adjugate matrix is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors, that is,: For every matrix, one has: Thus the adjugate matrix can be used for expressing the inverse of a nonsingular matrix:: === Block matrices ===The formula for the determinant of a -matrix above continues to hold, under appropriate further assumptions, for a block matrix, i.e., a matrix composed of four submatrices of dimension , , and , respectively.", "The easiest such formula, which can be proven using either the Leibniz formula or a factorization involving the Schur complement, is:If is invertible, then it follows with results from the section on multiplicativity that:which simplifies to when is a -matrix.A similar result holds when is invertible, namely:Both results can be combined to derive Sylvester's determinant theorem, which is also stated below.If the blocks are square matrices of the ''same'' size further formulas hold.", "For example, if and commute (i.e., ), then:This formula has been generalized to matrices composed of more than blocks, again under appropriate commutativity conditions among the individual blocks.For and , the following formula holds (even if and do not commute):=== Sylvester's determinant theorem ===Sylvester's determinant theorem states that for ''A'', an matrix, and ''B'', an matrix (so that ''A'' and ''B'' have dimensions allowing them to be multiplied in either order forming a square matrix)::where ''I''''m'' and ''I''''n'' are the and identity matrices, respectively.From this general result several consequences follow.===Sum===The determinant of the sum of two square matrices of the same size is not in general expressible in terms of the determinants of ''A'' and of ''B''.", "However, for positive semidefinite matrices , and of equal size, with the corollary Conversely, if and are Hermitian, positive-definite, and size , then the determinant has concave th root; this implies by homogeneity.==== Sum identity for 2×2 matrices ====For the special case of matrices with complex entries, the determinant of the sum can be written in terms of determinants and traces in the following identity::This has an application to matrix algebras.", "For example, consider the complex numbers as a matrix algebra.", "The complex numbers have a representation as matrices of the formwith and real.", "Since , taking and in the above identity gives:This result followed just from and ." ], [ "Properties of the determinant in relation to other notions", "=== Eigenvalues and characteristic polynomial ===The determinant is closely related to two other central concepts in linear algebra, the eigenvalues and the characteristic polynomial of a matrix.", "Let be an -matrix with complex entries.", "Then, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, must have exactly ''n'' eigenvalues .", "(Here it is understood that an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity occurs times in this list.)", "Then, it turns out the determinant of is equal to the ''product'' of these eigenvalues,:The product of all non-zero eigenvalues is referred to as pseudo-determinant.From this, one immediately sees that the determinant of a matrix is zero if and only if is an eigenvalue of .", "In other words, is invertible if and only if is not an eigenvalue of .The characteristic polynomial is defined as:Here, is the indeterminate of the polynomial and is the identity matrix of the same size as .", "By means of this polynomial, determinants can be used to find the eigenvalues of the matrix : they are precisely the roots of this polynomial, i.e., those complex numbers such that:A Hermitian matrix is positive definite if all its eigenvalues are positive.", "Sylvester's criterion asserts that this is equivalent to the determinants of the submatrices:being positive, for all between and .=== Trace ===The trace tr(''A'') is by definition the sum of the diagonal entries of and also equals the sum of the eigenvalues.", "Thus, for complex matrices ,:or, for real matrices ,:Here exp() denotes the matrix exponential of , because every eigenvalue of corresponds to the eigenvalue exp() of exp().", "In particular, given any logarithm of , that is, any matrix satisfying:the determinant of is given by:For example, for , , and , respectively,:cf.", "Cayley-Hamilton theorem.", "Such expressions are deducible from combinatorial arguments, Newton's identities, or the Faddeev–LeVerrier algorithm.", "That is, for generic , the signed constant term of the characteristic polynomial, determined recursively from:In the general case, this may also be obtained from:where the sum is taken over the set of all integers satisfying the equation:The formula can be expressed in terms of the complete exponential Bell polynomial of ''n'' arguments ''s''''l'' = −(''l'' – 1)!", "tr(''A''''l'') as:This formula can also be used to find the determinant of a matrix with multidimensional indices and .", "The product and trace of such matrices are defined in a natural way as:An important arbitrary dimension identity can be obtained from the Mercator series expansion of the logarithm when the expansion converges.", "If every eigenvalue of ''A'' is less than 1 in absolute value,:where is the identity matrix.", "More generally, if:is expanded as a formal power series in then all coefficients of for are zero and the remaining polynomial is .=== Upper and lower bounds ===For a positive definite matrix , the trace operator gives the following tight lower and upper bounds on the log determinant:with equality if and only if .", "This relationship can be derived via the formula for the Kullback-Leibler divergence between two multivariate normal distributions.Also,:These inequalities can be proved by expressing the traces and the determinant in terms of the eigenvalues.", "As such, they represent the well-known fact that the harmonic mean is less than the geometric mean, which is less than the arithmetic mean, which is, in turn, less than the root mean square.=== Derivative ===The Leibniz formula shows that the determinant of real (or analogously for complex) square matrices is a polynomial function from to .", "In particular, it is everywhere differentiable.", "Its derivative can be expressed using Jacobi's formula::where denotes the adjugate of .", "In particular, if is invertible, we have:Expressed in terms of the entries of , these are: Yet another equivalent formulation is:,using big O notation.", "The special case where , the identity matrix, yields:This identity is used in describing Lie algebras associated to certain matrix Lie groups.", "For example, the special linear group is defined by the equation .", "The above formula shows that its Lie algebra is the special linear Lie algebra consisting of those matrices having trace zero.Writing a -matrix as where are column vectors of length 3, then the gradient over one of the three vectors may be written as the cross product of the other two::" ], [ "History", "Historically, determinants were used long before matrices: A determinant was originally defined as a property of a system of linear equations.The determinant \"determines\" whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero).In this sense, determinants were first used in the Chinese mathematics textbook ''The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art'' (九章算術, Chinese scholars, around the 3rd century BCE).", "In Europe, solutions of linear systems of two equations were expressed by Cardano in 1545 by a determinant-like entity.Determinants proper originated separately from the work of Seki Takakazu in 1683 in Japan and parallelly of Leibniz in 1693.stated, without proof, Cramer's rule.", "Both Cramer and also were led to determinants by the question of plane curves passing through a given set of points.Vandermonde (1771) first recognized determinants as independent functions.", "gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors: Vandermonde had already given a special case.", "Immediately following, Lagrange (1773) treated determinants of the second and third order and applied it to questions of elimination theory; he proved many special cases of general identities.Gauss (1801) made the next advance.", "Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers.", "He introduced the word \"determinant\" (Laplace had used \"resultant\"), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the discriminant of a quantic.", "Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem.The next contributor of importance is Binet (1811, 1812), who formally stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of ''m'' columns and ''n'' rows, which for the special case of reduces to the multiplication theorem.", "On the same day (November 30, 1812) that Binet presented his paper to the Academy, Cauchy also presented one on the subject.", "(See Cauchy–Binet formula.)", "In this he used the word \"determinant\" in its present sense, summarized and simplified what was then known on the subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's.", "With him begins the theory in its generality.", "used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the Jacobian.", "In his memoirs in ''Crelle's Journal'' for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called ''alternants''.", "About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, Sylvester (1839) and Cayley began their work.", "introduced the modern notation for the determinant using vertical bars.The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory.", "Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by Lebesgue, Hesse, and Sylvester; persymmetric determinants by Sylvester and Hankel; circulants by Catalan, Spottiswoode, Glaisher, and Scott; skew determinants and Pfaffians, in connection with the theory of orthogonal transformation, by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; Wronskians (so called by Muir) by Christoffel and Frobenius; compound determinants by Sylvester, Reiss, and Picquet; Jacobians and Hessians by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by Trudi.", "Of the textbooks on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first.", "In America, Hanus (1886), Weld (1893), and Muir/Metzler (1933) published treatises." ], [ "Applications", "=== Cramer's rule ===Determinants can be used to describe the solutions of a linear system of equations, written in matrix form as .", "This equation has a unique solution if and only if is nonzero.", "In this case, the solution is given by Cramer's rule::where is the matrix formed by replacing the -th column of by the column vector .", "This follows immediately by column expansion of the determinant, i.e.", ":where the vectors are the columns of ''A''.", "The rule is also implied by the identity:Cramer's rule can be implemented in time, which is comparable to more common methods of solving systems of linear equations, such as LU, QR, or singular value decomposition.=== Linear independence ===Determinants can be used to characterize linearly dependent vectors: is zero if and only if the column vectors (or, equivalently, the row vectors) of the matrix are linearly dependent.", "For example, given two linearly independent vectors , a third vector lies in the plane spanned by the former two vectors exactly if the determinant of the -matrix consisting of the three vectors is zero.", "The same idea is also used in the theory of differential equations: given functions (supposed to be times differentiable), the Wronskian is defined to be:It is non-zero (for some ) in a specified interval if and only if the given functions and all their derivatives up to order are linearly independent.", "If it can be shown that the Wronskian is zero everywhere on an interval then, in the case of analytic functions, this implies the given functions are linearly dependent.", "See the Wronskian and linear independence.", "Another such use of the determinant is the resultant, which gives a criterion when two polynomials have a common root.=== Orientation of a basis ===The determinant can be thought of as assigning a number to every sequence of ''n'' vectors in '''R'''''n'', by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors.", "The determinant will be nonzero if and only if the sequence of vectors is a ''basis'' for '''R'''''n''.", "In that case, the sign of the determinant determines whether the orientation of the basis is consistent with or opposite to the orientation of the standard basis.", "In the case of an orthogonal basis, the magnitude of the determinant is equal to the ''product'' of the lengths of the basis vectors.", "For instance, an orthogonal matrix with entries in '''R'''''n'' represents an orthonormal basis in Euclidean space, and hence has determinant of ±1 (since all the vectors have length 1).", "The determinant is +1 if and only if the basis has the same orientation.", "It is −1 if and only if the basis has the opposite orientation.More generally, if the determinant of ''A'' is positive, ''A'' represents an orientation-preserving linear transformation (if ''A'' is an orthogonal or matrix, this is a rotation), while if it is negative, ''A'' switches the orientation of the basis.=== Volume and Jacobian determinant ===As pointed out above, the absolute value of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by those vectors.", "As a consequence, if is the linear map given by multiplication with a matrix , and is any measurable subset, then the volume of is given by times the volume of .", "More generally, if the linear map is represented by the -matrix , then the -dimensional volume of is given by::By calculating the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by four points, they can be used to identify skew lines.", "The volume of any tetrahedron, given its vertices , , or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a spanning tree over the vertices.A nonlinear map sends a small square (left, in red) to a distorted parallelogram (right, in red).", "The Jacobian at a point gives the best linear approximation of the distorted parallelogram near that point (right, in translucent white), and the Jacobian determinant gives the ratio of the area of the approximating parallelogram to that of the original square.For a general differentiable function, much of the above carries over by considering the Jacobian matrix of ''f''.", "For:the Jacobian matrix is the matrix whose entries are given by the partial derivatives:Its determinant, the Jacobian determinant, appears in the higher-dimensional version of integration by substitution: for suitable functions ''f'' and an open subset ''U'' of '''R'''''n'' (the domain of ''f''), the integral over ''f''(''U'') of some other function is given by:The Jacobian also occurs in the inverse function theorem.When applied to the field of Cartography, the determinant can be used to measure the rate of expansion of a map near the poles." ], [ "Abstract algebraic aspects {{anchor\|Abstract formulation}}", "=== Determinant of an endomorphism ===The above identities concerning the determinant of products and inverses of matrices imply that similar matrices have the same determinant: two matrices ''A'' and ''B'' are similar, if there exists an invertible matrix ''X'' such that .", "Indeed, repeatedly applying the above identities yields:The determinant is therefore also called a similarity invariant.", "The determinant of a linear transformation:for some finite-dimensional vector space ''V'' is defined to be the determinant of the matrix describing it, with respect to an arbitrary choice of basis in ''V''.", "By the similarity invariance, this determinant is independent of the choice of the basis for ''V'' and therefore only depends on the endomorphism ''T''.=== Square matrices over commutative rings ===The above definition of the determinant using the Leibniz rule holds works more generally when the entries of the matrix are elements of a commutative ring , such as the integers , as opposed to the field of real or complex numbers.", "Moreover, the characterization of the determinant as the unique alternating multilinear map that satisfies still holds, as do all the properties that result from that characterization.A matrix is invertible (in the sense that there is an inverse matrix whose entries are in ) if and only if its determinant is an invertible element in .", "For , this means that the determinant is +1 or −1.Such a matrix is called unimodular.The determinant being multiplicative, it defines a group homomorphism:between the general linear group (the group of invertible -matrices with entries in ) and the multiplicative group of units in .", "Since it respects the multiplication in both groups, this map is a group homomorphism.The determinant is a natural transformation.Given a ring homomorphism , there is a map given by replacing all entries in by their images under .", "The determinant respects these maps, i.e., the identity:holds.", "In other words, the displayed commutative diagram commutes.For example, the determinant of the complex conjugate of a complex matrix (which is also the determinant of its conjugate transpose) is the complex conjugate of its determinant, and for integer matrices: the reduction modulo of the determinant of such a matrix is equal to the determinant of the matrix reduced modulo (the latter determinant being computed using modular arithmetic).", "In the language of category theory, the determinant is a natural transformation between the two functors and .", "Adding yet another layer of abstraction, this is captured by saying that the determinant is a morphism of algebraic groups, from the general linear group to the multiplicative group,:=== Exterior algebra ===The determinant of a linear transformation of an -dimensional vector space or, more generally a free module of (finite) rank over a commutative ring can be formulated in a coordinate-free manner by considering the -th exterior power of .", "The map induces a linear map:As is one-dimensional, the map is given by multiplying with some scalar, i.e., an element in .", "Some authors such as use this fact to ''define'' the determinant to be the element in satisfying the following identity (for all )::This definition agrees with the more concrete coordinate-dependent definition.", "This can be shown using the uniqueness of a multilinear alternating form on -tuples of vectors in .For this reason, the highest non-zero exterior power (as opposed to the determinant associated to an endomorphism) is sometimes also called the determinant of and similarly for more involved objects such as vector bundles or chain complexes of vector spaces.", "Minors of a matrix can also be cast in this setting, by considering lower alternating forms with ." ], [ "Generalizations and related notions", "Determinants as treated above admit several variants: the permanent of a matrix is defined as the determinant, except that the factors occurring in Leibniz's rule are omitted.", "The immanant generalizes both by introducing a character of the symmetric group in Leibniz's rule.=== Determinants for finite-dimensional algebras===For any associative algebra that is finite-dimensional as a vector space over a field , there is a determinant map:This definition proceeds by establishing the characteristic polynomial independently of the determinant, and defining the determinant as the lowest order term of this polynomial.", "This general definition recovers the determinant for the matrix algebra , but also includes several further cases including the determinant of a quaternion,:,the norm of a field extension, as well as the Pfaffian of a skew-symmetric matrix and the reduced norm of a central simple algebra, also arise as special cases of this construction.=== Infinite matrices ===For matrices with an infinite number of rows and columns, the above definitions of the determinant do not carry over directly.", "For example, in the Leibniz formula, an infinite sum (all of whose terms are infinite products) would have to be calculated.", "Functional analysis provides different extensions of the determinant for such infinite-dimensional situations, which however only work for particular kinds of operators.The Fredholm determinant defines the determinant for operators known as trace class operators by an appropriate generalization of the formula:Another infinite-dimensional notion of determinant is the functional determinant.===Operators in von Neumann algebras===For operators in a finite factor, one may define a positive real-valued determinant called the Fuglede−Kadison determinant using the canonical trace.", "In fact, corresponding to every tracial state on a von Neumann algebra there is a notion of Fuglede−Kadison determinant.=== Related notions for non-commutative rings ===For matrices over non-commutative rings, multilinearity and alternating properties are incompatible for , so there is no good definition of the determinant in this setting.For square matrices with entries in a non-commutative ring, there are various difficulties in defining determinants analogously to that for commutative rings.", "A meaning can be given to the Leibniz formula provided that the order for the product is specified, and similarly for other definitions of the determinant, but non-commutativity then leads to the loss of many fundamental properties of the determinant, such as the multiplicative property or that the determinant is unchanged under transposition of the matrix.", "Over non-commutative rings, there is no reasonable notion of a multilinear form (existence of a nonzero with a regular element of ''R'' as value on some pair of arguments implies that ''R'' is commutative).", "Nevertheless, various notions of non-commutative determinant have been formulated that preserve some of the properties of determinants, notably quasideterminants and the Dieudonné determinant.", "For some classes of matrices with non-commutative elements, one can define the determinant and prove linear algebra theorems that are very similar to their commutative analogs.", "Examples include the ''q''-determinant on quantum groups, the Capelli determinant on Capelli matrices, and the Berezinian on supermatrices (i.e., matrices whose entries are elements of -graded rings).", "Manin matrices form the class closest to matrices with commutative elements." ], [ "Calculation", "Determinants are mainly used as a theoretical tool.", "They are rarely calculated explicitly in numerical linear algebra, where for applications such as checking invertibility and finding eigenvalues the determinant has largely been supplanted by other techniques.", "Computational geometry, however, does frequently use calculations related to determinants.While the determinant can be computed directly using the Leibniz rule this approach is extremely inefficient for large matrices, since that formula requires calculating ( factorial) products for an -matrix.", "Thus, the number of required operations grows very quickly: it is of order .", "The Laplace expansion is similarly inefficient.", "Therefore, more involved techniques have been developed for calculating determinants.=== Decomposition methods ===Some methods compute by writing the matrix as a product of matrices whose determinants can be more easily computed.", "Such techniques are referred to as decomposition methods.", "Examples include the LU decomposition, the QR decomposition or the Cholesky decomposition (for positive definite matrices).", "These methods are of order , which is a significant improvement over .For example, LU decomposition expresses as a product:of a permutation matrix (which has exactly a single in each column, and otherwise zeros), a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix .The determinants of the two triangular matrices and can be quickly calculated, since they are the products of the respective diagonal entries.", "The determinant of is just the sign of the corresponding permutation (which is for an even number of permutations and is for an odd number of permutations).", "Once such a LU decomposition is known for , its determinant is readily computed as:=== Further methods ===The order reached by decomposition methods has been improved by different methods.", "If two matrices of order can be multiplied in time , where for some , then there is an algorithm computing the determinant in time .", "This means, for example, that an algorithm for computing the determinant exists based on the Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm.", "This exponent has been further lowered, as of 2016, to 2.373.In addition to the complexity of the algorithm, further criteria can be used to compare algorithms.Especially for applications concerning matrices over rings, algorithms that compute the determinant without any divisions exist.", "(By contrast, Gauss elimination requires divisions.)", "One such algorithm, having complexity is based on the following idea: one replaces permutations (as in the Leibniz rule) by so-called closed ordered walks, in which several items can be repeated.", "The resulting sum has more terms than in the Leibniz rule, but in the process several of these products can be reused, making it more efficient than naively computing with the Leibniz rule.", "Algorithms can also be assessed according to their bit complexity, i.e., how many bits of accuracy are needed to store intermediate values occurring in the computation.", "For example, the Gaussian elimination (or LU decomposition) method is of order , but the bit length of intermediate values can become exponentially long.", "By comparison, the Bareiss Algorithm, is an exact-division method (so it does use division, but only in cases where these divisions can be performed without remainder) is of the same order, but the bit complexity is roughly the bit size of the original entries in the matrix times .If the determinant of ''A'' and the inverse of ''A'' have already been computed, the matrix determinant lemma allows rapid calculation of the determinant of , where ''u'' and ''v'' are column vectors.Charles Dodgson (i.e.", "Lewis Carroll of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' fame) invented a method for computing determinants called Dodgson condensation.", "Unfortunately this interesting method does not always work in its original form." ], [ "See also", "* Cauchy determinant* Cayley–Menger determinant* Dieudonné determinant* Slater determinant* Determinantal conjecture" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * G. Baley Price (1947) \"Some identities in the theory of determinants\", American Mathematical Monthly 54:75–90 ** * * * ** === Historical references ===* * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * * Determinant Interactive Program and Tutorial* Linear algebra: determinants.", "Compute determinants of matrices up to order 6 using Laplace expansion you choose.", "* Determinant Calculator Calculator for matrix determinants, up to the 8th order.", "* Matrices and Linear Algebra on the Earliest Uses Pages* Determinants explained in an easy fashion in the 4th chapter as a part of a Linear Algebra course." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Ricardo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Ricardo''' (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a British political economist, politician, and member of the Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland.", "He is recognized as one of the most influential classical economists, alongside figures such as Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith and James Mill.Ricardo, born in London as the third surviving child of a successful stockbroker and his wife, came from a Sephardic Jewish family of Portuguese origin.", "At 21, he eloped with a Quaker and converted to Unitarianism, causing estrangement from his family.", "He made his fortune financing government borrowing and later retired to an estate in Gloucestershire.", "Ricardo served as High Sheriff of Gloucestershire and bought a seat in Parliament as an earnest reformer.", "He was friends with prominent figures like James Mill, Jeremy Bentham, and Thomas Malthus, engaging in debates over various topics.", "Ricardo was also a member of The Geological Society, and his youngest sister was an author.As MP for Portarlington, Ricardo advocated for liberal political movements and reforms, including free trade, parliamentary reform, and criminal law reform.", "He believed free trade increased the well-being of people by making goods more affordable.", "Ricardo notably opposed the Corn Laws, which he saw as barriers to economic growth.", "His friend, John Louis Mallett, described Ricardo's conviction in his beliefs, though he expressed doubts about Ricardo's disregard for experience and practice.", "Ricardo died at 51 from an ear infection that led to septicaemia (sepsis).", "He left behind a considerable fortune and a lasting legacy, with his free trade views eventually becoming public policy in Britain.Ricardo wrote his first economics article at age 37, advocating for a reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England.", "He was also an abolitionist and believed in the autonomy of a central bank as the issuer of money.", "Ricardo worked on fixing issues in Adam Smith's Labour Theory of Value, stating that the value of a commodity depends on the labor necessary for its production.", "He contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits, defining rent as the difference between the produce obtained by employing equal quantities of capital and labor.", "Ricardo's Theory of Profit posited that as real wages increase, real profits decrease due to the revenue split between profits and wages.Ricardian theory of international trade challenges the mercantilism concept of accumulating gold or silver by promoting industry specialization and free trade.", "Ricardo introduced the concept of \"comparative advantage,\" suggesting that nations should concentrate resources only in industries where they have the greatest efficiency of production relative to their own alternative uses of resources.", "He argued that international trade is always beneficial, even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart.", "Ricardo opposed protectionism for national economies and was concerned about the short-term impact of technological change on labor." ], [ "Personal life", "Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the 17 children of successful stockbroker Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?–1812) and Abigail (1753–1801), daughter of Abraham Delvalle (also \"del Valle\"), of a respectable Sephardic Jewish family that had been settled in England for three generations as \"small but prosperous\" tobacco and snuff merchants, and had obtained British citizenship.", "Abigail's sister, Rebecca, was wife of the engraver Wilson Lowry, and mother of the engraver Joseph Wilson Lowry and the geologist, mineralogist, and author Delvalle Lowry.", "The Ricardo family were Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated from the Dutch Republic.", "Ricardo began working with his father at the age of 14.At the age of 21 Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla Anne Wilkinson, and, against his father's wishes, converted to Unitarianism.", "This religious difference resulted in estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position of independence.", "His father disowned him and his mother apparently never spoke to him again.Following this estrangement he went into business for himself with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking house.", "He made the bulk of his fortune by profitably financing Government borrowing.", "There is a story that he made his fortune as a result of speculation on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo: ''The Sunday Times'' reported in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823, that during the battle Ricardo \"netted upwards of a million sterling\", a huge sum at the time, and this was later popularised by the economist Paul Samuelson; in reality Ricardo was already very rich and in June 1815 sold his latest government stock before the result of the battle was known in London, so missing half of the rise.He retired, and subsequently purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, and retired to the country.", "He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19.In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlingtons' seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a loan of £25,000.His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer.", "He held the seat until his death five years later.Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill.", "Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of landowners in a society.", "He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs.", "He was one of the original members of The Geological Society.", "His youngest sister was author Sarah Ricardo-Porter (e.g., ''Conversations in Arithmetic'')." ], [ "Parliamentary record", "As MP for Portarlington, Ricardo voted with the opposition in support of liberal political movements in Naples and Sicily, and for inquiry into the administration of justice in Tobago.", "He divided for (voted for) repeal of the Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act; then for inquiry into the Peterloo massacre; and, in 1821, for abolition of the death penalty for forgery.He adamantly supported free trade.", "In 1821 he voted against renewal of the sugar duties, and objected to the higher duty on ''East'' Indian as opposed to ''West'' Indian produce.", "He opposed the timber duties.", "He voted silently for parliamentary reform and in 1822 spoke in its favour at the Westminster anniversary reform dinner; and again voted for criminal law reform.Ricardo believed that increasing imports by free trade boosted the wellbeing of mankind by increasing the amount of goods cheaply available for subsistence and consumption.", "He was said to have \"possessed an extraordinary quickness in perceiving in the turns of the market any accidental difference which might arise between the relative price of different stocks\".", "And he grew his wealth dealing in securities during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.As the Napoleonic Wars waged on, Ricardo developed a disdain for the Corn Laws imposed by the British to encourage exports.", "Notably, government intervention in the grain trade can be traced as far back as the 1400s; and thereafter trade was controlled, regulated, and taxed.", "Meanwhile, England developed a capitalist economy involving workers and landlords generating and consuming incomes and capital accumulations that depended entirely on capitalists’ profits, and these key economic elements were under perpetual pressure during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.Political reform was needed as agricultural output was struggling to keep pace with population growth.", "The Corn Laws imposed barriers to imports that increased subsistence/consumption costs and triggered demand for higher wages.", "Higher wages reduced profits for agricultural producers, and had the immediate effects of reducing capital investments and slowing the growth of a nation's economy.", "Rising rents, attributed by Ricardo to the Corn Laws, came at the expense of the economic profits of nations.", "For David Ricardo, free trade was ever the answer; he envisioned Britain as importing agriculture products in exchange for exporting manufactured goods.", "Eventually, after his death, the interventionist laws were repealed, and his free trade views became public policy in Britain.Of David Ricardo, his friend John Louis Mallett commented: \" … he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths.", "He spoke of parliamentary reform and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result … It is this very quality of the man’s mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on political economy.\"" ], [ "Death and legacy", "Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament, Ricardo died from an infection of the middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia.", "He was 51.He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795–1881; MP for Worcester 1847–1865), David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) and Mortimer Ricardo, who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire.Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of Chippenham, Wiltshire.", "At the time of his death his assets were estimated at £675,000–£775,000." ], [ "Ideas", "Ricardo wrote his first economics article at 37, firstly in ''The Morning Chronicle'' advocating reduction in the note-issuing of the Bank of England and then publishing ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' in 1810.He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March 1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation.===Banking===Adam Smith argued that free commercial banking, such as the banking system in Scotland which had no central bank when ''Wealth of Nations'' was written in 1776, was favorable to economic growth.", "Writing just a few decades later, Ricardo argued for a central bank, a cause that was taken up by his students, including John Stuart Mill, who was known to favor the ''laissez-faire'' policies in every place but banking.Ricardo wrote the ''Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank'' (published posthumously in 1824), which argued for the autonomy of the central bank as the issuer of money.Ricardo proposed that a ratio of gold and Treasury bills, and a fixed claim (asset) against the government, would secure the central bank's liquidity:The public, or the Government on behalf of the public, is indebted to the Bank in a sum of money larger than the whole amount of Bank notes in circulation; for the Government not only owes the Bank fifteen million, its original capital, which is lent at 3 per cent.", "interest, but also many more millions which are advanced on Exchequer bills, on half-pay and pension annuities, and on other securities.", "It is evident, therefore, that if the Government itself were to be the sole issuer of paper money instead of borrowing it of the Bank, the only difference would be with respect to the interest: the Bank would no longer receive interest and the Government would no longer pay it; but all other classes in the community would be exactly in the same position in which they now stand.Ricardo was a man of many trades, economically and financially speaking.", "Ricardo was able to recognize and identify the problem presented through banking within regulations and debauched standards of approval at certain times.", "Ricardo knew that banks in rural areas as well as the Bank of England had increased note lending and overall lending in 1810.Through this, Ricardo proved subsequent changes in price level through the market was also affected and thus new regulations needed to be made available.", "Furthermore, Ricardo was able to understand and distinguish the socioeconomic makeup that created and established parameters around different classes within the economy.", "Ricardo advocated for the productive powers of labor to be held in high concern as the most influential of devices that played a role in the progression of the American Economy along with others.", "In addition, Ricardo made notable advancements in the concept build involving reactions in the open market when considering banking altercations, stock investments, or other considerable impacting events.", "Ricardo wanted to establish a firm ground between the bank and the control over monetary policy because there was power within the banking system that Ricardo believed needed to be considered carefully.", "In 1816, Ricardo said “In the present state of the law, they have the power, without any control whatever, of increasing or reducing the circulation in any degree they may think proper: a power which should neither be entrusted to the State itself, nor to anybody in it; as there can be no security for the uniformity in the value of the currency, when its augmentation or diminution depends solely on the will of the issuers.” Ricardo felt the circulation of money and the decision behind how much is available at any time should not be entrusted to either the State, or any individual.", "Ricardo argued for the most even distribution possible with the highest control readily available.===Value theory===David Ricardo worked to fix the issues he felt were most concerning with Adam Smith’s Labour Theory of Value.", "Both men worked with the assumption that land, labour, and capital were the three basic factors of production.", "However, Smith narrowed in on labour as the determinant of value.", "Ricardo believes that with production having three factors it is impossible for only one of them to determine value on its own.", "Ricardo illustrates his point by adapting Smith's deer beaver analogy to show that even when labour is the only factor of production the hardship and tools of the labour will drive a wedge in the relative value of the good.", "Due to his criticisms of the Labour Theory of Value George Stigler called his theory a \"93% labor theory of value\".Ricardo's most famous work is his ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (1817).", "He advanced a labour theory of value:The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.Ricardo's note to Section VI:Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, \"cost of production\" including profit.===Rent===Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits.", "He defined rent as \"the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labour.\"", "Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land use and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners.", "According to Ricardo, such premium over \"real social value\" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual but is at best a paper monetary return to \"society\".", "The portion of such purely individual benefit that accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels \"rent\".===Ricardo's theories of wages and profits===In his ''Theory of Profit'', Ricardo stated that as real wages increase, real profits decrease because the revenue from the sale of manufactured goods is split between profits and wages.", "He said in his ''Essay on Profits'', \"Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food.\"" ], [ "Ricardian theory of international trade", "Between 1500 and 1750 most economists advocated mercantilism, which promoted the idea of international trade for the purpose of earning bullion by running a trade surplus with other countries.", "Ricardo challenged the idea that the purpose of trade was merely to accumulate gold or silver.", "With \"comparative advantage\" Ricardo argued in favour of industry specialisation and free trade.", "He suggested that industry specialization combined with free international trade always produces positive results.", "This theory expanded on the concept of absolute advantage.Ricardo suggested that there is mutual national benefit from trade even if one country is more competitive in every area than its trading counterpart and that a nation should concentrate resources only in industries where it has a comparative advantage, that is in those industries in which it has the greatest efficiency of production relative to its own alternative uses of resources, rather than industries where it holds a competitive edge compared to rival nations.", "Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, mildly profitable and marginally internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the industries that made the best use of limited resources—the assumption being that subsequent economic growth due to better resource use would more than offset any short-run economic dislocation which would result from closing mildly profitable and marginally competitive national industries.Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial.", "Paul Samuelson called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the \"four magic numbers\".", "\"In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less amount of labour, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other\".As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions.=== Comparative advantage ===Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill in 1844.The term \"comparative advantage\" was introduced by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries.John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e.", "his formulation was inherited by Alfred Marshall and others, and has both contributed to the resurrection of the anti-Ricardian concept of law of supply and demand, and induced the arrival of neoclassical theory of value.===New interpretation===Ricardo's four magic numbers have long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labour (or other input in fixed supply) coefficients.", "This interpretation is now considered as overly simplistic by modern economists.", "The point was rediscovered by Roy J. Ruffin in 2002 and re-examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi in 2004.The more flexible approach is now known as the ''new interpretation'', despite having been previously mentioned by Piero Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in 1974.The new interpretation affords a totally new reading of Ricardo's ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' with regards to trade theory, although it does not change the mathematics of optimal resource allocation.=== Protectionism ===Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture.", "He believed that the British \"Corn Laws\"—imposing tariffs on agricultural products—ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up .", "Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists.", "Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than invest.", "He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy.", "In 1846, his nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws.Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results.", "Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.=== Technological change ===Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labour in the short-term.", "In 1821, he wrote that he had become \"convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers,\" and that \"the opinion entertained by the labouring class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy.\"", "Ricardo's idea of technological change is now formulated in a modern form.=== Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade ===Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory, meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met.", "Ricardo noted that the theory applies only in situations where capital is immobile.", "Regarding his famous example, he wrote:it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists and consumers of England… that the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal and that the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose.Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss.", "To correct for this, he argued that (i) \"most men of property will be satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seeking a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations\", and (ii) capital was functionally immobile.Ricardo's argument in favour of free trade has also been attacked by those who believe trade restriction can be necessary for the economic development of a nation.", "Utsa Patnaik claims that Ricardian theory of international trade contains a logical fallacy.", "Ricardo assumed that in both countries two goods are producible and actually are produced, but developed and underdeveloped countries often trade those goods which are not producible in their own country.", "In these cases, one cannot define which country has comparative advantage.Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production is continuous and absolute.", "In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g.", "natural disasters) can disrupt production.", "In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries.", "For example, if an industrially based country trades its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster in the agricultural country (e.g.", "drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve.As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured centuries of economic underdevelopment: \"the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial revolution\".", "Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus.", "These conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world.", "She also argued that Ricardo's math did not take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of Portugal.The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every country:Ricardo’s theory is absolutely right—within its narrow confines.", "His theory correctly says that, ''accepting their current levels of technology as given'', it is better for countries to specialize in things that they are relatively better at.", "One cannot argue with that.", "His theory fails when a country wants to acquire more advanced technologies—that is, when it wants to develop its economy.", "It takes time and experience to absorb new technologies, so technologically backward producers need a period of protection from international competition during this period of learning.", "Such protection is costly, because the country is giving up the chance to import better and cheaper products.", "However, it is a price that has to be paid if it wants to develop advanced industries.", "Ricardo’s theory is, thus seen, for those who accept the ''status quo'' but not for those who want to change it." ], [ "Ricardian equivalence", "Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (''i.e.,'' whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy.", "This is due to the fact the public saves its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt.", "Ricardo notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by rational taxpayers: but that since taxpayers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in practice.", "Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it.", "Economist Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence." ], [ "Influence and intellectual legacy", "David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics.", "US economists rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth century.===Ricardian socialists===Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had radical implications.", "They argued that, in view of labour theory of value, labour produces the entire product, and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers.", "These include Thomas Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone.===Georgists===Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole.", "Henry George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work, ''Progress and Poverty'' from 1879.In the preface to the fourth edition he wrote: \"What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions.", "\"===Neo-Ricardians===After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily.", "It was Piero Sraffa, the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo and the author of seminal ''Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities'', who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand of economic thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school.", "The new interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school.", "Major contributors to this school include Luigi Pasinetti (1930–), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930–2011), Ian Steedman (1941–), Geoffrey Harcourt (1931–2021), Heinz Kurz (1946–), Neri Salvadori (1951–), Pier Paolo Saviotti (–) among others.", "See also Neo-Ricardianism.", "The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian economics.====Neo-Ricardian trade theory====Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade theory.", "The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe.", "They have criticised neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher–Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus trapped in a logical vicious circle).", "This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy, this time in the field of international trade.", "Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer \"a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view.", "\"====Evolutionary growth theory====Several distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school.", "One is the evolutionary growth theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S.", "Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and others.Pasinetti argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline, demand saturation occurs.", "Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid economic stagnation.====Contemporary theories====Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and Samuelson This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama and others.Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input.", "This is a deficiency as intermediate goods occupies now a great part of international trade.", "The situation changed after the appearance of Yoshinori Shiozawa's work of 2007.He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his model.", "His theory became more useful by the discovery of new definition of regular international values (a couple of wage rates for countries and prices for products), because it is not defined as the normal vector at a facet of world production possibility set, which is the set where all countries enjoy full employment.", "The new definition is given in Shiozawa and Fujimoto (2018) and in Shiozawa (2020).", "Shiozawa's theory of international values is now the unique theory of international trade that can treat unemployment and input trade in a general form.Yeats found that 30% of world trade in manufacturing is intermediate inputs.", "Bardhan and Jafee found that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997, whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997.====Unequal exchange====Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade theory.", "Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international exploitation of labour.The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory." ], [ "Publications", "''Works'', 1852Ricardo's publications included:* ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' (1810), which advocated the adoption of a metallic currency.", "* ''Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock'' (1815), which argued that repealing the Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society.", "* ''On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' (1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows as population increases.", "It also clearly laid out the theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners.His works and writings were collected in" ], [ "See also", "* Critique of political economy" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * Samuel Hollander (1979).", "''The Economics of David Ricardo''.", "University of Toronto Press.", "* G. de Vivo (1987).", "\"Ricardo, David,\" ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 4, pp. 183–198.", "* * Éric Pichet, ''David RICARDO, le premier théoricien de l'économie'', Les éditions du siècle, 2004." ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " * * * * Biography at New School University* Biography at EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History* ''Ricardo on Value: the Three Chapter Ones''.", "A presentation tracing the changes in the ''Principles''' (University of Southampton)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Delphinus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Delphinus''' (Pronounced or ) is a small constellation in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere, close to the celestial equator.", "Its name is the Latin version for the Greek word for dolphin ().", "It is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union.", "It is one of the smaller constellations, ranked 69th in size.", "Delphinus' five brightest stars form a distinctive asterism symbolizing a dolphin with four stars representing the body and one the tail.", "It is bordered (clockwise from north) by Vulpecula, Sagitta, Aquila, Aquarius, Equuleus and Pegasus.Delphinus is a faint constellation with only two stars brighter than an apparent magnitude of 4, Beta Delphini (Rotanev) at magnitude 3.6 and Alpha Delphini (Sualocin) at magnitude 3.8." ], [ "Mythology", "Delphinus is depicted on the left of this card from ''Urania's Mirror'' (1825)Delphinus is associated with two stories from Greek mythology.According to myth, the first Greek god Poseidon wanted to marry Amphitrite, a beautiful nereid.", "However, wanting to protect her virginity, she fled to the Atlas mountains.", "Her suitor then sent out several searchers, among them a certain Delphinus.", "Delphinus accidentally stumbled upon her and was able to persuade Amphitrite to accept Poseidon's wooing.", "Out of gratitude the god placed the image of a dolphin among the stars.The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), who was saved by a dolphin.", "He was a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth.", "Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy.", "On his way home from Tarentum his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him.", "Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge.", "''also'' Aulus Gellius, ''Noctes Atticae'' XVI.19; Plutarch, ''Conv.", "sept.", "sap.''", "160-62; Shakespeare, ''Twelfth Night'' (Act I, Sc 2, line 16) This he did, and while doing so, flung himself into the sea.", "There, he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music.", "The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left.===In non-Western astronomy===In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Delphinus are located within ''the Black Tortoise of the North'' (北方玄武, ''Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ'').In Polynesia, two cultures recognized Delphinus as a constellation.", "In Pukapuka, it was called ''Te Toloa'' and in the Tuamotus, it was called ''Te Uru-o-tiki''.In Hindu astrology, the Delphinus corresponds to the Nakshatra, or lunar mansion, of Dhanishta." ], [ "Characteristics", "Delphinus is bordered by Vulpecula to the north, Sagitta to the northwest, Aquila to the west and southwest, Aquarius to the southeast, Equuleus to the east and Pegasus to the east.", "Covering 188.5 square degrees, corresponding to 0.457% of the sky, it ranks 69th of the 88 constellations in size.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the IAU in 1922, is \"Del\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 14 segments.", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and .", "The whole constellation is visible to observers north of latitude 69°S." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Delphinus as it can be seen by the naked eyeContrast and color enhanced photograph of Delphinus===Stars===Delphinus has two stars above fourth (apparent) magnitude; its brightest star is of magnitude 3.6.The main asterism in Delphinus is Job's Coffin, nearly a 45°-apex lozenge or diamond of the four brightest stars: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta Delphini.", "Delphinus is in a rich Milky Way star field.", "Alpha and Beta Delphini have 19th century names Sualocin and Rotanev, read backwards: Nicolaus Venator, the Latinized name of a Palermo Observatory director, Niccolò Cacciatore (d. 1841).Alpha Delphini is a blue-white hued main sequence star of magnitude 3.8, 241 light-years from Earth.", "It is a spectroscopic binary.", "It is officially named Sualocin.", "The star has an absolute magnitude of -0.4.Beta Delphini is officially called Rotanev.", "It was found to be a binary star in 1873.The gap between its close binary stars is visible from large amateur telescopes.", "To the unaided eye, it appears to be a white star of magnitude 3.6.It has a period of 27 years and is 97 light-years from Earth.Gamma Delphini is a celebrated binary star among amateur astronomers.", "The primary is orange-gold of magnitude 4.3; the secondary is a light yellow star of magnitude 5.1.The pair form a true binary with an estimated orbital period of over 3,000 years.", "125 light-years away, the two components are visible in a small amateur telescope.", "The secondary, also described as green, is 10 arcseconds from the primary.", "Struve 2725, called the \"Ghost Double\", is a pair that appears similar but dimmer.", "Its components of magnitudes 7.6 and 8.4 are separated by 6 arcseconds and are 15 arcminutes from Gamma Delphini itself.", "An unconfirmed exoplanet with a minimum mass of 0.7 Jupiter masses may orbit one of the stars.Delta Delphini is a type A-type star of magnitude 4.43.It is a spectroscopic binary, and both stars are Delta Scuti variables.Epsilon Delphini, Deneb Dulfim (lit.", "\"tail of the Dolphin\"), or Aldulfin, is a star of stellar class B6 III.", "Its magnitude is variable at around 4.03.Zeta Delphini, an A3Va main-sequence star of magnitude 4.6, was in 2014 discovered to have a brown dwarf orbiting around it.", "Zeta Delphini B has a mass of 50±15 .Aquila, Delphinus, Sagitta, and the summer Milky Way as seen in Dark-sky preserve WesthavellandRho Aquilae at magnitude 4.94 is at about 150 light-years away.", "Due to its proper motion it has been in the (round-figure parameter) bounds of the constellation since 1992.It is an A-type main sequence star with a lower metallicity than the Sun.HR Delphini was a nova that brightened to magnitude 3.5 in December 1967.It took an unusually long time for the nova to reach peak brightness which indicate that it barely satisfied the conditions for a thermonuclear runaway.", "Another nova by the name V339 Delphini was detected in 2013; it peaked at magnitude 4.3 and was the first nova observed to produce lithium.Musica, also known by its Flamsteed designation 18 Delphini, is one of the five stars with known planets located in Delphinus.", "It has a spectral type of G6 III.", "Arion, the planet, is a very dense and massive planet with a mass at least 10.3 times greater than Jupiter.", "Arion was part of the first NameExoWorlds contest where the public got the opportunity to suggest names for exoplanets and their host stars.===Deep-sky objects===Its rich Milky Way star field means many modestly deep-sky objects.", "NGC 6891 is a planetary nebula of magnitude 10.5; another is NGC 6905 or the Blue Flash Nebula.", "The Blue Flash Nebula shows broad emission lines.", "The central star in NGC 6905 has a spectral of WO2, meaning it is rich in oxygen.", "NGC 6934 is a globular cluster of magnitude 9.75.It is about 52,000 light-years away from the Solar System.", "It is in the Shapley-Sawyer Concentration Class VIII and is thought to share a common origin with another globular cluster in Boötes.", "It has an intermediate metallicity for a globular cluster, but as of 2018 it has been poorly studied.", "At a distance of about 137,000 light-years, the globular cluster NGC 7006 is at the outer reaches of the galaxy.", "It is also fairly dim at magnitude 11.5 and is in Class I." ], [ "See also", "* Delphinus (Chinese astronomy)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* * Princeton University Press, Princeton.", ".", "University of Wisconsin, \"Delphinus\"" ], [ "External links", " The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Delphinus* The clickable Delphinus* Star Tales – Delphinus* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Delphinus)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disk storage" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Disk storage''' (also sometimes called '''drive storage''') is a general category of storage mechanisms where data is recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of one or more rotating disks.", "A '''disk drive''' is a device implementing such a storage mechanism.", "Notable types are today's hard disk drives (HDD) containing one or more non-removable rigid platters, the floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable floppy disk, and various optical disc drives (ODD) and associated optical disc media.", "(The spelling ''disk'' and ''disc'' are used interchangeably except where trademarks preclude one usage, e.g.", "the Compact Disc logo.", "The choice of a particular form is frequently historical, as in IBM's usage of the ''disk'' form beginning in 1956 with the \"IBM 350 disk storage unit\".", ")Six hard disk drivesThree floppy disk drivesA CD-ROM (optical) disc drive" ], [ "Background", "Audio information was originally recorded by analog methods (see Sound recording and reproduction).", "Similarly the first video disc used an analog recording method.", "In the music industry, analog recording has been mostly replaced by digital optical technology where the data is recorded in a digital format with optical information.The first commercial digital disk storage device was the IBM 350 which shipped in 1956 as a part of the IBM 305 RAMAC computing system.", "The random-access, low-density storage of disks was developed to complement the already used sequential-access, high-density storage provided by tape drives using magnetic tape.", "Vigorous innovation in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage, has reduced the difference in acquisition cost per terabyte between disk storage and tape storage; however, the total cost of ownership of data on disk including power and management remains larger than that of tape.Disk storage is now used in both computer storage and consumer electronic storage, e.g., audio CDs and video discs (VCD, DVD and Blu-ray).Data on modern disks is stored in fixed length blocks, usually called sectors and varying in length from a few hundred to many thousands of bytes.", "Gross disk drive capacity is simply the number of disk surfaces times the number of blocks/surface times the number of bytes/block.", "In certain legacy IBM CKD drives the data was stored on magnetic disks with variable length blocks, called records; record length could vary on and between disks.", "Capacity decreased as record length decreased due to the necessary gaps between blocks." ], [ "Access methods", "Digital disk drives are block storage devices.", "Each disk is divided into logical blocks (collection of sectors).", "Blocks are addressed using their logical block addresses (LBA).", "Read from or writing to disk happens at the granularity of blocks.Originally the disk capacity was quite low and has been improved in one of several ways.", "Improvements in mechanical design and manufacture allowed smaller and more precise heads, meaning that more tracks could be stored on each of the disks.", "Advancements in data compression methods permitted more information to be stored in each of the individual sectors.The drive stores data onto cylinders, heads, and sectors.", "The sectors unit is the smallest size of data to be stored in a hard disk drive and each file will have many sectors units assigned to it.", "The smallest entity in a CD is called a frame, which consists of 33 bytes and contains six complete 16-bit stereo samples (two bytes × two channels × six samples = 24 bytes).", "The other nine bytes consist of eight CIRC error-correction bytes and one subcode byte used for control and display.The information is sent from the computer processor to the BIOS into a chip controlling the data transfer.", "This is then sent out to the hard drive via a multi-wire connector.", "Once the data is received onto the circuit board of the drive, they are translated and compressed into a format that the individual drive can use to store onto the disk itself.", "The data is then passed to a chip on the circuit board that controls the access to the drive.", "The drive is divided into sectors of data stored onto one of the sides of one of the internal disks.", "An HDD with two disks internally will typically store data on all four surfaces.The hardware on the drive tells the actuator arm where it is to go for the relevant track and the compressed information is then sent down to the head which changes the physical properties, optically or magnetically for example, of each byte on the drive, thus storing the information.", "A file is not stored in a linear manner, rather, it is held in the best way for quickest retrieval." ], [ "Rotation speed and track layout", "Comparison of several forms of disk storage showing tracks (not-to-scale); green denotes start and red denotes end.", "Some CD-R(W) and DVD-R(W)/DVD+R(W) recorders operate in ZCLV, CAA or CAV modes.Mechanically there are two different motions occurring inside the drive.", "One is the rotation of the disks inside the device.", "The other is the side-to-side motion of the head across the disk as it moves between tracks.There are two types of disk rotation methods:constant linear velocity (used mainly in optical storage) varies the rotational speed of the optical disc depending upon the position of the head, andconstant angular velocity (used in HDDs, standard FDDs, a few optical disc systems, and vinyl audio records) spins the media at one constant speed regardless of where the head is positioned.Track positioning also follows two different methods across disk storage devices.", "Storage devices focused on holding computer data, e.g., HDDs, FDDs, Iomega zip drives, use concentric tracks to store data.", "During a sequential read or write operation, after the drive accesses all the sectors in a track it repositions the head(s) to the next track.", "This will cause a momentary delay in the flow of data between the device and the computer.", "In contrast, optical audio and video discs use a single spiral track that starts at the inner most point on the disc and flows continuously to the outer edge.", "When reading or writing data there is no need to stop the flow of data to switch tracks.", "This is similar to vinyl records except vinyl records started at the outer edge and spiraled in toward the center." ], [ "Interfaces", "The disk drive interface is the mechanism/protocol of communication between the rest of the system and the disk drive itself.", "Storage devices intended for desktop and mobile computers typically use ATA (PATA) and SATA interfaces.", "Enterprise systems and high-end storage devices will typically use SCSI, SAS, and FC interfaces in addition to some use of SATA." ], [ "Basic terminology", ";Disk : Generally refers to magnetic media and devices.", "; Disc : Required by trademarks for certain optical media and devices.", "; Platter : An individual recording disk.", "A hard disk drive contains a set of platters.", "Developments in optical technology have led to multiple recording layers on DVDs.", "; Spindle : the spinning axle on which the platters are mounted.", "; Rotation : Platters rotate; two techniques are common::* Constant angular velocity (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).", "This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks.", "This method is typical with computer hard drives.", ":Constant linear velocity (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed.", "Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks.", "This method is typical for CD drives.", "; Track : The circle of recorded data on a single recording surface of a platter.", "; Sector : A segment of a track; Low level formatting : Establishing the tracks and sectors.", "; Head : The device that reads and writes the information—magnetic or optical—on the disk surface.", "; Arm : The mechanical assembly that supports the head as it moves in and out.", "; Seek time : Time needed to move the head to a new position (specific track).", "; Rotational latency : Average time, once the arm is on the right track, before a head is over a desired sector.", "; Data transfer rate : The rate at which user data bits are transferred from or to the medium.", "Technically, this would more accurately be entitled the \"gross\" data transfer rate." ], [ "See also", " Disk array* Disk drive performance characteristics* Disk read-and-write head* Magnetic storage* RAID* USB flash drive" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington" ], [ "Introduction", "Field Marshal '''Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington''', (; 1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852) was a British statesman, soldier, and Tory politician who was one of the leading military and political figures of 19th-century Britain, serving twice as prime minister of the United Kingdom.", "He is among the commanders who won and ended the Napoleonic Wars when the Seventh Coalition defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.Wellesley was born in Dublin into the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland.", "He was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive lords lieutenant of Ireland.", "He was also elected as a member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons.", "He was a colonel by 1796 and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam.", "He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, won a decisive victory over the Maratha Confederacy at the Battle of Assaye in 1803.Wellesley rose to prominence as a general during the Peninsular campaign of the Napoleonic Wars, and was promoted to the rank of field marshal after leading the allied forces to victory against the French Empire at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813.Following Napoleon's exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was made Duke of Wellington.", "During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the allied army which, together with a Prussian Army under Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher, defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.", "Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he ultimately participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career.Wellington is famous for his adaptive defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses.", "He is regarded as one of the greatest commanders in the modern era, and many of his tactics and battle plans are still studied in military academies around the world.", "After the end of his active military career, he returned to politics.", "He was twice British prime minister as a member of the Tory party from 1828 to 1830 and for a little less than a month in 1834.He oversaw the passage of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, while he opposed the Reform Act 1832.He continued as one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement and remained Commander-in-Chief of the British Army until his death." ], [ "Early life", "=== Family ===Wellesley was born in the Kingdom of Ireland into an aristocratic Anglo-Irish family, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy, beginning life as The Hon.", "Arthur Wesley.", "Wellesley was born the son of Anne, Countess of Mornington, and Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington.", "His father was himself the son of Richard Wesley, 1st Baron Mornington, and had a short career in politics representing the constituency of Trim in the Irish House of Commons before succeeding his father as Baron Mornington in 1758.Garret Mornington was also an accomplished composer, and in recognition of his musical and philanthropic achievements was elevated to the rank of Earl of Mornington in 1760.Wellesley's mother was the eldest daughter of Arthur Hill-Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, after whom Wellesley was named.", "Through Elizabeth of Rhuddlan, Wellesley was a descendant of Edward I.Wellesley was the sixth of nine children born to the Earl and Countess of Mornington.", "His siblings included Richard, Viscount Wellesley, later 1st Marquess Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, and Baron Maryborough.=== Birth date and place ===The exact date and location of Wellesley's birth is not known; however, biographers mostly follow the same contemporary newspaper evidence, which states that he was born on 1 May 1769, the day before he was baptised in St. Peter's Church on Aungier Street in Dublin.", "However, , states \"registry of St. Peter's Church, Dublin, shows that he was christened there on 30 April 1769\".", "His baptismal font was donated to St. Nahi's Church in Dundrum, Dublin, in 1914.Wellesley was most likely born at his parents' townhouse, Mornington House at 24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, which now forms part of the Merrion Hotel.", "This contrasts with reports that his mother, Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin.", "Other places that have been put forward as the location of his birth include the Dublin packet boat and the Wellesley townhouse in Trim, County Meath.=== Childhood ===Wellesley spent much of his early childhood at his family's ancestral home, Dangan Castle in County Meath, Ireland (engraving, 1842).Wellesley spent most of his childhood at his family's two homes, the first a large house in Dublin, Mornington House, and the second Dangan Castle, north of Summerhill in County Meath.", "In 1781, Arthur's father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his father's earldom.He went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whyte's Academy when in Dublin, and Brown's School in Chelsea when in London.", "He then enrolled at Eton College, where he studied from 1781 to 1784.His loneliness there caused him to hate it, and makes it highly unlikely that he actually said \"The Battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton\", a quotation which is often attributed to him.", "Moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time.", "In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of family funds due to his father's death, forced the young Wellesley and his mother to move to Brussels.", "Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew increasingly concerned at his idleness, stating, \"I don't know what I shall do with my awkward son Arthur.", "\"In 1786, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, which later proved very useful.", "Upon returning to England later the same year, he astonished his mother with his improvement." ], [ "Early military career", "===Ireland===Beginning in 1787, Wellesley served at Dublin Castle (pictured) as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of IrelandDespite his new promise, Wellesley had yet to find a job and his family was still short of money, so upon the advice of his mother, his brother Richard asked his friend the Duke of Rutland (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland) to consider Arthur for a commission in the Army.", "Soon afterward, on 7 March 1787, he was gazetted ensign in the 73rd Regiment of Foot.", "In October, with the assistance of his brother, he was assigned as ''aide-de-camp'', on ten shillings a day (twice his pay as an ensign), to the new Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Buckingham.", "He was also transferred to the new 76th Regiment forming in Ireland and on Christmas Day, 1787, was promoted lieutenant.", "During his time in Dublin his duties were mainly social; attending balls, entertaining guests and providing advice to Buckingham.", "While in Ireland, he overextended himself in borrowing due to his occasional gambling, but in his defence stated that \"I have often known what it was to be in want of money, but I have never got helplessly into debt\".On 23 January 1788, he transferred into the 41st Regiment of Foot, then again on 25 June 1789 he transferred to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and, according to military historian Richard Holmes, he also reluctantly entered politics.", "Shortly before the general election of 1789, he went to the rotten borough of Trim to speak against the granting of the title \"Freeman\" of Dublin to the parliamentary leader of the Irish Patriot Party, Henry Grattan.", "Succeeding, he was later nominated and duly elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Trim in the Irish House of Commons.", "Because of the limited suffrage at the time, he sat in a parliament where at least two-thirds of the members owed their election to the landowners of fewer than a hundred boroughs.", "Wellesley continued to serve at Dublin Castle, voting with the government in the Irish parliament over the next two years.", "He became a captain on 30 January 1791, and was transferred to the 58th Regiment of Foot.On 31 October, he transferred to the 18th Light Dragoons and it was during this period that he grew increasingly attracted to Kitty Pakenham, the daughter of Edward Pakenham, 2nd Baron Longford.", "She was described as being full of 'gaiety and charm'.", "In 1793, he proposed, but was turned down by her brother Thomas, 2nd Earl of Longford, who considered Wellesley to be a young man, in debt, with very poor prospects.", "An aspiring amateur musician, Wellesley, devastated by the rejection, burnt his violins in anger, and resolved to pursue a military career in earnest.", "He became a major by purchase in the 33rd Regiment in 1793.A few months later, in September, his brother lent him more money and with it he purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in the 33rd.===Netherlands===33rd Regiment.", "Portrait by John Hoppner.In 1793, the Duke of York was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of an allied force destined for the invasion of France.", "In June 1794, Wellesley with the 33rd regiment set sail from Cork bound for Ostend as part of an expedition bringing reinforcements for the army in Flanders.", "They arrived too late to participate, and joined the Duke of York as he was pulling back towards the Netherlands.", "On 15 September 1794, at the Battle of Boxtel, east of Breda, Wellington, in temporary command of his brigade, had his first experience of battle.", "During General Abercromby's withdrawal in the face of superior French forces, the 33rd held off enemy cavalry, allowing neighbouring units to retreat safely.", "During the extremely harsh winter that followed, Wellesley and his regiment formed part of an allied force holding the defence line along the Waal River.", "The 33rd, along with the rest of the army, suffered heavy losses from attrition and illness.", "Wellesley's health was also affected by the damp environment.", "Though the campaign was to end disastrously, with the British army driven out of the United Provinces into the German states, Wellesley became more aware of battle tactics, including the use of lines of infantry against advancing columns, and the merits of supporting sea-power.", "He understood that the failure of the campaign was due in part to the faults of the leaders and the poor organisation at headquarters.", "He remarked later of his time in the Netherlands that \"At least I learned what not to do, and that is always a valuable lesson\".Returning to England in March 1795, he was reinstated as a member of parliament for Trim.", "He hoped to be given the position of secretary of war in the new Irish government but the new lord-lieutenant, Lord Camden, was only able to offer him the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance.", "Declining the post, he returned to his regiment, now at Southampton preparing to set sail for the West Indies.", "After seven weeks at sea, a storm forced the fleet back to Poole.", "The 33rd was given time to recuperate and a few months later, Whitehall decided to send the regiment to India.", "Wellesley was promoted full colonel by seniority on 3 May 1796 and a few weeks later set sail for Calcutta with his regiment.===India===Arriving in Calcutta in February 1797 he spent 5 months there, before being sent in August to a brief expedition to the Philippines, where he established a list of new hygiene precautions for his men to deal with the unfamiliar climate.", "Returning in November to India, he learnt that his elder brother Richard, now known as Lord Mornington, had been appointed as the new Governor-General of India.In 1798, he changed the spelling of his surname to \"Wellesley\"; up to this time he was still known as Wesley, which his eldest brother considered the ancient and proper spelling.====Fourth Anglo-Mysore War====Wellesley in India, wearing his major-general's uniform.", "Portrait by Robert Home, 1804.As part of the campaign to extend the rule of the British East India Company, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out in 1798 against the Sultan of Mysore, Tipu Sultan.", "Arthur's brother Richard ordered that an armed force be sent to capture Seringapatam and defeat Tipu.", "During the war, rockets were used on several occasions.", "Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan, Purnaiah, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope.", "Quoting Forrest,At this point (near the village of Sultanpet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove, which gave shelter to Tipu's rocketmen and had obviously to be cleaned out before the siege could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana island.", "The commander chosen for this operation was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards the tope after dark on the 5th April 1799, he was set upon with rockets and musket-fires, lost his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to \"postpone the attack\" until a more favourable opportunity should offer.The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without any killed in action.", "On 22 April 1799, twelve days before the main battle, rocketeers maneuvered to the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all ordered by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Miran.", "The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards.", "Some burst in the air like shells.", "Others, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent.", "According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly: \"So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles ...\".", "He continued:The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant.", "No hail could be thicker.", "Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.Under the command of General Harris, some 24,000 troops were dispatched to Madras (to join an equal force being sent from Bombay in the west).", "Arthur and the 33rd sailed to join them in August.After extensive and careful logistic preparation (which would become one of Wellesley's main attributes) the 33rd left with the main force in December and travelled across of jungle from Madras to Mysore.", "On account of his brother, during the journey, Wellesley was given an additional command, that of chief advisor to the Nizam of Hyderabad's army (sent to accompany the British force).", "This position was to cause friction among many of the senior officers (some of whom were senior to Wellesley).", "Much of this friction was put to rest after the Battle of Mallavelly, some from Seringapatam, in which Harris' army attacked a large part of the sultan's army.", "During the battle, Wellesley led his men, in a line of battle of two ranks, against the enemy to a gentle ridge and gave the order to fire.", "After an extensive repetition of volleys, followed by a bayonet charge, the 33rd, in conjunction with the rest of Harris's force, forced Tipu's infantry to retreat.====Seringapatam====Immediately after their arrival at Seringapatam on 5 April 1799, the Battle of Seringapatam began and Wellesley was ordered to lead a night attack on the village of Sultanpettah, adjacent to the fortress to clear the way for the artillery.", "Because of a variety of factors including the Mysorean army's strong defensive preparations and the darkness the attack failed with 25 casualties due to confusion among the British.", "Wellesley suffered a minor injury to his knee from a spent musket-ball.", "Although they would re-attack successfully the next day, after time to scout ahead the enemy's positions, the affair affected Wellesley.", "He resolved \"never to attack an enemy who is preparing and strongly posted, and whose posts have not been reconnoitred by daylight\".Lewin Bentham Bowring gives this alternative account:One of these groves, called the Sultanpet Tope, was intersected by deep ditches, watered from a channel running in an easterly direction about a mile from the fort.", "General Baird was directed to scour this grove and dislodge the enemy, but on his advancing with this object on the night of the 5th, he found the tope unoccupied.", "The next day, however, the Mysore troops again took possession of the ground, and as it was absolutely necessary to expel them, two columns were detached at sunset for the purpose.", "The first of these, under Colonel Shawe, got possession of a ruined village, which it successfully held.", "The second column, under Colonel Wellesley, on advancing into the tope, was at once attacked in the darkness of night by a tremendous fire of musketry and rockets.", "The men, floundering about amidst the trees and the water-courses, at last broke, and fell back in disorder, some being killed and a few taken prisoners.", "In the confusion Colonel Wellesley was himself struck on the knee by a spent ball, and narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the enemy.A few weeks later, after extensive artillery bombardment, a breach was opened in the main walls of the fortress of Seringapatam.", "An attack led by Major-General Baird secured the fortress.", "Wellesley secured the rear of the advance, posting guards at the breach and then stationed his regiment at the main palace.", "After hearing news of the death of the Tipu Sultan, Wellesley was the first at the scene to confirm his death, checking his pulse.", "Over the coming day, Wellesley grew increasingly concerned over the lack of discipline among his men, who drank and pillaged the fortress and city.", "To restore order, several soldiers were flogged and four hanged.After battle and the resulting end of the war, the main force under General Harris left Seringapatam and Wellesley, aged 30, stayed behind to command the area as the new Governor of Seringapatam and Mysore.", "While in India, Wellesley was ill for a considerable time, first with severe diarrhoea from the water and then with fever, followed by a serious skin infection caused by trichophyton.Wellesley was in charge of raising an Anglo-Indian expeditionary force in Trincomali in early 1801 for the capture of Batavia and Mauritius from the French.", "However, on the eve of its departure, orders arrived from England that it was to be sent to Egypt to co-operate with Sir Ralph Abercromby in the expulsion of the French from Egypt.", "Wellesley had been appointed second in command to Baird, but owing to ill health did not accompany the expedition on 9 April 1801.This was fortunate for Wellesley, since the vessel on which he was to have sailed sank in the Red Sea.He was promoted to brigadier-general on 17 July 1801.He took residence within the Sultan's summer palace and reformed the tax and justice systems in his province to maintain order and prevent bribery.====Dhoondiah Waugh insurgency====In 1800, whilst serving as Governor of Mysore, Wellesley was tasked with putting down an insurgency led by Dhoondiah Waugh, formerly a Patan trooper for Tipu Sultan.", "Having escaped after the fall of Seringapatam he became a powerful brigand, raiding villages along the Maratha–Mysore border region.Despite initial setbacks, the East India Company having pursued and destroyed his forces once already, forcing him into retreat in August 1799, he raised a sizeable force composed of disbanded Mysore soldiers, captured small outposts and forts in Mysore, and was receiving the support of several Maratha ''killedars'' opposed to British occupation.", "This drew the attention of the British administration, who were beginning to recognise him as more than just a bandit, as his raids, expansion and threats to destabilise British authority suddenly increased in 1800.The death of Tipu Sultan had created a power vacuum and Waugh was seeking to fill it.Given independent command of a combined East India Company and British Army force, Wellesley ventured north to confront Waugh in June 1800, with an army of 8,000 infantry and cavalry, having learnt that Waugh's forces numbered over 50,000, although the majority (around 30,000) were irregular light cavalry and unlikely to pose a serious threat to British infantry and artillery.Throughout June–August 1800, Wellesley advanced through Waugh's territory, his troops escalading forts in turn and capturing each one with \"trifling loss\".", "The forts generally offered little resistance due to their poor construction and design.", "Wellesley did not have sufficient troops to garrison each fort and had to clear the surrounding area of insurgents before advancing to the next fort.", "On 31 July, he had \"taken and destroyed Dhoondiah's baggage and six guns, and driven into the Malpoorba (where they were drowned) about five thousand people\".", "Dhoondiah continued to retreat, but his forces were rapidly deserting, he had no infantry and due to the monsoon weather flooding river crossings he could no longer outpace the British advance.", "On 10 September, at the Battle of Conaghul, Wellesley personally led a charge of 1,400 British dragoons and Indian cavalry, in single line with no reserve, against Dhoondiah and his remaining 5,000 cavalry.", "Dhoondiah was killed during the clash, his body was discovered and taken to the British camp tied to a cannon.", "With this victory, Wellesley's campaign was concluded, and British authority had been restored.", "Wellesley then paid for the future upkeep of Dhoondiah's orphaned son.====Second Anglo-Maratha War====In September 1802, Wellesley learnt that he had been promoted to the rank of major-general.", "He had been gazetted on 29 April 1802, but the news took several months to reach him by sea.", "He remained at Mysore until November when he was sent to command an army in the Second Anglo-Maratha War.When he determined that a long defensive war would ruin his army, Wellesley decided to act boldly to defeat the numerically larger force of the Maratha Empire.", "With the logistic assembly of his army complete (24,000 men in total) he gave the order to break camp and attack the nearest Maratha fort on 8 August 1803.The fort surrendered on 12 August after an infantry attack had exploited an artillery-made breach in the wall.", "With the fort now in British control Wellesley was able to extend control southwards to the river Godavari.====Assaye, Argaum and Gawilghur====Arthur Wellesley (mounted) at the Battle of Assaye (engraving after William Heath).", "Wellesley later remarked that it was his greatest victory.Splitting his army into two forces to pursue and locate the main Marathas army (the second force, commanded by Colonel Stevenson was far smaller), Wellesley was preparing to rejoin his forces on 24 September.", "His intelligence, however, reported the location of the Marathas' main army, between two rivers near Assaye.", "If he waited for the arrival of his second force, the Marathas would be able to mount a retreat, so Wellesley decided to launch an attack immediately.On 23 September, Wellesley led his forces over a ford in the river Kaitna and the Battle of Assaye commenced.", "After crossing the ford the infantry was reorganised into several lines and advanced against the Maratha infantry.", "Wellesley ordered his cavalry to exploit the flank of the Maratha army just near the village.", "During the battle Wellesley himself came under fire; two of his horses were shot from under him and he had to mount a third.", "At a crucial moment, Wellesley regrouped his forces and ordered Colonel Maxwell (later killed in the attack) to attack the eastern end of the Maratha position while Wellesley himself directed a renewed infantry attack against the centre.An officer in the attack wrote of the importance of Wellesley's personal leadership: \"The General was in the thick of the action the whole time ...", "I never saw a man so cool and collected as he was ... though I can assure you, till our troops got the order to advance the fate of the day seemed doubtful ...\" With some 6,000 Marathas killed or wounded, the enemy was routed, though Wellesley's force was in no condition to pursue.", "British casualties were heavy: the British losses amounted to 428 killed, 1,138 wounded and 18 missing (the British casualty figures were taken from Wellesley's own despatch).", "Wellesley was troubled by the loss of men and remarked that he hoped \"I should not like to see again such loss as I sustained on 23 September, even if attended by such gain\".", "Years later, however, he remarked that Assaye and not Waterloo was the best battle he ever fought.Despite the damage done to the Maratha army, the battle did not end the war.", "A few months later in November, Wellesley attacked a larger force near Argaum, leading his army to victory again, with an astonishing 5,000 enemy dead at the cost of only 361 British casualties.", "A further successful attack at the fortress at Gawilghur, combined with the victory of General Lake at Delhi, forced the Maratha to sign a peace settlement at Anjangaon (not concluded until a year later) called the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon.Military historian Richard Holmes remarked that Wellesley's experiences in India had an important influence on his personality and military tactics, teaching him much about military matters that would prove vital to his success in the Peninsular War.", "These included a strong sense of discipline through drill and order, the use of diplomacy to gain allies, and the vital necessity of a secure supply line.", "He also established high regard for the acquisition of intelligence through scouts and spies.", "His personal tastes also developed, including dressing himself in white trousers, a dark tunic, with Hessian boots and black cocked hat (that later became synonymous as his style).====Leaving India====Major-General Wellesley meeting with Nawab Azim-ud-Daula, 1805Wellesley had grown tired of his time in India, remarking \"I have served as long in India as any man ought who can serve anywhere else\".", "In June 1804 he applied for permission to return home and as a reward for his service in India he was made a Knight of the Bath in September.", "While in India, Wellesley had amassed a fortune of £42,000 (considerable at the time), consisting mainly of prize money from his campaign.", "When his brother's term as Governor-General of India ended in March 1805, the brothers returned together to England on HMS ''Howe''.", "Wellesley, coincidentally, stopped on his voyage at the island of Saint Helena and stayed in the same building in which Napoleon I would live during his later exile." ], [ "Return to Britain", "=== Meeting Nelson ===In September 1805, Major-General Wellesley was newly returned from his campaigns in India and was not yet particularly well known to the public.", "He reported to the office of the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to request a new assignment.", "In the waiting room, he met Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, already a known figure after his victories at the Nile and Copenhagen, who was briefly in England after months pursuing the French Toulon fleet to the West Indies and back.", "Some 30 years later, Wellington recalled a conversation that Nelson began with him which Wellesley found \"almost all on his side in a style so vain and silly as to surprise and almost disgust me\".", "Nelson left the room to inquire who the young general was and, on his return, switched to a very different tone, discussing the war, the state of the colonies, and the geopolitical situation as between equals.", "On this second discussion, Wellington recalled, \"I don't know that I ever had a conversation that interested me more\".", "This was the only time that the two men met; Nelson was killed at his victory at Trafalgar seven weeks later.Wellesley then served in the abortive Anglo-Russian expedition to north Germany in 1805, taking a brigade to Elbe.He then took a period of extended leave from the army and was elected as a Tory member of the British parliament for Rye in January 1806.A year later, he was elected MP for Newport on the Isle of Wight, and was then appointed to serve as Chief Secretary for Ireland under the Duke of Richmond.", "At the same time, he was made a privy counsellor.", "While in Ireland, he gave a verbal promise that the remaining Penal Laws would be enforced with great moderation, perhaps an indication of his later willingness to support Catholic emancipation.", "Wellesley was described as having been \"handsome, very brown, quite bald and a hooked nose\".=== War against Denmark-Norway ===Wellesley was in Ireland in May 1807 when he heard of the British expedition to Denmark-Norway.", "He decided to go, while maintaining his political appointments, and was appointed to command an infantry brigade in the Second Battle of Copenhagen, which took place in August.", "He fought at Køge, during which the men under his command took 1,500 prisoners, with Wellesley later present during the surrender.By 30 September, he had returned to England and was raised to the rank of lieutenant general on 25 April 1808.In June 1808 he accepted the command of an expedition of 9,000 men.", "Preparing to sail for an attack on the Spanish colonies in South America (to assist the Latin American patriot Francisco de Miranda) his force was instead ordered to sail for Portugal, to take part in the Peninsular Campaign and rendezvous with 5,000 troops from Gibraltar." ], [ "Peninsular War", "=== 1808–1809 ===Ready for battle, Wellesley left Cork on 12 July 1808 to participate in the war against French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, with his skills as a commander tested and developed.According to the historian Robin Neillands:Reenactors of the 33rd Regiment of Foot Wellington's Redcoats who fought in the Napoleonic Wars, 1812–1815, here showing the standard line 8th CompanyWellesley defeated the French at the Battle of Roliça and the Battle of Vimeiro in 1808 but was superseded in command immediately after the latter battle.", "General Dalrymple then signed the controversial Convention of Sintra, which stipulated that the Royal Navy transport the French army out of Lisbon with all their loot, and insisted on the association of the only available government minister, Wellesley.Dalrymple and Wellesley were recalled to Britain to face a Court of Enquiry.", "Wellesley had agreed to sign the preliminary armistice, but had not signed the convention, and was cleared.Simultaneously, Napoleon entered Spain with his veteran troops to put down the revolt; the new commander of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, died during the Battle of Corunna in January 1809.Although overall the land war with France was not going well from a British perspective, the Peninsula was the one theatre where they, with the Portuguese, had provided strong resistance against France and her allies.", "This contrasted with the disastrous Walcheren expedition, which was typical of the mismanaged British operations of the time.", "Wellesley submitted a memorandum to Lord Castlereagh on the defence of Portugal.", "He stressed its mountainous frontiers and advocated Lisbon as the main base because the Royal Navy could help to defend it.", "Castlereagh and the cabinet approved the memo and appointed him head of all British forces in Portugal.Wellesley arrived in Lisbon on 22 April 1809 on board HMS ''Surveillante'', after narrowly escaping shipwreck.", "Reinforced, he took to the offensive.", "In the Second Battle of Porto he crossed the Douro river in a daylight ''coup de main'', and routed Marshal Soult's French troops in Porto.With Portugal secured, Wellesley advanced into Spain to unite with General Cuesta's forces.", "The combined allied force prepared for an assault on Marshal Victor's I Corps at Talavera, 23 July.", "Cuesta, however, was reluctant to agree, and was only persuaded to advance on the following day.", "The delay allowed the French to withdraw, but Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, and found himself faced by almost the entire French army in New Castile—Victor had been reinforced by the Toledo and Madrid garrisons.", "The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating the advance of two British divisions to cover their retreat.The next day, 27 July, at the Battle of Talavera the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by Wellesley, but at a heavy cost to the British force.", "In the aftermath Marshal Soult's army was discovered to be advancing south, threatening to cut Wellesley off from Portugal.", "Wellesley moved east on 3 August to block it, leaving 1,500 wounded in the care of the Spanish, intending to confront Soult before finding out that the French were in fact 30,000 strong.", "The British commander sent the Light Brigade on a dash to hold the bridge over the Tagus at Almaraz.", "With communications and supply from Lisbon secured for now, Wellesley considered joining with Cuesta again but found out that his Spanish ally had abandoned the British wounded to the French and was thoroughly uncooperative, promising and then refusing to supply the British forces, aggravating Wellesley and causing considerable friction between the British and their Spanish allies.", "The lack of supplies, coupled with the threat of French reinforcement (including the possible inclusion of Napoleon himself) in the spring, led to the British deciding to retreat into Portugal.Following his victory at Talavera, Wellesley was elevated to the Peerage of the United Kingdom on 26 August 1809 as '''Viscount Wellington''' of Talavera and of Wellington, in the County of Somerset, with the subsidiary title of '''Baron Douro''' of Wellesley.=== 1810–1812 ===In 1810, a newly enlarged French army under Marshal André Masséna invaded Portugal.", "British opinion was negative and there were suggestions to evacuate Portugal.", "Instead, Lord Wellington first slowed the French at Buçaco; he then prevented them from taking the Lisbon Peninsula by the construction of massive earthworks, known as the Lines of Torres Vedras, which had been assembled in complete secrecy with their flanks guarded by the Royal Navy.", "The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months.", "Wellington's pursuit was hindered by a series of reverses inflicted by Marshal Ney in a much-lauded rear guard campaign.In 1811, Masséna returned toward Portugal to relieve Almeida; Wellington narrowly checked the French at the Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro.", "Simultaneously, his subordinate, Viscount Beresford, fought Soult's 'Army of the South' to a bloody stalemate at the Battle of Albuera in May.", "Wellington was promoted to full general on 31 July for his services.", "The French abandoned Almeida, avoiding British pursuit, but retained the twin Spanish fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the 'Keys' guarding the roads through the mountain passes into Portugal.Wellington at the Battle of Salamanca (engraving after William Heath)In 1812, Wellington finally captured Ciudad Rodrigo via a rapid movement as the French went into winter quarters, storming it before they could react.", "He then moved south quickly, besieged the fortress of Badajoz for a month and captured it during the night on 6 April 1812.On viewing the aftermath of the Storming of Badajoz, Wellington lost his composure and cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.His army now was a veteran British force reinforced by units of the retrained Portuguese army.", "Campaigning in Spain, he was made '''Earl of Wellington''' in the county of Somerset on 22 February 1812.He routed the French at the Battle of Salamanca, taking advantage of a minor French mispositioning.", "The victory liberated the Spanish capital of Madrid.", "He was later made '''Marquess of Wellington''', in the said county on 18 August 1812.Wellington attempted to take the vital fortress of Burgos, which linked Madrid to France.", "He failed, due in part to a lack of siege guns, forcing him into a headlong retreat with the loss of over 2,000 casualties.The French abandoned Andalusia, and combined the troops of Soult and Marmont.", "Thus combined, the French outnumbered the British, putting the British forces in a precarious position.", "Wellington withdrew his army and, joined by the smaller corps under the command of Rowland Hill, which had been moved to Madrid, began to retreat to Portugal.", "Marshal Soult declined to attack.", "''The Duke of Wellington'' by Francisco Goya, 1812–14=== 1813–1814 ===In 1813, Wellington led a new offensive, this time against the French line of communications.", "He struck through the hills north of Burgos, the Tras os Montes, and switched his supply line from Portugal to Santander on Spain's north coast; this led to the French abandoning Madrid and Burgos.", "Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington caught up with and routed the army of King Joseph Bonaparte in the Battle of Vitoria, for which he was promoted to field marshal on 21 June.", "He personally led a column against the French centre, while other columns commanded by Sir Thomas Graham, Rowland Hill and the Earl of Dalhousie looped around the French right and left (this battle became the subject of Beethoven's orchestral piece, the ''Wellington's Victory'' (Opus 91).", "The British troops broke ranks to loot the abandoned French wagons instead of pursuing the beaten foe.", "When troops failed to return to their units and began harassing the locals, an enraged Wellington wrote in a now famous despatch to Earl Bathurst, \"We have in the service the scum of the earth as common soldiers\".Although later, when his temper had cooled, he extended his comment to praise the men under his command saying that though many of the men were, \"the scum of the earth; it is really wonderful that we should have made them to the fine fellows they are\".After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona, Wellington invested San Sebastián but was frustrated by the obstinate French garrison, losing 693 dead and 316 captured in a failed assault and suspending the siege at the end of July.", "Soult's relief attempt was blocked by the Spanish Army of Galicia at San Marcial, allowing the Allies to consolidate their position and tighten the ring around the city, which fell in September after a second spirited defence.", "Wellington then forced Soult's demoralised and battered army into a fighting retreat into France, punctuated by battles at the Pyrenees, Bidassoa and Nivelle.", "Wellington invaded southern France, winning at the Nive and Orthez.", "Wellington's final battle against his rival Soult occurred at Toulouse, where the Allied divisions were badly mauled storming the French redoubts, losing some 4,600 men.", "Despite this momentary victory, news arrived of Napoleon's defeat and abdication and Soult, seeing no reason to continue the fighting, agreed on a ceasefire with Wellington, allowing Soult to evacuate the city.Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, on 3 May 1814 Wellington was made '''Duke of Wellington''', in the county of Somerset, together with the subsidiary title of '''Marquess Douro''', in said County.He received some recognition during his lifetime (the title of \"Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo\" and \"Grandee of Spain\") and the Spanish King Ferdinand VII allowed him to keep part of the works of art from the Royal Collection which he had recovered from the French.", "His equestrian portrait features prominently in the Monument to the Battle of Vitoria, in present-day Vitoria-Gasteiz.Metternich, Talleyrand and other European diplomats at the Congress of Vienna, 1815 (engraving after Jean-Baptiste Isabey) His popularity in Britain was due to his image and his appearance as well as to his military triumphs.", "His victory fitted well with the passion and intensity of the Romantic movement, with its emphasis on individuality.", "His personal style influenced the fashions in Britain at the time: his tall, lean figure and his plumed black hat and grand yet classic uniform and white trousers became very popular.In late 1814, the Prime Minister wanted him to take command in Canada with the assignment of winning the War of 1812 against the United States.", "Wellesley replied that he would go to America, but he believed that he was needed more in Europe.", "He stated:He was appointed Ambassador to France, then took Lord Castlereagh's place as first plenipotentiary to the Congress of Vienna.On 2 January 1815, the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to Knight Grand Cross upon the expansion of that order." ], [ "Hundred Days", "===Facing Napoleon===William Say after Thomas PhillipsOn 26 February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France.", "He regained control of the country by May and faced a renewed alliance against him.", "Wellington left Vienna for what became known as the Waterloo Campaign.", "He arrived in the Netherlands to take command of the British-German army and their allied Dutch, all stationed alongside the Prussian forces of Generalfeldmarschall Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.Napoleon's strategy was to isolate the Allied and Prussian armies and annihilate each one separately before the Austrians and Russians arrived.", "In doing so the vast superiority in numbers of the Coalition would be greatly diminished.", "He would then seek the possibility of peace with Austria and Russia.The French invaded the Netherlands, with Napoleon defeating the Prussians at Ligny, and Marshal Ney engaging indecisively with Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras.", "The Prussians retreated 18 miles north to Wavre whilst Wellington's Anglo-Allied army withdrew 15 miles north to a site he had noted the previous year as favourable for a battle: the north ridge of a shallow valley on the Brussels road, just south of the small town of Waterloo.", "On 17 June there was torrential rain, which severely hampered movement.", "and had a considerable effect the next day, 18 June, when the Battle of Waterloo was fought.", "This was the first time Wellington had encountered Napoleon; he commanded an Anglo-Dutch-German army that consisted of approximately 73,000 troops, 26,000 of whom were British.", "Approximately 30 percent of that 26,000 were Irish.===Battle of Waterloo===''Wellington at Waterloo'', by Robert Alexander HillingfordThe Battle of Waterloo was fought on Sunday 18 June 1815, near Waterloo (at that time in the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, now in Belgium).", "It commenced with a diversionary attack on Hougoumont by a division of French soldiers.", "After a barrage of 80 cannons, the first French infantry attack was launched by Comte D'Erlon's I Corps.", "D'Erlon's troops advanced through the Allied centre, resulting in Allied troops in front of the ridge retreating in disorder through the main position.", "D'Erlon's corps stormed the most fortified Allied position, La Haye Sainte, but failed to take it.", "An Allied division under Thomas Picton met the remainder of D'Erlon's corps head to head, engaging them in an infantry duel in which Picton was killed.", "During this struggle Lord Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades at the enemy, catching the French infantry off guard, driving them to the bottom of the slope, and capturing two French Imperial Eagles.", "The charge, however, over-reached itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh French horsemen sent at them by Napoleon, were driven back, suffering tremendous losses.Shortly before 16:00, Marshal Ney noted an apparent withdrawal from Wellington's centre.", "He mistook the movement of casualties to the rear for the beginnings of a retreat, and sought to exploit it.", "Ney at this time had few infantry reserves left, as most of the infantry had been committed either to the futile Hougoumont attack or to the defence of the French right.", "Ney, therefore, tried to break Wellington's centre with a cavalry charge alone.The ''Grenadiers à Cheval''.", "Napoleon can be seen in the background on a grey horse.", "A number of different mounts could have been ridden by Napoleon at Waterloo: Ali, Crebère, Désirée, Jaffa, Marie, and Tauris.At about 16:30, the first Prussian corps arrived.", "Commanded by Freiherr von Bülow, IV Corps arrived as the French cavalry attack was in full spate.", "Bülow sent the 15th Brigade to link up with Wellington's left flank in the Frichermont–La Haie area while the brigade's horse artillery battery and additional brigade artillery deployed to its left in support.", "Napoleon sent Lobau's corps to intercept the rest of Bülow's IV Corps proceeding to Plancenoit.", "The 15th Brigade sent Lobau's corps into retreat to the Plancenoit area.", "Von Hiller's 16th Brigade also pushed forward with six battalions against Plancenoit.", "Napoleon had dispatched all eight battalions of the Young Guard to reinforce Lobau, who was now seriously pressed by the enemy.", "Napoleon's Young Guard counter-attacked and, after very hard fighting, secured Plancenoit, but were themselves counter-attacked and driven out.", "Napoleon then resorted to sending two battalions of the Middle and Old Guard into Plancenoit and after ferocious fighting they recaptured the village.The French cavalry attacked the British infantry squares many times, each at a heavy cost to the French but with few British casualties.", "Ney himself was displaced from his horse four times.", "Eventually, it became obvious, even to Ney, that cavalry alone were achieving little.", "Belatedly, he organised a combined-arms attack, using Bachelu's division and Tissot's regiment of Foy's division from Reille's II Corps plus those French cavalry that remained in a fit state to fight.", "This assault was directed along much the same route as the previous heavy cavalry attacks.The storming of La Haye Sainte, by Richard KnötelMeanwhile, at approximately the same time as Ney's combined-arms assault on the centre-right of Wellington's line, Napoleon ordered Ney to capture La Haye Sainte at whatever the cost.", "Ney accomplished this with what was left of D'Erlon's corps soon after 18:00.Ney then moved horse artillery up towards Wellington's centre and began to attack the infantry squares at short-range with canister.", "This all but destroyed the 27th (Inniskilling) Regiment, and the 30th and 73rd Regiments suffered such heavy losses that they had to combine to form a viable square.", "Wellington's centre was now on the verge of collapse and wide open to an attack from the French.", "Luckily for Wellington, Pirch I's and Zieten's corps of the Prussian Army were now at hand.", "Zieten's corps permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur on Wellington's extreme left to be moved and posted behind the depleted centre.", "Pirch I Corps then proceeded to support Bülow and together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once more the Charleroi road was swept by Prussian round shot.", "The value of this reinforcement is held in high regard.Wellington at the battle of WaterlooThe French army now fiercely attacked the Coalition all along the line with the culminating point being reached when Napoleon sent forward the Imperial Guard at 19:30.The attack of the Imperial Guards was mounted by five battalions of the Middle Guard, and not by the Grenadiers or Chasseurs of the Old Guard.", "Marching through a hail of canister and skirmisher fire and severely outnumbered, the 3,000 or so Middle Guardsmen advanced to the west of La Haye Sainte and proceeded to separate into three distinct attack forces.", "One, consisting of two battalions of Grenadiers, defeated the Coalition's first line and marched on.", "Chassé's relatively fresh Dutch division was sent against them, and Allied artillery fired into the victorious Grenadiers' flank.", "This still could not stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the outnumbered French, who faltered and broke.British 10th Hussars of Vivian's Brigade (red shakos – blue uniforms) attacking mixed French troops, including a square of Guard grenadiers (left, middle distance) in the final stages of the battleFurther to the west, 1,500 British Foot Guards under Maitland were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery.", "As two battalions of Chasseurs approached, the second prong of the Imperial Guard's attack, Maitland's guardsmen rose and devastated them with point-blank volleys.", "The Chasseurs deployed to counter-attack but began to waver.", "A bayonet charge by the Foot Guards then broke them.", "The third prong, a fresh Chasseur battalion, now came up in support.", "The British guardsmen retreated with these Chasseurs in pursuit, but the latter were halted as the 52nd Light Infantry wheeled in line onto their flank and poured a devastating fire into them and then charged.", "Under this onslaught, they too broke.The last of the Guard retreated headlong.", "Mass panic ensued through the French lines as the news spread: \"''La Garde recule.", "Sauve qui peut!''\"", "(\"The Guard is retreating.", "Every man for himself!\").", "Wellington then stood up in Copenhagen's stirrups, and waved his hat in the air to signal an advance of the Allied line just as the Prussians were overrunning the French positions to the east.", "What remained of the French army then abandoned the field in disorder.", "Wellington and Blücher met at the inn of La Belle Alliance, on the north–south road which bisected the battlefield, and it was agreed that the Prussians should pursue the retreating French army back to France.", "The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815.After the victory, the Duke supported proposals that a medal be awarded to all British soldiers who participated in the Waterloo campaign, and on 28 June 1815, he wrote to the Duke of York suggesting: ... the expediency of giving to the non-commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the Battle of Waterloo a medal.", "I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army, and if the battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve it.The Waterloo Medal was duly authorised and distributed to all ranks in 1816.===Controversy===Much historical discussion has been made about Napoleon's decision to send 33,000 troops under Marshal Grouchy to intercept the Prussians, but—having defeated Blücher at Ligny on 16 June and forced the Allies to retreat in divergent directions—Napoleon may have been strategically astute in a judgement that he would have been unable to beat the combined Allied forces on one battlefield.", "Wellington's comparable strategic gamble was to leave 17,000 troops and artillery, mostly Dutch, away at Hal, north-west of Mont-Saint-Jean, in case of a French advance up the Mons-Hal-Brussels road.Wellington at the battle of Waterloo.", "Detail of a painting by Jan Willem Pieneman, 1824.The campaign led to numerous other controversies.", "Issues concerning Wellington's troop dispositions prior to Napoleon's invasion of the Netherlands, whether Wellington misled or betrayed Blücher by promising, then failing, to come directly to Blücher's aid at Ligny, and credit for the victory between Wellington and the Prussians.", "These and other such issues concerning Blücher's, Wellington's, and Napoleon's decisions during the campaign were the subject of a strategic-level study by the Prussian political-military theorist Carl von Clausewitz, ''Feldzug von 1815: Strategische Uebersicht des Feldzugs von 1815'', (English title: ''The Campaign of 1815: Strategic Overview of the Campaign''.)", "This study was Clausewitz's last such work and is widely considered to be the best example of Clausewitz's mature theories concerning such analyses.", "It attracted the attention of Wellington's staff, who prompted the Duke to write a published essay on the campaign (other than his immediate, official after-action report, \"The Waterloo Dispatch\".)", "This was published as the 1842 \"Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo\".", "While Wellington disputed Clausewitz on several points, Clausewitz largely absolved Wellington of accusations levelled against him.", "This exchange with Clausewitz was quite famous in Britain in the 19th century, particularly in Charles Cornwallis Chesney's work the ''Waterloo Lectures,'' but was largely ignored in the 20th century due to hostilities between Britain and Germany.===Army of occupation in Paris===Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Wellington was appointed commander of the multi-national army of occupation based in Paris.", "The army consisted of troops from the United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia, along with contributions from five smaller European states.", "Although the various contingents were administered by their own commanders, they were all subordinated to Wellington, who was also responsible for liaison with the French administration.", "The role of the army was to prevent a resurgence of French aggression and to allow the restored King Louis XVIII to consolidate his control over the country.", "The army of occupation was never required to intervene militarily and was dissolved in 1818, after which Wellington returned to Britain.", "It was his last active military command." ], [ "Politics", "===Prime Minister===John Jackson, 1830–31Wellington entered politics again when he was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance in the Tory government of Lord Liverpool on 26 December 1818.He also became Governor of Plymouth on 9 October 1819.He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 22 January 1827 and Constable of the Tower of London on 5 February 1827.Along with Robert Peel, Wellington became an increasingly influential member of the Tory party, and in 1828 he resigned as Commander-in-Chief and became prime minister.During his first seven months as prime minister, he chose not to live in the official residence at 10 Downing Street, finding it too small.", "He moved in only because his own home, Apsley House, required extensive renovations.", "During this time he was largely instrumental in the foundation of King's College London.", "On 20 January 1829 Wellington was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports.===Reform======= Catholic emancipation ====His term was marked by Roman Catholic Emancipation: the restoration of most civil rights to Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.", "The change was prompted by the landslide by-election win of Daniel O'Connell, a Roman Catholic Irish proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament.", "In the House of Lords, facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic Emancipation, and according to some sources, gave one of the best speeches of his career.", "Wellington was born in Ireland and so had some understanding of the grievances of the Roman Catholic majority there; as Chief Secretary, he had given an undertaking that the remaining Penal Laws would only be enforced as \"mildly\" as possible.", "In 1811 Catholic soldiers were given freedom of worship and 18 years later the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 was passed with a majority of 105.Many Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the Whigs.", "Wellington had threatened to resign as prime minister if King George IV did not give Royal Assent.A satirical cartoon attacking the Duke of Wellington, then prime minister, for the passage in April 1829 of the Roman Catholic Relief Act==== Duel with Winchilsea ====The Earl of Winchilsea accused the Duke of \"an insidious design for the infringement of our liberties and the introduction of Popery into every department of the State\".", "Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel.", "On 21 March 1829, Wellington and Winchilsea met on Battersea fields.", "When the time came to fire, the Duke took aim and Winchilsea kept his arm down.", "The Duke fired wide to the right.", "Accounts differ as to whether he missed on purpose, an act known in duelling as a ''delope''.", "Wellington claimed he did.", "However, he was noted for his poor aim and reports more sympathetic to Winchilsea claimed he had aimed to kill.", "Winchilsea discharged his pistol into the air, a plan he and his second had almost certainly decided upon before the duel.", "Honour was saved and Winchilsea wrote Wellington an apology.The nickname \"Iron Duke\" originated from this period, when he experienced a high degree of personal and political unpopularity.", "Its repeated use in ''Freeman's Journal'' throughout June 1830 appears to bear reference to his resolute political will, with taints of disapproval from its Irish editors.", "During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.==== Resignation and aftermath ====Wellington's government fell in 1830.In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country.", "The Whigs had been out of power for most years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return.", "Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of suffrage, and as a result, lost a vote of no confidence on 15 November 1830.The Whigs introduced the first Reform Bill while Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage.", "The Whigs could not get the bill past its second reading in the British House of Commons, and the attempt failed.", "An election followed in direct response and the Whigs were returned with a landslide majority.", "A second Reform Act was introduced and passed in the House of Commons but was defeated in the Tory-controlled House of Lords.", "Another wave of near-insurrection swept the country.", "Wellington's residence at Apsley House was targeted by a mob of demonstrators on 27 April 1831 and again on 12 October, leaving his windows smashed.", "Iron shutters were installed in June 1832 to prevent further damage by crowds angry over rejection of the Reform Bill, which he strongly opposed.", "The Whig Government fell in 1832 and Wellington was unable to form a Tory Government partly because of a run on the Bank of England.", "This left King William IV no choice but to restore Earl Grey to the premiership.", "Eventually, the bill passed the House of Lords after the King threatened to fill that House with newly created Whig peers if it were not.", "Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said \"I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life\".Wellington opposed the Jewish Civil Disabilities Repeal Bill, and he stated in Parliament on 1 August 1833 that England \"is a Christian country and a Christian legislature, and that the effect of this measure would be to remove that peculiar character.\"", "The Bill was defeated by 104 votes to 54.===Government===Daguerreotype of Wellington, aged 74 or 75, by Antoine Claudet, 1844\|285x285pxWellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel, while the party evolved into the Conservatives.", "When the Tories were returned to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become prime minister because he thought membership in the House of Commons had become essential.", "The king reluctantly approved Peel, who was in Italy.", "Hence, Wellington acted as interim leader for three weeks in November and December 1834, taking the responsibilities of prime minister and most of the other ministries.", "In Peel's first cabinet (1834–1835), Wellington became foreign secretary, while in the second (1841–1846) he was a minister without portfolio and Leader of the House of Lords.", "Wellington was also re-appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army on 15 August 1842 following the resignation of Lord Hill.Wellington served as the leader of the Conservative party in the House of Lords from 1828 to 1846.Some historians have belittled him as a befuddled reactionary, but a consensus in the late 20th century depicts him as a shrewd operator who hid his cleverness behind the façade of a poorly informed old soldier.", "Wellington worked to transform the Lords from unstinting support of the Crown to an active player in political manoeuvering, with a commitment to the landed aristocracy.", "He used his London residence as a venue for intimate dinners and private consultations, together with extensive correspondence that kept him in close touch with party leaders in the Commons, and the main persona in the Lords.", "He gave public rhetorical support to Ultra-Tory anti-reform positions, but then deftly changed positions toward the party's centre, especially when Peel needed support from the upper house.", "Wellington's success was based on the 44 elected peers from Scotland and Ireland, whose elections he controlled." ], [ "Later life", "=== Family ===Robert ThorburnWellesley was married by his brother Gerald, a clergyman, to Kitty Pakenham in St George's Church, Dublin, on 10 April 1806.They had two children: Arthur was born in 1807 and Charles was born in 1808.The marriage proved unsatisfactory and the two spent years apart, while Wellesley was campaigning and afterwards.", "Kitty grew depressed, and Wellesley pursued other sexual and romantic partners.", "The couple largely lived apart, with Kitty spending most of her time at their country home, Stratfield Saye House, and Wellesley at their London home, Apsley House.", "Kitty's brother Edward Pakenham served under Wellesley throughout the Peninsular War, and Wellesley's regard for him helped to smooth his relations with Kitty, until Pakenham's death at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.===Retirement===Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained Commander-in-Chief, and returned briefly to the public eye in 1848 when he helped organise a military force to protect London during the year of European revolution.", "The Conservative Party had split over the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, with Wellington and most of the former Cabinet still supporting Peel, but most of the MPs led by Lord Derby supporting a protectionist stance.", "Early in 1852 Wellington, by then very deaf, gave Derby's first government its nickname by shouting \"Who?", "Who?\"", "as the list of inexperienced Cabinet ministers was read out in the House of Lords.", "He became Chief Ranger and Keeper of Hyde Park and St James's Park on 31 August 1850.He remained colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot from 1 February 1806 and colonel of the Grenadier Guards from 22 January 1827.Kitty died of cancer in 1831; despite their generally unhappy relations, which had led to an effective separation, Wellington was said to have been greatly saddened by her death, his one comfort being that after \"half a lifetime together, they had come to understand each other at the end\".", "He had found consolation for his unhappy marriage in his warm friendship with the diarist Harriet Arbuthnot, wife of his colleague Charles Arbuthnot.", "Harriet's death in the cholera epidemic of 1834 was almost as great a blow to Wellington as it was to her husband.", "The two widowers spent their last years together at Apsley House.===Death and funeral===Wellesley's funeral procession passing Wellington Arch and Apsley HouseWellington's tomb, in St Paul's Cathedral, LondonA bronze statue of Wellington by Carlo Marochetti in Woodhouse Moor, Leeds.Wellington died at Walmer Castle in Kent, his residence as Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and reputedly his favourite home, on 14 September 1852.He was found to be unwell on that morning and was helped from his campaign bed, which he had used throughout his military career, and seated in his chair where he died.", "His death was recorded as being due to the after-effects of a stroke culminating in a series of seizures.", "He was aged 83.Although in life he hated travelling by rail, having witnessed the death of William Huskisson, one of the first railway accident casualties, his body was taken by train to London, where he was given a state funeral – one of a small number of British subjects to be so honoured (other examples include Lord Nelson and Sir Winston Churchill).", "The funeral took place on 18 November 1852.Before the funeral, the Duke's body lay in state at the Royal Hospital Chelsea.", "Members of the royal family, including Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, the Prince of Wales, and the Princess Royal, visited to pay their respects.", "When viewing opened to the public, crowds thronged to visit and several people were killed in the crush.", "Queen Victoria wrote: \"He was the pride and the bon génie, as it were, of this country!", "He was the GREATEST man this country ever produced, and the most devoted and loyal subject, and the staunchest supporter the Crown ever had.", "\"He was buried in St Paul's Cathedral, and during his funeral, there was little space to stand due to the number of attendees.", "A bronze memorial was sculpted by Alfred Stevens, and features two intricate supports: \"Truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of False-hood\", and \"Valour trampling Cowardice underfoot\".", "Stevens did not live to see it placed in its home under one of the arches of the cathedral.Wellington's casket was decorated with banners which were made for his funeral procession.", "Originally, there was one from Prussia, which was removed during World War I and never reinstated.", "In the procession, the \"Great Banner\" was carried by General Sir James Charles Chatterton of the 4th Dragoon Guards on the orders of Queen Victoria.Most of the book ''A Biographical Sketch of the Military and Political Career of the Late Duke of Wellington'' by Weymouth newspaper proprietor Joseph Drew is a detailed contemporary account of his death, lying in state and funeral.After his death, Irish and English newspapers disputed whether Wellington had been born an Irishman or an Englishman.", "In 2002, he was number 15 in the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons.Owing to its links with Wellington, as the former commanding officer and colonel of the regiment, the title \"33rd (The Duke of Wellington's) Regiment\" was granted to the 33rd Regiment of Foot, on 18 June 1853 (the 38th anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo) by Queen Victoria.", "Wellington's battle record is exemplary; he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career." ], [ "Personality", "The Duke of Wellington, Wellington always rose early; he \"couldn't bear to lie awake in bed\", even if the army was not on the march.", "Even when he returned to civilian life after 1815, he slept in a camp bed, reflecting his lack of regard for creature comforts.", "General Miguel de Álava complained that Wellington said so often that the army would march \"at daybreak\" and dine on \"cold meat\" that he began to dread those two phrases.", "While on campaign, he seldom ate anything between breakfast and dinner.", "During the retreat to Portugal in 1811, he subsisted on \"cold meat and bread\", to the despair of his staff who dined with him.", "He was, however, renowned for the quality of the wine that he drank and served, often drinking a bottle with his dinner (not a great quantity by the standards of his day).Álava was a witness to an incident just before the Battle of Salamanca.", "Wellington was eating a chicken leg while observing the manoeuvres of the French army through a spyglass.", "He spotted an overextension in the French left flank, and realised that he could launch a successful attack there.", "He exclaimed \"By God, that will do!\"", "and threw the drumstick in the air.", "After the Battle of Toulouse, Colonel Frederick Ponsonby brought him the news of Napoleon's abdication, and Wellington broke into an impromptu flamenco dance, spinning around on his heels and clicking his fingers.Plaster model, located at the Victoria and Albert Museum, of the 'Valour and Cowardice' motif used in the memorial to Wellington at St. Paul's CathedralMilitary historian Charles Dalton recorded that, after a hard-fought battle in Spain, a young officer made the comment, \"I am going to dine with Wellington tonight\", which was overheard by the Duke as he rode by.", "\"Give me at least the prefix of Mr. before my name,\" Wellington said.", "\"My Lord,\" replied the officer, \"we do not speak of Mr. Caesar or Mr. Alexander, so why should I speak of Mr.", "Wellington?", "\"While known for his stern countenance and iron-handed discipline, Wellington was by no means unfeeling.", "While he is said to have disapproved of soldiers cheering as \"too nearly an expression of opinion\", Wellington nevertheless cared for his men: he refused to pursue the French after the battles of Porto and Salamanca, foreseeing an inevitable cost to his army in chasing a diminished enemy through rough terrain.", "The only time that he ever showed grief in public was after the storming of Badajoz: he cried at the sight of the British dead in the breaches.", "In this context, his famous despatch after the Battle of Vitoria, calling them the \"scum of the earth\", can be seen to be fuelled as much by disappointment at their breaking ranks as by anger.", "He shed tears after Waterloo on the presentation of the list of British fallen by John Hume.", "Later with his family, unwilling to be congratulated for his victory, he broke down in tears, his fighting spirit diminished by the high cost of the battle and great personal loss.Wellington's soldier servant, a gruff German called Beckerman, and his long-serving valet, James Kendall, who served him for 25 years and was with him when he died, were both devoted to him.", "(A story that he never spoke to his servants and preferred instead to write his orders on a notepad on his dressing table in fact probably refers to his son, the 2nd Duke.", "It was recorded by the 3rd Duke's niece, Viva Seton Montgomerie (1879–1959), as being an anecdote she heard from an old retainer, Charles Holman, who was said greatly to resemble Napoleon.", ")Following an incident when, as Master-General of the Ordnance, he had been close to a large explosion, Wellington began to experience deafness and other ear-related problems.", "In 1822, a botched operation on his left ear led to permanent deafness on that side and some contemporaries suggested that he never fully recovered his health.Wellington came to enjoy the company of a variety of intellectual and attractive women and had many amorous liaisons, particularly after the Battle of Waterloo and his subsequent ambassadorial position in Paris.", "In the days following Waterloo he had an affair with the notorious Lady Caroline Lamb, sister of one of his severely wounded officers and favourites, Col Frederick Ponsonby.", "He corresponded for many years with Lady Georgiana Lennox, later Lady de Ros, 26 years his junior and daughter of the Duchess of Richmond (who held the famous ball on the eve of Waterloo) and, though there are hints, it has not been clearly determined if the relationship was ever sexual.", "The British press lampooned the amorous side of the national hero.", "In 1824, one liaison came back to haunt him, when Wellington received a letter from a publisher, John Joseph Stockdale, offering to refrain from issuing an edition of the rather racy memoirs of one of his mistresses, Harriette Wilson, in exchange for money.", "It is said that the Duke promptly returned the letter, after scrawling across it, \"Publish and be damned\".", "However, Hibbert notes in his biography that the letter can be found among the Duke's papers, with nothing written on it.", "It is certain that Wellington reply, and the tone of a further letter from the publisher, quoted by Longford, suggests that he had refused in the strongest language to submit to blackmail.He was also a remarkably practical man who spoke concisely.", "In 1851, it was discovered that there were a great many sparrows flying about in the Crystal Palace just before the Great Exhibition was to open.", "His advice to Queen Victoria was \"Sparrowhawks, ma'am\".Wellington has often been portrayed as a defensive general, even though many, perhaps most, of his battles were offensive (Argaum, Assaye, Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse).", "However, for most of the Peninsular War, where he earned his fame, his army lacked the numbers for a strategically offensive posture." ], [ "Titles and tributes", "Sir John Steell's equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington===Nicknames===The \"Iron Duke\" related to Wellington's political, rather than to his military, career.", "Its use is often disparaging.", "It is possible the term became more commonly used after 1832 when Wellington had metal shutters installed at Apsley House to prevent rioters breaking the windows.", "The term may have been made increasingly popular by ''Punch'' cartoons published in 1844–45.In popular ballads of the day Wellington was called ''\"Nosey\"'' or ''\"Old Nosey\"''.", "More complimentary sobriquets, including ''\"The Beau\"'' and ''\"Beau Douro\"'', referenced his noted dress sense.", "Spanish troops called him ''\"The Eagle\"'', while Portuguese troops called him ''\"Douro Douro\"'' after his river crossing at Oporto in 1809.Napoleon dismissed his opponent as a ''\"Sepoy General\"'', a reference to Wellington's service in India.", "The name was used in the French newspaper ''Le Moniteur Universel'', as a means of propaganda.", "His allies were more enthusiastic; Tsar Alexander I of Russia calling him \"''Le vainqueur du vainqueur du monde''\", the conqueror of the world's conqueror, the phrase \"the world's conqueror\" referring to Napoleon.", "Lord Tennyson uses a similar reference in his \"Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington\", referring to him as \"the great World-victor's victor\".", "Similar tags included ''\"Europe's Liberator\"'' and ''\"Saviour of the Nations\"''." ], [ "See also", "* Military career of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington* Army Gold Medal* Cultural depictions of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington* Military General Service Medal* Seringapatam medal* Cotiote War" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===:'''Books'''* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .", "* * :'''Online resources'''* * * * * * * * .", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * '''Journals and magazines'''* * * * * * * * * * * :'''Primary sources'''* " ], [ "Further reading", " * * This on-line text contains Clausewitz's 58-chapter study of the '' Campaign of 1815'' and Wellington's lengthy 1842 essay written in response to Clausewitz, as well as supporting documents and essays by the editors.", "* * * * Goldsmith, Thomas.", "\"The Duke of Wellington and British Foreign Policy 1814–1830.\"", "(PhD Diss.", "University of East Anglia, 2016).", "online* * * * Lambert, A.", "\"Politics, administration and decision-making: Wellington and the navy, 1828–30\" ''Wellington Studies'' IV, ed.", "C. M. Woolgar, (Southampton, 2008), pp. 185–243.", "* Longford, Elizabeth.", "''Wellington: Pillar of State'' (1972), vol 2 of her biography; online* * " ], [ "External links", " Records and images from the UK Parliament Collections* The life of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington* Duke of Wellington's Regiment – West Riding* Papers of Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington (MS 61) at the University of Southampton* * * * More about Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington on the Downing Street website* * * * \"Napoleon and Wellington\", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Andrew Roberts, Mike Broer and Belinda Beaton (''In Our Time'', 25 October 2001)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Disk operating system" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''disk operating system''' ('''DOS''') is a computer operating system that resides on and can use a disk storage device, such as a floppy disk, hard disk drive, or optical disc.", "A disk operating system provides a file system for organizing, reading, and writing files on the storage disk, and a means for loading and running programs stored on that disk.", "Strictly, this definition does not include any other functionality, so it does not apply to more complex OSes, such as Microsoft Windows, and is more appropriately used only for older generations of operating systems.Disk operating systems for mainframes, minicomputers, microprocessors, and home computers are usually loaded from the disks as part of the boot process." ], [ "History", "Early computers predate disk drives, floppy disks, or modern flash storage.", "Early storage devices such as delay lines, core memories, punched cards, punched tape, magnetic tape, and magnetic drums were used instead.", "Early microcomputers and home computers used paper tape, audio cassette tape (such as Kansas City standard), or no permanent storage at all.", "Without permanent storage, program and data entry is done at front panel switches directly into memory or through a computer terminal or keyboard, sometimes controlled by a BASIC interpreter in ROM.", "When power is turned off, any information is lost.In the early 1960s, as disk drives became larger and more affordable, various mainframe and minicomputer vendors introduced disk operating systems and modified existing operating systems to use disks.Hard disks and floppy disk drives require software to manage rapid access to block storage of sequential and other data.", "For most microcomputers, a disk drive of any kind was an optional peripheral.", "Systems could be used with a tape drive or booted without a storage device at all.", "The disk operating system component of the operating system was only needed when a disk drive was used.By the time IBM announced the System/360 mainframes, the concept of a disk operating system was well established.", "Although IBM did offer Basic Programming Support (BPS/360) and TOS/360 for small systems, they were out of the mainstream and most customers used either DOS/360 or OS/360.Most home and personal computers of the late 1970s and 1980s used a disk operating system, most often with \"DOS\" in the name and simply referred to as \"DOS\" within their respective communities: CBM DOS for Commodore 8-bit systems, Atari DOS for the Atari 8-bit family, TRS-DOS for the TRS-80, Apple DOS and ProDOS for the Apple II, and MS-DOS for IBM PC compatibles.", "CP/M is also a disk operating system, despite not having the \"DOS\" acronym in the name.A disk operating system is usually loaded from a disk, but there are exceptions, such as Commodore's disk drives for the Commodore 64 and VIC-20 which contain the DOS in ROM.", "AmigaDOS also mostly resides in ROM, as a part of a Kickstart firmware (a few select versions are also loaded from disk)." ], [ "OS extensions", "Commodore DOS is on 8-bit Commodore computers such as the Commodore 64.Unlike most other DOS systems, it is integrated into the disk drives, not loaded into the computer's own memory.", "Atari DOS is used by the Atari 8-bit family of computers.", "The Atari OS only offers low-level disk-access, so an extra layer called DOS can be booted from a floppy for higher level functions such as filesystems.", "Third-party replacements for Atari DOS include DOS XL, SpartaDOS, MyDOS, TurboDOS, and Top-DOS.", "MSX-DOS is for the MSX computer standard.", "The initial version, released in 1984, is MS-DOS 1.0 ported to Z80.In 1988, version 2 has facilities such as subdirectories, memory management, and environment strings.", "The MSX-DOS kernel resides in ROM (built-in on the disk controller) so basic file access capacity is available even without the command interpreter, by using BASIC extended commands.", "Disc Filing System (DFS) is an optional component for the Acorn BBC Micro, as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a few logic chips, to be installed inside the computer.", "Advanced Disc Filing System (ADFS) is a successor to Acorn's DFS.", "AMSDOS is for the Amstrad CPC computers.", "GDOS and G+DOS is for the +D and DISCiPLE disk interfaces for the ZX Spectrum." ], [ "Main OSes", "Some disk operating systems are the operating systems for the entire computer system.", "The Burroughs (now Unisys) Master Control Program (MCP) for the B5000 originally runs from a drum, but starting with the B5500 it runs from a disk.", "It is the basis for the MCP on the B6500, B7500, and successors.", "The SIPROS, Chippewa Operating System (COS), SCOPE, MACE and KRONOS operating systems on the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6000 series and 7600 are all disk operating systems.", "KRONOS became NOS and SCOPE became NOS/BE.", "The GECOS operating system for the GE (later Honeywell and Groupe Bull) 600 family of mainframe computers (it later became GCOS).", "The IBM Basic Operating System/360 (BOS/360), Disk Operating System/360 (DOS/360) and Operating System/360 (OS/360) are standard for all but the smallest System/360 installations; the 360/67 also has Control Program-67 /Cambridge Monitor System (CP-67/CMS) and Time Sharing System/360 (TSS/360).", "BOS is gone, CP-67/CMS has evolved into z/VM, DOS has evolved into z/VSE, OS has evolved into z/OS and TSS/360 evolved into TSS/370 PRPQ, which is now gone.", "The DOS-11 operating system for DEC PDP-11 minicomputers.", "CP/M is a disk operating system, as the main or alternate operating system for numerous microcomputers of the 1970s and 1980s.", "Apple DOS is the primary operating system for the Apple II series of computers, from 1979 with the introduction of the floppy disk drive, until 1983 when it was replaced by ProDOS.", "TRSDOS is the operating system for the TRS-80 line of computers from Tandy.", "MS-DOS for IBM PC compatibles with Intel x86 CPUs.", "86-DOS was modeled on CP/M, and then was adapted as the basis for Microsoft's MS-DOS.", "It was rebranded by IBM as PC DOS until 1993.Various compatible systems were later produced by different organizations, starting with DR-DOS in 1988." ], [ "See also", "* Live CD" ], [ "References" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dual" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dual''' or '''Duals''' may refer to:" ], [ "Paired/two things", "* Dual (mathematics), a notion of paired concepts that mirror one another Dual (category theory), a formalization of mathematical duality* see more cases in :Category:Duality theories* Dual (grammatical number), a grammatical category used in some languages* Dual county, a Gaelic games county which in both Gaelic football and hurling* Dual diagnosis, a psychiatric diagnosis of co-occurrence of substance abuse and a mental problem* Dual fertilization, simultaneous application of a P-type and N-type fertilizer* Dual impedance, electrical circuits that are the dual of each other* Dual SIM cellphone supporting use of two SIMs* Aerochute International Dual a two-seat Australian powered parachute design" ], [ "Acronyms and other uses", "* Dual (brand), a manufacturer of Hifi equipment* DUAL (cognitive architecture), an artificial intelligence design model* DUAL algorithm, or diffusing update algorithm, used to update Internet protocol routing tables* Dual language, alternative spelling of the Australian Aboriginal Dhuwal language* DUAL table, a special one-row and one-column database table* Dual-Ghia, US-brand of luxury-car of the late 1950s" ], [ "Media", "* ''Dual'' (2008 film), a 2008 western drama film* ''Dual'' (2022 film), a 2022 science fiction thriller film* \"Dual\" (''Heroes''), an episode of ''Heroes''* Dual!", "Parallel Trouble Adventure, an anime series* ''Dual'' (album), an album of traditional Scottish and Irish music recorded by Éamonn Doorley, Muireann Nic Amhlaoibh, Julie Fowlis and Ross Martin, released 2008* ''Dual'' (EP), a 2013 EP by Sampha* ''Duals'', an album by U2* The Duals, American duo" ], [ "See also", "Duality (disambiguation)Duel (disambiguation), a homonym**Double (disambiguation)Duo (disambiguation)Pair (disambiguation)Twin (disambiguation)" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doublespeak" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Doublespeak''' is language that deliberately obscures, disguises, distorts, or reverses the meaning of words.", "Doublespeak may take the form of euphemisms (e.g., \"downsizing\" for layoffs and \"servicing the target\" for bombing), in which case it is primarily meant to make the truth sound more palatable.", "It may also refer to intentional ambiguity in language or to actual inversions of meaning.", "In such cases, doublespeak disguises the nature of the truth.", "Doublespeak is most closely associated with political language." ], [ "Origins and concepts", "The term \"doublespeak\" derives from two concepts in George Orwell's novel, ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', \"doublethink\" and \"Newspeak\", despite the term itself not being used in the novel.", "Another version of the term, \"doubletalk,\" also referring to intentionally ambiguous speech, did exist at the time Orwell wrote his book, but the usage of \"doublespeak\", as well as of \"doubletalk\", in the sense of emphasizing ambiguity, clearly predates the publication of the novel.", "Parallels have also been drawn between doublespeak and Orwell's classic essay, ''Politics and the English Language'', which discusses linguistic distortion for purposes related to politics.", "In the essay, he observes that political language often serves to distort and obscure reality.", "Orwell's description of political speech is extremely similar to the popular definition of the term, doublespeak:The writer Edward S. Herman cited what he saw as examples of doublespeak and doublethink in modern society.", "Herman describes in his book, ''Beyond Hypocrisy,'' the principal characteristics of doublespeak:" ], [ "Examples", "=== In politics ===Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky comment in their book ''Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media'' that Orwellian doublespeak is an important component of the manipulation of the English language in American media, through a process called ''dichotomization,'' a component of media propaganda involving \"deeply embedded double standards in the reporting of news.\"", "For example, the use of state funds by the poor and financially needy is commonly referred to as \"social welfare\" or \"handouts,\" which the \"coddled\" poor \"take advantage of\".", "These terms, however, are not as often applied to other beneficiaries of government spending such as military spending.", "The bellicose language used interchangeably with calls for peace towards Armenia by Azerbaijani president Aliyev after the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War were described as doublespeak in media.=== In advertising ===Advertisers can use doublespeak to mask their commercial intent from users, as users' defenses against advertising become more entrenched.", "Some are attempting to counter this technique with a number of systems offering diverse views and information to highlight the manipulative and dishonest methods that advertisers employ.According to Jacques Ellul, \"the aim is not to even modify people’s ideas on a given subject, rather, it is to achieve conformity in the way that people act.\"", "He demonstrates this view by offering an example from drug advertising.", "Use of doublespeak in advertisements resulted in aspirin production rates rising by almost 50 percent from over 23 million pounds in 1960 to over 35 million pounds in 1970.===In comedy===Doublespeak, particularly when exaggerated, can be used as a device in satirical comedy and social commentary to ironically parody political or bureaucratic establishments' intent on obfuscation or prevarication.", "The television series ''Yes Minister'' is notable for its use of this device.", "Oscar Wilde was an early proponent of this device and a significant influence on Orwell.===Intensify/downplay pattern===This pattern was formulated by Hugh Rank and is a simple tool designed to teach some basic patterns of persuasion used in political propaganda and commercial advertising.", "The function of the intensify/downplay pattern is not to dictate what should be discussed but to encourage coherent thought and systematic organization.", "The pattern works in two ways: intensifying and downplaying.", "All people intensify, and this is done via repetition, association and composition.", "Downplaying is commonly done via omission, diversion and confusion as they communicate in words, gestures, numbers, et cetera.", "Individuals can better cope with organized persuasion by recognizing the common ways whereby communication is intensified or downplayed, so as to counter doublespeak.===In social media===In 2022 and 2023, it was widely reported that social media users were using a form of doublespeak – sometimes called \"algospeak\" – to subvert content moderation on platforms such as TikTok.", "Examples include using the word \"unalive\" instead of \"dead\" or \"kill\", or using \"leg booty\" instead of LGBT, which users believed would prevent moderation algorithms from banning or shadow banning their accounts.", "As of 2022 according to ''Forbes,'' almost a third of American social media users reported using \"emojis or alternative phrases\" to subvert content moderation." ], [ "Doublespeak Award", "Doublespeak is often used by politicians for the advancement of their agenda.", "The Doublespeak Award is an \"ironic tribute to public speakers who have perpetuated language that is grossly deceptive, evasive, euphemistic, confusing, or self-centered.\"", "It has been issued by the US National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) since 1974.The recipients of the Doublespeak Award are usually politicians, national administration or departments.", "An example of this is the United States Department of Defense, which won the award three times, in 1991, 1993, and 2001.For the 1991 award, the United States Department of Defense \"swept the first six places in the Doublespeak top ten\" for using euphemisms like \"servicing the target\" (bombing) and \"force packages\" (warplanes).", "Among the other phrases in contention were \"difficult exercise in labor relations\", meaning a strike, and \"meaningful downturn in aggregate output\", an attempt to avoid saying the word \"recession\"." ], [ "NCTE Committee on Public Doublespeak", "The US '''National Council of Teachers of English''' (NCTE) Committee on Public Doublespeak was formed in 1971, in the midst of the Watergate scandal.", "It was at a point when there was widespread skepticism about the degree of truth which characterized relationships between the public and the worlds of politics, the military, and business.NCTE passed two resolutions.", "One called for the Council to find means to study dishonest and inhumane uses of language and literature by advertisers, to bring offenses to public attention, and to propose classroom techniques for preparing children to cope with commercial propaganda.", "The other called for the Council to find means to study the relationships between language and public policy and to track, publicize, and combat semantic distortion by public officials, candidates for office, political commentators, and all others whose language is transmitted through the mass media.The two resolutions were accomplished by forming NCTE's Committee on Public Doublespeak, a body which has made significant contributions in describing the need for reform where clarity in communication has been deliberately distorted.===Hugh Rank===Hugh Rank helped form the Doublespeak committee in 1971 and was its first chairman.", "Under his editorship, the committee produced a book called ''Language and Public Policy'' (1974), with the aim of informing readers of the extensive scope of doublespeak being used to deliberately mislead and deceive the audience.", "He highlighted the deliberate public misuses of language and provided strategies for countering doublespeak by focusing on educating people in the English language so as to help them identify when doublespeak is being put into play.", "He was also the founder of the Intensify/Downplay pattern that has been widely used to identify instances of doublespeak being used.===Daniel Dieterich===Daniel Dieterich, former chair of the National Council of Teachers of English, served as the second chairman of the Doublespeak committee after Hugh Rank in 1975.He served as editor of its second publication, ''Teaching about Doublespeak'' (1976), which carried forward the Committee's charge to inform teachers of ways of teaching students how to recognize and combat language designed to mislead and misinform.=== William D. Lutz ===William D. Lutz, professor emeritus at Rutgers University-Camden has served as the third chairman of the Doublespeak Committee since 1975.In 1989, both his own book ''Doublespeak'' and, under his editorship, the committee's third book, ''Beyond Nineteen Eighty-Four'', were published.", "''Beyond Nineteen Eighty-Four'' consists of 220 pages and eighteen articles contributed by long-time Committee members and others whose bodies of work have contributed to public understanding about language, as well as a bibliography of 103 sources on doublespeak.", "Lutz was also the former editor of the now defunct ''Quarterly Review of Doublespeak'', which examined the use of vocabulary by public officials to obscure the underlying meaning of what they tell the public.", "Lutz is one of the main contributors to the committee as well as promoting the term \"doublespeak\" to a mass audience to inform them of its deceptive qualities.", "He mentions:" ], [ "Education against doublespeak", "Charles Weingartner, one of the founding members of the NCTE committee on Public Doublespeak mentioned: \"people do not know enough about the subject (the reality) to recognize that the language being used conceals, distorts, misleads.", "Teachers of English should teach our students that words are not things, but verbal tokens or signs of things that should finally be carried back to the things that they stand for to be verified.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Aesopian language* Alternative facts* Business speak* Cant (language)* Catachresis* Code word (figure of speech)* Cognitive dissonance* Dog-whistle politics* Double bind* Double entendre* Double-talk* Doublespeak Award* Euphemism* Obfuscation* Obscurantism* Polite fiction" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * Lutz, William.", "(1987).", "''Doublespeak: From \"Revenue Enhancement\" to \"Terminal Living\": How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You''.", "New York: Harper & Row* " ], [ "External links", " Business Doublespeak A short essay by William Lutz* DoubleSpeak Homepage by Michele Damron (1998)* National Council of Teachers of English Doublespeak Award established in 1974" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dressed to Kill (1980 film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Dressed to Kill''''' is a 1980 American erotic psychological thriller film written and directed by Brian De Palma, and starring Michael Caine, Angie Dickinson and Nancy Allen.", "It depicts the events leading up to the brutal murder of a New York City housewife (Dickinson) before following a prostitute (Allen) who witnesses the crime, and her attempts to solve it with the help of the victim's son (Keith Gordon).", "It contains several direct references to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film ''Psycho''.Released in July 1980, ''Dressed to Kill'' was a box office success in the United States, grossing over $30 million.", "It received largely favorable reviews, and critic David Denby of ''New York'' magazine proclaimed it \"the first great American movie of the '80s\".", "Dickinson won the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance.", "Allen received both a Golden Globe Award nomination for New Star of the Year, as well as an inaugural first-year Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress." ], [ "Plot", "Sexually frustrated housewife Kate Miller is attending therapy sessions with New York City psychiatrist Dr. Robert Elliott.", "During an appointment, Kate attempts to seduce him, but Elliott rejects her advances, stating his unwillingness to jeopardize his happy marriage.", "Kate has planned to spend the day with her teenaged son Peter, an inventor, but he has to cancel as he has reached a critical point in his research, for his entry to the city's science fair.", "Thus, Kate goes alone to the Metropolitan Museum of Art where she unexpectedly flirts with a mysterious stranger.", "Kate and the stranger stalk each other through the museum until they finally wind up outside, where Kate joins him in a taxi.", "They go to his apartment and have sex.Hours later, Kate awakens and decides to discreetly leave while the man, Warren Lockman, is asleep.", "Kate sits at his desk to leave him a note and finds a document indicating that Warren has contracted both syphilis and gonorrhea.", "Shocked, she leaves the apartment, but having hastily forgotten her wedding ring on the nightstand, she returns to retrieve it.", "The elevator doors open on the figure of a tall, blonde woman in dark sunglasses wielding a straight razor, who violently slashes Kate to death in the elevator.", "Upon discovering the body, Liz Blake, a high-priced call girl, notices the killer in the elevator's convex mirror, and subsequently becomes both the prime suspect and the killer's next target.Dr.", "Elliott receives a bizarre message on his answering machine from \"Bobbi\", a transgender patient.", "Bobbi taunts the psychiatrist for ending their therapy sessions, apparently because Elliott refuses to sign the necessary papers for Bobbi to get sex reassignment surgery.", "Elliott tries to convince Dr. Levy, the patient's new doctor, that Bobbi is endangering herself and others.Police Detective Marino doubts Liz's story, partly because of her profession, so Liz partners with a revenge-minded Peter to find the killer, using a series of his homemade listening devices and time-lapse cameras to track patients leaving Elliott's office.", "They catch Bobbi on camera, and soon a tall blonde in sunglasses starts stalking Liz, subsequently making several attempts on her life.", "Peter thwarts one of them in the New York City Subway by spraying Bobbi with homemade Mace.The pair scheme to learn Bobbi's birth name by infiltrating Dr. Elliott's office.", "Liz baits the therapist by stripping to lingerie and flirting with him, distracting him long enough to briefly exit and look through his appointment book.", "Peter is watching through the window when a blonde pulls him away.", "When Liz returns, a razor-wielding blonde confronts her; the blonde outside shoots and wounds the blonde inside, knocking the wig off and revealing the razor-wielding blonde as Dr. Elliott/Bobbi.", "The blonde who shot Bobbi is actually a female police officer, revealing herself to be the blonde who has been trailing Liz.Elliott is arrested and committed to a mental institution.", "Dr. Levy explains later to Liz that Elliott wanted to be a woman, but his male side would not allow him to proceed with the operation.", "Whenever a woman sexually aroused Elliott, Bobbi, representing the unstable, female side of the doctor's personality, became threatened to the point that she finally became murderous.", "When Dr. Levy realized this through his last conversation with Elliott, he called the police, who went to work and eventually apprehended Elliott.In a final sequence, Elliott escapes from the asylum after strangling a nurse, stalks Liz to Peter's house, and slashes her throat.", "She wakes up screaming and Peter rushes to her side, letting her realize it was just a nightmare." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "=== Casting ===De Palma originally wanted Norwegian actress Liv Ullmann to play Kate Miller, but she declined because of the violence.", "He also approached Jill Clayburgh, who was unavailable, and the role then went to Angie Dickinson.", "Sean Connery was offered the role of Robert Elliott and was enthusiastic about it, but declined because of previous commitments.", "Connery later worked with De Palma on the 1987 Oscar-winning adaptation of ''The Untouchables''.=== Filming ===The Philadelphia Museum of Art.", "''Dressed to Kill'' was shot primarily in New York City, though the art gallery scene was filmed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art.", "The film was shot between October 1979 and January 1980.The naked body in the opening scene, taking place in a shower, was not that of Angie Dickinson, but of 1977 ''Penthouse'' Pet of the Year model Victoria Lynn Johnson.", "De Palma has referred to the elevator killing as the best murder scene he has ever done.=== Censorship ===Two versions of the film exist in North America, an R-rated version and an unrated version.", "The unrated version is around 30 seconds longer and shows more pubic hair in the shower scene, more blood in the elevator scene (including a close-up shot of the killer slitting Kate's throat), and more explicit dialogue from Liz during the scene in Elliott's office.", "These scenes were trimmed when the MPAA originally gave the film an X rating." ], [ "Release", "===Box office===''Dressed to Kill'' premiered in Los Angeles and New York City on July 25, 1980.The film grossed $3,416,000 in its opening weekend from 591 theatres and improved its gross the following weekend with $3,640,000 from 596 theatres.", "It grossed a total of $31.9 million at the U.S. box office, and was the 21st highest-grossing film of the year.===Critical response===''Dressed to Kill'' holds a 82% \"fresh\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10.The consensus states, \"With arresting visuals and an engrossingly lurid mystery, ''Dressed to Kill'' stylishly encapsulates writer-director Brian De Palma's signature strengths.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a score of 74 out of 100 based on 16 reviews, indicating \"generally favorable reviews\".Roger Ebert of the ''Chicago Sun-Times'' awarded the film three stars out of four, stating \"the museum sequence is brilliant\" and adding: \"''Dressed to Kill'' is an exercise in style, not narrative; it would rather look and feel like a thriller than make sense, but DePalma has so much fun with the conventions of the thriller that we forgive him and go along.\"", "Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' also gave it three stars out of four, writing that there were scenes \"that are as exciting and as stylish as any ever put on film.", "Unfortunately, a good chunk of the film is a whodunit, and its mystery is so easy to solve that we merely end up watching the film's visual pyrotechnics at a distance, never getting all that involved.\"", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' called the film \"witty, romantic,\" and \"very funny, which helps to defuse the effect of the graphically photographed violence.", "In addition, the film is, in its own inside-out way, peculiarly moral.\"", "His review added that \"The performers are excellent, especially Miss Dickinson.\"", "''Variety'' declared \"Despite some major structural weaknesses, the cannily manipulated combination of mystery, gore and kinky sex adds up to a slick commercial package that stands to draw some rich blood money.\"", "David Denby of ''New York'' magazine proclaimed the film \"the first great American movie of the '80s.", "\"Sheila Benson of the ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote \"The brilliance of ''Dressed to Kill'' is apparent within seconds of its opening gliding shot; it is a sustained work of terror—elegant, sensual, erotic, bloody, a directorial tour de force.\"", "Pauline Kael of ''The New Yorker'' stated of De Palma that \"his timing is so great that when he wants you to feel something he gets you every time.", "His thriller technique, constantly refined, has become insidious, jewelled.", "It's hardly possible to find a point at which you could tear yourself away from this picture.\"", "Gary Arnold of ''The Washington Post'' wrote, \"This elegant new murder thriller promises to revive the lagging summer box office and enhance De Palma's reputation as the most exciting and distinctive manipulator of suspense since Alfred Hitchcock.\"", "In his movie guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film stars out of four, calling it a \"High-tension melodrama\", and stating \"De Palma works on viewers' emotions, not logic, and maintains a fever pitch from start to finish.\"", "He also praised Pino Donaggio's \"chilling music score.", "\"John Simon, of the ''National Review'', after taking note of the two-page advertisements full of superlatives in ''The New York Times'', wrote \"What ''Dressed to Kill'' dispenses liberally, however, is sophomoric soft-core pornography, vulgar manipulation of the emotions for mere sensation, salacious but inept dialogue that is a cross between comic-strip Freudianism and sniggering double entendres, and a plot line so full of holes to be at best a dotted line\".===Controversy===The film led to controversy and protests upon its release.", "When the film was screened, Iowa City National Organization for Women and members of other feminist organizations picketed the film as it was shown on the University of Iowa campus, distributing leaflets against the film, condemning what they saw as a depiction of violence against women as entertainment.", "During the film's initial release, the activist group Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media distributed a leaflet, arguing that \"The distorted image of a psychotic male transvestite sic makes all sexual minorities appear sick and dangerous.\"", "Numerous critics have since placed ''Dressed to Kill'' in a lineage of slasher movies that perpetuate the transphobic myth that trans people are mentally ill sexual predators.", "''Dressed to Kill'' was featured in the 2020 documentary ''Disclosure: Trans Lives on Screen''; in a 2020 reappraisal of the film for ''The Guardian'', the critic Scott Tobias referred to De Palma's understanding of trans issues as \"disconcertingly retrograde....There's no getting around the ugly association of gender transition with violence, other than to say that it feels thoroughly aestheticized\".In a 2016 interview, De Palma said, \"I don't know what the transgender community would think of the film now... Obviously I realize that it's not good for their image to be transgender and also be a psychopathic murderer.", "But I think that perception passes with time.", "We're in a different time.\"", "He added that he was \"glad\" that the film had become \"a favorite of the gay community,\" which he attributed to its \"flamboyance\".===Home media===, the film is owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (successor to Orion Pictures, who bought Filmways and American International Pictures in 1982).", "The film saw a 1984 VHS release by Warner Home Video, and later another VHS release by Goodtimes under licence from Orion.", "In 2001, MGM released the film in a special edition DVD.", "In September 2011, MGM released both R-rated and unrated versions on DVD and Blu-ray.The Criterion Collection released separate deluxe Blu-ray and DVD editions of the film on September 8, 2015.On October 25, 2022, Kino Lorber issued the film for the first time in 4K UHD Blu-ray format." ], [ "Accolades", " Award Category Subject ResultGolden Globe AwardNew Star of the Year – ActressNancy AllenStinkers Bad Movie AwardWorst ActressGolden Raspberry AwardsWorst ActressWorst ActorMichael CaineWorst DirectorBrian De PalmaSaturn AwardsBest DirectorBest Horror FilmBest ActressAngie DickinsonBest MusicPino DonaggioNew York Film Critics Circle AwardsBest FilmBest DirectorBrian De Palma" ], [ "See also", "* List of horror films of 1980* List of American films of 1980* Transgender in film and television* ''Cruising,'' William Friedkin's cult 1980 film with similar LGBT themes* Giallo" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * " ], [ "External links", " * * * * * Film stills* ''Dressed to Kill: The Power of Two'' – an essay by Michael Koresky at The Criterion Collection*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diesel cycle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Diesel cycle''' is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine.", "In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected.", "This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine.", "Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel–electric locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines.The Diesel cycle is assumed to have constant pressure during the initial part of the combustion phase ( to in the diagram, below).", "This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle.", "In contrast, the idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates a constant volume process during that phase." ], [ "Idealized Diesel cycle", "p-V Diagram for the ideal '''Diesel cycle'''.", "The cycle follows the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction.The image shows a p-V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where is pressure and V the volume or the specific volume if the process is placed on a unit mass basis.", "The ''idealized'' Diesel cycle assumes an ideal gas and ignores combustion chemistry, exhaust- and recharge procedures and simply follows four distinct processes:* 1→2 : isentropic compression of the fluid (blue)* 2→3 : constant pressure heating (red)* 3→4 : isentropic expansion (yellow)* 4→1 : constant volume cooling (green)The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work.", "During the bottom isentropic processes (blue), energy is transferred into the system in the form of work , but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat.", "During the constant pressure (red, isobaric) process, energy enters the system as heat .", "During the top isentropic processes (yellow), energy is transferred out of the system in the form of , but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat.", "During the constant volume (green, isochoric) process, some of energy flows out of the system as heat through the right depressurizing process .", "The work that leaves the system is equal to the work that enters the system plus the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system; in other words, net gain of work is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system.", "* Work in () is done by the piston compressing the air (system)* Heat in () is done by the combustion of the fuel* Work out () is done by the working fluid expanding and pushing a piston (this produces usable work)* Heat out () is done by venting the air* Net work produced = - The net work produced is also represented by the area enclosed by the cycle on the P-V diagram.", "The net work is produced per cycle and is also called the useful work, as it can be turned to other useful types of energy and propel a vehicle (kinetic energy) or produce electrical energy.", "The summation of many such cycles per unit of time is called the developed power.", "The is also called the gross work, some of which is used in the next cycle of the engine to compress the next charge of air.=== Maximum thermal efficiency ===The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio.", "It has the following formula under cold air standard analysis: where: is thermal efficiency: is the cut-off ratio (ratio between the end and start volume for the combustion phase): is the compression ratio : is ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)The cut-off ratio can be expressed in terms of temperature as shown below::::: can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used.", "The flame temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, .", "can be approximated to the inlet air temperature.This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency.", "The actual thermal efficiency will be significantly lower due to heat and friction losses.", "The formula is more complex than the Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula:The additional complexity for the Diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume.", "The Otto cycle by comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume.=== Comparing efficiency to Otto cycle ===Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (), the ''ideal'' Otto cycle will be more efficient.", "However, a ''real'' diesel engine will be more efficient overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios.", "If a petrol engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self ignition is the desired behavior.", "Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations, and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply.", "Furthermore, the ideal Otto cycle formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel engines." ], [ "Applications", "=== Diesel engines ===Diesel engines have the lowest specific fuel consumption of any large internal combustion engine employing a single cycle, 0.26 lb/hp·h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines (combined cycle power plants are more efficient, but employ two engines rather than one).", "Two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly turbocharging, make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines.In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs.", "These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad and earthmoving environments.=== Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs ===Many model airplanes use very simple \"glow\" and \"diesel\" engines.", "Glow engines use glow plugs.", "\"Diesel\" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios.", "Both types depend on special fuels.Some 19th-century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression.", "(It was the research of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot that established the thermodynamic value of compression.)", "A historical implication of this is that the diesel engine could have been invented without the aid of electricity.", "See the development of the hot-bulb engine and indirect injection for historical significance." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Diesel engine* Hot-bulb engine* Mixed/dual cycle* Partially premixed combustion" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deus Ex (video game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Deus Ex''''' is a 2000 action role-playing game developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos Interactive.", "Set in a cyberpunk-themed dystopian world in the year 2052, the game follows JC Denton, an agent of the fictional agency United Nations Anti-Terrorist Coalition (UNATCO), who is given superhuman abilities by nanotechnology, as he sets out to combat hostile forces in a world ravaged by inequality and a deadly plague.", "His missions entangle him in a conspiracy that brings him into conflict with the Triads, Majestic 12, and the Illuminati.", "''Deus Ex''s gameplay combines elements of the first-person shooter with stealth elements, adventure, and role-playing genres, allowing for its tasks and missions to be completed in a variety of ways, which in turn lead to differing outcomes.", "Presented from the first-person perspective, the player can customize Denton's various abilities such as weapon skills or lockpicking, increasing his effectiveness in these areas; this opens up different avenues of exploration and methods of interacting with or manipulating other characters.", "The player can complete side missions away from the primary storyline by moving freely around the available areas, which can reward the player with experience points to upgrade abilities and alternative ways to tackle main missions.", "Powered by the Unreal Engine, the game was released for Microsoft Windows in June 2000, with a Mac OS port following the next month.", "A modified version of the game was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2002 as '''''Deus Ex: The Conspiracy'''''.", "In the years following its release, ''Deus Ex'' has received additional improvements and content from its fan community.The game received critical acclaim, including being named \"Best PC Game of All Time\" in ''PC Gamer''s \"Top 100 PC Games\" in 2011 and a poll carried out by the UK gaming magazine ''PC Zone''.", "Deus Ex was praised for its ambitious plot, the freedom of its immersive gameplay, world-building and diversity of character customization and choices, but its graphics and voice acting polarized critics.", "It received several Game of the Year awards, drawing praise for its pioneering designs in player choice and multiple narrative paths.", "''Deus Ex'' is regarded as one of the best video games of all time.", "It has sold more than 1 million copies, as of April 23, 2009.The game led to a series, which includes the sequel ''Deus Ex: Invisible War'' (2003), and three prequels: ''Deus Ex: Human Revolution'' (2011), ''Deus Ex: The Fall'' (2013), and ''Deus Ex: Mankind Divided'' (2016)." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Deus Ex'' incorporates elements from four video game genres: role-playing, first-person shooter, adventure, and \"immersive simulation\", the last of which being a game where \"nothing reminds you that you're just playing a game.\"", "For example, the game uses a first-person camera during gameplay and includes exploration and character interaction as primary features.The player assumes the role of JC Denton, a nanotech-augmented operative of the United Nations Anti-Terrorist Coalition (UNATCO).", "This nanotechnology is a central gameplay mechanism and allows players to perform superhuman feats.=== Role-playing elements ===As the player accomplishes objectives, the player character is rewarded with \"skill points\".", "Skill points are used to enhance a character's abilities in eleven different areas, and were designed to provide players with a way to customize their characters; a player might create a combat-focused character by increasing proficiency with pistols or rifles, while a more furtive character can be created by focusing on lock picking and computer hacking abilities.", "There are four different levels of proficiency in each skill, with the skill point cost increasing for each successive level.Weapons may be customized through \"weapon modifications\", which can be found or purchased throughout the game.", "The player might add scopes, silencers, or laser sights; increase the weapon's range, accuracy, or magazine size; or decrease its recoil and reload time; as appropriate to the weapon type.Players are further encouraged to customize their characters through nano-augmentations—cybernetic devices that grant characters superhuman powers.", "While the game contains eighteen different nano-augmentations, the player can install a maximum of nine, as each must be used on a certain part of the body: one in the arms, legs, eyes, and head; two underneath the skin; and three in the torso.", "This forces the player to choose carefully between the benefits offered by each augmentation.", "For example, the arm augmentation requires the player to decide between boosting their character's skill in hand-to-hand combat or his ability to lift heavy objects.Interaction with non-player characters (NPCs) was a significant design focus.", "When the player interacts with a non-player character, the game will enter a cutscene-like conversation mode where the player advances the conversation by selecting from a list of dialogue options.", "The player's choices often have a substantial effect on both gameplay and plot, as non-player characters will react in different ways depending on the selected answer (e.g., rudeness makes them less likely to assist the player).=== Combat elements ===''Deus Ex'' features combat similar to first-person shooters, with real-time action, a first-person perspective, and reflex-based gameplay.", "As the player will often encounter enemies in groups, combat often tends toward a tactical approach, including the use of cover, strafing, and \"hit-and-run\".", "A ''USA Today'' reviewer found, \"At the easiest difficulty setting, your character is puréed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth.\"", "However, through the game's role-playing systems, it is possible to develop a character's skills and augmentations to create a tank-like combat specialist with the ability to deal and absorb large amounts of damage.", "Non-player characters will praise or criticize the main character depending on the use of force, incorporating a moral element into the gameplay.", "''Deus Ex'' features a head-up display crosshair, whose size dynamically shows where shots will fall based on movement, aim, and the weapon in use; the reticle expands while the player is moving or shifting their aim, and slowly shrinks to its original size while at rest.", "How quickly the reticle shrinks depends on the character's proficiency with the equipped weapon, the number of accuracy modifications added to the weapon, and the level of the \"Targeting\" nano-augmentation.", "''Deus Ex'' features twenty-four weapons, ranging from crowbars, electroshock weapons, and riot baton, to laser-guided anti-tank rockets and assault rifles; both lethal and non-lethal weapons are available.", "The player can also make use of several weapons of opportunity, such as fire extinguishers.=== Player choice ===Players are given multiple ways to traverse obstacles, from lockpicking to armed combat.Gameplay in ''Deus Ex'' emphasizes player choice.", "Objectives can be completed in numerous ways, including stealth, sniping, heavy frontal assault, dialogue, or engineering and computer hacking.", "This level of freedom requires that levels, characters, and puzzles be designed with significant redundancy, as a single play-through of the game will miss large sections of dialogue, areas, and other content.", "In some missions, the player is encouraged to avoid using deadly force, and specific aspects of the story may change depending on how violent or non-violent the player chooses to be.", "The game is also unusual in that two of its boss villains can be killed off early in the game, or left alive to be defeated later, and this too affects how other characters interact with the player.Because of its design focus on player choice, ''Deus Ex'' has been compared with ''System Shock'', a game that inspired its design.", "Together, these factors give the game a high degree of replayability, as the player will have vastly different experiences, depending on which methods they use to accomplish objectives.=== Multiplayer ===''Deus Ex'' was designed as a single-player game, and the initial releases of the Windows and Macintosh versions of the game did not include multiplayer functionality.", "Support for multiplayer modes was later incorporated through patches.", "The component consists of three game modes: deathmatch, basic team deathmatch, and advanced team deathmatch.", "Five maps, based on levels from the single-player portion of the game, were included with the original multiplayer patch, but many user-created maps exist, while also many features of the single-player game missing in multiplayer have been re-introduced by various user RPG modifications.", "The PlayStation 2 release of ''Deus Ex'' does not offer a multiplayer mode.", "In April 2014 it was announced that GameSpy would cease their masterserver services, also affecting ''Deus Ex''.", "A community-made patch for the multiplayer mode has been created as a response to this." ], [ "Synopsis", "=== Setting and characters ===''Deus Ex'' takes place in 2052, as it exists if real-world conspiracy theories turn out to be true.", "These include speculations regarding black helicopters, vaccinations, and FEMA, as well as Area 51, the ECHELON network, Men in Black, chupacabras (in the form of \"greasels\"), and grey aliens.", "Mysterious groups such as Majestic 12, the Illuminati, the Knights Templar, the Bilderberg Group, and the Trilateral Commission also either play a central part in the plot or are alluded to during the course of the game.The plot of ''Deus Ex'' depicts a society on a slow spiral into chaos.", "There is a massive division between the rich and the poor, not only socially, but in some cities physically.", "A lethal pandemic, known as the \"Gray Death\", ravages the world's population, especially within the United States, and has no cure.", "A synthetic vaccine, \"Ambrosia\", manufactured by the company VersaLife, nullifies the effects of the virus but is in critically short supply.", "Because of its scarcity, Ambrosia is available only to those deemed \"vital to the social order\", and finds its way primarily to government officials, military personnel, the rich and influential, scientists, and the intellectual elite.", "With no hope for the common people of the world, riots occur worldwide, and some terrorist organizations have formed with the professed intent of assisting the downtrodden, among them the National Secessionist Forces (NSF) of the U.S. and a French group known as Silhouette.To combat these threats to the world order, the United Nations has expanded its influence around the globe to form the United Nations Anti-Terrorist Coalition (UNATCO).", "It is headquartered near New York City in a bunker beneath Liberty Island, placed there after a terrorist strike on the Statue of Liberty.The main character of ''Deus Ex'' is UNATCO agent JC Denton (voiced by Jay Franke), one of the first in a new line of agents physically altered with advanced nanotechnology to gain superhuman abilities, alongside his brother Paul (also voiced by Jay Franke), who joined UNATCO to avenge his parents' deaths at the hands of Majestic 12.His UNATCO colleagues include the mechanically-augmented and ruthlessly efficient field agents Gunther Hermann and Anna Navarre; Quartermaster General Sam Carter, and the bureaucratic UNATCO chief Joseph Manderley.", "UNATCO communications tech Alex Jacobson's character model and name are based on Warren Spector's nephew, Alec Jacobson.JC's missions bring him into contact with various characters, including NSF leader Juan Lebedev, hacker and scientist Tracer Tong, nano-tech expert Gary Savage, Nicolette DuClare (daughter of an Illuminati member), former Illuminati leader Morgan Everett, the Artificial Intelligences (AI) Daedalus and Icarus, and Bob Page, owner of VersaLife and leader of Majestic 12, a clandestine organization that has usurped the infrastructure of the Illuminati, allowing him to control the world for his own ends.=== Plot ===After completing his training, UNATCO agent JC Denton takes several missions given by Director Joseph Manderley to track down members of the National Secessionist Forces (NSF) and their stolen shipments of the Ambrosia vaccine, the treatment for the Gray Death virus.", "Through these missions, JC is reunited with his brother, Paul, who is also nano-augmented.", "JC tracks the Ambrosia shipment to a private terminal at LaGuardia Airport.", "Paul meets JC outside the plane and explains that he has defected from UNATCO and is working with the NSF after learning that the Gray Death is a human-made virus, with UNATCO using its power to make sure only the elite receive the vaccine.JC returns to UNATCO headquarters and is told by Manderley that both he and Paul have been outfitted with a 24-hour kill switch and that Paul's has been activated due to his betrayal.", "Manderley orders JC to fly to Hong Kong to eliminate Tracer Tong, a hacker whom Paul has contact with, and who can disable the kill switches.", "Instead, JC returns to Paul's apartment to find Paul hiding inside.", "Paul further explains his defection and encourages JC to also defect by sending out a distress call to alert the NSF's allies.", "Upon doing so, JC becomes a wanted man by UNATCO, and his kill switch is activated by Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Director Walton Simons.", "JC is unable to escape UNATCO forces, and both he and Paul (provided he survived the raid on the apartment) are taken to a secret prison below UNATCO headquarters.", "An entity named \"Daedalus\" contacts JC and informs him that the prison is part of Majestic 12, and arranges for him and Paul to escape.", "The two flee to Hong Kong to meet with Tong, who deactivates their kill switches.", "Tong requests that JC infiltrate the VersaLife building.", "Doing so, JC discovers that the corporation is the source for the Gray Death, and he can steal the plans for the virus and destroy the universal constructor (UC) that produces it.Analysis of the virus shows that its structure was designed by the Illuminati, prompting Tong to send JC to Paris to obtain their help fighting Majestic 12.JC meets with Illuminati leader Morgan Everett and learns that the technology behind the Gray Death was intended to be used for augmentation, but Majestic 12, led by trillionaire businessman and former Illuminatus Bob Page, stole and repurposed it.", "Everett recognizes that without VersaLife's UC, Majestic 12 can no longer create the virus, and will likely target Vandenberg Air Force Base, where X-51, a group of former Area 51 scientists, have built another one.", "After aiding the base personnel in repelling a Majestic 12 attack, JC meets X-51 leader Gary Savage, who reveals that Daedalus is an artificial intelligence (AI) borne out of the ECHELON program.Everett attempts to gain control over Majestic 12's communications network by releasing Daedalus onto the U.S. military networks, but Page counters by releasing his own AI, Icarus.", "Icarus merges with Daedalus to form a new AI, Helios, which can control all global communications.", "Savage enlists JC's help in procuring schematics for reconstructing components for the UC that were damaged during Majestic 12's raid of Vandenberg.", "JC finds the schematics and transmits them to Savage.", "Page intercepts the transmission and targets a nuclear missile at Vandenberg to ensure that Area 51, now Majestic 12's headquarters, will be the only location in the world with an operational UC.", "However, JC can reprogram the missile to strike Area 51.JC travels to Area 51 to confront Page.", "Page reveals that he seeks to merge with Helios and gain full control over nanotechnology.", "JC is contacted by Tong, Everett, and the Helios AI successively.", "All three factions ask for his help in defeating Page while furthering their own objectives.", "Tong seeks to plunge the world into a Dark Age by destroying the global communications hub and preventing anyone from taking control of the world.", "Everett offers Denton the chance to return the Illuminati to power by killing Page and using the Area 51 technology to rule the world with an invisible hand.", "Helios wishes to merge with Denton and rule the world as a benevolent dictator with infinite knowledge and reason.", "The player's decision determines the future and brings the game to a close." ], [ "Development", "After Looking Glass Technologies and Origin Systems released ''Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds'' in January 1993, producer Warren Spector began to plan ''Troubleshooter'', the game that would become ''Deus Ex''.", "In his 1994 proposal, he described the concept as \"''Underworld''-style first-person action\" in a real-world setting with \"big-budget, nonstop action\".", "After Spector and his team were laid off from Looking Glass, John Romero of Ion Storm offered him the chance to make his \"dream game\" without any restrictions.Preproduction for ''Deus Ex'' began around August 1997 and lasted roughly six months.", "The project's budget was $5 million to $7 million.", "The game's working title was ''Shooter: Majestic Revelations'', and it was scheduled for release on Christmas 1998.The team developed the setting before the game mechanics.", "Noticing his wife's fascination with ''The X-Files'', Spector connected the \"real world, millennial weirdness, and conspiracy\" topics on his mind and decided to make a game about them that would appeal to a broad audience.", "The ''Shooter'' design document cast the player as an augmented agent working against an elite cabal in the \"dangerous and chaotic\" 2050s.", "It cited ''Half-Life'', ''Fallout'', ''Thief: The Dark Project'', and ''GoldenEye 007'' as game design influences, and used the stories and settings of ''Colossus: The Forbin Project'', ''The Manchurian Candidate'', ''RoboCop'', ''The X-Files'', and ''Men in Black'' as reference points.", "The team designed a skill system that featured \"special powers\" derived from nanotechnological augmentation and avoided the inclusion of die rolling and skills that required micromanagement.", "Spector also cited Konami's 1995 role-playing video game ''Suikoden'' as an inspiration, stating that the limited choices in ''Suikoden'' inspired him to expand on the idea with more meaningful choices in ''Deus Ex''.In early 1998, the ''Deus Ex'' team grew to 20 people, and the game entered a 28-month production phase.", "The development team consisted of three programmers, six designers, seven artists, a writer, an associate producer, a \"tech\", and Spector.", "Two writers and four testers were hired as contractors.", "Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director, Harvey Smith the lead designer, Jay Lee the lead artist, and Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer.", "Close friends of the team who understood the intentions behind the game were invited to playtest and give feedback.", "The wide range of input led to debates in the office and changes to the game.", "Spector later concluded that the team was \"blinded by promises of complete creative freedom\", and by their belief that the game would have no budget, marketing, or time restraints.", "By mid-1998, the game's title had become ''Deus Ex'', derived from the Latin literary device ''deus ex machina'' (\"god from the machine\"), in which a plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention.Spector felt that the best aspects of ''Deus Ex''s development were the \"high-level vision\" and length of preproduction, flexibility within the project, testable \"proto-missions\", and the Unreal Engine license.", "The team's pitfalls included the management structure, unrealistic goals, underestimating risks with artificial intelligence, their handling of proto-missions, and weakened morale from bad press.", "''Deus Ex'' was released in North America on June 23, 2000, and in the United Kingdom on August 4, 2000, and published by Eidos Interactive for Microsoft Windows.", "The team planned third-party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux.=== Design ===The original 1997 design document for ''Deus Ex'' privileges character development over all other features.", "The game was designed to be \"genre-busting\": in parts simulation, role-playing, first-person shooter, and adventure.", "The team wanted players to consider \"who they wanted to be\" in the game, and for that to alter how they behaved in the game.", "In this way, the game world was \"deeply simulated\", or realistic and believable enough that the player would solve problems in creative, emergent ways without noticing distinct puzzles.", "However, the simulation ultimately failed to maintain the desired level of openness, and they had to brute force \"skill\", \"action\", and \"character interaction\" paths through each level.", "Playtesting also revealed that their idea of a role-playing game based on the real world was more interesting in theory than in reality, as certain aspects of the real world, such as hotels and office buildings, were not compelling in a game.such as those relating to the JFK assassination.", "The game's story changed considerably during production, but the idea of an augmented counterterrorist protagonist named JC Denton remained throughout.", "Though Spector originally pictured ''Deus Ex'' as akin to ''The X-Files'', lead writer Sheldon Pacotti felt that it ended up more like James Bond.", "Spector wrote that the team overextended itself by planning highly elaborate scenes.", "Designer Harvey Smith removed a mostly complete White House level due to its complexity and production needs.", "Finished digital assets were repurposed or abandoned by the team.", "Pete Davison of USgamer referred to the White House and presidential bunker as \"the truly deleted scenes of ''Deus Ex'' lost levels\".One of the things that Spector wanted to achieve in Deus Ex was to make JC Denton a cipher for the player, to create a better immersion and gameplay experience.", "He did not want the character to force any emotion, so that whatever feelings the player may be experiencing come from themselves rather than from JC Denton.", "To do this, Spector instructed voice actor Jay Anthony Franke to record his dialogue without any emotion but in a monotone voice, which is unusual for a voice acting role.Once coded, the team's game systems did not work as intended.", "The early tests of the conversation system and user interface were flawed.", "The team also found augmentations and skills to be less interesting than they had seemed in the design document.", "In response, Harvey Smith substantially revised the augmentations and skills.", "Production milestones served as wake-up calls for the game's direction.", "A May 1998 milestone that called for a functional demo revealed that the size of the game's maps caused frame rate issues, which was one of the first signs that maps needed to be cut.", "A year later, the team reached a milestone for finished game systems, which led to better estimates for their future mission work and the reduction of the 500-page design document to 270 pages.", "Spector recalled Smith's mantra on this point: \"less is more\".", "One of the team's biggest blind spots was the AI programming for NPCs.", "Spector wrote that they considered it in preproduction, but that they did not figure out how to handle it until \"relatively late in development\".", "This led to wasted time when the team had to discard their old AI code.", "The team built atop their game engine's shooter-based AI instead of writing new code that would allow characters to exhibit convincing emotions.", "As a result, NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development.", "Spector felt that the team's \"sin\" was their inconsistent display of a trustable \"human AI\".=== Technology ===Unreal game engine, which was designed for first-person shooters.", "The game was developed on systems including dual-processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine gigabyte hard drives, some using SCSI.", "The team used \"more than 100 video cards\" throughout development.", "''Deus Ex'' was built using Visual Studio, Lightwave, and Lotus Notes.", "They also made a custom dialogue editor, ConEdit.", "The team used UnrealEd atop the Unreal game engine for map design, which Spector wrote was \"superior to anything else available\".", "Their trust in UnrealScript led them to code \"special-cases\" for their immediate mission needs instead of more generalized multi-case code.", "Even as concerned team members expressed misgivings, the team only addressed this later in the project.", "To Spector, this was a lesson to always prefer \"general solutions\" over \"special casing\", such that the toolset works predictably.They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction, expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay, which Spector reported to be the case.", "They chose the Unreal engine, as it did 80% of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch.", "Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group.", "The programmers also found the engine accommodating, though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software.", "Spector felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves, instead of \"treating the engine as a black box\" and coding conservatively.", "He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release, which slipped through their quality assurance testing.", "Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence, pathfinding, and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine.", "He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for the game's sequel ''Deus Ex: Invisible War'' and ''Thief 3''.", "He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended, and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism.=== Music ===The soundtrack of ''Deus Ex'', composed by Alexander Brandon (primary contributor, including main theme), Dan Gardopée (\"Naval Base\" and \"Vandenberg\"), Michiel van den Bos (\"UNATCO\", \"Lebedev's Airfield\", \"Airfield Action\", \"DuClare Chateau\", plus minor contribution to some of Brandon's tracks), and Reeves Gabrels (\"NYC Bar\"), was praised by critics for complementing the gritty atmosphere predominant throughout the game with melodious and ambient music incorporated from a number of genres, including techno, jazz, and classical.", "The music sports a basic dynamic element, similar to the iMUSE system used in early 1990s LucasArts games; during play, the music will change to a different iteration of the currently playing song based on the player's actions, such as when the player starts a conversation, engages in combat, or transitions to the next level.", "All the music in the game is tracked - Gabrels' contribution, \"NYC Bar\", was converted to a module by Alexander Brandon." ], [ "Release", "''Deus Ex'' has been re-released in several iterations since its original publication and has also been the basis of several mods developed by its fan community.The ''Deus Ex: Game of the Year Edition'', which was released on May 8, 2001, contains the latest game updates and a software development kit, a separate soundtrack CD, and a page from a fictional newspaper featured prominently in ''Deus Ex'' titled ''The Midnight Sun'', which recounts recent events in the game's world.", "However, later releases of said version do not include the soundtrack CD and contain a PDF version of the newspaper on the game's disc.The Mac OS version of the game, released on July 13, was shipped with the same capabilities and can also be patched to enable multiplayer support.", "However, publisher Aspyr Media did not release any subsequent editions of the game or any additional patches.", "As such, the game is only supported in Mac OS 9 and the \"Classic\" environment in Mac OS X, neither of which are compatible with Intel-based Macs.", "The Windows version will run on Intel-based Macs using Crossover, Boot Camp, or other software to enable a compatible version of Windows to run on a Mac.A PlayStation 2 port of the game, retitled ''Deus Ex: The Conspiracy'' outside of Europe, was released on March 26, 2002.Along with motion-captured character animations and pre-rendered introductory and ending cinematics that replaced the original versions, it features a simplified interface with optional auto-aim.", "There are many minor changes in level design, some to balance gameplay, but most to accommodate loading transition areas, due to the memory limitations of the PlayStation 2.The PlayStation 2 version was re-released in Europe on the PlayStation 3 as a PlayStation 2 Classic on May 16, 2012.Loki Games worked on a Linux version of the game, but the company went out of business before releasing it.", "The OpenGL layer they wrote for the port, however, was sent out to Windows gamers through an online patch.Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues, players noted \"dramatic slowdowns\" immediately following the launch, and the team did not understand the \"black box\" of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed.", "Spector characterized ''Deus Ex'' reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how \"Warren Spector makes games all by himself\" or that \"''Deus Ex'' couldn't possibly have been made by Ion Storm\".", "He has said that the game won over 30 \"best of\" awards in 2001, and concluded that their final game was not perfect, but that they were much closer for having tried to \"do things right or not at all\".=== Mods ===''Deus Ex'' was built on the Unreal Engine, which already had an active community of modders.", "In September 2000, Eidos Interactive and Ion Storm announced in a press release that they would be releasing the software development kit (SDK), which included all the tools used to create the original game.", "Several team members, as well as project director Warren Spector, stated that they were \"really looking forward to seeing what the community does with our tools\".", "The kit was released on September 22, 2000, and soon gathered community interest, followed by the release of tutorials, small mods, up to announcements of large mods and conversions.", "While Ion Storm did not hugely alter the engine's rendering and core functionality, they introduced role-playing elements.In 2009, a fan-made mod called ''The Nameless Mod'' (''TNM'') was released by Off Topic Productions.", "The game's protagonist is a user of an Internet forum, with digital places represented as physical locations.", "The mod offers roughly the same amount of gameplay as ''Deus Ex'' and adds several new features to the game, with a more open world structure than ''Deus Ex'' and new weapons such as the player character's fists.", "The mod was developed over seven years and has thousands of lines of recorded dialogue and two different parallel story arcs.", "Upon its release, ''TNM'' earned a 9/10 overall from ''PC PowerPlay'' magazine.", "In Mod DB's 2009 Mod of the Year awards, ''The Nameless Mod'' won the Editor's Choice award for Best Singleplayer Mod.In 2015, during the 15th anniversary of the game's release, Square Enix (who had acquired Eidos earlier) endorsed a free fan-created mod, ''Deus Ex: Revision'', which was released through Steam.", "The mod, created by Caustic Creative, is a graphical overhaul of the original game, adding in support for newer versions of DirectX, upgraded textures adapted from previous mods, a remixed soundtrack, and more world-building aesthetics.", "It also alters aspects of gameplay, including new level design paths and in-game architecture.", "Another overhaul mod, GMDX, released its final version in mid-2017 with enhanced artificial intelligence, improved physics, and upgraded visual textures.", "''The Lay D Denton Project'', a mod adding the ability to play as a female JC – a feature that had been planned for ''Deus Ex'' but ultimately not implemented – was released in 2021.This included the re-recording of all of JC's voice lines by voice actress Karen Rohan, the addition of 3D models for the character, and editing of all gendered references to JC including other characters' voice clips.", "The audio editing was the most difficult aspect, as any abnormalities would have been noticed easily; a few characters were too difficult to edit, and had to be recast for the mod." ], [ "Reception", "===Sales===According to ''Computer Gaming World''s Stefan Janicki, ''Deus Ex'' had \"sold well in North America\" by early 2001.In the United States, it debuted at #6 on PC Data's sales chart for the week ending June 24, at an average retail price of $40.It fell to eighth place in its second week but rose again to position 6 in its third.", "It proceeded to place in the top 10 rankings for August 6–12 and the week ending September 2 and to secure 10th place overall for the months of July and August.", "''Deus Ex'' achieved sales of 138,840 copies and revenues of $5 million in the United States by the end of 2000, according to PC Data.", "The firm tracked another 91,013 copies sold in the country during 2001.The game was a larger hit in Europe; Janicki called it a \"blockbuster\" for the region, which broke a trend of weak sales for 3D games.", "He wrote, \"In Europe—particularly in England—the action/RPG dominated the charts all summer, despite competition from heavyweights like ''Diablo II'' and ''The Sims''.\"", "In the German-speaking market, ''PC Player'' reported sales over 70,000 units for ''Deus Ex'' by early 2001.It debuted at #3 in the region for July 2000 and held the position in August, before dropping to #10, #12 and #27 over the following three months.", "In the United Kingdom, ''Deus Ex'' reached #1 on the sales charts during August and spent three months in the top 10.It received a \"Silver\" award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA) in February 2002, indicating lifetime sales of at least 100,000 units in the United Kingdom.", "The ELSPA later raised it to \"Gold\" status, for 200,000 sales.In April 2009, Square-Enix revealed that ''Deus Ex'' had surpassed 1 million sales globally, but was outsold by ''Deus Ex: Invisible War''.=== Critical response ===''Deus Ex'' received critical acclaim, attaining a score of 90 out of 100 from 28 critics on Metacritic.", "Thierry Nguyen from ''Computer Gaming World'' said that the game \"delivers moments of brilliance, idiocy, ingenuity, and frustration\".", "''Computer Games Magazine'' praised the title for its deep gameplay and its use of multiple solutions to situations in the game.", "Similarly, ''Edge'' highlighted the game's freedom of choice, saying that ''Deus Ex'' \"never tells you what to do.", "Goals are set, but alter according to your decisions.\"", "''Eurogamer''s Rob Fahey lauded the game, writing, \"Moody and atmospheric, compelling and addictive, this is first person gaming in grown-up form, and it truly is magnificent.\"", "Jeff Lundrigan reviewed the PC version of the game for ''Next Generation'', rating it five stars out of five, and stated that \"This is hands-down one of the best PC games ever made.", "Stop reading and go get yours now.", "\"Former ''GameSpot'' reviewer Greg Kasavin, though awarding the game a score of 8.2 of 10, was disappointed by the security and lockpicking mechanics.", "\"Such instances are essentially noninteractive\", he wrote.", "\"You simply stand there and spend a particular quantity of electronic picks or modules until the door opens or the security goes down.\"", "Kasavin made similar complaints about the hacking interface, noting that \"Even with basic hacking skills, you'll still be able to bypass the encryption and password protection ... by pressing the 'hack' button and waiting a few seconds\".The game's graphics and voice acting were also met with muted enthusiasm.", "Kasavin complained of ''Deus Ex''s relatively sub-par graphics, blaming them on the game's \"incessantly dark industrial environments\".", "''GamePro'' reviewer Chris Patterson took the time to note that despite being \"solid acoustically\", ''Deus Ex'' had moments of weakness.", "He poked fun at JC's \"Joe Friday, 'just the facts', deadpan\", and the \"truly cheesy accents\" of minor characters in Hong Kong and New York City.", "''IGN'' called the graphics \"blocky\", adding that \"the animation is stiff, and the dithering is just plain awful in some spots\", referring to the limited capabilities of the Unreal Engine used to design the game.", "The website, later on, stated that \"overall Deus Ex certainly looks better than your average game\".Reviewers and players also complained about the size of ''Deus Ex''s save files.", "An Adrenaline Vault reviewer noted that \"Playing through the entire adventure, he accumulated over 250 MB of save game data, with the average file coming in at over 15 MB.", "\"The game developed a strong cult following, leading to a core modding and playing community that remained active over 15 years after its release.", "In an interview with IGN in June 2015, game director Warren Spector said he never expected ''Deus Ex'' to sell many copies, but he did expect it to become a cult classic among a smaller, active community, and he continues to receive fan mail from players to date regarding their experiences and thoughts about ''Deus Ex''.=== Awards and accolades ===''Deus Ex'' received over 30 \"best of\" awards in 2001, from outlets such as IGN, GameSpy, ''PC Gamer'', ''Computer Gaming World'', and The Adrenaline Vault.", "It won \"Excellence in Game Design\" and \"Game Innovation Spotlight\" at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards, and it was nominated for \"Game of the Year\".", "At the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, ''Deus Ex'' has won awards in the \"Computer Innovation\" and \"PC Action/Adventure\" categories, as well as received nominations for \"Sound Design\", \"PC Role-Playing\", and \"Game of the Year\" in both the PC and overall categories.", "The British Academy of Film and Television Arts named it \"PC Game of the Year\".", "The game also collected several \"Best Story\" accolades, including first prize in Gamasutra's 2006 \"Quantum Leap\" awards for storytelling in a video game.", "''Deus Ex'' has appeared in several lists of the greatest games.", "It was included in ''IGN'' \"100 Greatest Games of All Time\" (#40, #21 and #34 in 2003, 2005 and 2007, respectively), \"Top 25 Modern PC Games\" (4th place in 2010) and \"Top 25 PC Games of All Time\" (#20 and #21 in 2007 and 2009 respectively) lists.", "GameSpy featured the game in its \"Top 50 Games of All Time\" (18th place in 2001) and \"25 Most Memorable Games of the Past 5 Years\" (15th place in 2004) lists, and in the site's \"Hall of Fame\".", "''PC Gamer'' placed ''Deus Ex'' on its \"Top 100 PC Games of All Time\" (#2, #2, #1 by staff and #4 by readers in 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2010 respectively) and \"50 Best Games of All Time\" (#10 and #27 in 2001 and 2005) lists, and it was awarded 1st place in ''PC Zone''s \"101 Best PC Games Ever\" feature.", "It was also included in Yahoo!", "UK Video Games' \"100 Greatest Computer Games of All Time\" (28th place) list, and in ''Edge''s \"The 100 Best Videogames\" (29th place in 2007) and \"100 Best Games to Play Today\" (57th place in 2009) lists.", "''Deus Ex'' was named the second-best game of the 2000s by Gamasutra.", "In 2012, ''Time'' named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time, and G4tv named it the 53rd best game of all time for its \"complex and well-crafted story that was really the start of players making choices that genuinely affect the outcome\".", "''1UP.com'' listed it as one of the most important games of all time, calling its influence \"too massive to properly gauge\".", "In 2019, the ''Guardian'' named it the 29th best game of the 21st century, describing it as a \"cultural event\".+ List of awards and nominations Year Award Category Recipient Result Ref.", "2001 Game Developers Choice Awards Excellence in Game Design Harvey Smith, Warren Spector Game Innovation Spotlight ''Deus Ex'' Game of the Year ''Deus Ex'' 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards Computer Innovation ''Deus Ex'' PC Action/Adventure ''Deus Ex'' Game of the Year ''Deus Ex'' PC Game of the Year ''Deus Ex'' PC Role-Playing ''Deus Ex'' Sound Design ''Deus Ex'' British Academy of Film and Television Arts PC Game of the Year ''Deus Ex''" ], [ "Legacy", "=== Sequels ===A sequel, ''Deus Ex: Invisible War'', was released in the United States on December 2, 2003, and in Europe in early 2004 for Windows and Xbox.", "A second sequel, titled ''Deus Ex: Clan Wars'', was initially conceived as a multiplayer-focused third game for the series.", "''Deus Ex: Clan Wars'' was eventually published under the title ''Project: Snowblind''.On March 29, 2007, Valve announced ''Deus Ex'' and its sequel would be available for purchase from their Steam service.", "Among the games announced are several other Eidos franchise titles, including ''Thief: Deadly Shadows'' and ''Tomb Raider''.Eidos Montréal produced a prequel to ''Deus Ex'' called ''Deus Ex: Human Revolution''.", "This was confirmed on November 26, 2007, when Eidos Montréal posted a teaser trailer for the title on their website.", "The game was released on August 23, 2011, for the PC, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 platforms and received critical acclaim.On April 7, 2015, Eidos announced a sequel to ''Deus Ex: Human Revolution'' and second prequel to ''Deus Ex'' titled ''Deus Ex: Mankind Divided''.", "It was released on August 23, 2016.=== Adaptation ===A film adaptation based on the game was initially announced in May 2002 by Columbia Pictures.", "The film was being produced by Laura Ziskin, along with Greg Pruss attached with writing the screenplay.", "Peter Schlessel, president of the production for Columbia Pictures, and Paul Baldwin, president of marketing for Eidos Interactive, stated that they were confident in that the adaptation would be a successful development for both the studios and the franchise.", "In March 2003, during an interview with Greg Pruss, he informed IGN that the character of JC Denton would be \"a little bit filthier than he was in the game\".", "He further stated that the script was shaping up to be darker in tone than the original game.", "Although a release date was scheduled for 2006, the film did not get past the scripting stage.In 2012, CBS films revived the project, buying the rights and commissioning a film inspired by the ''Deux Ex'' series; its direct inspiration was the 2011 game ''Human Revolution''.", "C. Robert Cargill and Scott Derrickson were to write the screenplay, and Derrickson was to direct the film." ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Footnotes ===; Sources" ], [ "External links", " Official page on Eidos site" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diego Maradona" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Diego Armando Maradona''' (; 30 October 196025 November 2020) was an Argentine professional football player and manager.", "Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of the sport, he was one of the two joint winners of the FIFA Player of the 20th Century award.An advanced playmaker who operated in the classic number 10 position, Maradona's vision, passing, ball control, and dribbling skills were combined with his small stature, which gave him a low centre of gravity and allowed him to manoeuvre better than most other players.", "His presence and leadership on the field had a great effect on his team's general performance, while he would often be singled out by the opposition.", "In addition to his creative abilities, he possessed an eye for goal and was known to be a free kick specialist.", "A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname '''''' (\"The Golden Boy\"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career.Maradona was the first player to set the world record transfer fee twice: in 1982 when he transferred to Barcelona for £5 million, and in 1984 when he moved to Napoli for a fee of £6.9 million.", "He played for Argentinos Juniors, Boca Juniors, Barcelona, Napoli, Sevilla, and Newell's Old Boys during his club career, and is most famous for his time at Napoli where he won numerous accolades and led the club to Serie A title wins twice.", "Maradona also had a troubled off-field life and his time with Napoli ended after he was banned for taking cocaine.In his international career with Argentina, he earned 91 caps and scored 34 goals.", "Maradona played in four FIFA World Cups, including the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, where he captained Argentina and led them to victory over West Germany in the final, and won the Golden Ball as the tournament's best player.", "In the 1986 World Cup quarter final, he scored both goals in a 2–1 victory over England that entered football history for two different reasons.", "The first goal was an unpenalized handling foul known as the \"Hand of God\", while the second goal followed a dribble past five England players, voted \"Goal of the Century\" by ''FIFA.com'' voters in 2002.Maradona became the coach of Argentina's national football team in November 2008.He was in charge of the team at the 2010 World Cup in South Africa before leaving at the end of the tournament.", "He then coached Dubai-based club Al Wasl in the UAE Pro-League for the 2011–12 season.", "In 2017, Maradona became the coach of Fujairah before leaving at the end of the season.", "In May 2018, Maradona was announced as the new chairman of Belarusian club Dynamo Brest.", "He arrived in Brest and was presented by the club to start his duties in July.", "From September 2018 to June 2019, Maradona was coach of Mexican club Dorados.", "He was the coach of Argentine Primera División club Gimnasia de La Plata from September 2019 until his death in 2020.He was ranked as the third best all time football player by FourFourTwo magazine." ], [ "Early years", "Diego Armando Maradona was born on 30 October 1960, at the Policlínico (Polyclinic) Evita Hospital in Lanús, Buenos Aires Province, to a poor family that had moved from Corrientes Province; he was raised in Villa Fiorito, a shantytown on the southern outskirts of Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "He was the first son after four daughters.", "He has two younger brothers, Hugo (''el Turco'') and Raúl (Lalo), both of whom were also professional football players.", "His father Diego Maradona \"Chitoro\" (1927–2015), who worked at a chemicals factory, was of Guaraní (Indigenous) and Galician (Spanish) descent, and his mother Dalma Salvadora Franco, \"Doña Tota\" (1930–2011), was of Italian and Croatian descent.Maradona playing at the Torneos Evita in 1973 (a national sporting event in Argentina) with the \"Cebollitas\"Maradona's parents were both born and brought up in the town of Esquina in the north-east province of Corrientes on the banks of the Corriente River.", "In the 1950s, they left Esquina and settled in Buenos Aires.", "Maradona received his first football as a gift at age three and quickly became devoted to the game.", "At age eight, he was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his local club Estrella Roja.", "In March 1969 he was recommended to ''Los Cebollitas'' (The Little Onions), the junior team of Buenos Aires's Argentinos Juniors by his close friend and football rival Gregorio Carrizo who had already been picked by coach Francis Gregorio Cornejo.", "Maradona became a star for the Cebollitas, and as a 12-year-old ball boy he amused spectators by showing his ball skills during the halftime breaks of Argentinos Juniors' first division games.", "During 1973 and 1974, Maradona led Cebollitas to two ''Evita Tournament'' wins and 141 undefeated games in a row, playing alongside players like Adrian Domenech and Claudio Rodríguez, in what is regarded as the best youth team in the history of Argentine football.", "Maradona named Brazilian playmaker Rivellino and Manchester United winger George Best among his inspirations growing up." ], [ "Club career", "===Argentinos Juniors===nutmeg during his debut in the Primera División, 20 October 1976On 20 October 1976, Maradona made his professional debut for Argentinos Juniors, 10 days before his 16th birthday, versus Talleres de Córdoba.", "He entered to the pitch wearing the number 16 jersey, and became the youngest player in the history of the Argentine Primera División.", "A few minutes into his debut, Maradona kicked the ball through the legs of Juan Domingo Cabrera, a nutmeg that would become symbolic of his talent.", "After the game, Maradona said, \"That day I felt I had held the sky in my hands.\"", "Thirty years later, Cabrera remembered Maradona's debut: \"I was on the right side of the field and went to press him, but he didn't give me a chance.", "He made the nutmeg and when I turned around, he was far away from me\".", "Maradona scored his first goal in the Primera División against Marplatense team San Lorenzo on 14 November 1976, two weeks after turning 16.===Boca Juniors===Maradona being held aloft by fans of Boca Juniors after winning the 1981 Metropolitano championshipMaradona spent five years at Argentinos Juniors, from 1976 to 1981, scoring 115 goals in 167 appearances before his US$4 million transfer to Boca Juniors.", "Maradona received offers to join other clubs, including River Plate who offered to make him the club's best paid player.", "However, River decided to drop its bid due to its large payroll in keeping Daniel Passarella and Ubaldo Fillol.Maradona signed a contract with Boca Juniors on 20 February 1981.He made his debut two days later against Talleres de Córdoba, scoring twice in the club's 4–1 win.", "On 10 April, Maradona played his first ''Superclásico'' against River Plate at La Bombonera stadium.", "Boca defeated River 3–0 with Maradona scoring a goal after dribbling past Alberto Tarantini and Fillol.", "Despite the distrustful relationship between Maradona and Boca Juniors manager, Silvio Marzolini, Boca had a successful season, winning the league title after securing a point against Racing Club.", "That would be the only title won by Maradona in the Argentine domestic league.===Barcelona===After the 1982 World Cup, in June, Maradona was transferred to Barcelona in Spain for a then world record fee of £5 million ($7.6 million).", "In 1983, under coach César Luis Menotti, Barcelona and Maradona won the Copa del Rey (Spain's annual national cup competition), beating Real Madrid, and the Spanish Super Cup, beating Athletic Bilbao.", "On 26 June 1983, Barcelona won away to Real Madrid in one of the world's biggest club games, ''El Clásico'', a match where Maradona scored and became the first Barcelona player to be applauded by arch-rival Real Madrid fans.", "Maradona dribbled past Madrid goalkeeper Agustín, and as he approached the empty goal, he stopped just as Madrid defender Juan José came sliding in an attempt to block the shot.", "José ended up crashing into the post, before Maradona slotted the ball into the net.", "With the manner in which the goal was scored resulting in applause from opposition fans, only Ronaldinho (in November 2005) and Andrés Iniesta (in November 2015) have since been granted such an ovation as Barcelona players from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu.The moment when Atlético de Bilbao defender Andoni Goikoetxea injured Maradona on 24 September 1983Due to illness and injury as well as controversial incidents on the field, Maradona had a difficult tenure in Barcelona.", "First a bout of hepatitis, then a broken ankle in a La Liga game at the Camp Nou in September 1983 caused by a reckless tackle by Athletic Bilbao's Andoni Goikoetxea—nicknamed \"the Butcher of Bilbao\"—threatened to jeopardise Maradona's career, but with treatment and rehabilitation, it was possible for him to return to the pitch after a three-month recovery period.Maradona with his fellow countryman Mario Kempes before a Barcelona match against ValenciaMaradona was directly involved in a violent and chaotic fight at the 1984 Copa del Rey Final at the Santiago Bernabéu stadium in Madrid against Athletic Bilbao.", "After receiving another hard tackle by Goikoetxea, as well as being taunted with racist insults related to his father's Native American ancestry throughout the match by Bilbao fans, and being provoked by Bilbao's Miguel Sola at full time after Barcelona lost 1–0, Maradona snapped.", "He aggressively got up, stood inches from Sola's face and the two exchanged words.", "This started a chain reaction of emotional reactions from both teams.", "Using expletives, Sola mimicked a gesture from the crowd towards Maradona by using a xenophobic term.", "Maradona then headbutted Sola, elbowed another Bilbao player in the face and kneed another player in the head, knocking him out cold.", "The Bilbao squad surrounded Maradona to exact some retribution, with Goikoetxea connecting with a high kick to his chest, before the rest of the Barcelona squad joined in to help Maradona.", "From this point, Barcelona and Bilbao players brawled on the field with Maradona in the centre of the action, kicking and punching anyone in a Bilbao shirt.The mass brawl was played out in front of the Spanish King Juan Carlos and an audience of 100,000 fans inside the stadium, and more than half of Spain watching on television.", "After fans began throwing solid objects on the field at the players, coaches and even photographers, sixty people were injured, with the incident effectively sealing Maradona's transfer out of the club in what was his last game in a Barcelona shirt.", "One Barcelona executive stated, \"When I saw those scenes of Maradona fighting and the chaos that followed I realized we couldn't go any further with him.\"", "Maradona got into frequent disputes with FC Barcelona executives, particularly club president Josep Lluís Núñez, culminating with a demand to be transferred out of Camp Nou in 1984.During his two injury-hit seasons at Barcelona, Maradona scored 38 goals in 58 games.", "Maradona transferred to Napoli in Italy's Serie A for another world record fee, £6.9 million ($10.48 million).===Napoli===Maradona saluting the crowd at the Stadio San Paolo in Naples during his presentation on 5 July 1984Maradona arrived in Naples and was presented to the world media as a Napoli player on 5 July 1984, where he was welcomed by 75,000 fans at his presentation at the Stadio San Paolo.", "Sports writer David Goldblatt commented, \"They the fans were convinced that the saviour had arrived.\"", "A local newspaper stated that despite the lack of a \"mayor, houses, schools, buses, employment and sanitation, none of this matters because we have Maradona\".", "Prior to Maradona's arrival, Italian football was dominated by teams from the north and centre of the country, such as AC Milan, Juventus, Inter Milan, and Roma, and no team in the south of the Italian Peninsula had ever won a league title.", "This was perhaps the perfect scenario for Maradona and his working-class-sympathetic image, as he joined a once-great team that was facing relegation at the end of the 1983–84 Serie A season, in what was the toughest and most highly regarded football league in Europe.At Napoli, Maradona reached the peak of his professional career: he soon inherited the captain's armband from Napoli veteran defender Giuseppe Bruscolotti and quickly became an adored star among the club's fans; in his time there he elevated the team to the most successful era in its history.", "Maradona played for Napoli at a period when north–south tensions in Italy were at a peak due to a variety of issues, notably the economic differences between the two.", "Led by Maradona, Napoli won their first ever Serie A Italian Championship in 1986–87.Goldblatt wrote, \"The celebrations were tumultuous.", "A rolling series of impromptu street parties and festivities broke out contagiously across the city in a round-the-clock carnival which ran for over a week.", "The world was turned upside down.", "The Neapolitans held mock funerals for Juventus and Milan, burning their coffins, their death notices announcing 'May 1987, the other Italy has been defeated.", "A new empire is born.'\"", "Murals of Maradona were painted on the city's ancient buildings, and newborn children were named in his honour.", "The following season, the team's prolific attacking trio, formed by Maradona, Bruno Giordano, and Careca, was later dubbed the \"Ma-Gi-Ca\" (''magical'') front-line.Napoli would win their second league title in 1989–90, and finish runners up in the league twice, in 1987–88 and 1988–89.Other honours during the Maradona era at Napoli included the Coppa Italia in 1987 (as well as a second-place finish in the Coppa Italia in 1989), the UEFA Cup in 1989, and the Italian Supercup in 1990.During the 1989 UEFA Cup Final against Stuttgart, Maradona scored from a penalty in a 2–1 home victory in the first leg, later assisting Careca's match-winning goal, while in the second leg on 17 May—a 3–3 away draw—he assisted Ciro Ferrara's goal with a header.", "Despite primarily playing in a creative role as an attacking midfielder, Maradona was the top scorer in Serie A in 1987–88 with 15 goals, and was the all-time leading goalscorer for Napoli, with 115 goals, until his record was broken by Marek Hamšík in 2017.When asked who was the toughest player he ever faced, AC Milan central defender Franco Baresi stated it was Maradona, a view shared by his Milan teammate Paolo Maldini.Although Maradona was successful on the field during his time in Italy, his personal problems increased.", "His cocaine use continued, and he received US$70,000 in fines from his club for missing games and practices, ostensibly because of \"stress\".", "He faced a scandal there regarding an illegitimate son, and he was also the object of some suspicion over an alleged friendship with the Camorra crime syndicate.", "He also faced intense backlash and harassment from some local fans after the 1990 World Cup, in which he and Argentina beat Italy in a semi-final match at the San Paolo stadium.", "In 2000, the number 10 jersey of Napoli was officially retired.", "On 4 December 2020, nine days after Maradona's death, Napoli's home stadium was renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona.===Late career===After serving a 15-month ban for failing a drug test for cocaine, Maradona left Napoli in disgrace in 1992.Despite interest from Real Madrid and Marseille, he signed for Sevilla, where he stayed for one year.", "In 1993, he played for Newell's Old Boys and in 1995 returned to Boca Juniors for a two-year stint.", "Maradona also appeared for Tottenham Hotspur in a testimonial match for Osvaldo Ardiles against Internazionale, shortly before the 1986 World Cup.", "In 1996, he played in a friendly match alongside his brother Raul for Toronto Italia against the Canadian National Soccer League All-Stars.", "In 2000, he captained Bayern Munich in a friendly against the German national team in the farewell game of Lothar Matthäus.", "Maradona was himself given a testimonial match in November 2001, played between an all-star World XI and the Argentina national team." ], [ "International career", "Soviet Union in the 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship Final in JapanDuring his time with the Argentina national team, Maradona scored 34 goals in 91 appearances.", "He made his full international debut at age 16, against Hungary, on 27 February 1977.Maradona was left off the Argentine squad for the 1978 World Cup on home soil by coach César Luis Menotti who felt he was too young at age 17.At age 18, Maradona played the 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship in Japan and emerged as the star of the tournament, shining in Argentina's 3–1 final win over the Soviet Union, scoring a total of six goals in six appearances in the tournament.", "On 2 June 1979, Maradona scored his first senior international goal in a 3–1 win against Scotland at Hampden Park.", "He went on to play for Argentina in two 1979 Copa América ties during August 1979, a 2–1 loss against Brazil and a 3–0 win over Bolivia in which he scored his side's third goal.Speaking thirty years later on the impact of Maradona's performances in 1979, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated, \"Everyone has an opinion on Diego Armando Maradona, and that's been the case since his playing days.", "My most vivid recollection is of this incredibly gifted kid at the second FIFA U-20 World Cup in Japan in 1979.He left everyone open-mouthed every time he got on the ball.\"", "Maradona and his compatriot Lionel Messi are the only players to win the Golden Ball at both the FIFA U-20 World Cup and FIFA World Cup.", "Maradona did so in 1979 and 1986, which Messi emulated in 2005 and 2014 (and again in 2022).===1982 World Cup===Maradona played his first World Cup tournament in 1982 in his new country of residence, Spain.", "Argentina played Belgium in the opening game of the 1982 Cup at the Camp Nou in Barcelona.", "Maradona did not perform to expectations, as Argentina, the defending champions, lost 1–0.Although the team convincingly beat both Hungary and El Salvador in Alicante to progress to the second round, there were internal tensions within the team, with the younger, less experienced players at odds with the older, more experienced players.", "With a team that also included such players as Mario Kempes, Osvaldo Ardiles, Ramón Díaz, Daniel Bertoni, Alberto Tarantini, Ubaldo Fillol, and Daniel Passarella, the Argentine side was defeated in the second round by Brazil and by eventual winners Italy.", "The Italian match is renowned for Maradona being aggressively man-marked by Claudio Gentile, as Italy beat Argentina at the Sarrià Stadium in Barcelona, 2–1.Maradona played in all five matches without being substituted, scoring twice against Hungary.", "He was fouled repeatedly in all five games and particularly in the last one against Brazil at the Sarrià, a game that was blighted by poor officiating and violent fouls.", "With Argentina already down 3–0 to Brazil, Maradona's temper eventually got the better of him and he was sent off with five minutes remaining for a serious retaliatory foul against Batista.===1986 World Cup===Maradona holding the World Cup in 1986Maradona captained the Argentine national team to victory in the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, winning the final in Mexico City against West Germany.", "Throughout the tournament, Maradona asserted his dominance and was the most dynamic player of the competition.", "He played every minute of every Argentina game, scoring five goals and making five assists; three of the assists came in the opening match against South Korea at the Olímpico Universitario Stadium in Mexico City.", "His first goal of the tournament came against Italy in the second group game in Puebla.", "Argentina eliminated Uruguay in the first knockout round in Puebla, setting up a match against England at the Azteca Stadium, also in Mexico City.After scoring two contrasting goals in the 2–1 quarter-final win against England, his legend was cemented.", "The majesty of his second goal and the notoriety of his first led to the French newspaper ''L'Équipe'' describing Maradona as \"half-angel, half-devil\".", "This match was played with the background of the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom.", "Replays showed that the first goal was scored by striking the ball with his hand.", "Maradona was coyly evasive, describing it as \"a little with the head of Maradona and a little with the hand of God\".", "It became known as the \"Hand of God\".", "Ultimately, on 22 August 2005, Maradona acknowledged on his television show that he had hit the ball with his hand purposely, and no contact with his head was made, and that he immediately knew the goal was illegitimate.", "This became known as an international fiasco in World Cup history.", "The goal stood, much to the wrath of the English players.Maradona's second goal, just four minutes after the hotly disputed hand-goal, was later voted by FIFA as the greatest goal in the history of the World Cup.", "He received the ball in his own half, swivelled around and with 11 touches ran more than half the length of the field, dribbling past five English outfield players (Peter Beardsley, Steve Hodge, Peter Reid, Terry Butcher, and Terry Fenwick) before he left goalkeeper Peter Shilton on his backside with a feint, and slotted the ball into the net.", "This goal was voted \"Goal of the Century\" in a 2002 online poll conducted by FIFA.", "A 2002 Channel 4 poll in the UK saw his performance ranked number 6 in the list of the 100 Greatest Sporting Moments.Hand of God\" goal) against England in Mexico 1986.In 2022, his shirt sold for £7.1 million ($9.3 million), the highest for a piece of sports memorabilia.Maradona followed this with two more goals in a semi-final match against Belgium at the Azteca, including another virtuoso dribbling display for the second goal.", "In the final match, West Germany attempted to contain him by double-marking him, but in the 84th minute he nevertheless found space past West German player Lothar Matthäus to give the final pass to Jorge Burruchaga for the winning goal.", "Argentina beat West Germany 3–2 in front of 115,000 fans at the Azteca with Maradona lifting the World Cup as captain.During the tournament, Maradona attempted or created more than half of Argentina's shots, attempted a tournament-best 90 dribbles—three times more than any other player—and was fouled a record 53 times, winning his team twice as many free kicks as any player.", "Maradona scored or assisted 10 of Argentina's 14 goals (71%), including the assist for the winning goal in the final, ensuring that he would be remembered as one of the greatest names in football history.", "By the end of the World Cup, Maradona went on to win the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament by unanimous vote and was widely regarded to have won the World Cup virtually single-handedly, something that he later stated he did not entirely agree with.", "Zinedine Zidane, watching the 1986 World Cup as a 14-year-old, stated Maradona \"was on another level\".", "In a tribute to him, Azteca Stadium authorities built a statue of him scoring the \"Goal of the Century\" and placed it at the entrance of the stadium.Regarding Maradona's performance at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, in 2014, Roger Bennett of ''ESPN FC'' described it as \"the most virtuoso performance a World Cup has ever witnessed,\" while Kevin Baxter of the ''Los Angeles Times'' called it \"one of the greatest individual performances in tournament history,\" with Steven Goff of ''The Washington Post'' dubbing his performance as \"one of the finest in tournament annals.\"", "In 2002, Russell Thomas of ''The Guardian'' described Maradona's second goal against England in the 1986 World Cup quarter-finals as \"arguably the greatest individual goal ever.\"", "In a 2009 article for ''CBC Sports'', John Molinaro described the goal as \"the greatest ever scored in the tournament – and, maybe, in soccer.\"", "In a 2018 article for ''Sportsnet'', he added: \"No other player, not even Pelé\|Pelé in 1958 nor Paolo Rossi in 1982, had dominated a single competition the way Maradona did in Mexico.\"", "He also went on to say of Maradona's performance: \"The brilliant Argentine artist single-handedly delivered his country its second World Cup.\"", "Regarding his two memorable goals against England in the quarter-finals, he commented: \"Yes, it was Maradona's hand, and not God's, that was responsible for the first goal against England.", "But while the 'Hand of God' goal remains one of the most contentious moments in World Cup history, there can be no disputing that his second goal against England ranks as the greatest ever scored in the tournament.", "It transcended mere sports – his goal was pure art.", "\"===1990 World Cup===Maradona captained Argentina again in the 1990 World Cup in Italy to yet another World Cup final.", "An ankle injury affected his overall performance, and he was much less dominant than four years earlier, and the team were missing three of their best players due to injury.", "After losing their opening game to Cameroon at the San Siro in Milan, Argentina were almost eliminated in the group stage, only qualifying in third position from their group.", "In the round of 16 match against Brazil in Turin, Claudio Caniggia scored the only goal after being set up by Maradona.In the quarter-final, Argentina faced Yugoslavia in Florence; the match ended 0–0 after 120 minutes, with Argentina advancing in a penalty shootout even though Maradona's kick, a weak shot to the goalkeeper's right, was saved.", "The semi-final against the host nation Italy at Maradona's club stadium in Naples, the Stadio San Paolo, was also resolved on penalties after a 1–1 draw.", "This time, however, Maradona was successful with his effort, daringly rolling the ball into the net with an almost exact replica of his unsuccessful kick in the previous round.", "At the final in Rome, Argentina lost 1–0 to West Germany, the only goal being a controversial penalty scored by Andreas Brehme in the 85th minute, after Rudi Völler was adjudged to be fouled.===1994 World Cup===At the 1994 World Cup in the United States, Maradona played in only two games (both at the Foxboro Stadium near Boston), scoring one goal against Greece, before being sent home after failing a drug test for ephedrine doping.", "After scoring Argentina's third goal against Greece, Maradona had one of the most remarkable World Cup goal celebrations as he ran towards one of the sideline cameras shouting with a distorted face and bulging eyes, in sheer elation of his return to international football.", "This turned out to be Maradona's last international goal for Argentina.", "In the second game, a 2–1 victory over Nigeria which was to be his last game for Argentina, he set up both of his team's goals on free kicks, the second an assist to Caniggia, in what were two very strong showings by the Argentine team.In his autobiography, Maradona argued that the test result was due to his personal trainer giving him the energy drink Rip Fuel.", "His claim was that the U.S. version, unlike the Argentine one, contained the chemical and that, having run out of his Argentine dosage, his trainer unwittingly bought the U.S. formula.", "FIFA expelled him from USA '94, and Argentina were subsequently eliminated in the round of 16 by Romania in Los Angeles, having been a weaker team without Maradona, even with players like Gabriel Batistuta and Caniggia on the squad.", "Maradona also separately claimed that he had an agreement with FIFA, on which the organization reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play.", "His failed drug test at the 1994 World Cup signalled the end of his international career, which lasted 17 years and yielded 34 goals from 91 games, including one winner's medal and one runners-up medal in the World Cup.Alongside official internationals, Maradona also played and scored for an Argentina XI against the World XI in 1978 to mark the first anniversary of their first World Cup win, scored for The Americas against the World in a UNICEF fundraiser a short time after the 1986 triumph, a year after that captained the 'Rest of the World' against the English Football League XI to celebrate the organisation's centenary (after reportedly securing a £100,000 appearance fee) and was on the scoresheet for the Argentina XI once more in his own 'farewell match' in 2001." ], [ "Player profile", "===Style of play===Maradona exhibiting his ball control in a match against Lazio.", "Michel Platini stated, \"Diego was capable of things no one else could match.", "The things I could do with a football, he could do with an orange.", "\"Described as a \"classic number 10\" in the media, Maradona was a traditional playmaker who usually played in a free role, either as an attacking midfielder behind the forwards, or as a second striker in a front–two, although he was also deployed as an offensive–minded central midfielder in a 4–4–2 formation on occasion.", "A precocious talent, Maradona was given the nickname \"'''''El Pibe de Oro''''' (\"The Golden Boy\"), a name that stuck with him throughout his career.", "He was renowned for his dribbling ability, vision, close ball control, passing, and creativity, and is considered to have been one of the most skilful players in the sport.", "He had a compact physique, and with his strong legs, low center of gravity, and resulting balance, he could withstand physical pressure well while running with the ball, despite his small stature, while his acceleration, quick feet, and agility, combined with his dribbling skills and close control at speed, allowed him to change direction quickly, making him difficult for opponents to defend against.dribblers in the game, Maradona (pictured on the ball against Belgium in 1986) would often go on runs against the opposition.On his dribbling ability, former Dutch player Johan Cruyff saw similarities between Maradona and Lionel Messi with the ball seemingly attached to their boot.", "His physical strengths were illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup.", "Although he was known for his penchant for undertaking individual runs with the ball, he was also a strategist and an intelligent team player, with excellent spatial awareness, as well as being highly technical with the ball.", "He was effective in limited spaces, and would attract defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second goal against England in 1986), or give an assist to a free teammate.", "Being short, but strong, he could hold the ball long enough with a defender on his back to wait for a teammate making a run or to find a gap for a quick shot.", "He showed leadership qualities on the field and captained Argentina in their World Cup campaigns of 1986, 1990, and 1994.While he was primarily a creative playmaker, Maradona was also known for his finishing and goalscoring ability.", "Former Milan manager Arrigo Sacchi also praised Maradona for his defensive work-rate off the ball in a 2010 interview with ''Il Corriere dello Sport''.Maradona at the 1986 World Cup in MexicoThe team leader on and off the field – he would speak up on a range of issues on behalf of the players – Maradona's ability as a player and his overpowering personality had a major positive effect on his team, with his 1986 World Cup teammate Jorge Valdano stating: Lauding the \"charisma\" of Maradona, another of his Argentina teammates, prolific striker Gabriel Batistuta, stated, \"Diego could command a stadium, have everyone watch him.", "I played with him and I can tell you how technically decisive he was for the team\".", "Napoli's former president – Corrado Ferlaino – commented on Maradona's leadership qualities during his time with the club in 2008, describing him as \"a coach on the pitch.", "\"One of Maradona's trademark moves was dribbling full-speed on the right wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering accurate passes to his teammates.", "Another trademark was the ''rabona'', a reverse-cross pass shot behind the leg that holds all the weight.", "This manoeuvre led to several assists, such as the cross for Ramón Díaz's header against Switzerland in 1980.Moreover, he was also a well–known proponent of the ''roulette'', a feint which involved him dragging the ball back first with one foot and then the other, while simultaneously performing a 360° turn; due to his penchant for using this move, it has even occasionally been described as the \"Maradona turn\" in the media.", "He was also a dangerous free kick and penalty kick taker, who was renowned for his ability to bend the ball from corners and direct set pieces.", "Regarded as one of the best dead-ball specialists of all time, his free kick technique, which often saw him raise his knee at a high angle when striking the ball, thus enabling him to lift it high over the wall, allowed him to score free kicks even from close range, within 22 to 17 yards (20 to 16 metres) from the goal, or even just outside the penalty area.", "His style of taking free kicks influenced several other specialists, including Gianfranco Zola, Andrea Pirlo, and Lionel Messi.Maradona was famous for his cunning personality.", "Some critics view his controversial \"Hand of God\" goal at the 1986 World Cup as a clever manoeuvre, with one of the opposition players, Glenn Hoddle, admitting that Maradona had disguised it by flicking his head at the same time as palming the ball.", "The goal itself has been viewed as an embodiment of the Buenos Aires shanty town Maradona was brought up in and its concept of ''viveza criolla''—\"cunning of the criollos\".", "Although critical of the illegitimate first goal, England striker Gary Lineker conceded, \"When Diego scored that second goal against us, I felt like applauding.", "It was impossible to score such a beautiful goal.", "He's the greatest player of all time, by a long way.", "A genuine phenomenon.\"", "Maradona used his hand in the 1990 World Cup, again without punishment, and this time on his own goal line, to prevent the Soviet Union from scoring.", "A number of publications have referred to Maradona as the Artful Dodger, the urchin pickpocket from Charles Dickens' ''Oliver Twist''.Maradona was dominantly left-footed, often using his left foot even when the ball was positioned more suitably for a right-footed connection.", "His first goal against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup semi-final is a worthy indicator of such; he had run into the inside right channel to receive a pass but let the ball travel across to his left foot, requiring more technical ability.", "During his run past several England players in the previous round for the \"Goal of the Century\" he did not use his right foot once, despite spending the whole movement on the right-hand side of the pitch.", "In the 1990 World Cup second-round tie against Brazil, he used his right foot to set up the winning goal for Claudio Caniggia due to two Brazilian markers forcing him into a position that made use of his left foot less practical.===Reception===Maradona (right) and Lionel Messi in ''The Sistine Chapel of Football'' painting, on a ceiling of a sports club in Barracas, Buenos AiresMaradona is widely regarded as the best player of his generation.", "He is considered one of the greatest players of all time by pundits, players, and managers, and by some as the best player ever.", "Known as one of the most skilful players in the game, he is regarded as one of the greatest dribblers and free kick takers in history.", "A precocious talent in his youth, in addition to his playing ability, Maradona also drew praise from his former manager Menotti for his dedication, determination, and the work-ethic he demonstrated in order to improve the technical aspect of his game in training, despite his natural gifts, with the manager noting: \"I'm always cautious about using the word 'genius'.", "I find it hard to apply that even to Mozart.", "The beauty of Diego's game has a hereditary element – his natural ease with the ball – but it also owes a lot to his ability to learn: a lot of those brushstrokes, those strokes of 'genius', are in fact a product of his hard work.", "Diego worked very hard to be the best.\"", "Maradona's former Napoli manager – Ottavio Bianchi – also praised his discipline in training, commenting: \"Diego is different to the one that they depict.", "When you got him on his own he was a very good kid.", "It was beautiful to watch him and coach him.", "They all speak of the fact that he did not train, but it was not true because Diego was the last person to leave the pitch, it was necessary to send him away because otherwise he would stay for hours to invent free kicks.\"", "However, although, as Bianchi noted, Maradona was known for making \"great plays\" and doing \"unimaginable\" and \"incredible things\" with the ball during training sessions, and would even go through periods of rigorous exercise, he was equally known for his limited work-rate in training without the ball, and even gained a degree of infamy during his time in Italy for missing training sessions with Napoli, while he often trained independently instead of with his team.In a 2019 documentary film on his life, ''Diego Maradona'', Maradona confessed that his weekly regime consisted of \"playing a game on Sunday, going out until Wednesday, then hitting the gym on Thursday.\"", "Regarding his inconsistent training regimen, the film's director, Asif Kapadia, commented in 2020: \"He had a metabolism.", "He would look so incredibly out of shape, but then he'd train like crazy and sweat it off by the time matchday came along.", "His body shape just didn't look like a footballer, but then he had this ability and this balance.", "He had a way of being, and that idea of talking to him honestly about how a typical week transpired was pretty amazing.\"", "He also revealed that Maradona was ahead of his time in the fact that he had a personal fitness coach – Fernando Signorini – who trained him in a variety of areas, in addition to looking after his physical conditioning, adding: \"While he Maradona was in a football team he had his own regime.", "How many players would do that?", "How many players would even know to think like that?", "'I'm different to anyone else so I need to train at what I'm good at and what I'm weak at.'", "Signorini is very well read and very intelligent.", "He would literally say, 'This is the way I'm going to train you, read this book.'", "He would help him psychologically, talk to him about philosophy, and things like that.\"", "Moreover, Maradona was notorious for his poor diet and extreme lifestyle off the pitch, including his use of illicit drugs and alcohol abuse, which along with personal issues, his metabolism, medication that he was prescribed, and periods of inactivity due to injuries and suspensions, led to his significant weight–gain and physical decline as his career progressed; his lack of discipline and difficulties in his turbulent personal life are thought by some in the sport to have negatively impacted his performances and longevity in the later years of his playing career.A controversial figure in the sport, while he earned critical acclaim from players, pundits, and managers over his playing style, he also drew criticism in the media for his temper and confrontational behaviour, both on and off the pitch.", "However, in 2005, Paolo Maldini, described Maradona both as the greatest player he ever faced, and also as the most honest, stating: \"He was a model of good behaviour on the pitch – he was respectful of everyone, from the great players down to the ordinary team member.", "He was always getting kicked around and he never complained – not like some of today's strikers.\"", "Franco Baresi stated when he was asked who was his greatest opponent: \"Maradona; when he was on form, there was almost no way of stopping him,\" while fellow former Italy defender Giuseppe Bergomi described Maradona as the greatest player of all time in 2018.Zlatan Ibrahimović said that his off-field antics did not matter, and that he should only be judged for the impact he made on the field.", "\"For me Maradona is more than football.", "What he did as a footballer, in my opinion, he will be remembered forever.", "When you see number 10 who do you think about?", "Maradona.", "It is a symbol, even today there are those who choose that number for him.", "\"In 1999, Maradona was placed second behind Pelé by ''World Soccer'' in the magazine's list of the \"100 Greatest Players of the 20th Century\".", "Along with Pelé, Maradona was one of the two joint winners of the \"FIFA Player of the Century\" award in 2000, and also placed fifth in \"IFFHS' Century Elections\".", "In a 2014 FIFA poll, Maradona was voted the second-greatest number 10 of all time, behind only Pelé, and later that year, was ranked second in ''The Guardian''s list of the 100 greatest World Cup players of all-time, ahead of the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, once again behind Pelé.", "In 2017, ''FourFourTwo'' ranked him in first place in their list of \"100 greatest players\", while in 2018 he was ranked in first place by the same magazine in their list of the \"Greatest Football Players in World Cup History\"; in March 2020, he was also ranked first by Jack Gallagher of ''90min.com'' in their list of \"Top 50 Greatest Players of All Time\".", "In May 2020, Sky Sports ranked Maradona as the best player never to have won the UEFA Champions League/European Cup." ], [ "Retirement and tributes", "Diego Maradona's ''blaugrana'' shirt on display in the FC Barcelona MuseumHounded for years by the press, Maradona once fired a compressed-air rifle at reporters whom he claimed were invading his privacy.", "This quote from former teammate Jorge Valdano summarises the feelings of many:In 1990, the Konex Foundation from Argentina granted him the Diamond Konex Award, one of the most prestigious culture awards in Argentina, as the most important personality in Sports in the last decade in his country.In April 1996, Maradona had a three-round exhibition boxing match with Santos Laciar for charity.", "In 2000, Maradona published his autobiography ''Yo Soy El Diego'' (\"I am ''The Diego''\"), which became a bestseller in Argentina.", "Two years later, Maradona donated the Cuban royalties of his book to \"the Cuban people and Fidel\".", "Maradona at the Soccer Aid charity game at Old Trafford, Manchester, in May 2006, after losing weightIn 2000, he won FIFA Player of the Century award which was to be decided by votes on their official website, their official magazine and a grand jury.", "Maradona won the Internet-based poll, garnering 53.6% of the votes against 18.53% for Pelé.", "In spite of this, and shortly before the ceremony, FIFA added a second award and appointed a \"Football Family\" committee composed of football journalists that also gave to Pelé the title of best player of the century to make it a draw.", "Maradona also came fifth in the vote of the IFFHS (International Federation of Football History and Statistics).", "In 2001, the Argentine Football Association (AFA) asked FIFA for authorisation to retire the jersey number 10 for Maradona.", "FIFA did not grant the request, even though Argentine officials have maintained that FIFA hinted that it would.Maradona has topped a number of fan polls, including a 2002 FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the best goal ever scored in a World Cup; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team.", "On 22 March 2010, Maradona was chosen number 1 in 'The Greatest 10 World Cup Players of All Time' by the London-based newspaper ''The Times''.", "Argentinos Juniors named its stadium after Maradona on 26 December 2003.In 2003, Maradona was employed by the Libyan footballer Al-Saadi Gaddafi, the third son of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, as a \"technical consultant\", while Al-Saadi was playing for the Italian club, Perugia, which was playing in Serie A at the time.Maradona in Kolkata, India, in December 2008.Maradona laid the foundation stone for a football academy in the eastern suburbs of the city, and was greeted by over 100,000 fans in Salt Lake Stadium.On 22 June 2005, it was announced that Maradona would return to former club Boca Juniors as a sports vice-president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disappointing 2004–05 season, which coincided with Boca's centenary).", "His contract began 1 August 2005, and one of his first recommendations proved to be very effective: advising the club to hire Alfio Basile as the new coach.", "With Maradona fostering a close relationship with the players, Boca won the 2005 Apertura, the 2006 Clausura, the 2005 Copa Sudamericana, and the 2005 Recopa Sudamericana.On 15 August 2005, Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, La Noche del 10 (\"The Night of the no.", "10\").", "His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences.", "However, the show also included a cartoon villain with a clear physical resemblance to Pelé.", "In subsequent evenings, he led the ratings on all occasions but one.", "Most guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business, including Ronaldo and Zinedine Zidane, but also included interviews with other notable friends and personalities such as Cuban leader Fidel Castro and boxers Roberto Durán and Mike Tyson.", "Maradona gave each of his guests a signed Argentina jersey, which Tyson wore when he arrived in Brazil, Argentina's biggest rivals.", "In November 2005, however, Maradona rejected an offer to work with Argentina's national football team.In May 2006, Maradona agreed to take part in UK's Soccer Aid (a program to raise money for UNICEF).", "In September 2006, Maradona, in his famous blue and white number 10, was the captain for Argentina in a three-day World Cup of Indoor Football tournament in Spain.", "On 26 August 2006, it was announced that Maradona was quitting his position in the club Boca Juniors because of disagreements with the AFA, who selected Alfio Basile to be the new coach of the Argentina national team.", "In 2008, Serbian filmmaker Emir Kusturica made ''Maradona'', a documentary about Maradona's life.On 1 September 2014, Maradona, along with many current and former footballing stars, took part in the \"Match for Peace\", which was played at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, with the proceeds being donated entirely to charity.", "Maradona set up a goal for Roberto Baggio during the first half of the match, with a chipped through-ball over the defence with the outside of his left foot.", "Unusually, both Baggio and Maradona wore the number 10 shirt, despite playing on the same team.", "On 17 August 2015, Maradona visited Ali Bin Nasser, the Tunisian referee of the Argentina–England quarter-final match at the 1986 World Cup where Maradona scored his Hand of God, and paid tribute to him by giving him a signed Argentine jersey." ], [ "Managerial career", "===Club management===Al Wasl of UAE in 2011Maradona began his managerial career alongside former Argentinos Juniors midfield teammate Carlos Fren.", "The pair led Mandiyú of Corrientes in 1994 and Racing Club in 1995, with little success.", "In May 2011 he became manager of Dubai club Al Wasl FC in the United Arab Emirates.Maradona was sacked on 10 July 2012.In August 2013, Maradona moved on to become 'spiritual coach' at Argentine club Deportivo Riestra.", "Maradona departed this role in 2017 to become the head coach of Fujairah, in the UAE second division, before leaving at the end of the season upon failure to secure promotion at the club.", "In May 2018, Maradona was announced as the new chairman of Belarusian club Dynamo Brest.", "He arrived in Brest and was presented by the club to start his duties in July.", "In September 2018, he was appointed manager of Mexican second division side Dorados.", "He made his debut with Dorados on 17 September with a 4–1 victory over Cafetaleros de Tapachula.", "On 13 June 2019, after Dorados failed to clinch promotion to the Mexican top flight, Maradona's lawyer announced that he would be stepping down from the role, citing health reasons.On 5 September 2019, Maradona was unveiled as the new head coach of Gimnasia de La Plata, signing a contract until the end of the season.", "After two months in charge he left the club on 19 November.", "However, two days later, Maradona rejoined the club as manager saying that \"we finally achieved political unity in the club\".", "Maradona insisted that Gabriel Pellegrino remain club president if he were to stay with Gimnasia de La Plata.", "However it was still not clear if Pellegrino, who declined to run for re-election, would stay on as club President.", "Originally scheduled to be held on 23 November, the election was delayed 15 days.", "On 15 December, Pellegrino, who was encouraged by Maradona to seek re-election, was re-elected to a three-year term.", "Despite having a bad record during the 2019–20 season, Gimnasia renewed Maradona's contract on 3 June 2020 for the 2020–21 season.", "In November 2020, Maradona died in post.", "His coaching staff resigned from the club following his death.===International management===After the resignation of Argentina national team coach Alfio Basile in 2008, Maradona immediately proposed his candidacy for the vacant role.", "According to several press sources, his major challengers included; Diego Simeone, Carlos Bianchi, Miguel Ángel Russo, and Sergio Batista.", "On 29 October 2008, AFA chairman Julio Grondona confirmed that Maradona would be the head coach of the national team.", "On 19 November, Maradona managed Argentina for the first time when they played against Scotland at Hampden Park in Glasgow, which Argentina won 1–0.Maradona as coach of Argentina in 2009.He left the position after the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa.After winning his first three matches as the coach of the national team, he oversaw a 6–1 defeat to Bolivia, equalling the team's worst ever margin of defeat.", "With two matches remaining in the qualification tournament for the 2010 World Cup, Argentina was in fifth place and faced the possibility of failing to qualify, but victory in the last two matches secured qualification for the finals.", "After Argentina's qualification, Maradona used abusive language at the live post-game press conference, telling members of the media to \"suck it and keep on sucking it\".", "FIFA responded with a two-month ban on all footballing activity, which expired on 15 January 2010, and a CHF 25,000 fine, with a warning as to his future conduct.", "The friendly match scheduled to take place at home to the Czech Republic on 15 December, during the period of the ban, was cancelled.", "The only match Argentina played during Maradona's ban was a friendly away to Catalonia, which they lost 4–2.At the World Cup finals in June 2010, Argentina started by winning 1–0 against Nigeria, followed by a 4–1 victory over South Korea on the strength of a Gonzalo Higuaín hat-trick.", "In the final match of the group stage, Argentina won 2–0 against Greece to win the group and advance to a second round, meeting Mexico.", "After defeating Mexico 3–1, however, Argentina was routed by Germany 4–0 in the quarter-finals to go out of the competition.", "Argentina was ranked fifth in the tournament.", "After the defeat to Germany, Maradona admitted that he was reconsidering his future as Argentina's coach, stating, \"I may leave tomorrow.\"", "On 15 July, the AFA said that he would be offered a new four-year deal that would keep him in charge through to the summer of 2014 when Brazil staged the World Cup.", "On 27 July, however, the AFA announced that its board had unanimously decided not to renew his contract.", "Afterwards, on 29 July, Maradona claimed that AFA president Julio Grondona and director of national teams (as well as his former Argentine national team and Sevilla coach) Carlos Bilardo had \"lied to\", \"betrayed\", and effectively sacked him from the role.", "He said, \"They wanted me to continue, but seven of my staff should not go on, if he told me that, it meant he did not want me to keep working.\"" ], [ "Personal life", "===Family===Having returned to his Catholic faith, Maradona donated a signed Argentina jersey to Pope Francis, and it is kept in one of the Vatican Museums.Born to a Roman Catholic family, his parents were Diego Maradona Senior and Dalma Salvadora Franco.", "Maradona married long-time fiancée Claudia Villafañe on 7 November 1989 in Buenos Aires, and they had two daughters, Dalma Nerea (born 2 April 1987) and Gianinna Dinorah (born 16 May 1989), by whom he became a grandfather in 2009 after she married Sergio Agüero (now divorced).Maradona and Villafañe divorced in 2004.Daughter Dalma has since asserted that the divorce was the best solution for all as her parents remained on friendly terms.", "They travelled together to Naples for a series of homages in June 2005 and were seen together on other occasions, including the Argentina games during 2006 World Cup.", "During the divorce proceedings, Maradona admitted that he was the father of Diego Sinagra (born in Naples on 20 September 1986).", "The Italian courts had already ruled so in 1993, after Maradona refused to undergo DNA tests to prove or disprove his paternity.", "Diego Junior met Maradona for the first time in May 2003 after tricking his way onto a golf course in Italy where Maradona was playing.", "Sinagra is now a footballer playing in Italy.After the divorce, Claudia embarked on a career as a theatre producer, and Dalma sought an acting career; she previously had expressed her desire to attend the Actors Studio West in Los Angeles.Maradona's relationship with his immediate family was a close one.", "In a 1990 interview with ''Sports Illustrated'' he showed phone bills where he had spent a minimum of $15,000 US per month calling his parents and siblings.", "Maradona's mother, Dalma, died on 19 November 2011.He was in Dubai at the time, and desperately tried to fly back in time to see her, but was too late.", "She was 81 years old.", "His father, \"Don\" Diego, died on 25 June 2015 at age 87.In 2014, Maradona was accused of assaulting his girlfriend, Rocío Oliva, allegations which he denied.", "In 2017, he gifted her a house in Bella Vista, but in December 2018 they split up.", "Maradona's great-nephew Hernán López is also a professional footballer.===Drug abuse and health problems===Maradona at the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, where he was treated by paramedics after collapsing following Argentina's victory over NigeriaFrom the mid-1980s until 2004, Maradona was addicted to cocaine.", "He allegedly began using the drug in Barcelona in 1983.By the time he was playing for Napoli, he had a full-blown addiction, which interfered with his ability to play football.", "In the midst of his drug crisis in 1991, Maradona was asked by journalists if the hit song \"Mi enfermedad\" (lit.", "\"My Disease\") was dedicated to him.", "Maradona was banned from football in both 1991 and 1994 for abusing drugs.Maradona had a tendency to put on weight and suffered increasingly from obesity, at one point weighing .", "He was obese from the end of his playing career until undergoing gastric bypass surgery in a clinic in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, on 6 March 2005.His surgeon said that Maradona would follow a liquid diet for three months in order to return to his normal weight.", "When Maradona resumed public appearances shortly thereafter, he displayed a notably thinner figure.On 29 March 2007, Maradona was readmitted to a hospital in Buenos Aires.", "He was treated for hepatitis and effects of alcohol abuse and was released on 11 April, but readmitted two days later.", "In the following days, there were constant rumours about his health, including three false claims of his death within a month.", "After being transferred to a psychiatric clinic specializing in alcohol-related problems, Maradona was discharged on 7 May.", "On 8 May, Maradona appeared on Argentine television and stated that he had quit drinking and had not used drugs in two and a half years.", "During the 2018 World Cup match between Argentina and Nigeria, Maradona was shown on television cameras behaving extremely erratically, with an abundance of white residue visible on the glass in front of his seat in the stands.", "The smudges could have been fingerprints, and he later blamed his behaviour on consuming lots of wine.", "In January 2019, Maradona underwent surgery after a hernia caused internal bleeding in his stomach.===Political views===Maradona (right) presenting a signed jersey to the former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner in December 2007Maradona was idelogically left-wing.", "He supported the establishment of an independent Palestinian state and condemned Israel's military strikes in the Gaza Strip during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, saying: \"What Israel is doing to the Palestinians is shameful.\"", "He became friends with Cuban president Fidel Castro while receiving treatment on the island, with Castro stating, \"Diego is a great friend and very noble, too.", "There's also no question he's a wonderful athlete and has maintained a friendship with Cuba to no material gain of his own.\"", "Maradona had a portrait of Castro tattooed on his left leg and one of Fidel's second in command, fellow Argentine Che Guevara on his right arm.", "In his autobiography, ''El Diego'', he dedicated the book to various people, including Castro.", "He wrote, \"To Fidel Castro and, through him, all the Cuban people.\"", "In 1990 he visited Lenin's Mausoleum in the Red Square.Maradona, then-president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and Evo Morales, at the funeral of former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner, 28 October 2010Maradona voiced support for Bolivia's president Evo Morales and was also a supporter of former Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez.", "In 2005, he came to Venezuela to meet Chávez, who received him in the presidential Miraflores Palace.", "After the meeting, Maradona said that he had come to meet a \"great man\" (''un grande'', which can also mean \"a big man\", in Spanish), but had instead met a gigantic man (''un gigante'').", "He also stated, \"I believe in Chávez, I am a Chavista.", "Everything Fidel does, everything Chávez does, for me is the best.\"", "Maradona was Chávez's guest of honour at the opening game of the 2007 Copa América held in Venezuela.In 2004, Maradona participated in a protest against the U.S.-led war in Iraq.", "Maradona declared his opposition to what he identified as imperialism, particularly during the 2005 Summit of the Americas in Mar del Plata, Argentina.", "There he protested George W. Bush's presence in Argentina, wearing a T-shirt labelled \"\" (with the \"s\" in \"Bush\" being replaced with a swastika) and referring to Bush as \"human garbage\".", "In August 2007, Maradona went further, making an appearance on Chávez's weekly television show ''Aló Presidente'' and saying, \"I hate everything that comes from the United States.", "I hate it with all my strength.\"", "By December 2008, however, Maradona had adopted a more pro-U.S. attitude and expressed admiration for Bush's successor, then-President-elect Barack Obama, for whom he had great expectations.With his poor shanty town (villa miseria) upbringing, Maradona cultivated a man-of-the-people persona.", "During a meeting with Pope John Paul II at the Vatican in 1987, they clashed on the issue of wealth disparity, with Maradona stating, \"I argued with him because I was in the Vatican and I saw all these golden ceilings and afterwards I heard the Pope say the Church was worried about the welfare of poor kids.", "Sell your ceiling then, amigo, do something!\"", "In September 2014, Maradona met with Pope Francis in Rome, crediting Francis for inspiring him to return to religion after many years away; he stated, \"We should all imitate Pope Francis.", "If each one of us gives something to someone else, no one in the world would be starving.", "\"In December 2007, Maradona presented a signed shirt with a message of support to the people of Iran: it is displayed in the Iranian Ministry of Foreign Affairs' museum.", "In April 2013, Maradona visited the tomb of Hugo Chávez and urged Venezuelans to elect the late leader's designated successor, Nicolás Maduro, to continue the socialist leader's legacy; \"Continue the struggle,\" Maradona said on television.", "Maradona attended Maduro's final campaign rally in Caracas, signing footballs and kicking them to the crowd, and presented Maduro with an Argentina jersey.", "Having visited Chávez's tomb with Maradona, Maduro said, \"Speaking with Diego was very emotional because comandante Chávez also loved him very much.\"", "Maradona participated and danced at the electoral campaign rally during the 2018 presidential elections in Venezuela.", "During the 2019 Venezuelan presidential crisis, the Mexican Football Federation fined him for violating their code of ethics and dedicating a team victory to Nicolás Maduro.Maradona (center) visiting Argentina's new president Alberto Fernández (right) in December 2019Maradona in his 2000 autobiography ''Yo Soy El Diego'', linked the \"Hand of God\" goal against England at the 1986 World Cup to the Falklands War: \"Although we had said before the game that football had nothing to do with the Malvinas Falklands War, we knew they had killed a lot of Argentine boys there, killed them like little birds.", "And this was revenge.\"", "In October 2015, Maradona thanked Queen Elizabeth II and the Houses of Parliament in London for giving him the chance to provide \"true justice\" as head of an organization designed to help young children.", "In a video released on his official Facebook page, Maradona confirmed he would accept their nomination for him to become Latin American director for the non-governmental organization Football for Unity.===Failure to pay tax===In March 2009, Italian officials announced that Maradona still owed the Italian government €37 million in local taxes, €23.5 million of which was accrued interest on his original debt.", "They reported that at that point, Maradona had paid only €42,000, two luxury watches and a set of earrings.", "He was posthumously cleared of the accusations in January 2024 by the Supreme Court of Cassation." ], [ "Death", "On 2 November 2020, Maradona was admitted to a hospital in La Plata, supposedly for psychological reasons.", "A representative of the ex-footballer said his condition was not serious.", "A day later, he underwent emergency brain surgery to treat a subdural hematoma.", "He was released on 12 November after successful surgery and was supervised by doctors as an outpatient.", "On 25 November, at the age of 60, Maradona suffered cardiac arrest and died in his sleep at his home in Dique Luján, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina.", "Maradona's coffin – draped in Argentina's national flag and three Maradona number 10 shirts (Argentinos Juniors, Boca Juniors and Argentina) – lay in state at the Presidential Palace, the Casa Rosada, with mourners filing past his coffin.", "On 26 November, Maradona's wake, which was attended by tens of thousands of people, was cut short by his family as his coffin was relocated from the rotunda of the Presidential Palace after fans took over an inner courtyard and also clashed with police.", "The same day, a private funeral service was held and Maradona was buried next to his parents at the Jardín de Bella Vista cemetery in Bella Vista, Buenos Aires.===Tributes===In a statement on social media, the Argentine Football Association expressed \"its deepest sorrow for the death of our legend\", adding: \"You will always be in our hearts.\"", "President Alberto Fernández announced three days of national mourning.", "UEFA and CONMEBOL announced that every match in the Champions League, Europa League, Copa Libertadores, and Copa Sudamericana would hold a moment of silence prior to kickoff.", "Boca Juniors' game was postponed in respect to Maradona.", "Subsequently, other confederations around the world followed suit, with every fixture observing a minute of silence, starting with the 2020 AFC Champions League's fixtures.", "In addition to the minute of silence in Serie A, an image of Maradona was projected on stadium screens in the 10th minute of play.In Naples, the Stadio San Paolo—officially renamed Stadio Diego Armando Maradona on 4 December 2020—was illuminated at night in honour of Maradona, with numerous fans gathering outside the stadium placing murals and paintings as a tribute.", "Both Napoli owner Aurelio De Laurentiis and the mayor of Naples Luigi de Magistris expressed their desire to rename their stadium after Maradona, which was unanimously approved by Naples City Council.", "Prior to Napoli's Europa League match against Rijeka the day after Maradona's death, all of the Napoli players wore shirts with \"Maradona 10\" on the back of them, before observing a minute of silence.", "Figures in the sport from every continent around the world also paid tribute to him.", "Celebrities and other sports people outside football also paid tribute to Maradona.On 27 November 2020, the Aditya School of Sports in Barasat, Kolkata, India named their cricket stadium after Maradona.", "Three years earlier Maradona had conducted a workshop with 100 kids in the stadium and played a charity match at the same venue with former Indian cricket captain, Sourav Ganguly.", "The AFA announced that the 2020 Copa de la Liga Profesional, which is the debut season of Copa de la Liga Profesional, would be renamed ''Copa Diego Armando Maradona''.", "On 28 November, Pakistan Football Federation's main cup PFF National Challenge Cup honoured Maradona along with Wali Mohammad.", "In a rugby union test match between Argentina and New Zealand on 28 November, as the New Zealand team lined up to perform the haka their captain Sam Cane presented a black jersey with Maradona's name and his number 10.On 29 November, compatriot Lionel Messi scored in Barcelona's 4–0 home win over Osasuna in La Liga, dedicating his goal to Maradona by revealing a Newell's Old Boys shirt worn by the latter under his own, and subsequently pointing to the sky.On 30 November, after Boca Juniors opened the scoring against Newell's Old Boys at La Bombonera, the club's players paid an emotional tribute by laying a Maradona jersey in front of his private suite where his daughter Dalma was present.===Aftermath===In May 2021, seven medical professionals were charged with homicide over Maradona's death, in violation of their duties, and could face between 8 and 25 years in prison if convicted.", "On 25 June, psychiatrist Agustina Cosachov was summoned by the Prosecution Office of San Isidro and faced a formal questioning, where she agreed to answer more than 100 queries regarding the medical treatment given to Maradona in that medical field.", "After seven hours of questioning, Cosachov's lawyer Vadim Mischanchuk addressed the press and denied that Cosachov's prescription medication could have worsened Maradona's heart condition, and Cosachov further denied any responsibility in the death.", "On 28 June, multiple arrest warrants were requested by a plaintiff lawyer against Cosachov, personal doctor Leopoldo Luque, psychologist Carlos Díaz, and doctor Nancy Forlini in direct connection with Maradona's alleged negligent death.", "On 1 July, the prosecutors in the case refused to ask a judge to issue arrest warrants against all the aforementioned professionals, on the basis that they considered the request had been a media stunt (\"incursión mediática\") for the case, coinciding with personal doctor Luque's interrogation.In June 2022, a judge ruled that eight medical personnel should face trial for criminal negligence and homicide in regards to Maradona's death.On 18 April 2023, the Court of Appeals and Guarantees of San Isidro upheld the June 2022 ruling where eight medical personnel, including physician Luque and psychiatrist Cosachov, should face trial on the charge of \"simple homicide with malice aforethought\".", "The accused face between eight and 25 years in prison if found guilty." ], [ "In popular culture", "Graffiti of Maradona.", "His nickname D10S alludes to his playing number and the Spanish word for God.In Argentina, Maradona is considered an icon.", "Concerning the idolatry that exists in his country, former teammate Jorge Valdano said: In leading his nation to the 1986 World Cup, and in particular his performance and two goals in the quarter-final against England, Guillem Balagué writes: \"That Sunday in Mexico City, the world saw one man single-handedly – in more than one sense of the phrase – lift the mood of a depressed and downtrodden nation into the stratosphere.", "With two goals in the space of four minutes, he allowed them to dare to dream that they, like him, could be the best in the world.", "He did it first by nefarious and then spellbindingly brilliant means.", "In those moments, he went from star player to legend.", "\"Since 1986, it has been common for Argentines abroad to hear Maradona's name as a token of recognition, even in remote places.", "The Tartan Army sing a version of the Hokey Cokey in honour of the Hand of God goal against England.", "In Argentina, Maradona is often talked about in terms reserved for legends.", "In the Argentine film ''El hijo de la novia'' (\"Son of the Bride\"), somebody who impersonates a Catholic priest says to a bar patron, \"They idolized him and then crucified him.\"", "When a friend scolds him for taking the prank too far, the fake priest retorts, \"But I was talking about Maradona.\"", "He is the subject of the film ''El camino de San Diego'', though he himself only appears in archive footage.Maradona was included in many cameos in the Argentine comic book ''El Cazador de Aventuras''.", "After the closing of it, the authors started a new short-lived comic book titled ''El Die'', using Maradona as the main character.", "Maradona has had several online Flash games that are entirely dedicated to his legacy.", "In Rosario, Argentina, locals organised the parody religion of the \"Church of Maradona\".", "The organization reformulates many elements from Christian tradition, such as Christmas or prayers, reflecting instead details from Maradona.", "It had 200 founding members, and tens of thousands more have become members via the church's official web site.Queen during the rock band's 1981 South American tourMany Argentine artists performed songs in tribute to Diego, such as \"La Mano de Dios\" by El Potro Rodrigo, \"Maradona\" by Andrés Calamaro, \"Para siempre Diego\" (Diego Forever) by Los Ratones Paranoicos, \"Francotirador\" (Sniper) by Attaque 77, \"Maradona Blues\" by Charly García, \"Santa Maradona\" (Saint Maradona) by Mano Negra, and \"La Vida Tómbola\" by Manu Chao, among others.", "There are also other films, such as: ''Maradona, La Mano de Dios'' (Maradona, the Hand of God), ''Amando a Maradona'' (Loving Maradona), and ''Maradona by Kusturica''.", "In March 1981, Queen were introduced to Maradona backstage during their concert at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium.By 1982, Maradona had become one of the biggest sports stars in the world and had endorsements with many companies, including Puma and Coca-Cola, earning him an additional $1.5 million per year on top of his club salary.", "In 1982, he featured in a World Cup commercial for Coca-Cola, and a Japanese commercial for Puma.", "In 1984 he earned $7m a year at Napoli, and sponsorships included $5m from Hitachi.", "In 1984, a poll from IMG named Maradona the best known person in the world.", "In 2010 he appeared in a commercial for French fashion house Louis Vuitton, indulging in a game of table football with fellow World Cup winners Pelé and Zinedine Zidane.", "Maradona featured in the music video to the 2010 World Cup song \"Waka Waka\" by Shakira, with footage shown of him celebrating Argentina winning the 1986 World Cup.Banners depicting Maradona – such as this where he features alongside Lionel Messi at the 2018 World Cup in Russia – often appear at Argentina games.A 2006 television commercial for Brazilian soft drink Guaraná Antarctica portrayed Maradona as a member of the Brazil national team, including wearing the yellow jersey and singing the Brazilian national anthem with Brazilian players Ronaldo and Kaká.", "Later on in the commercial he wakes up realising it was a nightmare after having too much of the drink.", "This generated some controversy in the Argentine media after its release (although the commercial was not supposed to air for the Argentine market, fans could see it online).", "Maradona replied that he had no problem wearing the Brazilian national squad jersey despite Argentina and Brazil's tense football rivalry, but that he would refuse to wear the shirt of River Plate, Boca Juniors' traditional rival.", "There is a documented phenomenon of Brazilians being named in honour of Maradona, an example being footballer Diego Costa.In 2017, Maradona featured as a legendary player in the football video games ''FIFA 18'' and ''Pro Evolution Soccer 2018''.", "In 2019, a documentary film titled ''Diego Maradona'' was released by Academy Award and BAFTA Award winning filmmaker Asif Kapadia, director of ''Amy'' (on singer Amy Winehouse) and ''Senna'' (on motor racing driver Ayrton Senna).", "Kapadia stated that \"...Maradona is the third part of a trilogy about child geniuses and fame.\"", "He added, \"...I was fascinated by his journey, wherever he went there were moments of incredible brilliance and drama.", "He was a leader, taking his teams to the very top, but also many lows in his career.", "He was always the little guy fighting against the system... and he was willing to do anything, to use all of his cunning and intelligence to win.\"" ], [ "Career statistics", "Maradona made 680 appearances and scored 345 goals for club and country combined, with a goalscoring average of .===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClubSeasonLeagueNational cupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsArgentinos Juniors1976Argentine Primera División112–––1121977Argentine Primera División4919–––49191978Argentine Primera División3526–––35261979Argentine Primera División2626–––26261980Argentine Primera División4543–––4543Total166116–––166116Boca Juniors1981Argentine Primera División4028–––4028Barcelona1982–83La Liga201153456435231983–84La Liga16114133–2315Total36229478645838Napoli1984–85Serie A301463––36171985–86Serie A291122––31131986–87Serie A291010720–41171987–88Serie A28159620–39211988–89Serie A269127123–50191989–90Serie A28163250–36181990–91Serie A1863242102610Total18881452925510259115Sevilla1992–93La Liga26542––307Newell's Old Boys1993–94Argentine Primera División50–––50Boca Juniors1995–96Argentine Primera División245–––2451996–97Argentine Primera División10––10201997–98Argentine Primera División52–––52Total7035––107135Career total4912595835321384589311===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team, year and competitionTeamYearCompetitiveFriendlyTotalAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsArgentina U20197730–301978–––197911711128Total14711158Argentina1977–30301978–101019792162831980–107107198121–21198252501021983–––1984–––1985634310619867532107198743216419882110311989601070199070311011991–––1992–––19933010401994215172Total461745179134Career total6024461810642'''Notes'''" ], [ "Managerial statistics", "TeamNatFromToRecordGWDLWin %Textil MandiyúJanuary 1994June 1994Racing ClubMay 1995November 1995ArgentinaNovember 2008July 2010Al-WaslMay 2011July 2012FujairahApril 2017 April 2018 DoradosSeptember 2018June 2019Gimnasia de La PlataSeptember 2019November 2020Total" ], [ "Honours", "'''Boca Juniors'''Argentine Primera División: 1981 Metropolitano'''Barcelona'''Copa del Rey: 1982–83Copa de la Liga: 1983Supercopa de España: 1983'''Napoli'''Serie A: 1986–87, 1989–90Coppa Italia: 1986–87Supercoppa Italiana: 1990UEFA Cup: 1988–89'''Argentina U20'''FIFA World Youth Championship: 1979'''Argentina'''FIFA World Cup: 1986Artemio Franchi Cup: 1993'''Individual'''Maradona's Golden Foot award in \"The Champions Promenade\" on the seafront of the Principality of Monaco Argentine Primera División top scorers: 1978 Metropolitano, 1979 Metropolitano, 1979 Nacional, 1980 Metropolitano, 1980 Nacional* FIFA World Youth Championship Golden Ball: 1979* FIFA World Youth Championship Silver Shoe: 1979* Olimpia de Oro: 1979, 1986* ''Guerin Sportivo'' World Player of the Year: 1979, 1986, 1987* Argentine Football Writers' Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1981, 1986* ''El Mundo'' South American Footballer of the Year: 1979, 1980, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992* ''El Gráfico'' Footballer of the America's: 1980, 1981 * ''Guerin Sportivo'' World All-star Team: 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985* Eric Batty's World XI: 1984, 1987* Guerin d'Oro (Serie A Footballer of the Year): 1985* Onze de Onze: 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989* FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1986* FIFA World Cup Silver Shoe: 1986* FIFA World Cup Most Assists: 1986* ''L'Équipe'' Champion of Champions: 1986* ''La Gazzetta dello Sport'' Athlete of the Year: 1986* ''Agence France-Presse'' Athlete of the Year: 1986* Associated Press Athlete of the Year: 1986* ''Corriere dello Sport'' Athlete of the Year: 1986* Onze d'Or: 1986, 1987* ''La Gazzetta dello Sport'' Footballer of the Year: 1987, 1988* Capocannoniere (Serie A top scorer): 1987–88* Coppa Italia top scorer: 1987–88* UNICEF European Footballer of the Season: 1989–90* FIFA World Cup Bronze Ball: 1990* ''El País'' Ideal Team of the America's: 1993, 1995* FIFA World Cup All-Time Team: 1994* Ballon d'Or for services to football (''France Football''): 1995* World Team of the 20th Century: 1998* ''World Soccer'' magazine's Greatest Players of the 20th century: (#2) 1999* Argentine Sports Writers' Sportsman of the Century: 1999* Marca Leyenda: 1999* Number '''10''' retired by Napoli football team as a recognition to his contribution to the club: 2000* FIFA Player of the Century: 2000* FIFA Goal of the Century (for his second goal against England in 1986 FIFA World Cup quarter-final): 2002* FIFA World Cup Dream Team: 2002* Golden Foot: 2003, as football legend* FIFA 100 Greatest Living Players: 2004* Argentine Senate ''\"Domingo Faustino Sarmiento\"'' recognition for lifetime achievement: 2005* Greatest Footballers in World Cup History: No.", "1, by ''The Times'', 2010* Best Athlete in History: No.", "1, by ''Corriere dello Sport – Stadio'', 2012* Player of the 20th Century, by Globe Soccer Awards: 2012* ''World Soccer'' magazine's Greatest XI of All Time: 2013* Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2014* AFA Team of All Time: 2015* Greatest Football Players of All-Time: No.", "1 by ''FourFourTwo'' magazine, 2017* Greatest Football Players in World Cup History: No.", "1, by ''FourFourTwo'' magazine, 2018* Napoli all-time Top Scorer (1991–2017)* ''L'Équipe'''s top 50 South-American footballers in history: #2* International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS) Legends* Ballon d'Or Dream Team: 2020* IFFHS All-time Men's Dream Team: 2021IFFHS South America Men's Team of All Time: 2021'''Notes'''" ], [ "Works", " " ], [ "See also", " List of association football families* 1989 warm up to Live Is Life" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Diego Maradona: Argentina football legend dies aged 60 * Diego Maradona was addicted alcohol and marijuana cause of death World Cup-winners status Preceded by'''Carlos Alberto Torres1944''' '''Latest Born Captain to Die'''25 November 2020 – present '''Incumbent'''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "David Brewster" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir David Brewster''' KH PRSE FRS FSA Scot FSSA MICE (11 December 178110 February 1868) was a British scientist, inventor, author, and academic administrator.", "In science he is principally remembered for his experimental work in physical optics, mostly concerned with the study of the polarization of light and including the discovery of Brewster's angle.", "He studied the birefringence of crystals under compression and discovered photoelasticity, thereby creating the field of optical mineralogy.", "For this work, William Whewell dubbed him the \"father of modern experimental optics\" and \"the Johannes Kepler of optics.", "\"A pioneer in photography, Brewster invented an improved stereoscope, which he called \"lenticular stereoscope\" and which became the first portable 3D-viewing device.", "He also invented the stereoscopic camera, two types of polarimeters, the polyzonal lens, the lighthouse illuminator, and the kaleidoscope.Brewster was a devout Presbyterian and marched arm-in-arm with his brother during the events of the Disruption of 1843, which led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland.", "As a historian of science, Brewster focused on the life and work of his hero, Isaac Newton.", "Brewster published a detailed biography of Newton in 1831 and later became the first scientific historian to examine many of the papers in Newton's ''Nachlass''.", "Brewster also wrote numerous works of popular science, and was one of the founders of the British Science Association, of which he was elected President in 1849.He became the public face of higher education in Scotland, serving as Principal of the University of St Andrews (1837–1859) and later of the University of Edinburgh (1859–1868).", "Brewster also edited the 18-volume ''Edinburgh Encyclopædia''." ], [ "Life", "David Brewster was born in the Canongate in Jedburgh, Roxburghshire, to Margaret Key (1753–1790) and James Brewster (c. 1735–1815), the rector of Jedburgh Grammar School and a teacher of high reputation.", "David was the third of six children, two daughters and four sons: James (1777–1847), minister at Craig, Ferryden; David; George (1784–1855), minister at Scoonie, Fife; and Patrick (1788–1859), minister at the abbey church, Paisley.At the age of 12, David Brewster matriculated at the University of Edinburgh with the intention of becoming a clergyman.", "He received his MA in 1800, was licensed as a minister of the Church of Scotland, and then preached around Edinburgh on several occasions.", "By then, Brewster had already shown a strong inclination for the natural sciences and had established a close association with James Veitch of Inchbonny.", "Veitch, who enjoyed a local reputation as a man of science and was particularly skilled in making telescopes, was characterized by Sir Walter Scott as a \"self-taught philosopher, astronomer and mathematician\".Brewster is buried in the grounds of Melrose Abbey, in Roxburghshire." ], [ "Career", "===Work on optics===Though Brewster duly finished his theological studies and was licensed to preach, his other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession.", "In 1799 fellow-student Henry Brougham persuaded him to study the diffraction of light.", "The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the ''Philosophical Transactions'' of London and other scientific journals.", "The fact that other scientists – notably Étienne-Louis Malus and Augustin Fresnel – were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in France does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others.", "A lesser-known classmate of his, Thomas Dick, also went on to become a popular astronomical writer.The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings:#The laws of light polarization by reflection and refraction, and other quantitative laws of phenomena;#The discovery of the polarising structure induced by heat and pressure;#The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms;#The laws of metallic reflection;#Experiments on the absorption of light.In this line of investigation, the prime importance belongs to the discovery of#the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle;#biaxial crystals, and#the production of double refraction by irregular heating.These discoveries were promptly recognised.", "As early as 1807 the degree of LL.D.", "was conferred upon Brewster by Marischal College, Aberdeen; in 1815 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, and received the Copley Medal; and in 1816 the French Institute awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years.", "In 1821, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in 1822 a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.Inner picture of a cigar box from the early 1900s with a portrait of Brewster.Among the non-scientific public, his fame spread more effectually by his invention in about 1815 of the kaleidoscope, for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.", "As a reflection of this fame, Brewster portrait was later printed in some cigar boxes.", "Brewster chose renowned achromatic lens developer Philip Carpenter as the sole manufacturer of the kaleidoscope in 1817.Although Brewster patented the kaleidoscope in 1817 (GB 4136), a copy of the prototype was shown to London opticians and copied before the patent was granted.", "As a consequence, the kaleidoscope became produced in large numbers, but yielded no direct financial benefits to Brewster.", "It proved to be a massive success with two hundred thousand kaleidoscopes sold in London and Paris in just three months.The Brewster stereoscope, 1849.An instrument of more significance, the stereoscope, which – though of much later date (1849) – along with the kaleidoscope did more than anything else to popularise his name, was not as has often been asserted the invention of Brewster.", "Sir Charles Wheatstone discovered its principle and applied it as early as 1838 to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of mirrors.", "A dogged rival of Wheatstone's, Brewster was unwilling to credit him with the invention, however, and proposed that the true author of the stereoscope was a Mr. Elliot, a \"Teacher of Mathematics\" from Edinburgh, who, according to Brewster, had conceived of the principles as early as 1823 and had constructed a lensless and mirrorless prototype in 1839, through which one could view drawn landscape transparencies, since photography had yet to be invented.", "Brewster's personal contribution was the suggestion to use prisms for uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereoscope may fairly be said to be his invention.A much more valuable and practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British lighthouse system.", "Although Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation, perfected the dioptric apparatus independently, Brewster was active earlier in the field than Fresnel, describing the dioptric apparatus in 1812.Brewster pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as 1820, two years before Fresnel suggested it, and it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly through Brewster's persistent efforts.===Other work===''Treatise on new philosophical instruments for various purposes in the arts and sciences'', 1813Although Brewster's own discoveries were important, they were not his only service to science.", "He began writing in 1799 as a regular contributor to the ''Edinburgh Magazine'', of which he acted as editor 1802–1803 at the age of twenty.", "In 1807, he undertook the editorship of the newly projected ''Edinburgh Encyclopædia'', of which the first part appeared in 1808, and the last not until 1830.The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor.", "At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (seventh and eighth editions) writing, among others, the articles on electricity, hydrodynamics, magnetism, microscope, optics, stereoscope, and voltaic electricity.", "He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1816.In 1819 Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with Robert Jameson (1774–1854), the ''Edinburgh Philosophical Journal'', which took the place of the ''Edinburgh Magazine''.", "The first ten volumes (1819–1824) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes (1825–1826) being edited by Jameson alone.", "After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the ''Edinburgh Journal of Science'' in 1824, 16 volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years 1824–1832, with very many articles from his own pen.He contributed around three hundred papers to the transactions of various learned societies, and few of his contemporaries wrote as much for the various reviews.", "In the ''North British Review'' alone, seventy-five articles of his appeared.", "A list of his larger separate works will be found below.", "Special mention, however, must be made of the most important of them all: his biography of Sir Isaac Newton.", "In 1831 he published the ''Life of Sir Isaac Newton'', a short popular account of the philosopher's life, in ''Murray's Family Library'', followed by an 1832 American edition in Harper's Family Library; but it was not until 1855 that he was able to issue the much fuller ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', a work which embodied the results of more than 20 years' investigation of original manuscripts and other available sources.Brewster's position as editor brought him into frequent contact with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognise the benefit that would accrue from regular communication among those in the field of science.", "In a review of Charles Babbage's book ''Decline of Science in England'' in ''John Murray's Quarterly Review'', he suggested the creation of \"an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers\".", "This was taken up by various ''Declinarians'' and found speedy realisation in the British Association for the Advancement of Science.", "Its first meeting was held at York in 1831; and Brewster, along with Babbage and Sir John Herschel, had the chief part in shaping its constitution.In the same year in which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the Royal Guelphic Order.", "In 1838, he was appointed principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, University of St Andrews.", "In 1849, he acted as president of the British Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the Institute of France in succession to J. J. Berzelius; and ten years later, he accepted the office of principal of the University of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death.", "In 1855, the government of France made him an Officier de la Légion d'honneur.He was a close friend of William Henry Fox Talbot, inventor of the calotype process, who sent Brewster early examples of his work.", "It was Brewster who suggested Talbot only patent his process in England, initiating the development of early photography in Scotland and eventually allowing for the formation of the first photographic society in the world, the Edinburgh Calotype Club, in 1843.Brewster was a prominent member of the club until its dissolution sometime in the mid-1850s; however, his interest in photography continued, and he was elected the first President of the Photographic Society of Scotland when it was founded in 1856.Of a high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation.", "He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character.", "In estimating his place among scientific discoverers, the chief thing to be borne in mind is that his genius was not characteristically mathematical.", "His method was empirical, and the laws that he established were generally the result of repeated experiment.", "To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy although he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light.", "Few would dispute the verdict of James David Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': \"His scientific glory is different in kind from that of Young and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age.\"", "In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: ''Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry'' (1824); ''Treatise on Optics'' (1831); '' Letters on Natural Magic'', addressed to Sir Walter Scott (1832) ''The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler'' (1841); ''More Worlds than One'' (1854).In his ''Treatise'' he demonstrated that vegetal colors were related with the absorption spectra and he described for the first time the red fluorescence of chlorophyll.===History of Scottish Freemasonry===As well as his many scientific works and biographies of notable scientists, Brewster also wrote ''The History of Free Masonry, Drawn from Authentic Sources of Information; with an Account of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, from Its Institution in 1736, to the Present Time'', published in 1804, when he was only 23.The work was commissioned by Alexander Lawrie, publisher to the Grand Lodge of Scotland, to whom the work has been, frequently, mis-attributed.", "Given that the book bears Lawrie's name and not Brewster's this is understandable.", "The book became one of the standard works on early Scottish freemasonry although it has been largely superseded by later works.", "There is no evidence that Brewster was a Freemason at the time he wrote the book, nor any that he became one later.=== Opposition to evolution ===Brewster's Christian beliefs stirred him to respond against the idea of the transmutation of species and the theory of evolution.", "His opinion was that \"science and religion must be one since each dealt with Truth, which had only one and the same Author.\"", "In 1845 he wrote a highly critical review of the evolutionist work ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation'', in the ''North British Review''.", "which he considered to be an insult to Christian revelation and a dangerous example of materialism.In 1862, he responded to Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' and published the article ''The Facts and Fancies of Mr Darwin'' in ''Good Words''.", "He stated that Darwin's book combined both \"interesting facts and idle fancies\" which made up a \"dangerous and degrading speculation\".", "He accepted adaptive changes, but he strongly opposed Darwin's statement about the ''primordial form'', which he considered an offensive idea to \"both the naturalist and the Christian.\"" ], [ "Family", "Calvert Jones, Lady Brewster (Jane Kirk Purnell), Mrs. Jones, David Brewster and Miss Parnell (seated)Brewster married twice.", "His first wife, Juliet Macpherson (c. 1776–1850), was a daughter of James Macpherson (1736–1796), a probable translator of Ossian poems.", "They married on 31 July 1810 in Edinburgh and had four sons and a daughter:James (1812–)Charles Macpherson (1813–1828), drowned.", "David Edward Brewster (17 August 1815 –) became a military officer (Lieutenant Colonel) serving in India.", "Henry Craigie (1816–1905) became a military officer and photographer.", "* Margaret Maria Gordon (1823–1907) wrote a book on Brewster, which is considered the most comprehensive description of his life.Brewster married a second time in Nice, on 26 (or 27) March 1857, to Jane Kirk Purnell (b.", "1827), the second daughter of Thomas Purnell of Scarborough.", "Lady Brewster famously fainted at the Oxford evolution debate of 30 June 1860.Brewster died in 1868, and was buried at Melrose Abbey, next to his first wife and second son.", "The physics building at Heriot-Watt University is named in his honour." ], [ "Recognition and modern references", "Street sign in Kings Buildings, Edinburgh to the memory of David BrewsterA bust of Brewster is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling.Brewster's views on the possibility of evolution of intelligence on other planets, contrasted with the opinion of William Whewell, are cited in the novel ''Barchester Towers''.He appears as a minor antagonist in the 2015 video game ''Assassin's Creed Syndicate'' as a scientist working for the game's opposing faction.", "He is assassinated by one of the protagonists, Evie Frye.A street within the Kings Buildings complex (science buildings linked to Edinburgh University) was named in his memory in 2015." ], [ "See also", "* Brewster's angle* Coddington magnifier* Brewster crater* Brewsterite" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "** Downloadable archive copy" ], [ "Further reading", "* Brewster, David (1854).", "''The Creed of the Philosopher and the Hope of the Christian''.", "Murray (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )* PDF copy* ''\"The Home Life of Sir David Brewster\"'' (1869).", "Written by his daughter Margaret Maria Gordon." ], [ "External links", "* The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society* * * * Brewster's (1831) \"On a new analysis of solar light, indicating three primary colours, forming coincident spectra of equal length,\" ''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.", "12,'' p. 123–136.– digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library* Brewster's (1834) \"On the colours of natural bodies,\" ''Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol.", "12,'' p. 538–545.– Linda Hall Library* Brewster's (1835) ''A treatise on optics'' – Linda Hall Library* Letters on Natural magic Addressed to Sir Walter Scott From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress* The Grand Lodge of Antient Free and Accepted Masons of Scotland." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling" ], [ "Introduction", "Autovon keypads were one of the few production units to include all 16 DTMF signals.", "The red keys in the fourth column produce the A, B, C, and D DTMF events.", "'''Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling''' ('''DTMF''') is a telecommunication signaling system using the voice-frequency band over telephone lines between telephone equipment and other communications devices and switching centers.", "DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States, and became known under the trademark '''Touch-Tone''' for use in push-button telephones supplied to telephone customers, starting in 1963.DTMF is standardized as ITU-T Recommendation Q.23.It is also known in the UK as ''MF4''.Touch-Tone dialing with a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of rotary dials and has become the industry standard in telephony.", "Other multi-frequency systems are also used for signaling on trunks in the telephone network." ], [ "Multifrequency signaling", "Before the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed by users with a loop-disconnect (LD) signaling, more commonly known as pulse dialing (dial pulse, DP) in the United States.", "It functions by interrupting the current in the local loop between the telephone exchange and the calling party's telephone at a precise rate with a switch in the telephone that is operated by the rotary dial as it spins back to its rest position after having been rotated to each desired number.", "The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays or by storing the number in a digit register that records the dialed number.", "The physical distance for which this type of dialing was possible was restricted by electrical distortions and was possible only on direct metallic links between end points of a line.", "Placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance or provision of special subscriber trunk dialing equipment.", "Operators used an earlier type of multi-frequency signaling.", "'''Multi-frequency signaling''' ('''MF''') is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone (pure sine wave) sounds.", "Various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT.", "The earliest of these were for in-band signaling between switching centers, where long-distance telephone operators used a 16-digit keypad to input the next portion of the destination telephone number in order to contact the next downstream long-distance telephone operator.", "This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness.", "Based on this prior success with using MF by specialists to establish long-distance telephone calls, dual-tone multi-frequency signaling was developed for end-user signaling without the assistance of operators.The DTMF system uses a set of eight audio frequencies transmitted in pairs to represent 16 signals, represented by the ten digits, the letters A to D, and the symbols ''#'' and ''''.", "As the signals are audible tones in the voice frequency range, they can be transmitted through electrical repeaters and amplifiers, and over radio and microwave links, thus eliminating the need for intermediate operators on long-distance circuits.AT&T described the product as \"a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the voice transmission path\".", "In order to prevent consumer telephones from interfering with the MF-based routing and switching between telephone switching centers, DTMF frequencies differ from all of the pre-existing MF signaling protocols between switching centers: MF/R1, R2, CCS4, CCS5, and others that were later replaced by SS7 digital signaling.", "DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark ''Touch-Tone''.", "The term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5, 1960, and was introduced to the public on November 18, 1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public.", "As a parent company of Bell Systems, AT&T held the trademark from September 4, 1962, to March 13, 1984.It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23.In the UK, it is also known as MF4.Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature ''tone dialing'' or ''DTMF''.", "Automatic Electric (GTE) referred to it as \"Touch-calling\" in their marketing.", "Other trade names such as ''Digitone'' were used by the Northern Electric Company in Canada.As a method of in-band signaling, DTMF signals were also used by cable television broadcasters as cue tones to indicate the start and stop times of local commercial insertion points during station breaks for the benefit of cable companies.", "Until out-of-band signaling equipment was developed in the 1990s, fast, unacknowledged DTMF tone sequences could be heard during the commercial breaks of cable channels in the United States and elsewhere.", "Previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters.", "In IP telephony, DTMF signals can also be delivered as either in-band or out-of-band tones, or even as a part of signaling protocols, as long as both endpoints agree on a common approach to adopt." ], [ "Keypad", "DTMF keypad layout.Combination of 1209 Hz and 697 Hz sine waves, representing DTMF \"1\"The DTMF telephone keypad is laid out as a matrix of push buttons in which each row represents the low frequency component and each column represents the high frequency component of the DTMF signal.", "The commonly used keypad has four rows and three columns, but a fourth column is present for some applications.", "Pressing a key sends a combination of the row and column frequencies.", "For example, the ''1'' key produces a superimposition of a 697 Hz low tone and a 1209 Hz high tone.", "Initial pushbutton designs employed levers, enabling each button to activate one row and one column contact.", "The tones are decoded by the switching center to determine the keys pressed by the user.+ DTMF keypad frequencies (with sound clips) 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz 1633 Hz 697 Hz 770 Hz 852 Hz 941 Hz" ], [ "#, , A, B, C, and D", "Engineers had envisioned telephones being used to access computers and automated response systems.", "They consulted with companies to determine the requirements.", "This led to the addition of the number signoctothorpeasterisk or \"star\" () keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection: A, B, C and D. In the end, the lettered keys were dropped from most keypads and it was many years before the two symbol keys became widely used for vertical service codes such as 67 in the United States and Canada to suppress caller ID.Public payphones that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip.The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used signals A, B, C, and D to assert certain privilege and priority levels when placing telephone calls.", "Precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations.", "For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call.Present-day uses of the signals A, B, C and D are rare in telephone networks, and are exclusive to network control.", "For example, ''A'' is used in some networks for cycling through a list of carriers.", "The signals are used in radio phone patch and repeater operations to allow, among other uses, control of the repeater while connected to an active telephone line.The signals , #, A, B, C and D are still widely used worldwide by amateur radio operators and commercial two-way radio systems for equipment control, repeater control, remote-base operations and some telephone communications systems.DTMF signaling tones may also be heard at the start or end of some prerecorded VHS videocassettes.", "Information on the master version of the video tape is encoded in the DTMF tones.", "The encoded tones provide information to automatic duplication machines, such as format, duration and volume levels in order to replicate the original video as closely as possible.DTMF tones are used in some caller ID systems to transfer the caller ID information, a function that is performed in the United States by Bell 202 modulated frequency-shift keying (FSK) signaling." ], [ "Decoding", "Two CMD CM8870CSI DTMF ReceiversDTMF was originally decoded by tuned filter banks.", "By the end of the 20th century, digital signal processing became the predominant technology for decoding.", "DTMF decoding algorithms typically use the Goertzel algorithm although application of MUSIC (algorithm) to DTMF decoding has been shown to outperform Goertzel and being the only possibility in cases when number of available samples is limited.", "As DTMF signaling is often transmitted in-band with voice or other audio signals present simultaneously, the DTMF signal definition includes strict limits for timing (minimum duration and interdigit spacing), frequency deviations, harmonics, and amplitude relation of the two components with respect to each other (''twist'')." ], [ "Other multiple frequency signals", "National telephone systems define other tones, outside the DTMF specification, that indicate the status of lines, equipment, or the result of calls, and for control of equipment for troubleshooting or service purposes.", "Such call-progress tones are often also composed of multiple frequencies and are standardized in each country.", "The Bell System defined them in the Precise Tone Plan.", "Bell's Multi-frequency signaling was exploited by blue box devices.Some early modems were based on touch-tone frequencies,such as Bell 400-style modems." ], [ "See also", " Selective calling* Special information tone* Cue tone" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", " ITU's recommendations for implementing DTMF services* .", "* * Frank Durda, Dual Tone Multi-Frequency (Touch-Tone) Reference, 2006.", "* ITU-T Recommendation Q.24 - Multifrequency push-button signal reception" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Deuterocanonical books" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''deuterocanonical books''' (from the Greek meaning \"belonging to the second canon\") are books and passages considered by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, and/or the Assyrian Church of the East to be canonical books of the Old Testament, but which Jews and Protestants regard as apocrypha.", "They date from 300 BC to 100 AD, before the separation of the Christian church from Judaism.", "While the New Testament never directly quotes from or names these books, the apostles quoted the Septuagint, which includes them.", "Some say there is a correspondence of thought, and others see texts from these books being paraphrased, referred, or alluded to many times in the New Testament, depending in large measure on what is counted as a reference.Although there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed, some scholars hold that the Hebrew canon was established well before the 1st century AD – even as early as the 4th century BC, or by the Hasmonean dynasty (140–40 BC).", "The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which the early Christian church used as its Old Testament, included all of the deuterocanonical books.", "The term distinguished these books from both the protocanonical books (the books of the Hebrew canon) and the biblical apocrypha (books of Jewish origin that were sometimes read in Christian churches as scripture but which were not regarded as canonical).According to the disputed Gelasian Decree, the Council of Rome (382 AD) defined a list of books of scripture as canonical.", "It included most of the deuterocanonical books." ], [ "Hebrew Bible canon", "The canon of modern Rabbinic Judaism excludes the deuterocanonical books.", "Albert J. Sundberg writes that Judaism did not exclude from their scriptures the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts listed here." ], [ "Protestant Canon", "The early Christian church largely relied upon the Septuagint in the canonization of the Christian Bible.", "In the 16th century, Martin Luther argued that many of the received texts of the New Testament lacked the authority of the Gospels, and therefore proposed removing a number of books from the New Testament, including Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Book of Revelation.", "While this proposal was not widely accepted among Protestants, the deuterocanonical books—which had previously been deprecated by Jewish scholars—were moved by Luther into an intertestamental section of the Bible called the apocrypha.", "Lutherans and Anglicans do not consider these books to be canonical but do consider them worthy of reverence.", "As such, readings from the Protestant apocrypha are found in the lectionaries of these churches.", "Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the apocrypha as intertestamental books; Amish wedding ceremonies include \"the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha\"." ], [ "List of deuterocanonicals", "The deuterocanonical texts held as canonical for the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church are:* Tobit* Judith* Baruch* Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus)* 1 Maccabees* 2 Maccabees* Wisdom* Additions to Esther: Fulfillment of Mordecai's Dream (Esther 10:4–13) Interpretation of Mordecai's Dream (Vulgate Esther 11) Conspiracy of the Two Eunuchs (Vulgate Esther 12) Letter of Aman and the Prayer of Mordecai to the Jews (Vulgate Esther 13) The Prayer of Esther (Vulgate Esther 14) Esther Comes into the King's Presence (Vulgate Esther 15)** Letter of King Artaxerxes (Vulgate Esther 16)* Additions to Daniel: Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children (Septuagint Daniel 3:24–90) Susanna and the Elders (Septuagint prologue, Vulgate Daniel 13)** Bel and the Dragon (Septuagint epilogue, Vulgate Daniel 14)* Additions to Baruch:** Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6)Canonical only for the Eastern Orthodox Church:* Prayer of Manasseh* 1 Esdras* 2 Esdras* 3 Maccabees* 4 Maccabees as an appendix* Additions to Psalms:** Psalm 151===Dates of composition===" ], [ "Historical background", "''Deuterocanonical'' is a term coined in 1566 by the theologian Sixtus of Siena, who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism, to describe scriptural texts considered canonical by the Catholic Church, but which recognition was considered \"secondary\".", "For Sixtus, this term included portions of both Old and New Testaments.", "Sixtus considers the final chapter of the Gospel of Mark to be deuterocanonical.", "He also applies the term to the Book of Esther from the canon of the Hebrew Bible.The term was then taken up by other writers to apply specifically to those books of the Old Testament which had been recognised as canonical by the Councils of Rome (382 AD), Hippo (393 AD), Carthage (397 AD and 419 AD), Florence (1442 AD) and Trent (1546 AD), but which were not in the Hebrew canon.Forms of the term “deuterocanonical” were adopted after the 16th century by the Eastern Orthodox Church to denote canonical books of the Septuagint not in the Hebrew Bible, a wider selection than that adopted by the Council of Trent, and also by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church to apply to works believed to be of Jewish origin translated in the Old Testament of the Ethiopic Bible, a wider selection still.The acceptance of some of these books among early Christians was widespread, though not universal, and surviving Bibles from the early Church always include, with varying degrees of recognition, books now called ''deuterocanonical''.", "Some say that their canonicity seems not to have been doubted in the Church until it was challenged by Jews after 100 AD, sometimes postulating a hypothetical Council of Jamnia.", "Regional councils in the West published official canons that included these books as early as the 4th and 5th centuries.The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' states:Meanwhile, \"the protocanonical books of the Old Testament correspond with those of the Bible of the Hebrews, and the Old Testament as received by Protestants.", "The deuterocanonical (deuteros, \"second\") are those whose Scriptural character was contested in some quarters, but which long ago gained a secure footing in the Bible of the Catholic Church, though those of the Old Testament are classed by Protestants as the \"Apocrypha\".", "These consist of seven books: Tobias, Judith, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom, First and Second Machabees; also certain additions to Esther and Daniel.", "\"===Dead Sea scrolls===The Book of Sirach, whose Hebrew text was already known from the Cairo Geniza, has been found in two of the Dead Sea Scrolls (2QSir or 2Q18, 11QPs_a or 11Q5) in Hebrew.", "Another Hebrew scroll of ''Sirach'' has been found in Masada (MasSir).", "Five fragments from the Book of Tobit have been found in Qumran written in Aramaic and in one written in Hebrew (papyri 4Q, nos.", "196–200).", "The ''Letter of Jeremiah'' (or ''Baruch'' chapter 6) has been found in cave 7 (papyrus 7Q2) in Greek.", "Recent scholars have suggested that the Qumran library of approximately 1,100 manuscripts found in the eleven caves at Qumran was not entirely produced at Qumran, but may have included part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, that may have been hidden in the caves for safekeeping at the time the Temple was destroyed by Romans in 70 AD.===Influence of the Septuagint===Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Septuagint are: Greek nameTransliterationEnglish nameDeuterocanonical books Tobit or Tobias Judith Esther with additions 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon Sirach or Ecclesiasticus Baruch Letter of Jeremiah Daniel with additionsDeuterocanonical for the Eastern Orthodox Churches Prayer of Manasseh 1 Esdras 3 Maccabees 4 Maccabees Psalm 151'''Apocrypha''' Psalms of SolomonThe large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Koine Greek Septuagint (LXX), editions of which include the deuterocanonical books, as well as apocrypha – both of which are called collectively (''\"Readable,'' namely worthy of reading\").", "No two Septuagint codices contain the same apocrypha.Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century contain three New Testament \"psalms\": the Magnificat, the Benedictus, the Nunc dimittis from Luke's birth narrative, and the conclusion of the hymn that begins with the \"Gloria in Excelsis\".", "Beckwith states that manuscripts of anything like the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus were not used in the first centuries of the Christian era, and believes that the comprehensive codices of the Septuagint, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin.In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as referring to an event that was recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books, 2 Maccabees.", "For instance, the author of Hebrews references oral tradition which spoke of an Old Testament prophet who was sawn in half in Hebrews 11:37, two verses after the 2nd Maccabees reference.", "Other New Testament authors such as Paul also reference or quote period literature.===Influence of early authors===The Jewish historian Josephus () wrote that the Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books.", "The same number of 22 books was reported also by the Christian bishop Athanasius, but they might differ on the exact content (see below for Athanasius), as Josephus did not provide a detailed list.According to Origen of Alexandria (), Eusebius described the Hebrew Bible as containing 22 canonical books.", "Among these books he listed the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees.Eusebius wrote in his ''Church History'' () that Bishop Melito of Sardis in the 2nd century AD considered the deuterocanonical Wisdom of Solomon as part of the Old Testament and that it was considered canonical by Jews and Christians.", "On the other hand, the contrary claim has been made: \"In the catalogue of Melito, presented by Eusebius, after Proverbs, the word Wisdom occurs, which nearly all commentators have been of opinion is only another name for the same book, and not the name of the book now called 'The Wisdom of Solomon'.", "\"Cyril of Jerusalem () in his ''Catechetical Lectures'' cites as canonical books \"Jeremiah one, including Baruch and Lamentations and the Epistle (of Jeremiah)\".In Athanasius's canonical books list (367 AD) the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are included and Esther is omitted.", "At the same time, he mentioned that certain other books, including four deuterocanonical books (the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Judith and Tobit), the book of Esther and also the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas, while not being part of the Canon, \"were appointed by the Fathers to be read\".", "He excluded what he called \"apocryphal writings\" entirely.Epiphanius of Salamis () mentions that \"there are 27 books given the Jews by God, but they are counted as 22, however, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books are doubled and reckoned as five\".", "He wrote in his that Jews had in their books the deuterocanonical Epistle of Jeremiah and Baruch, both combined with Jeremiah and Lamentations in only one book.", "While Wisdom of Sirach and the Wisdom of Solomon were books of disputed canonicity.Augustine () writes in his book ''On Christian Doctrine (Book II Chapter 8)'' that two books of Maccabees, Tobias, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus are canonical books.According to the monk Rufinus of Aquileia () the deuterocanonical books were not called canonical but ecclesiastical books.", "In this category Rufinus includes the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees.", "Rufinus makes no mention of Baruch or the Epistle of Jeremiah.Pope Innocent I (405 AD) sent a letter to the bishop of Toulouse citing deuterocanonical books as a part of the Old Testament canon.In the 7th century Latin document the Muratorian fragment, which some scholars actually believe to be a copy of an earlier 170 AD Greek original, the book of the Wisdom of Solomon is counted by the church.===Synods===In later copyings of the canons of the Council of Laodicea (from 364 AD) a canon list became appended to Canon 59, likely before the mid fifth century, which affirmed that Jeremiah, and Baruch, the Lamentations, and the Epistle (of Jeremiah) were canonical, while excluding the other deuterocanonical books.According to Decretum Gelasianum, which is a work written by an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553, the Council of Rome (382 AD) cites a list of books of scripture presented as having been made canonical.", "This list mentions all the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah as a part of the Old Testament canon:The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first councils that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes a selection of books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.Canon XXIV from the Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD) records the scriptures which are considered canonical; the Old Testament books as follows:On 28 August 397, the Council of Carthage confirmed the canon issued at Hippo; the recurrence of the Old Testament part is stated:In 419 AD, the Council of Carthage in its canon 24 lists the deuterocanonical books except Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah as canonical scripture:The Apostolic Canons approved by the Eastern Council in Trullo in 692 AD (not recognized by the Catholic Church) states as venerable and sacred the first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach.The Roman Catholic Council of Florence (1442) promulgated a list of the books of the Bible, including the books of Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of the Maccabees as Canonical books:The Roman Catholic Council of Trent (1546) adopted an understanding of the canons of these previous councils as corresponding to its own list of deuterocanonical books:===Influence of Jerome===Jerome in one of his Vulgate prologues describes a canon which excludes the deuterocanonical books.", "In these prologues, Jerome mentions all of the deuterocanonical and apocryphal works by name as being apocryphal or \"not in the canon\" except for ''Prayer of Manasses'' and ''Baruch''.", "He mentions ''Baruch'' by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or \"not in the canon\".", "The inferior status to which the deuterocanonical books were relegated by authorities like Jerome is seen by some as being due to a rigid conception of canonicity, one demanding that a book, to be entitled to this supreme dignity, must be received by all, must have the sanction of Jewish antiquity, and must moreover be adapted not only to edification, but also to the \"confirmation of the doctrine of the Church\".J.", "N. D. Kelly states that \"Jerome, conscious of the difficulty of arguing with Jews on the basis of books they spurned and anyhow regarding the Hebrew original as authoritative, was adamant that anything not found in it was 'to be classed among the apocrypha', not in the canon; later he grudgingly conceded that the Church read some of these books for edification, but not to support doctrine.", "\"Jerome's Vulgate included the deuterocanonical books as well as apocrypha.", "Jerome referenced and quoted from some as scripture despite describing them as \"not in the canon\".", "Michael Barber asserts that, although Jerome was once suspicious of the apocrypha, he later viewed them as scripture.", "Barber argues that this is clear from Jerome's epistles; he cites Jerome's letter to Eustochium, in which Jerome quotes Sirach 13:2.Elsewhere Jerome apparently also refers to Baruch, the Story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture.", "Henry Barker states that Jerome quotes the Apocrypha with marked respect, and even as \"Scripture\", giving them an ecclesiastical if not a canonical position and use.", "Luther also wrote introductions to the books of the Apocrypha, and occasionally quoted from some to support an argument.In his prologue to Judith, without using the word canon, Jerome mentioned that Judith was held to be scriptural by the First Council of Nicaea.In his reply to Rufinus, Jerome affirmed that he was consistent with the choice of the church regarding which version of the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel to use, which the Jews of his day did not include:Thus Jerome acknowledged the principle by which the canon would be settled—the judgment of the Church (at least the local churches in this case) rather than his own judgment or the judgment of Jews; though concerning translation of Daniel to Greek, he wondered why one should use the version of a translator whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer (Theodotion).The Vulgate is also important as the touchstone of the canon concerning which parts of books are canonical.", "When the Council of Trent confirmed the books included in the first canon, it qualified the books as being \"entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition\".", "This decree was clarified somewhat by Pope Pius XI on 2 June 1927, who allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.The Council of Trent also ratified the Vulgate Bible as the official Latin version of the Bible for the Roman Catholic Church.Deuterocanonical and Apocryphal books included in the Latin Vulgate are:Latin name English nameDeuterocanonical Books Tobit or Tobias Judith Esther with additions 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Wisdom or Wisdom of Solomon Sirach or Ecclesiasticus Baruch included the Epistle of Jeremiah Daniel with additionsApocryphal Books 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Psalm 151 Prayer of Manasseh Epistle to the Laodiceans===Masoretic Text===The existence of the Septuagint, Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Peshitta versions of the Hebrew scriptures demonstrate that different versions of Judaism used different texts, and it is debated which is closest to the Urtext (a theoretical \"original\" text from which all of these emerged).", "The Dead Sea Scrolls contain some of the deuterocanonical books, while the Masoretic Text excludes them.", "Since the Enlightenment, it was wrongly believed that the Masoretic Text was the \"original\" Hebrew Bible when this was in fact a medieval version created by the Masoretes.", "The oldest nearly-complete manuscripts of the Old Testament include the Codex Vaticanus (4th century) and the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), while the oldest complete manuscript of the Masoretic text is the Codex Leningradensis from 1008.The Septuagint was the version of the Hebrew Bible from which the early Christians emerged.", "The Christian Bible contained these deuterocanonical books until Martin Luther, assuming the Masoretic text to be the original, removed them to match this new Jewish canon.", "Rabbinic Judaism is a newer form of Judaism that created the Masoretic text in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament." ], [ "In the Catholic Church", "The Catholic Church considers that in the Council of Rome in 382 AD, under the Papacy of Damasus I, was defined the complete canon of the Bible, accepting 46 books for the Old Testament, including what the Reformed Churches consider as deuterocanonical books, and 27 books for the New Testament.", "Based in this first canon, Saint Jerome compiled and translated the 73 books of the Bible into Latin, later known as the Vulgate Bible version, which has been considered during many centuries as one of the official Bible translations of the Catholic Church.The Synod of Hippo (in 393 AD), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), also explicitly accepted the first canon from the Council of Rome.", "These councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who also regarded the Biblical canon as already closed.", "The Roman Catholic Council of Florence (1442) confirmed the first canon too, while the Council of Trent (1546) elevated the first canon to dogma.Protestant theologian Philip Schaff states that \"the Council of Hippo in 393, and the third (according to another reckoning the sixth) Council of Carthage in 397, under the influence of Augustine, who attended both, fixed the catholic canon of the Holy Scriptures, including the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, ...This decision of the transmarine church, however, was subject to ratification; and the concurrence of the Roman See it received when Innocent I and Gelasius I (AD 414) repeated the same index of biblical books.", "\"Schaff says that this canon remained undisturbed till the 16th century, and was sanctioned by the Council of Trent at its fourth session, although as the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' reports, \"in the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals.", "... Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity,\" but that the countless manuscript copies of the Vulgate produced by these ages, with a slight, probably accidental, exception, uniformly embrace the complete Roman Catholic Old Testament.", "Subsequent research qualifies this latter statement, in that a distinct tradition of large format pandect bibles has been identified as having been promoted by the 11th and 12th century reforming Papacy for presentation to monasteries in Italy; and now commonly termed 'Atlantic Bibles' on account of their very great size.", "While not all these bibles present a consistent reformed Vulgate text, they generally exclude the deuterocanonical books.=== Baruch ===Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah, appear in the canon lists of the Council of Laodicea, Athanasius (367 AD), Cyril of Jerusalem (), and Epiphanius of Salamis ().", "They are not present in the canons done by Innocent I and Gelasius I, nor are present in any complete Vulgate Bibles earlier than the 9th century.", "Even after that date, they do not become common in the Vulgate Old Testament until the 13th century.In the Old Latin version of the Bible, these two works appear to have been incorporated into the Book of Jeremiah, and Latin Fathers of the 4th century and earlier always cite their texts as being from that book.", "However, when Jerome translated Jeremiah afresh from the Hebrew text, which is considerably longer than the Greek Septuagint text and with chapters in a different order, he steadfastly refused to incorporate either Baruch or the Letter of Jeremiah from the Greek.In the 9th century these two works were reintroduced into the Vulgate Bibles produced under the influence of Theodulf of Orleans, originally as additional chapters to the Vulgate book of Jeremiah.", "Subsequently, and especially in the Paris Bibles of the 13th century, they are found together as a single, combined book after Lamentations.=== Esdras ===For the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant Churches, Greek Esdras is now considered apocryphal.", "The Orthodox Church considers it as canonical.", "The earlier canonical status of this book in the Western church can be less easy to track, as references to Esdras in canon lists and citations may refer either to this book, or to Greek Ezra–Nehemiah, or both together.", "In the surviving Greek pandect Bibles of the 4th and 5th centuries, Greek Esdras always stands as 'Esdras A' while the Greek translation of the whole of canonical Ezra–Nehemiah stands as 'Esdras B'.", "The same is found in the surviving witness of the Old Latin Bible.When Latin fathers of the early church cite quotations from the biblical 'Book of Ezra' it is overwhelmingly 'First Ezra/Esdras A' to which they refer, as in Augustine 'City of God' 18:36.Citations of the 'Nehemiah' sections of Old Latin Second Ezra/'Esdras B' are much rarer.", "No Old Latin citations from the 'Ezra' sections of Second Ezra/'Esdras B' are known before Bede in the 8th century.", "Consequently Gallagher and Meade conclude that \"when the ancient canon lists, whether Greek or Latin, mention two books of Esdras, they must have in mind the books known in the LXX and Old Latin as Esdras A and Esdras B; i.e.", "our 1 Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah.", "\"In his prologue to Ezra Jerome refers to four books of Ezra in the Latin tradition.", "Jerome's first and second Latin books of Ezra are those of the Old Latin Bible - corresponding to Greek Esdras and Ezra-Nehemiah in the Septuagint.", "These two books he considers each to be a corrupt version of the single Hebrew book of Ezra, so he claims that his Vulgate version of Ezra from the Hebrew replaces both of them.", "Jerome condemns the third and fourth Latin books of Ezra as apocrypha.", "His third book must correspond to the Jewish Apocolypse of Ezra while the fourth book is likely to comprise other material from Latin Ezra.From the 9th century, occasional Latin Vulgate manuscripts are found in which Jerome's single Ezra text is split to form the separate books of Ezra and Nehemiah.", "In the Paris Bibles of the 13th century this split has become universal, with Esdras A being reintroduced as '3 Esdras' and Latin Esdras being added as '4 Esdras'.", "At the Council of Trent neither '3 Esdras' nor '4 Esdras' were accepted as canonical books, but were eventually printed in the section of 'Apocrypha' in the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, along with the Prayer of Manasses.The Council of Trent in 1546 stated the list of books included in the canon as it had been set out in the Council of Florence.", "In respect to the deuterocanonical books this list conformed with the canon lists of Western synods of the late 4th century, other than including Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah (Baruch chapter 6) as a single book.", "While the majority at Trent supported this decision there were participants in the minority who disagreed with accepting any other than the protocanonical books in the canon.", "Among the minority, at Trent, were Cardinals Seripando and Cajetan, the latter an opponent of Luther at Augsburg." ], [ "In Eastern Orthodoxy", "The Eastern Orthodox Churches have traditionally included all the books of the Septuagint in their Old Testaments.", "The Greeks use the word (, \"readable, worthy to be read\") to describe the books of the Greek Septuagint that are not present in the Hebrew Bible.", "When Eastern Orthodox theologians use the term \"deuterocanonical\", it is important to note that the meaning is not identical to the Roman Catholic usage.", "In Eastern Orthodox Christianity, deuterocanonical means that a book is part of the corpus of the Old Testament (i.e.", "is read during the services) but has secondary authority.", "In other words, deutero (second) applies to authority or witnessing power, whereas in Roman Catholicism, deutero applies to chronology (the fact that these books were confirmed later), not to authority.The Eastern Orthodox canon includes the deuterocanonical books accepted by Roman Catholics plus Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Maccabees and 1 Esdras (also included in the Clementine Vulgate), while Baruch is divided from the Epistle of Jeremiah, making a total of 49 Old Testament books in contrast with the Protestant 39-book canon.The Eastern Orthodox synod, the Synod of Jerusalem, held in 1672 receive as its canon the books found in the Septuagint, and in the Patristic, Byzantine, and liturgical tradition.", "The Synod declared the Eastern Orthodox canon as follows:specifically, \"The Wisdom of Solomon,\" \"Judith,\" \"Tobit,\" \"The History of the Dragon\" Bel and the Dragon, \"The History of Susanna,\" \"The Maccabees,\" and \"The Wisdom of Sirach.\"", "For we judge these also to be with the other genuine Books of Divine Scripture genuine parts of Scripture.", "For ancient custom, or rather the Catholic Church, which has delivered to us as genuine the Sacred Gospels and the other Books of Scripture, has undoubtedly delivered these also as parts of Scripture, and the denial of these is the rejection of those.", "And if, perhaps, it seems that not always have all of these been considered on the same level as the others, yet nevertheless these also have been counted and reckoned with the rest of Scripture, both by Synods and by many of the most ancient and eminent Theologians of the Universal Church.", "All of these we also judge to be Canonical Books, and confess them to be Sacred Scripture.Other texts printed in Eastern Orthodox Bibles are included as an appendix, which is not the same in all churches; the appendix contains 4 Maccabees in Greek-language bibles, while it contains 2 Esdras in Slavonic-language and Russian-language." ], [ "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church", "In the Bible used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, those books of the Old Testament that are still counted as canonical, but which are not agreed upon by all other Churches, are often set in a separate section titled “deuterocanonical” (ዲዩትሮካኖኒካል).", "The Ethiopian Orthodox Deuterocanon, in addition to the standard set listed above, and with the books of Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, also includes some books that are still held canonical by only the Ethiopian Church, including the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, and the three books of Meqabyan (which are sometimes wrongly confused with the Books of the Maccabees)." ], [ "In Christian Churches having their origins in the Reformation", "Copies of the Luther Bible include the deuterocanonical books as an intertestamental section between the Old Testament and New Testament; they are termed the \"Apocrypha\" in Christian Churches having their origins in the Reformation.===Anabaptist Churches===Anabaptists use the Luther Bible, which contains the Apocrypha as intertestamental books, which has much overlap with the Catholic deuterocanonical books; Amish wedding ceremonies include \"the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah in the Apocrypha\".The fathers of Anabaptism, such as Menno Simons, quoted \"them the Apocrypha with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as books of the Hebrew Bible\" and the texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the Anabaptists, who faced persecution in their history.===Anglican Communion===The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of the Church of England lists the deuterocanonical books as suitable to be read for \"example of life and instruction of manners, but yet doth not apply them to establish any doctrine\".", "The early lectionaries of the Anglican Church (as included in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662) included the deuterocanonical books amongst the cycle of readings, and passages from them were used regularly in services (such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite).Readings from the deuterocanonical books are now included in many modern lectionaries in the Anglican Communion, based on the Revised Common Lectionary (in turn based on the post-conciliar Roman Catholic lectionary), though alternative readings from protocanonical books are also provided.There is a great deal of overlap between the Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible and the Catholic deuterocanon, but the two are distinct.", "The Apocrypha section of the original 1611 King James Bible includes, in addition to the deuterocanonical books, the following three books, which were not included in the list of the canonical books by the Council of Trent:* 1 Esdras (Vulgate 3 Esdras)* 2 Esdras (Vulgate 4 Esdras)* Prayer of ManassehThese books make up the Apocrypha section of the Clementine Vulgate: 3 Esdras (a.k.a.", "1 Esdras); 4 Esdras (a.k.a.", "2 Esdras); and the Prayer of Manasseh, where they are specifically described as \"outside of the series of the canon\".", "The 1609 Douai Bible includes them in an appendix, but they have not been included in English Catholic Bibles since the Challoner revision of the Douai Bible in 1750.Using the word ''apocrypha'' (Greek: \"hidden away\") to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies that the writings in question should not be included in the canon of the Bible.", "This classification commingles them with certain non-canonical gospels and New Testament apocrypha.", "''The Society of Biblical Literature'' recommends the use of the term ''deuterocanonical books'' instead of ''Apocrypha'' in academic writing.===Lutheran Churches===Luther termed the deuterocanonical books \"Apocrypha, that is, books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read.\"", "These are included in copies of the Luther Bible as intertestamental books between the Old Testament and New Testament.===Methodist Churches and Moravian Churches===The first Methodist liturgical book, ''The Sunday Service of the Methodists'', employs verses from the biblical apocrypha, such as in the Eucharistic liturgy.The Revised Common Lectionary, in use by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists readings from the biblical apocrypha in the liturgical kalendar, although alternate Old Testament scripture lessons are provided.===Presbyterian Churches===The Westminster Confession of Faith, a Calvinist document that serves as a systematic summary of doctrine for the Church of Scotland and other Presbyterian Churches worldwide, recognizes only the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon as authentic scripture.", "Chapter 1, Article 3 of the Confession reads: \"The books commonly called Apocrypha, not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture; and therefore are of no authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved, or made use of, than other human writings.", "\"===Reformed Churches===The Belgic Confession, used in Reformed churches, devotes a section (Article 6) to \"the difference between the canonical and apocryphal books\" and says of them: \"All which the Church may read and take instruction from, so far as they agree with the canonical books; but they are far from having such power and efficacy as that we may from their testimony confirm any point of faith or of the Christian religion; much less to detract from the authority of the other sacred books.\"" ], [ "New Testament deuterocanonicals", "The term ''deuterocanonical'' is sometimes used to describe the canonical antilegomena, those books of the New Testament which, like the deuterocanonicals of the Old Testament, were not universally accepted by the early Church.", "Jimmy Akin calls these books \"New Testament deuterocanonicals\".", "The antilegomena or \"disputed writings\" were widely read in the Early Church and include:* The Epistle to the Hebrews* The Epistle of James* The Second Epistle of Peter* The Second Epistle of John* The Third Epistle of John* The Epistle of Jude* The Book of Revelation* The Apocalypse of Peter* The Acts of Paul* The Shepherd of Hermas* The Epistle of Barnabas* The Didache" ], [ "See also", "* Biblical apocrypha* Biblical canon* Pseudepigrapha" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Harrington, Daniel J.", "''Invitation to the Apocrypha''.", "Grand Rapids, Michigan: W.B.", "Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999.", "* Roach, Corwin C. ''The Apocrypha: the Hidden Books of the Bible''.", "Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 1966 – Concerns the Deuterocanonical writings (Apocrypha), according to Anglican usage." ], [ "External links", "* Prophecies in the Deuterocanonical books* Protestants defending the Deuterocanonical books* Defending the Deuterocanonicals by Jimmy Akin* Five common arguments Protestants give for rejecting the Deuterocanonicals ( webarchive link)* Deuterocanon Use in New Testament* Deuterocanonical books – Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available, the full text in Arabic)* The Apocrypha: Inspired of God?" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Discus throw" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''discus throw''' (), also known as disc throw, is a track and field sport in which the participant athlete throws an oblate spheroid weight — called a '''discus''' — in an attempt to mark a farther distance than other competitors.", "It is an ancient sport, as demonstrated by the fifth-century-BC Myron statue ''Discobolus''.", "Although not part of the current pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient Greek pentathlon, which can be dated back to at least 708 BC, and it is part of the modern decathlon." ], [ "History", "Modern copy of the ''Diskophoros'', attributed to AlkamenesThe sport of throwing the discus traces back to it being an event in the original Olympic Games of Ancient Greece.", "The discus as a sport was resurrected in Magdeburg, Germany, by gymnastics teacher Christian Georg Kohlrausch and his students in the 1870s.", "Organized men's competition was resumed in the late 19th century, and has been a part of the modern Summer Olympic Games since the first modern competition, the 1896 Summer Olympics.", "Images of discus throwers figured prominently in advertising for early modern Games, such as fundraising stamps for the 1896 Games, and the main posters for the 1920 and 1948 Summer Olympics.", "Today the sport of discus is a routine part of modern track-and-field meets at all levels, and retains a particularly iconic place in the Olympic Games.The main poster for the 1920 Summer OlympicsThe first modern athlete to throw the discus while rotating the whole body was František Janda-Suk from Bohemia (the present Czech Republic).", "Janda-Suk invented this technique when studying the position of the famous statue of ''Discobolus''.", "After only one year of developing the technique, he earned a silver medal in the 1900 Olympics.Women's competition began in the first decades of the 20th century.", "Following competition at national and regional levels, it was added to the Olympic program for the 1928 games." ], [ "Regulations", "The event consists of throwing a heavy disc, with the weight or size depending on the competitor.", "Men and women throw different sized discs, with varying sizes and weights depending on age.", "The weight of the discus is either governed by World Athletics for international or USA Track & Field for the United States.In the United States, Henry Canine advocated for a lighter-weight discus in high school competition.", "His suggestion was adopted by the National High School Athletic Association in 1938.+US WeightsAgeMenWomenHigh School1.6 kg1 kgCollegiate2 kg1 kgProfessional2 kg1 kgMaster's (35-59)1.5 kg1 kgMaster's (60-74)1 kg1 kgMaster's (75+)1 kg0.75 kg+ International WeightsAgeMenWomen≤171.5 kg1 kg18-191.75 kg1 kg20-492 kg1 kg50-591.5 kg1 kg60-741 kg1 kg75+1 kg0.75 kgDiscus (2 kg), World Athletics certified for competitionsSide viewLongitudinal section (schematic)The typical discus has sides made of plastic, wood, fiberglass, carbon fiber or metal with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight.", "The rim must be smooth, with no roughness or finger holds.", "A discus with more weight in the rim produces greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although it is more difficult to throw.", "However, a higher rim weight, if thrown correctly, can lead to a longer throw.", "In some competitions, a solid rubber discus is used (see in the United States).To make a throw, the competitor starts in a circle of diameter, which is recessed in a concrete pad by .", "The thrower typically takes an initial stance facing away from the direction of the throw.", "They then spin anticlockwise (for right-handers) times while staying within the circle to build momentum before releasing the discus.", "The discus must land within a 34.92º circular sector that is centered on the throwing circle.", "The rules of competition for discus are virtually identical to those of shot put, except that the circle is larger, a stop board is not used and there are no form rules concerning how the discus is to be thrown.The basic motion is a fore-handed sidearm movement.", "The discus is spun off the index finger or the middle finger of the throwing hand.", "In flight the disc spins clockwise when viewed from above for a right-handed thrower, and anticlockwise for a left-handed thrower.", "As well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus' distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic behavior of the discus.", "Generally, throws into a moderate headwind achieve the maximum distance.", "Also, a faster-spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability.", "The technique of discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs much experience to perfect; thus most top throwers are 30 years old or more.The discus throw is sometimes contested indoors, but it is not included at the World Athletics Indoor Championships.", "World Athletics used to keep \"world indoor best\" discus records, but since 2023 they now combine both indoor and outdoor marks.kylix by the Kleomelos Painter, Louvre Museum\|alt=Modern copy of Myron's ''Discobolus'' in University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden, Denmark\|alt=\|none" ], [ "Phases", "The discus technique can be broken down into phases.", "The purpose is to transfer from the back to the front of the throwing circle while turning through one and a half circles.", "The speed of delivery is high, and speed is built up during the throw (slow to fast).", "Correct technique involves the buildup of torque so that maximum force can be applied to the discus on delivery.Rutger Smith in phases of the discus throwInitially, the thrower takes up their position in the throwing circle, distributing their body weight evenly over both feet, which are roughly shoulder width apart.", "They crouch in order to adopt a more efficient posture to start from whilst also isometrically preloading their muscles; this will allow them to start faster and achieve a more powerful throw.", "They then begin the wind-up, which sets the tone for the entire throw; the rhythm of the wind-up and throw is very important.Focusing on rhythm can bring about the consistency to get in the right positions that many throwers lack.", "Executing a sound discus throw with solid technique requires perfect balance.", "This is due to the throw being a linear movement combined with a one and a half rotation and an implement at the end of one arm.", "Thus, a good discus thrower needs to maintain balance within the circle.For a right handed thrower, the next stage is to move the weight over the left foot.", "From this position the right foot is raised, and the athlete 'runs' across the circle.", "There are various techniques for this stage where the leg swings out to a small or great extent, some athletes turn on their left heel (e.g.", "Ilke Wylluda) but turning on the ball of the foot is far more common.The aim is to land in the 'power position', the right foot should be in the center and the heel should not touch the ground at any point.", "The left foot should land very quickly after the right.", "Weight should be mostly over the back foot with as much torque as possible in the body—so the right arm is high and far back.", "This is very hard to achieve.The critical stage is the delivery of the discus, from this 'power position' the hips drive through hard, and will be facing the direction of the throw on delivery.", "Athletes employ various techniques to control the end-point and recover from the throw, such as fixing feet (to pretty much stop dead), or an active reverse spinning onto the left foot (e.g.", "Virgilijus Alekna).Sports scientist Richard Ganslen researched the ''Aerodynamics of the Discus'', reporting the discus will stall at an angle of 29°." ], [ "Culture", "The discus throw has been the subject of a number of well-known ancient Greek statues and Roman copies such as the ''Discobolus'' and ''Discophoros''.", "The discus throw also appears repeatedly in ancient Greek mythology, featured as a means of manslaughter in the cases of Hyacinth, Crocus, Phocus, and Acrisius, and as a named event in the funeral games of Patroclus.Discus throwers have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors' coins.", "One of the recent samples is the €10 Greek Discus commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics.", "On the obverse of the coin a modern athlete is seen in the foreground in a half-turned position, while in the background an ancient discus thrower has been captured in a lively bending motion, with the discus high above his head, creating a vivid representation of the sport." ], [ "All-time top 25", "===Men===Correct as of August 2023.Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Jürgen Schult 6 June 1986 Neubrandenburg 2 2 Virgilijus Alekna 3 August 2000 Kaunas 3 3 Gerd Kanter 4 September 2006 Helsingborg 4 ''Kanter #2'' 3 May 2007 Salinas 5 ''Kanter #3'' 8 May 2008 Salinas 4 6 Yuriy Dumchev 29 May 1983 Moscow Daniel Ståhl 29 June 2019 Bottnaryd Kristjan Čeh16 June 2023Jõhvi7 9 Piotr Małachowski 8 June 2013 Hengelo8 10 Róbert Fazekas 14 July 2002 Szombathely 11 ''Kanter #4'' 25 June 2009 Kohila 12 ''Alekna #2'' 25 July 2007 Kaunas9 13 Lars Riedel 3 May 1997 Wiesbaden 14 ''Ståhl #2'' 21 June 2022 Uppsala 15 ''Ståhl #3'' 21 August 2023 Budapest 16 ''Kanter #5'' 29 April 2010 Chula Vista''Ståhl #4''16 June 2023Jõhvi18 ''Ståhl #5'' 10 July 2021 Bottnaryd19 ''Ståhl #6'' 10 August 2020 Sollentuna10 20 Ben Plucknett 4 June 1983 Eugene 21 ''Ståhl #7'' 29 June 2017 Sollentuna 22 ''Čeh #2'' 21 May 2022 Birmingham 11 23 John Powell 09 June 1984 San Jose Rickard Bruch 15 November 1984 Malmö Imrich Bugár 25 May 1985 San Jose 14 Art Burns 19 July 1983 San Jose 15 Wolfgang Schmidt 9 August 1978 Berlin 16 Anthony Washington 22 May 1996 Salinas 17 Luis Delís 21 May 1983 Havana 18Mykolas Alekna29 April 2023Berkeley19 Mac Wilkins 9 July 1980 Helsinki20 Aleksander Tammert 15 April 2006 Denton 21Fedrick Dacres 16 June 2019Rabat22 Lukas Weißhaidinger 19 May 2023 Schwechat 23 Robert Harting 22 May 2012 Turnov24 Dmitriy Shevchenko 7 May 2002 Krasnodar25 Simon Pettersson 6 August 2022 Norrköping ====Notable series====At the 2019 Diamond League Meeting in Doha, Qatar, Daniel Ståhl became the first man to produce six throws beyond 69.50 in a single competition.", "Kristjan Čeh had throws of 71.86, 71.70 and 71.19 in Jõhvi on 16 June 2023 becoming the first man to have three throws above 71 metres in a single competition.====Annulled marks====Ben Plucknett also threw a world record of 72.34 in Stockholm on 7 July 1981.This performance was annulled due to doping offences.", "Kamy Keshmiri threw 70.84 in Salinas on 27 May 1992.This performance was annulled due to doping offences.====Non-legal marks====Rickard Bruch also threw 72.18 at an exhibition meeting in Piteå on 23 July 1974.", "John Powell also threw 72.08 in Klagshamn on 11 September 1987, but the throw was made onto a sloping/downhill sector.===Women===Correct as of May 2022.Mark Athlete Nation Date Place 1 1 Gabriele Reinsch 9 July 1988 Neubrandenburg 2 2 Zdeňka Šilhavá 26 August 1984 Nitra Ilke Wyludda 23 July 1989 Neubrandenburg 4 ''Reinsch #2'' 13 September 1988 Berlin 5 ''Wyludda #2'' 13 September 1988 Berlin 4 6 Diana Gansky 20 June 1987 Karl-Marx-Stadt 7 ''Gansky #2'' 27 June 1987 Prague 8 ''Reinsch #3'' 12 June 1988 Karl-Marx-Stadt 5 9 Irina Meszynski 17 August 1984 Prague 10 ''Gansky #2'' 11 June 1987 Neubrandenburg 6 11 Galina Savinkova 8 September 1984 Donetsk 12 ''Savinkova #2'' 22 May 1983 Leselidze ''Gansky #3'' 6 June 1986 Neubrandenburg 14 ''Gansky #4'' 29 May 1987 Leipzig 7 15 Tsvetanka Khristova 19 April 1987 Kazanlak 16 ''Wyludda #3'' 13 September 1988 Berlin 8 17 Gisela Beyer 20 July 1984 Berlin 18 ''Gansky #5'' 6 June 1987 Potsdam ''Wyludda #4'' 5 August 1989 Gateshead 20 ''Savinkova #3'' 23 June 1985 Erfurt 21 ''Gansky #6'' 9 July 1988 Neubrandenburg 9 22 Martina Hellmann 20 August 1987 Potsdam 23 ''Hellmann #2'' 11 June 1987 Neubrandenburg ''Reinsch #4'' 29 June 1988 Berlin 25 ''Wyludda #5'' 23 June 1989 Neubrandenburg 10 Galina Murashova 17 August 1984Prague11 Mariya Vergova 13 July 1980Sofia12 Xiao Yanling 14 March 1992Beijing13 Ellina Zvereva 12 June 1988Leningrad14 Evelin Jahl 10 May 1980Potsdam15Valarie Allman 8 April 2022San Diego16Sandra Perković 18 July 2017Bellinzona17 Larisa Korotkevich 29 May 1992Sochi18 Ria Stalman 15 July 1984Walnut19 Hilda Ramos 8 May 1992Havana20 Larisa Mikhalchenko 18 June 1988Kharkiv21 Maritza Martén 18 July 1992Seville22 Denia Caballero 20 June 2015Bilbao23 Faina Melnik 24 April 1976Sochi24 Silvia Madetzky 16 May 1988Athens25 Jorinde van Klinken 22 May 2021Tucson====Annulled marks====Daniela Costian of Romania threw a best of 73.48 in Bucharest on 30 April 1988.This performance was annulled due to doping offences.", "Darya Pishchalnikova of Russia threw a best of 70.69 in Cheboksary on 5 July 2012.This performance was annulled due to doping offences.====Non-legal marks====Martina Hellmann also threw 78.14 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988.", "Ilke Wyludda also threw 75.36 at an unofficial meeting in Berlin on 6 September 1988." ], [ "Olympic medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "World Championships medalists", "===Men======Women===" ], [ "Season's bests", "===Men===YearMarkAthletePlace1968Reno1969Malmö1970Malmö1971Lancaster1972Stockholm1973Skellefteå1974Helsingborg1975Long Beach1976San Jose1977 Westwood1978Berlin1979Walnut1980Erfurt1981Modesto1982Salinas1983Moskva1984San JoseMalmö1985San Jose1986Neubrandenburg1987Neubrandenburg1988Berlin1989Norden1990Smalininkai1991Fresno1992Halle1993Jena1994Budapest1995BellinzonaMonaco1996Salinas1997Wiesbaden1998Salinas1999Jena2000Kaunas2001Stellenbosch2002Szombathely2003Budapest2004Rethimno2005Madrid2006Helsingborg2007Salinas2008Salinas2009Kohila2010Chula Vista2011Budapest2012Turnov2013Hengelo2014Halle2015Cetniewo2016Sollentuna2017Sollentuna 2018Eskilstuna2019Bottnaryd2020Sollentuna 2021Bottnaryd2022Uppsala===Women===YearMarkAthletePlace1968Werdohl1969Hamburg1970Leipzig1971Munich1972Constanța1973Edinburgh1974Prague1975Zürich1976Sochi1977Karl-Marx-Stadt1978Dresden1979Leipzig1980Sofia1981Berlin1982Karl-Marx-Stadt1983Leselidze1984Nitra1985Erfurt1986Neubrandenburg1987Karl-Marx-Stadt1988Neubrandenburg1989Neubrandenburg1990Tel Aviv1991Tokyo1992Beijing1993Vénissieux1994Auckland1995Florø1996Atlanta1997Shanghai1998Stendal1999Thessaloníki2000Bucharest2001Edmonton2002Tula2003Halle2004Minsk2005Madrid2006Schönebeck2007Halle2008Istanbul2009Jinan2010Wiesbaden2011Schönebeck2012London2013Lausanne2014Zürich2015Bilbao2016Shanghai2017Barcelona2018Doha2019Sotteville2020Rathdrum2021Berlin2022San Diego" ], [ "See also", "* List of discus throw national champions (men)* United States champions in women's discus throw" ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "External links", " World Record* Discus History* IAAF list of discus-throw records in XML" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Discrete mathematics" ], [ "Introduction", "Graphs such as these are among the objects studied by discrete mathematics, for their interesting mathematical properties, their usefulness as models of real-world problems, and their importance in developing computer algorithms.", "'''Discrete mathematics''' is the study of mathematical structures that can be considered \"discrete\" (in a way analogous to discrete variables, having a bijection with the set of natural numbers) rather than \"continuous\" (analogously to continuous functions).", "Objects studied in discrete mathematics include integers, graphs, and statements in logic.", "By contrast, discrete mathematics excludes topics in \"continuous mathematics\" such as real numbers, calculus or Euclidean geometry.", "Discrete objects can often be enumerated by integers; more formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as the branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets (finite sets or sets with the same cardinality as the natural numbers).", "However, there is no exact definition of the term \"discrete mathematics\".The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite.", "The term '''finite mathematics''' is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete mathematics that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to business.Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth century partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in \"discrete\" steps and store data in \"discrete\" bits.", "Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful in studying and describing objects and problems in branches of computer science, such as computer algorithms, programming languages, cryptography, automated theorem proving, and software development.", "Conversely, computer implementations are significant in applying ideas from discrete mathematics to real-world problems.Although the main objects of study in discrete mathematics are discrete objects, analytic methods from \"continuous\" mathematics are often employed as well.In university curricula, discrete mathematics appeared in the 1980s, initially as a computer science support course; its contents were somewhat haphazard at the time.", "The curriculum has thereafter developed in conjunction with efforts by ACM and MAA into a course that is basically intended to develop mathematical maturity in first-year students; therefore, it is nowadays a prerequisite for mathematics majors in some universities as well.", "Some high-school-level discrete mathematics textbooks have appeared as well.", "At this level, discrete mathematics is sometimes seen as a preparatory course, like precalculus in this respect.The Fulkerson Prize is awarded for outstanding papers in discrete mathematics." ], [ "Topics in discrete mathematics", "===Theoretical computer science===Complexity studies the time taken by algorithms, such as this sorting routine.Computational geometry applies computer algorithms to representations of geometrical objects.Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to computing.", "It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical logic.", "Included within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms and data structures.", "Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time, space, and other resources taken by computations.", "Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability.", "Petri nets and process algebras are used to model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in analyzing VLSI electronic circuits.", "Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems and representations of geometrical objects, while computer image analysis applies them to representations of images.", "Theoretical computer science also includes the study of various continuous computational topics.===Information theory===The ASCII codes for the word \"Wikipedia\", given here in binary, provide a way of representing the word in information theory, as well as for information-processing algorithms.Information theory involves the quantification of information.", "Closely related is coding theory which is used to design efficient and reliable data transmission and storage methods.", "Information theory also includes continuous topics such as: analog signals, analog coding, analog encryption.===Logic===Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as of consistency, soundness, and completeness.", "For example, in most systems of logic (but not in intuitionistic logic) Peirce's law (((''P''→''Q'')→''P'')→''P'') is a theorem.", "For classical logic, it can be easily verified with a truth table.", "The study of mathematical proof is particularly important in logic, and has accumulated to automated theorem proving and formal verification of software.Logical formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which form finite trees or, more generally, directed acyclic graph structures (with each inference step combining one or more premise branches to give a single conclusion).", "The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set, generally restricted to two values: ''true'' and ''false'', but logic can also be continuous-valued, e.g., fuzzy logic.", "Concepts such as infinite proof trees or infinite derivation trees have also been studied, e.g.", "infinitary logic.===Set theory===Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects, such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of all prime numbers.", "Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in several areas.In discrete mathematics, countable sets (including finite sets) are the main focus.", "The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is usually marked by Georg Cantor's work distinguishing between different kinds of infinite set, motivated by the study of trigonometric series, and further development of the theory of infinite sets is outside the scope of discrete mathematics.", "Indeed, contemporary work in descriptive set theory makes extensive use of traditional continuous mathematics.===Combinatorics===Combinatorics studies the way in which discrete structures can be combined or arranged.Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects - e.g.", "the twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration (i.e., determining the number) of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory.", "In contrast with enumerative combinatorics which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.Topological combinatorics concerns the use of techniques from topology and algebraic topology/combinatorial topology in combinatorics.Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties.Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials.", "Originally a part of number theory and analysis, partition theory is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field.Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite.===Graph theory===Graph theory has close links to group theory.", "This truncated tetrahedron graph is related to the alternating group ''A''4.Graph theory, the study of graphs and networks, is often considered part of combinatorics, but has grown large enough and distinct enough, with its own kind of problems, to be regarded as a subject in its own right.", "Graphs are one of the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics.", "They are among the most ubiquitous models of both natural and human-made structures.", "They can model many types of relations and process dynamics in physical, biological and social systems.", "In computer science, they can represent networks of communication, data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc.", "In mathematics, they are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology, e.g.", "knot theory.", "Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory and topological graph theory has close links to topology.", "There are also continuous graphs; however, for the most part, research in graph theory falls within the domain of discrete mathematics.===Number theory===The Ulam spiral of numbers, with black pixels showing prime numbers.", "This diagram hints at patterns in the distribution of prime numbers.Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers in general, particularly integers.", "It has applications to cryptography and cryptanalysis, particularly with regard to modular arithmetic, diophantine equations, linear and quadratic congruences, prime numbers and primality testing.", "Other discrete aspects of number theory include geometry of numbers.", "In analytic number theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used.", "Topics that go beyond discrete objects include transcendental numbers, diophantine approximation, p-adic analysis and function fields.=== Algebraic structures ===Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and continuous examples.", "Discrete algebras include: Boolean algebra used in logic gates and programming; relational algebra used in databases; discrete and finite versions of groups, rings and fields are important in algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups and monoids appear in the theory of formal languages.===Discrete analogues of continuous mathematics===There are many concepts and theories in continuous mathematics which have discrete versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, discrete optimization, discrete probability theory, discrete probability distribution, difference equations, discrete dynamical systems, and discrete vector measures.==== Calculus of finite differences, discrete analysis, and discrete calculus ====In discrete calculus and the calculus of finite differences, a function defined on an interval of the integers is usually called a sequence.", "A sequence could be a finite sequence from a data source or an infinite sequence from a discrete dynamical system.", "Such a discrete function could be defined explicitly by a list (if its domain is finite), or by a formula for its general term, or it could be given implicitly by a recurrence relation or difference equation.", "Difference equations are similar to differential equations, but replace differentiation by taking the difference between adjacent terms; they can be used to approximate differential equations or (more often) studied in their own right.", "Many questions and methods concerning differential equations have counterparts for difference equations.", "For instance, where there are integral transforms in harmonic analysis for studying continuous functions or analogue signals, there are discrete transforms for discrete functions or digital signals.", "As well as discrete metric spaces, there are more general discrete topological spaces, finite metric spaces, finite topological spaces.The time scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with that of differential equations, which has applications to fields requiring simultaneous modelling of discrete and continuous data.", "Another way of modeling such a situation is the notion of hybrid dynamical systems.==== Discrete geometry ====Discrete geometry and combinatorial geometry are about combinatorial properties of ''discrete collections'' of geometrical objects.", "A long-standing topic in discrete geometry is tiling of the plane.In algebraic geometry, the concept of a curve can be extended to discrete geometries by taking the spectra of polynomial rings over finite fields to be models of the affine spaces over that field, and letting subvarieties or spectra of other rings provide the curves that lie in that space.", "Although the space in which the curves appear has a finite number of points, the curves are not so much sets of points as analogues of curves in continuous settings.", "For example, every point of the form for a field can be studied either as , a point, or as the spectrum of the local ring at (x-c), a point together with a neighborhood around it.", "Algebraic varieties also have a well-defined notion of tangent space called the Zariski tangent space, making many features of calculus applicable even in finite settings.==== Discrete modelling ====In applied mathematics, discrete modelling is the discrete analogue of continuous modelling.", "In discrete modelling, discrete formulae are fit to data.", "A common method in this form of modelling is to use recurrence relation.", "Discretization concerns the process of transferring continuous models and equations into discrete counterparts, often for the purposes of making calculations easier by using approximations.", "Numerical analysis provides an important example." ], [ "Challenges", "Much research in graph theory was motivated by attempts to prove that all maps, like this one, can be colored using only four colors so that no areas of the same color share an edge.", "Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken proved this in 1976.The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging problems which have focused attention within areas of the field.", "In graph theory, much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first stated in 1852, but not proved until 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, using substantial computer assistance).In logic, the second problem on David Hilbert's list of open problems presented in 1900 was to prove that the axioms of arithmetic are consistent.", "Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, proved in 1931, showed that this was not possible – at least not within arithmetic itself.", "Hilbert's tenth problem was to determine whether a given polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer solution.", "In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich proved that this could not be done.The need to break German codes in World War II led to advances in cryptography and theoretical computer science, with the first programmable digital electronic computer being developed at England's Bletchley Park with the guidance of Alan Turing and his seminal work, On Computable Numbers.", "The Cold War meant that cryptography remained important, with fundamental advances such as public-key cryptography being developed in the following decades.", "The telecommunication industry has also motivated advances in discrete mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory.", "Formal verification of statements in logic has been necessary for software development of safety-critical systems, and advances in automated theorem proving have been driven by this need.Computational geometry has been an important part of the computer graphics incorporated into modern video games and computer-aided design tools.Several fields of discrete mathematics, particularly theoretical computer science, graph theory, and combinatorics, are important in addressing the challenging bioinformatics problems associated with understanding the tree of life.Currently, one of the most famous open problems in theoretical computer science is the P = NP problem, which involves the relationship between the complexity classes P and NP.", "The Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a $1 million USD prize for the first correct proof, along with prizes for six other mathematical problems." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of discrete mathematics* Cyberchase, a show that teaches discrete mathematics to children" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " Discrete mathematics at the utk.edu Mathematics Archives, providing links to syllabi, tutorials, programs, etc.", "* Iowa Central: Electrical Technologies Program Discrete mathematics for Electrical engineering." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DDT" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane''', commonly known as '''DDT''', is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochloride.", "Originally developed as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts.", "DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler.", "DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939.DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the insect-borne diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops.", "Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 \"for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods\".", "The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though there was a resurgence in developing countries afterwards.By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States.", "Although it was promoted by government and industry for use as an agricultural and household pesticide, there were also concerns about its use from the beginning.", "Opposition to DDT was focused by the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson's book ''Silent Spring''.", "It talked about environmental impacts that correlated with the widespread use of DDT in agriculture in the United States, and it questioned the logic of broadcasting potentially dangerous chemicals into the environment with little prior investigation of their environmental and health effects.", "The book cited claims that DDT and other pesticides caused cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.", "Although Carson never directly called for an outright ban on the use of DDT, its publication was a seminal event for the environmental movement and resulted in a large public outcry that eventually led, in 1972, to a ban on DDT's agricultural use in the United States.", "Along with the passage of the Endangered Species Act, the United States ban on DDT is a major factor in the comeback of the bald eagle (the national bird of the United States) and the peregrine falcon from near-extinction in the contiguous United States.The evolution of DDT resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use.", "A worldwide ban on agricultural use was formalized under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which has been in effect since 2004.Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible in the absence of affordable/effective alternatives for disease control, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban.DDT still has limited use in disease vector control because of its effectiveness in killing mosquitos and thus reducing malarial infections, but that use is controversial due to environmental and health concerns.", "DDT is one of many tools to fight malaria, which remains the primary public health challenge in many countries.", "WHO guidelines require that absence of DDT resistance must be confirmed before using it.", "Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for disease prevention." ], [ "Properties and chemistry", "DDT is similar in structure to the insecticide methoxychlor and the acaricide dicofol.", "It is highly hydrophobic and nearly insoluble in water but has good solubility in most organic solvents, fats and oils.", "DDT does not occur naturally and is synthesised by consecutive Friedel–Crafts reactions between chloral () and two equivalents of chlorobenzene (), in the presence of an acidic catalyst.", "DDT has been marketed under trade names including Anofex, Cezarex, Chlorophenothane, Dicophane, Dinocide, Gesarol, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gyron, Ixodex, Neocid, Neocidol and Zerdane; INN is clofenotane.===Isomers and related compounds===Commercial DDT is a mixture of several closely related compounds.", "Due to the nature of the chemical reaction used to synthesize DDT, several combinations of ''ortho'' and ''para'' arene substitution patterns are formed.", "The major component (77%) is the desired ''p'',''p'' isomer.", "The ''o'',''p'' isomeric impurity is also present in significant amounts (15%).", "Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) make up the balance of impurities in commercial samples.", "DDE and DDD are also the major metabolites and environmental breakdown products.", "DDT, DDE and DDD are sometimes referred to collectively as DDX.File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg\|''p'',''p''-DDT(desired compound)File:O,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.svg\|''o'',''p''-DDT(isomeric impurity)File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene.svg\|''p'',''p''-DDE(impurity)File:P,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane.svg\|''p'',''p''-DDD(impurity)===Production and use===DDT has been formulated in multiple forms, including solutions in xylene or petroleum distillates, emulsifiable concentrates, water-wettable powders, granules, aerosols, smoke candles and charges for vaporizers and lotions.From 1950 to 1980, DDT was extensively used in agriculturemore than 40,000 tonnes each year worldwideand it has been estimated that a total of 1.8 million tonnes have been produced globally since the 1940s.", "In the United States, it was manufactured by some 15 companies, including Monsanto, Ciba, Montrose Chemical Company, Pennwalt, and Velsicol Chemical Corporation.", "Production peaked in 1963 at 82,000 tonnes per year.", "More than 600,000 tonnes (1.35 billion pounds) were applied in the US before the 1972 ban.", "Usage peaked in 1959 at about 36,000 tonnes.In 2009, 3,314 tonnes were produced for malaria control and visceral leishmaniasis.", "India is the only country still manufacturing DDT, and is the largest consumer.", "China ceased production in 2007.===Mechanism of insecticide action===In insects, DDT opens voltage-sensitive sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death.", "Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides.", "DDT resistance is also conferred by up-regulation of genes expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect species, as greater quantities of some enzymes of this group accelerate the toxin's metabolism into inactive metabolites.", "Genomic studies in the model genetic organism ''Drosophila melanogaster'' revealed that high level DDT resistance is polygenic, involving multiple resistance mechanisms.", "In the absence of genetic adaptation, Roberts and Andre 1994 find behavioral avoidance nonetheless provides insects with some protection against DDT.", "The M918T mutation event produces dramatic ''kdr'' for pyrethroids but Usherwood et al.", "2005 find it is entirely ineffective against DDT.", "Scott 2019 believes this test in ''Drosophila'' oocytes holds for oocytes in general." ], [ "History", "Commercial product concentrate containing 50% DDT, circa 1960sCommercial product of Ciba-Geigy Néocide (powder box, 50 g) containing 10% DDT, made in France.DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the supervision of Adolf von Baeyer.", "It was further described in 1929 in a dissertation by W. Bausch and in two subsequent publications in 1930.The insecticide properties of \"multiple chlorinated aliphatic or fat-aromatic alcohols with at least one trichloromethane group\" were described in a patent in 1934 by Wolfgang von Leuthold.", "DDT's insecticidal properties were not, however, discovered until 1939 by the Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Müller, who was awarded the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts.===Use in the 1940s and 1950s===An airplane spraying DDT over Baker County, Oregon as part of a spruce budworm control project, 1955DDT spray log in Bosa (Sardinia)DDT is the best-known of several chlorine-containing pesticides used in the 1940s and 1950s.", "During this time, the use of DDT was driven by protecting American soldiers from diseases in tropical areas.", "Both British and American scientists hoped to use it to control spread of malaria, typhus, dysentery, and typhoid fever among overseas soldiers, especially considering that the pyrethrum was harder to access since it came mainly from Japan.", "Due to the potency of DDT, it was not long before America's War Production Board placed it on military supply lists in 1942 and 1943 and encouraged its production for overseas use.", "Enthusiasm regarding DDT became obvious through the American government's advertising campaigns of posters depicting Americans fighting the Axis powers and insects and through media publications celebrating its military uses.", "In the South Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria and dengue fever control with spectacular effects.", "While DDT's chemical and insecticidal properties were important factors in these victories, advances in application equipment coupled with competent organization and sufficient manpower were also crucial to the success of these programs.In 1945, DDT was made available to farmers as an agricultural insecticide and played a role in the elimination of malaria in Europe and North America.''''''", "Despite concerns emerging in the scientific community, and lack of research, the FDA considered it safe up to 7 parts per million in food.", "There was a large economic incentive to push DDT into the market and sell it to farmers, governments, and individuals to control diseases and increase food production.DDT was also a way for American influence to reach abroad through DDT-spraying campaigns.", "In the 1944 issue of Life magazine there was a feature regarding the Italian program showing pictures of American public health officials in uniforms spraying DDT on Italian families.In 1955, the World Health Organization commenced a program to eradicate malaria in countries with low to moderate transmission rates worldwide, relying largely on DDT for mosquito control and rapid diagnosis and treatment to reduce transmission.", "The program eliminated the disease in \"North America, Europe, the former Soviet Union\", and in \"Taiwan, much of the Caribbean, the Balkans, parts of northern Africa, the northern region of Australia, and a large swath of the South Pacific\" and dramatically reduced mortality in Sri Lanka and India.However, failure to sustain the program, increasing mosquito tolerance to DDT, and increasing parasite tolerance led to a resurgence.", "In many areas early successes partially or completely reversed, and in some cases rates of transmission increased.", "The program succeeded in eliminating malaria only in areas with \"high socio-economic status, well-organized healthcare systems, and relatively less intensive or seasonal malaria transmission\".DDT was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life cycle of mosquitoes and poor infrastructure.", "It was applied in sub-Saharan Africa by various colonial states, but the 'global' WHO eradication program didn't include the region.", "Mortality rates in that area never declined to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the disease's resurgence as a result of resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by ''Plasmodium falciparum''.", "Eradication was abandoned in 1969 and attention instead focused on controlling and treating the disease.", "Spraying programs (especially using DDT) were curtailed due to concerns over safety and environmental effects, as well as problems in administrative, managerial and financial implementation.", "Efforts shifted from spraying to the use of bednets impregnated with insecticides and other interventions.===United States ban===By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States, used both as an agricultural pesticide and as a household insecticide.", "Although its use was promoted by government and the agricultural industry, US scientists such as FDA pharmacologist Herbert O. Calvery expressed concern over possible hazards associated with DDT as early as 1944.In 1947, Bradbury Robinson, a physician and nutritionist practicing in St. Louis, Michigan, warned of the dangers of using the pesticide DDT in agriculture.", "DDT had been researched and manufactured in St. Louis by the Michigan Chemical Corporation, later purchased by Velsicol Chemical Corporation, and had become an important part of the local economy.", "Citing research performed by Michigan State University in 1946, Robinson, a past president of the local Conservation Club, opined that:As its production and use increased, public response was mixed.", "At the same time that DDT was hailed as part of the \"world of tomorrow\", concerns were expressed about its potential to kill harmless and beneficial insects (particularly pollinators), birds, fish, and eventually humans.", "The issue of toxicity was complicated, partly because DDT's effects varied from species to species, and partly because consecutive exposures could accumulate, causing damage comparable to large doses.", "A number of states attempted to regulate DDT.", "In the 1950s the federal government began tightening regulations governing its use.", "These events received little attention.", "Women like Dorothy Colson and Mamie Ella Plyler of Claxton, Georgia gathered evidence about DDT's effects and wrote to the Georgia Department of Public Health, the National Health Council in New York City, and other organizations.In 1957 ''The New York Times'' reported an unsuccessful struggle to restrict DDT use in Nassau County, New York, and the issue came to the attention of the popular naturalist-author Rachel Carson when a friend, Olga Huckins, wrote to her including an article she had written in the Boston Globe about the devastation of her local bird population after DDT spraying.", "William Shawn, editor of ''The New Yorker'', urged her to write a piece on the subject, which developed into her 1962 book ''Silent Spring''.", "The book argued that pesticides, including DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and were endangering human health.", "''Silent Spring'' was a best seller, and public reaction to it launched the modern environmental movement in the United States.", "The year after it appeared, President John F. Kennedy ordered his Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims.", "The committee's report \"added up to a fairly thorough-going vindication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring thesis\", in the words of the journal ''Science'', and recommended a phaseout of \"persistent toxic pesticides\".", "In 1965, the U.S. military removed DDT from the military supply system due in part to the development of resistance by body lice to DDT; it was replaced by lindane.DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements, and in 1967 a group of scientists and lawyers founded Environmental Defense (later Environmental Defense Fund, EDF) with the specific goal of enacting a ban on DDT.", "Victor Yannacone, Charles Wurster, Art Cooley and others in the group had all witnessed bird kills or declines in bird populations and suspected that DDT was the cause.", "In their campaign against the chemical, the EDF petitioned the government for a ban and filed lawsuits.", "Around this time, toxicologist David Peakall was measuring DDE levels in the eggs of peregrine falcons and California condors and finding that increased levels corresponded with thinner shells.In response to an EDF suit, the U.S. District Court of Appeals in 1971 ordered the EPA to begin the de-registration procedure for DDT.", "After an initial six-month review process, William Ruckelshaus, the Agency's first Administrator rejected an immediate suspension of DDT's registration, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff stating that DDT was not an imminent danger.", "However, these findings were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the United States Department of Agriculture, who many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and understated concerns about human health and wildlife.", "The decision thus created controversy.The EPA held seven months of hearings in 1971–1972, with scientists giving evidence for and against DDT.", "In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced the cancellation of most uses of DDT exempting public health uses under some conditions.", "Again, this caused controversy.", "Immediately after the announcement, both the EDF and the DDT manufacturers filed suit against EPA.", "Many in the agricultural community were concerned that food production would be severely impacted, while proponents of pesticides warned of increased breakouts of insect-borne diseases and questioned the accuracy of giving animals high amounts of pesticides for cancer potential.", "Industry sought to overturn the ban, while the EDF wanted a comprehensive ban.", "The cases were consolidated, and in 1973 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit ruled that the EPA had acted properly in banning DDT.", "During the late 1970s, the EPA also began banning organochlorines, pesticides that were chemically similar to DDT.", "These included aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, texaphene, and mirex.Some uses of DDT continued under the public health exemption.", "For example, in June 1979, the California Department of Health Services was permitted to use DDT to suppress flea vectors of bubonic plague.", "DDT continued to be produced in the United States for foreign markets until 1985, when over 300 tons were exported.===International usage restrictions===In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries, beginning with Hungary in 1968 although in practice it continued to be used through at least 1970.This was followed by Norway and Sweden in 1970, West Germany and the United States in 1972, but not in the United Kingdom until 1984.In contrast to West Germany, in the German Democratic Republic DDT was used until 1988.Especially of relevance were large-scale applications in forestry in the years 1982–1984, with the aim to combat bark beetle and pine moth.", "As a consequence, DDT-concentrations in eastern German forest soils are still significantly higher compared to soils in the former western German states.By 1991, total bans, including for disease control, were in place in at least 26 countries; for example, Cuba in 1970, the US in the 1980s, Singapore in 1984, Chile in 1985, and the Republic of Korea in 1986.The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which took effect in 2004, put a global ban on several persistent organic pollutants, and restricted DDT use to vector control.", "The convention was ratified by more than 170 countries.", "Recognizing that total elimination in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible in the absence of affordable/effective alternatives, the convention exempts public health use within World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines from the ban.", "Resolution 60.18 of the World Health Assembly commits WHO to the Stockholm Convention's aim of reducing and ultimately eliminating DDT.", "Malaria Foundation International states, \"The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations.", "For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before.", "\"Despite the worldwide ban, agricultural use continued in India, North Korea, and possibly elsewhere.", "As of 2013, an estimated 3,000 to 4,000 tons of DDT were produced for disease vector control, including 2,786 tons in India.", "DDT is applied to the inside walls of homes to kill or repel mosquitoes.", "This intervention, called indoor residual spraying (IRS), greatly reduces environmental damage.", "It also reduces the incidence of DDT resistance.", "For comparison, treating of cotton during a typical U.S. growing season requires the same amount of chemical to treat roughly 1,700 homes." ], [ "Environmental impact", "Degradation of DDT to form DDE (by elimination of HCl, left) and DDD (by reductive dechlorination, right)DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and sediments, which can act both as sinks and as long-term sources of exposure affecting organisms.", "Depending on environmental conditions, its soil half-life can range from 22 days to 30 years.", "Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation.", "Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are absorbed by aquatic organisms and adsorbed on suspended particles, leaving little DDT dissolved in the water (however, its half-life in aquatic environments is listed by the National Pesticide Information Center as 150 years).", "Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.", "DDT and its breakdown products are transported from warmer areas to the Arctic by the phenomenon of global distillation, where they then accumulate in the region's food web.Medical researchers in 1974 found a measurable and significant difference in the presence of DDT in human milk between mothers who lived in New Brunswick and mothers who lived in Nova Scotia, \"possibly because of the wider use of insecticide sprays in the past\".Because of its lipophilic properties, DDT can bioaccumulate, especially in predatory birds.", "DDT is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such as crayfish, daphnids, sea shrimp and many species of fish.", "DDT, DDE and DDD magnify through the food chain, with apex predators such as raptor birds concentrating more chemicals than other animals in the same environment.", "They are stored mainly in body fat.", "DDT and DDE are resistant to metabolism; in humans, their half-lives are 6 and up to 10 years, respectively.", "In the United States, these chemicals were detected in almost all human blood samples tested by the Centers for Disease Control in 2005, though their levels have sharply declined since most uses were banned.", "Estimated dietary intake has declined, although FDA food tests commonly detect it.Despite being banned for many years, in 2018 research showed that DDT residues are still present in European soils and Spanish rivers.===Eggshell thinning===The chemical and its breakdown products DDE and DDD caused eggshell thinning and population declines in multiple North American and European bird of prey species.", "Both laboratory experiments and field studies confirmed this effect.", "The effect was first conclusively proven at Bellow Island in Lake Michigan during University of Michigan-funded studies on American herring gulls in the mid-1960s.", "DDE-related eggshell thinning is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle, brown pelican, peregrine falcon and osprey.", "However, birds vary in their sensitivity to these chemicals, with birds of prey, waterfowl and song birds being more susceptible than chickens and related species.", "Even in 2010, California condors that feed on sea lions at Big Sur that in turn feed in the Palos Verdes Shelf area of the Montrose Chemical Superfund site exhibited continued thin-shell problems, though DDT's role in the decline of the California condor is disputed.The biological thinning mechanism is not entirely understood, but DDE appears to be more potent than DDT, and strong evidence indicates that ''p'',''p''-DDE inhibits calcium ATPase in the membrane of the shell gland and reduces the transport of calcium carbonate from blood into the eggshell gland.", "This results in a dose-dependent thickness reduction.", "Other evidence indicates that o,p'-DDT disrupts female reproductive tract development, later impairing eggshell quality.", "Multiple mechanisms may be at work, or different mechanisms may operate in different species." ], [ "Human health", "A U.S. soldier is demonstrating DDT hand-spraying equipment.", "DDT was used to control the spread of typhus-carrying lice.Spraying hospital beds with DDT, PAIGC hospital of Ziguinchor, 1973Biomagnification is the build up of toxins in a food chain.", "The DDT concentration is in parts per million.", "As the trophic level increases in a food chain, the amount of toxic build up also increases.", "The X's represent the amount of toxic build up accumulating as the trophic level increases.", "Toxins build up in organism's tissues and fat.", "Predators accumulate higher toxins than the prey.DDT is an endocrine disruptor.", "It is considered likely to be a human carcinogen although the majority of studies suggest it is not directly genotoxic.", "DDE acts as a weak androgen receptor antagonist, but not as an estrogen.", "''p'',''p''-DDT, DDT's main component, has little or no androgenic or estrogenic activity.", "The minor component ''o'',''p''-DDT has weak estrogenic activity.===Acute toxicity===DDT is classified as \"moderately toxic\" by the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) and \"moderately hazardous\" by WHO, based on the rat oral of 113 mg/kg.", "Indirect exposure is considered relatively non-toxic for humans.=== Chronic toxicity ===Primarily through the tendency for DDT to build up in areas of the body with high lipid content, chronic exposure can affect reproductive capabilities and the embryo or fetus.", "* A review article in ''The Lancet'' states: \"research has shown that exposure to DDT at amounts that would be needed in malaria control might cause preterm birth and early weaning ... toxicological evidence shows endocrine-disrupting properties; human data also indicate possible disruption in semen quality, menstruation, gestational length, and duration of lactation\".", "* Other studies document decreases in semen quality among men with high exposures (generally from indoor residual spraying).", "* Studies are inconsistent on whether high blood DDT or DDE levels increase time to pregnancy.", "In mothers with high DDE blood serum levels, daughters may have up to a 32% increase in the probability of conceiving, but increased DDT levels have been associated with a 16% decrease in one study.", "* Indirect exposure of mothers through workers directly in contact with DDT is associated with an increase in spontaneous abortions.", "* Other studies found that DDT or DDE interfere with proper thyroid function in pregnancy and childhood.", "* Mothers with high levels of DDT circulating in their blood during pregnancy were found to be more likely to give birth to children who would go on to develop autism.=== Carcinogenicity ===In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer classified DDT as Group 2A \"probably carcinogenic to humans\".", "Previous assessments by the U.S. National Toxicology Program classified it as \"reasonably anticipated to be a carcinogen\" and by the EPA classified DDT, DDE and DDD as class B2 \"probable\" carcinogens; these evaluations were based mainly on animal studies.", "A 2005 Lancet review stated that occupational DDT exposure was associated with increased pancreatic cancer risk in 2 case control studies, but another study showed no DDE dose-effect association.", "Results regarding a possible association with liver cancer and biliary tract cancer are conflicting: workers who did not have direct occupational DDT contact showed increased risk.", "White men had an increased risk, but not white women or black men.", "Results about an association with multiple myeloma, prostate and testicular cancer, endometrial cancer and colorectal cancer have been inconclusive or generally do not support an association.", "A 2017 review of liver cancer studies concluded that \"organochlorine pesticides, including DDT, may increase hepatocellular carcinoma risk\".A 2009 review, whose co-authors included persons engaged in DDT-related litigation, reached broadly similar conclusions, with an equivocal association with testicular cancer.", "Case–control studies did not support an association with leukemia or lymphoma.====Breast cancer====The question of whether DDT or DDE are risk factors in breast cancer has not been conclusively answered.", "Several meta analyses of observational studies have concluded that there is no overall relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer risk.", "The United States Institute of Medicine reviewed data on the association of breast cancer with DDT exposure in 2012 and concluded that a causative relationship could neither be proven nor disproven.A 2007 case-control study using archived blood samples found that breast cancer risk was increased 5-fold among women who were born prior to 1931 and who had high serum DDT levels in 1963.Reasoning that DDT use became widespread in 1945 and peaked around 1950, they concluded that the ages of 14–20 were a critical period in which DDT exposure leads to increased risk.", "This study, which suggests a connection between DDT exposure and breast cancer that would not be picked up by most studies, has received variable commentary in third-party reviews.", "One review suggested that \"previous studies that measured exposure in older women may have missed the critical period\".", "The National Toxicology Program notes that while the majority of studies have not found a relationship between DDT exposure and breast cancer that positive associations have been seen in a \"few studies among women with higher levels of exposure and among certain subgroups of women\".A 2015 case control study identified a link (odds ratio 3.4) between ''in-utero'' exposure (as estimated from archived maternal blood samples) and breast cancer diagnosis in daughters.", "The findings \"support classification of DDT as an endocrine disruptor, a predictor of breast cancer, and a marker of high risk\"." ], [ "Malaria control{{anchor\|Use_against_malaria}}", "Malaria remains the primary public health challenge in many countries.", "In 2015, there were 214 million cases of malaria worldwide resulting in an estimated 438,000 deaths, 90% of which occurred in Africa.", "DDT is one of many tools to fight the disease.", "Its use in this context has been called everything from a \"miracle weapon that is like Kryptonite to the mosquitoes\", to \"toxic colonialism\".Before DDT, eliminating mosquito breeding grounds by drainage or poisoning with Paris green or pyrethrum was sometimes successful.", "In parts of the world with rising living standards, the elimination of malaria was often a collateral benefit of the introduction of window screens and improved sanitation.", "A variety of usually simultaneous interventions represents best practice.", "These include antimalarial drugs to prevent or treat infection; improvements in public health infrastructure to diagnose, sequester and treat infected individuals; bednets and other methods intended to keep mosquitoes from biting humans; and vector control strategies such as larvaciding with insecticides, ecological controls such as draining mosquito breeding grounds or introducing fish to eat larvae and indoor residual spraying (IRS) with insecticides, possibly including DDT.", "IRS involves the treatment of interior walls and ceilings with insecticides.", "It is particularly effective against mosquitoes, since many species rest on an indoor wall before or after feeding.", "DDT is one of 12 WHO–approved IRS insecticides.The WHO's anti-malaria campaign of the 1950s and 1960s relied heavily on DDT and the results were promising, though temporary in developing countries.", "Experts tie malarial resurgence to multiple factors, including poor leadership, management and funding of malaria control programs; poverty; civil unrest; and increased irrigation.", "The evolution of resistance to first-generation drugs (e.g.", "chloroquine) and to insecticides exacerbated the situation.", "Resistance was largely fueled by unrestricted agricultural use.", "Resistance and the harm both to humans and the environment led many governments to curtail DDT use in vector control and agriculture.", "In 2006 WHO reversed a longstanding policy against DDT by recommending that it be used as an indoor pesticide in regions where malaria is a major problem.Once the mainstay of anti-malaria campaigns, as of 2019 only five countries used DDT for Indoor Residual Spraying ===Initial effectiveness===When it was introduced in World War II, DDT was effective in reducing malaria morbidity and mortality.", "WHO's anti-malaria campaign, which consisted mostly of spraying DDT and rapid treatment and diagnosis to break the transmission cycle, was initially successful as well.", "For example, in Sri Lanka, the program reduced cases from about one million per year before spraying to just 18 in 1963 and 29 in 1964.Thereafter the program was halted to save money and malaria rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969.The country resumed DDT vector control but the mosquitoes had evolved resistance in the interim, presumably because of continued agricultural use.", "The program switched to malathion, but despite initial successes, malaria continued its resurgence into the 1980s.DDT remains on WHO's list of insecticides recommended for IRS.", "After the appointment of Arata Kochi as head of its anti-malaria division, WHO's policy shifted from recommending IRS only in areas of seasonal or episodic transmission of malaria, to advocating it in areas of continuous, intense transmission.", "WHO reaffirmed its commitment to phasing out DDT, aiming \"to achieve a 30% cut in the application of DDT world-wide by 2014 and its total phase-out by the early 2020s if not sooner\" while simultaneously combating malaria.", "WHO plans to implement alternatives to DDT to achieve this goal.South Africa continues to use DDT under WHO guidelines.", "In 1996, the country switched to alternative insecticides and malaria incidence increased dramatically.", "Returning to DDT and introducing new drugs brought malaria back under control.", "Malaria cases increased in South America after countries in that continent stopped using DDT.", "Research data showed a strong negative relationship between DDT residual house sprayings and malaria.", "In a research from 1993 to 1995, Ecuador increased its use of DDT and achieved a 61% reduction in malaria rates, while each of the other countries that gradually decreased its DDT use had large increases.===Mosquito resistance===In some areas, resistance reduced DDT's effectiveness.", "WHO guidelines require that absence of resistance must be confirmed before using the chemical.", "Resistance is largely due to agricultural use, in much greater quantities than required for disease prevention.Resistance was noted early in spray campaigns.", "Paul Russell, former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign, observed in 1956 that \"resistance has appeared after six or seven years\".", "Resistance has been detected in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkey and Central America and it has largely been replaced by organophosphate or carbamate insecticides, e.g.", "malathion or bendiocarb.In many parts of India, DDT is ineffective.", "Agricultural uses were banned in 1989 and its anti-malarial use has been declining.", "Urban use ended.", "One study concluded that \"DDT is still a viable insecticide in indoor residual spraying owing to its effectivity in well supervised spray operation and high excito-repellency factor.", "\"Studies of malaria-vector mosquitoes in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa found susceptibility to 4% DDT (WHO's susceptibility standard), in 63% of the samples, compared to the average of 87% in the same species caught in the open.", "The authors concluded that \"Finding DDT resistance in the vector ''An.", "arabiensis'', close to the area where we previously reported pyrethroid-resistance in the vector ''An.", "funestus'' Giles, indicates an urgent need to develop a strategy of insecticide resistance management for the malaria control programmes of southern Africa.", "\"DDT can still be effective against resistant mosquitoes and the avoidance of DDT-sprayed walls by mosquitoes is an additional benefit of the chemical.", "For example, a 2007 study reported that resistant mosquitoes avoided treated huts.", "The researchers argued that DDT was the best pesticide for use in IRS (even though it did not afford the most protection from mosquitoes out of the three test chemicals) because the other pesticides worked primarily by killing or irritating mosquitoes – encouraging the development of resistance.", "Others argue that the avoidance behavior slows eradication.", "Unlike other insecticides such as pyrethroids, DDT requires long exposure to accumulate a lethal dose; however its irritant property shortens contact periods.", "\"For these reasons, when comparisons have been made, better malaria control has generally been achieved with pyrethroids than with DDT.\"", "In India outdoor sleeping and night duties are common, implying that \"the excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission\".===Residents' concerns===IRS is effective if at least 80% of homes and barns in a residential area are sprayed.", "Lower coverage rates can jeopardize program effectiveness.", "Many residents resist DDT spraying, objecting to the lingering smell, stains on walls, and the potential exacerbation of problems with other insect pests.", "Pyrethroid insecticides (e.g.", "deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin) can overcome some of these issues, increasing participation.===Human exposure===A 1994 study found that South Africans living in sprayed homes have levels that are several orders of magnitude greater than others.", "Breast milk from South African mothers contains high levels of DDT and DDE.", "It is unclear to what extent these levels arise from home spraying vs food residues.", "Evidence indicates that these levels are associated with infant neurological abnormalities.Most studies of DDT's human health effects have been conducted in developed countries where DDT is not used and exposure is relatively low.Illegal diversion to agriculture is also a concern as it is difficult to prevent and its subsequent use on crops is uncontrolled.", "For example, DDT use is widespread in Indian agriculture, particularly mango production and is reportedly used by librarians to protect books.", "Other examples include Ethiopia, where DDT intended for malaria control is reportedly used in coffee production, and Ghana where it is used for fishing.", "The residues in crops at levels unacceptable for export have been an important factor in bans in several tropical countries.", "Adding to this problem is a lack of skilled personnel and management.===Criticism of restrictions on DDT use===Restrictions on DDT usage have been criticized by some organizations opposed to the environmental movement, including Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria and the libertarian think tank Competitive Enterprise Institute; these sources oppose restrictions on DDT and attribute large numbers of deaths to such restrictions, sometimes in the millions.", "These arguments were rejected as \"outrageous\" by former WHO scientist Socrates Litsios.", "May Berenbaum, University of Illinois entomologist, says, \"to blame environmentalists who oppose DDT for more deaths than Hitler is worse than irresponsible\".", "More recently, Michael Palmer, a professor of chemistry at the University of Waterloo, has pointed out that DDT is still used to prevent malaria, that its declining use is primarily due to increases in manufacturing costs, and that in Africa, efforts to control malaria have been regional or local, not comprehensive.Criticisms of a DDT \"ban\" often specifically reference the 1972 United States ban (with the erroneous implication that this constituted a worldwide ban and prohibited use of DDT in vector control).", "Reference is often made to ''Silent Spring'', even though Carson never pushed for a DDT ban.", "John Quiggin and Tim Lambert wrote, \"the most striking feature of the claim against Carson is the ease with which it can be refuted\".Investigative journalist Adam Sarvana and others characterize these notions as \"myths\" promoted principally by Roger Bate of the pro-DDT advocacy group Africa Fighting Malaria (AFM).===Alternatives=======Insecticides====Organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, e.g.", "malathion and bendiocarb, respectively, are more expensive than DDT per kilogram and are applied at roughly the same dosage.", "Pyrethroids such as deltamethrin are also more expensive than DDT, but are applied more sparingly (0.02–0.3 g/m2 vs 1–2 g/m2), so the net cost per house per treatment is about the same.", "DDT has one of the longest residual efficacy periods of any IRS insecticide, lasting 6 to 12 months.", "Pyrethroids will remain active for only 4 to 6 months, and organophosphates and carbamates remain active for 2 to 6 months.", "In many malaria-endemic countries, malaria transmission occurs year-round, meaning that the high expense of conducting a spray campaign (including hiring spray operators, procuring insecticides, and conducting pre-spray outreach campaigns to encourage people to be home and to accept the intervention) will need to occur multiple times per year for these shorter-lasting insecticides.In 2019, the related compound difluorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DFDT) was described as a potentially more effective and therefore potentially safer alternative to DDT.====Non-chemical vector control====Before DDT, malaria was successfully eliminated or curtailed in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning mosquito breeding grounds and larva habitats, for example by eliminating standing water.", "These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century.", "According to CDC, such methods are not practical in Africa because \"''Anopheles gambiae'', one of the primary vectors of malaria in Africa, breeds in numerous small pools of water that form due to rainfall ...", "It is difficult, if not impossible, to predict when and where the breeding sites will form, and to find and treat them before the adults emerge.", "\"The relative effectiveness of IRS versus other malaria control techniques (e.g.", "bednets or prompt access to anti-malarial drugs) varies and is dependent on local conditions.A WHO study released in January 2008 found that mass distribution of insecticide-treated mosquito nets and artemisinin–based drugs cut malaria deaths in half in malaria-burdened Rwanda and Ethiopia.", "IRS with DDT did not play an important role in mortality reduction in these countries.Vietnam has enjoyed declining malaria cases and a 97% mortality reduction after switching in 1991 from a poorly funded DDT-based campaign to a program based on prompt treatment, bednets and pyrethroid group insecticides.In Mexico, effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies were so successful that the Mexican DDT manufacturing plant ceased production due to lack of demand.A review of fourteen studies in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine and changing front–line drug treatment, found decision making limited by the lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the small number of cost-effectiveness analyses, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures.", "The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programs.However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying (US$1.87) to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambda-cyhalothrin–treated nets (US$1.54), casting some doubt on the assumption that DDT was the most cost-effective measure.", "The director of Mexico's malaria control program found similar results, declaring that it was 25% cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with synthetic pyrethroids than with DDT.", "However, another study in South Africa found generally lower costs for DDT spraying than for impregnated nets.A more comprehensive approach to measuring the cost-effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars, as well as the number of people saved, but would also consider ecological damage and negative human health impacts.", "One preliminary study found that it is likely that the detriment to human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in epidemics.", "It is similar to the earlier study regarding estimated theoretical infant mortality caused by DDT and subject to the criticism also mentioned earlier.A study in the Solomon Islands found that \"although impregnated bed nets cannot entirely replace DDT spraying without substantial increase in incidence, their use permits reduced DDT spraying\".A comparison of four successful programs against malaria in Brazil, India, Eritrea and Vietnam does not endorse any single strategy but instead states, \"Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing.", "\"DDT resistant mosquitoes may be susceptible to pyrethroids in some countries.", "However, pyrethroid resistance in ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes is on the rise with resistant mosquitoes found in multiple countries." ], [ "See also", "* Insecticide* DDT in New Zealand* Operation Cat Drop* Biomagnification* Environmental hazard* Index of pesticide articles Pest control Pesticide Pesticide residue Pesticide standard value** WHO Pesticide Evaluation Scheme* Mosquito control" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Berry-Cabán, Cristóbal S. \"DDT and silent spring: fifty years after\".", "''Journal of Military and Veterans' Health'' 19 (2011): 19–24.online* Conis, Elena.", "\"Debating the health effects of DDT: Thomas Jukes, Charles Wurster, and the fate of an environmental pollutant\".", "''Public Health Reports'' 125.2 (2010): 337–342.online* Davis, Frederick Rowe.", "\"Pesticides and the perils of synecdoche in the history of science and environmental history\".", "''History of Science'' 57.4 (2019): 469–492.", "* \"DDT Banning\" in Richard L. Wilson, ed.", "''Historical Encyclopedia of American Business'', Vol I.", "Accounting Industry – Google, (Salem Press: 2009) p. 223 .", "* Dunlap, Thomas, ed.", "''DDT, Silent Spring, and the Rise of Environmentalism'' (University of Washington Press, 2008).", "* Dunlap, Thomas, ed.", "''DDT, Silent Spring, and the Rise of Environmentalism: Classic texts'' (University of Washington Press, 2015).", ".", "* * Kinkela, David.", "''DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide That Changed the World'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2011).", ".", "* Morris, Peter J. T. (2019).", "\"Chapter 9: A Tale of Two Nations: DDT in the United States and the United Kingdom\".", "''Hazardous Chemicals: Agents of Risk and Change, 1800–2000''.", "Environment in History: International Perspectives 17.Berghahn Books.", "294–327.", "(book: ; )." ], [ "External links", ";Chemistry* DDT at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham);Toxicity* * * Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site – DDT* Interview with Barbara Cohn, PhD about DDT and breast cancer* Pesticide residues in food 2000 : DDT;Politics and DDT* * ;Malaria and DDT* * 'Andrew Spielman, Harvard School of Public Health, discusses environmentally friendly control of Malaria and uses of DDT Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust* ;DDT in popular culture* * Phil Allegretti Pesticide Collection consisting of ephemera and 3-D objects, including cans, sprayers, and diffusers, related to DDT pesticide and insecticide in the United States in the mid-20th century (all images freely available for download in variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections at digital.sciencehistory.org)." ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Data set" ], [ "Introduction", "''Iris'' flower data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936).A '''data set''' (or '''dataset''') is a collection of data.", "In the case of tabular data, a data set corresponds to one or more database tables, where every column of a table represents a particular variable, and each row corresponds to a given record of the data set in question.", "The data set lists values for each of the variables, such as for example height and weight of an object, for each member of the data set.", "Data sets can also consist of a collection of documents or files.In the open data discipline, data set is the unit to measure the information released in a public open data repository.", "The European data.europa.eu portal aggregates more than a million data sets." ], [ "Properties", "Several characteristics define a data set's structure and properties.", "These include the number and types of the attributes or variables, and various statistical measures applicable to them, such as standard deviation and kurtosis.The values may be numbers, such as real numbers or integers, for example representing a person's height in centimeters, but may also be nominal data (i.e., not consisting of numerical values), for example representing a person's ethnicity.", "More generally, values may be of any of the kinds described as a level of measurement.", "For each variable, the values are normally all of the same kind.", "Missing values may exist, which must be indicated somehow.In statistics, data sets usually come from actual observations obtained by sampling a statistical population, and each row corresponds to the observations on one element of that population.", "Data sets may further be generated by algorithms for the purpose of testing certain kinds of software.", "Some modern statistical analysis software such as SPSS still present their data in the classical data set fashion.", "If data is missing or suspicious an imputation method may be used to complete a data set." ], [ "Classics", "Several classic data sets have been used extensively in the statistical literature:* Iris flower data set – Multivariate data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936).", "Provided online by University of California-Irvine Machine Learning Repository.", "* MNIST database – Images of handwritten digits commonly used to test classification, clustering, and image processing algorithms* ''Categorical data analysis'' – Data sets used in the book, ''An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis'', provided online by UCLA Advanced Research Computing.", "''Robust statistics'' – Data sets used in ''Robust Regression and Outlier Detection'' (Rousseeuw and Leroy, 1968).", "Provided online at the University of Cologne.", "''Time series'' – Data used in Chatfield's book, ''The Analysis of Time Series'', are provided on-line by StatLib.", "''Extreme values'' – Data used in the book, ''An Introduction to the Statistical Modeling of Extreme Values'' are a snapshot of the data as it was provided on-line by Stuart Coles, the book's author.", "''Bayesian Data Analysis'' – Data used in the book are provided on-line ( archive link) by Andrew Gelman, one of the book's authors.", "* The Bupa liver data – Used in several papers in the machine learning (data mining) literature.", "* Anscombe's quartet – Small data set illustrating the importance of graphing the data to avoid statistical fallacies" ], [ "See also", "* Data blending* Data (computing)* Data sample* Data store* Interoperability* Data collection system* List of datasets for machine-learning research" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Data.gov – the U.S. Government's open data* GCMD – the Global Change Master Directory containing over 34,000 descriptions of Earth science and environmental science data sets and services* Humanitarian Data Exchange(HDX) – The Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX) is an open humanitarian data sharing platform managed by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.", "* NYC Open Data – free public data published by New York City agencies and other partners.", "* Relational data set repository * Research Pipeline – a wiki/website with links to data sets on many different topics* StatLib–JASA Data Archive* UCI – a machine learning repository* UK Government Public Data* World Bank Open Data – Free and open access to global development data by World Bank" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DMA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''DMA''' may refer to:" ], [ "Arts", "* ''DMA'' (magazine), a defunct dance music magazine* Dallas Museum of Art, an art museum in Texas, US* Danish Music Awards, an award show held in Denmark* BT Digital Music Awards, an annual event in the UK* Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree* Detroit Music Awards, an award show held in Michigan, US* DMA's, an Australian alternative rock band" ], [ "Organisations", "* DMA Design, now Rockstar North, a video game developer in Edinburgh, Scotland* Danish Medical Association* Derbyshire Miners' Association, England* Data & Marketing Association, formerly Direct Marketing Association* Durham Miners' Association, a trade union* Disney Movies Anywhere===Education===* DMA eV, ('''') an academic association for German and Moroccan graduates in Hanover, Germany* Delaware Military Academy, US* Digital Media Academy, US===Government and military===* Davis–Monthan Air Force Base (IATA airport code), near Tucson, Arizona, US* Defense Mapping Agency, a former agency of the US Department of Defense* Defense Media Activity, an organization of the US Department of Defense* Department of Military Affairs, India" ], [ "Places", "* Dominica (IOC code) * Dublin Metropolitan Area, an Irish jurisdiction" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Dynamic mechanical analysis of a polymer's viscoelasticity===Chemistry===* Delmadinone acetate, a progestin and antigonadotropin used as an antiandrogen* Dimethandrolone, an anabolic–androgenic steroid* Dimethoxyamphetamine, a psychedelic phenethylamine* Dimethylacetamide, an organic solvent* Dimethylamine* Dimethylaniline* Distributed multipole analysis, a method describing the charge distribution of a molecule* Dimethylarsinic acid===Computing===* Direct memory access* Dragonfly Mail Agent* Dynamic Memory Allocation* Dynamic Microprocessor Associates, developer of pcAnywhere" ], [ "Other uses", "* Designated Market Area, a region where the population can receive the same media offeringsDigital Markets Act, a regulation that targets the largest digital platforms operating in the European Union Direct market access, used in financial marketsPeugeot DMA, a historical light van and pickup truck" ], [ "See also", "" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" ], [ "Introduction", " 1952 edition of the DSM (DSM-1)The '''''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders''''' ('''''DSM'''''; latest edition: ''DSM-5-TR'', published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a common language and standard criteria.", "It is the main book for the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders in the United States and Australia, while in other countries it may be used in conjunction with other documents.", "The DSM-5 is considered one of the principal guides of psychiatry, along with the International Classification of Diseases ICD, CCMD, and the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual.", "However, not all providers rely on the DSM-5 as a guide, since the ICD's mental disorder diagnoses are used around the world and scientific studies often measure changes in symptom scale scores rather than changes in DSM-5 criteria to determine the real-world effects of mental health interventions.It is used by researchers, psychiatric drug regulation agencies, health insurance companies, pharmaceutical companies, the legal system, and policymakers.", "Some mental health professionals use the manual to determine and help communicate a patient's diagnosis after an evaluation.", "Hospitals, clinics, and insurance companies in the United States may require a DSM diagnosis for all patients with mental disorders.", "Health-care researchers use the DSM to categorize patients for research purposes.The DSM evolved from systems for collecting census and psychiatric hospital statistics, as well as from a United States Army manual.", "Revisions since its first publication in 1952 have incrementally added to the total number of mental disorders, while removing those no longer considered to be mental disorders.Recent editions of the DSM have received praise for standardizing psychiatric diagnosis grounded in empirical evidence, as opposed to the theory-bound nosology (the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases) used in DSM-III.", "However, it has also generated controversy and criticism, including ongoing questions concerning the reliability and validity of many diagnoses; the use of arbitrary dividing lines between mental illness and \"normality\"; possible cultural bias; and the medicalization of human distress.", "The APA itself has published that the inter-rater reliability is low for many disorders in the DSM-5, including major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder." ], [ "Distinction from ICD", "An alternate, widely used classification publication is the ''International Classification of Diseases'' (ICD) is produced by the World Health Organization (WHO).", "The ICD has a broader scope than the DSM, covering overall health as well as mental health; chapter 5 of the ICD specifically covers mental and behavioral disorders.", "Moreover, while the DSM is the most popular diagnostic system for mental disorders in the US, the ICD is used more widely in Europe and other parts of the world, giving it a far larger reach than the DSM.", "An international survey of psychiatrists in sixty-six countries compared the use of the ICD-10 and DSM-IV.", "It found the former was more often used for clinical diagnosis while the latter was more valued for research.", "This may be because the DSM tends to put more emphasis on clear diagnostic criteria, while the ICD tends to put more emphasis on clinician judgement and avoiding diagnostic criteria unless they are independently validated.", "That is, the ICD descriptions of psychiatric disorders tend to be more qualitative information, such as general descriptions of what various disorders tend to look like.", "The DSM focuses more on quantitative and operationalized criteria; e.g.", "to be diagnosed with X disorder, one must fulfill 5 of 9 criteria for at least 6 months.The DSM-IV-TR (4th ed.)", "contains specific codes allowing comparisons between the DSM and the ICD manuals, which may not systematically match because revisions are not simultaneously coordinated.", "Though recent editions of the DSM and ICD have become more similar due to collaborative agreements, each one contains information absent from the other.", "For instance, the two manuals contain overlapping but substantially different lists of recognized culture-bound syndromes.", "The ICD also tends to focus more on primary-care and low and middle-income countries, as opposed to the DSM's focus on secondary psychiatric care in high-income countries." ], [ "Antecedents (1840–1949)", "===Census Office, AMA and ISI (1840–1911)===The initial impetus for developing a classification of mental disorders in the United States was the need to collect statistical information.", "The first official attempt was the 1840 census, which used a single category: \"idiocy/insanity\".", "Three years later, the American Statistical Association made an official protest to the U.S. House of Representatives, stating that \"the most glaring and remarkable errors are found in the statements respecting nosology, prevalence of insanity, blindness, deafness, and dumbness, among the people of this nation\", pointing out that in many towns African Americans were all marked as insane, and calling the statistics essentially useless.The Association of Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the Insane (\"The Superintendents' Association\") was formed in 1844.In 1860, during the international statistical congress held in London, Florence Nightingale made a proposal that was to result in the development of the first international model of systematic collection of hospital data.In 1872, the American Medical Association (AMA) published its ''Nomenclature of Diseases'', which included various \"Disorders of the Intellect\".", "Its use was short-lived however.Edward Jarvis and later Francis Amasa Walker helped expand the census, from two volumes in 1870 to twenty-five volumes in 1880.In 1888, the Census Office published Frederick H. Wines' 582-page volume called ''Report on the Defective, Dependent, and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, As Returned at the Tenth Census (June 1, 1880)''.", "Wines used seven categories of mental illness, which were also adopted by the Superintendents: dementia, dipsomania (uncontrollable craving for alcohol), epilepsy, mania, melancholia, monomania, and paresis.In 1892, the Superintendents' Association expanded its membership to include other mental health workers, and renamed to the American Medico-Psychological Association (AMPA).In 1893, a French physician, Jacques Bertillon, introduced the ''Bertillon Classification of Causes of Death'' at a congress of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in Chicago.", "(The ISI had commissioned him to create it in 1891).", "A number of countries adopted the ISI's system.", "In 1898, the American Public Health Association (APHA) recommended that United States registrars also adopt the system.In 1900, an ISI conference in Paris reformed the Bertillion Classification, and created the ''International List of Causes of Death'' (ILCD)''.''", "Another conference would be held every ten years, and a new edition of the ILCD would be released.", "Five were ultimately issued.", "Non-fatal conditions were not included.In 1903, New York's Bellevue Hospital published \"The Bellevue Hospital nomenclature of diseases and conditions\", which included a section on \"Diseases of the Mind\".", "Revisions were released in 1909 and 1911.It was produced with the assistance of the AMA and Bureau of the Census.===APA Statistical Manual (1917) and AMA Standard (1933)===In 1917, together with the National Commission on Mental Hygiene (now Mental Health America), the American Medico-Psychological Association developed a new guide for mental hospitals called the ''Statistical Manual for the Use of Institutions for the Insane''.", "This guide included twenty-two diagnoses.", "It would be revised several times by the Association, and by the tenth edition in 1942, was titled ''Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases''.In 1921, the AMPA became the present American Psychiatric Association (APA).The first edition of the DSM notes in its foreword: \"In the late twenties, each large teaching center employed a system of its own origination, no one of which met more than the immediate needs of the local institution.", "\"In 1933, the AMA's general medical guide the ''Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease'', (referred to as the ''Standard),'' was released.", "Along with the New York Academy of Medicine, the APA provided the psychiatric nomenclature subsection.", "It became well adopted in the US within two years.", "A major revision of the Statistical Manual was made in 1934, to bring it in line with the new Standard.", "A number of revisions of the Standard were produced, with the last in 1961.===Medical 203 (1945)===World War II saw the large-scale involvement of U.S. psychiatrists in the selection, processing, assessment, and treatment of soldiers.", "This moved the focus away from mental institutions and traditional clinical perspectives.", "The U.S. armed forces initially used the Standard, but found it lacked appropriate categories for many common conditions that troubled troops.", "The United States Navy made some minor revisions but \"the Army established a much more sweeping revision, abandoning the basic outline of the Standard and attempting to express present-day concepts of mental disturbance.", "\"Under the direction of James Forrestal, a committee headed by psychiatrist Brigadier General William C. Menninger, with the assistance of the Mental Hospital Service, developed a new classification scheme in 1944 and 1945.Issued in War Department Technical Bulletin, Medical, 203 (TB MED 203); ''Nomenclature and Method of Recording Diagnoses'' was released shortly after the war in October 1945 under the auspices of the Office of the Surgeon General.", "It was reprinted in the Journal of Clinical Psychology for civilian use in July 1946 with the new title ''Nomenclature of Psychiatric Disorders and Reactions''.", "This system came to be known as \"Medical 203\".This nomenclature eventually was adopted by all the armed forces, and \"assorted modifications of the Armed Forces nomenclature were introduced into many clinics and hospitals by psychiatrists returning from military duty.\"", "The Veterans Administration also adopted a slightly modified version of the standard in 1947.The further developed ''Joint Armed Forces Nomenclature and Method of Recording Psychiatric Conditions'' was released in 1949.===ICD-6 (1948)===In 1948, the newly formed World Health Organization took over the maintenance of the ILCD.", "They greatly expanded it, included non-fatal conditions for the first time, and renamed it the ''International Statistical Classification of Diseases'' (ICD).", "The foreword to the DSM-I states the ICD-6 \"categorized mental disorders in rubrics similar to those of the Armed Forces nomenclature.\"" ], [ "Early versions (20th century)", "===DSM-I (1952)===The APA Committee on Nomenclature and Statistics was empowered to develop a version of Medical 203 specifically for use in the United States, to standardize the diverse and confused usage of different documents.", "In 1950, the APA committee undertook a review and consultation.", "It circulated an adaptation of Medical 203, the ''Standard''s nomenclature, and the VA system's modifications of the ''Standard'' to approximately 10% of APA members.", "46% of members replied, with 93% approving the changes.", "After some further revisions, the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' was approved in 1951 and published in 1952.The structure and conceptual framework were the same as in Medical 203, and many passages of text were identical.", "The manual was 130 pages long and listed 106 mental disorders.", "These included several categories of \"personality disturbance\", generally distinguished from \"neurosis\" (nervousness, egodystonic).The foreword to this edition describes itself as being a continuation of the ''Statistical Manual for the Use of Hospitals of Mental Diseases.''", "Each item was given an ICD-6 equivalent code, where applicable.thumbThe DSM-I centers around three classes of symptoms: psychotic, neurotic, and behavioral.", "Within each class of mental disorder, classifying information is provided to differentiate conditions with similar symptoms.", "Under each broad class of disorder (e.g.", "\"Psychoneurotic Disorders\" or \"Personality Disorders\"), all possible diagnoses are listed, generally from least to most severe.", "The 1952 DSM version also includes sections detailing how to record patients' disorders along with their demographic details.", "The form includes information like a patient's area of residence, admission status, discharge date/condition, and severity of disorder.", "See Figure 1.for the form that psychiatrists were asked to utilize for recording preliminary diagnostic information.Furthermore, the APA listed homosexuality in the DSM as a sociopathic personality disturbance.", "''Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals'', a large-scale 1962 study of homosexuality by Irving Bieber and other authors, was used to justify inclusion of the disorder as a supposed pathological hidden fear of the opposite sex caused by traumatic parent–child relationships.", "This view was influential in the medical profession.", "In 1956, however, the psychologist Evelyn Hooker performed a study comparing the happiness and well-adjusted nature of self-identified homosexual men with heterosexual men and found no difference.", "Her study stunned the medical community and made her a heroine to many gay men and lesbians, but homosexuality remained in the DSM until May 1974.===DSM-II (1968)===In the 1960s, there were many challenges to the concept of mental illness itself.", "These challenges came from psychiatrists like Thomas Szasz, who argued mental illness was a myth used to disguise moral conflicts; from sociologists such as Erving Goffman, who said mental illness was another example of how society labels and controls non-conformists; from behavioural psychologists who challenged psychiatry's fundamental reliance on unobservable phenomena; and from gay rights activists who criticised the APA's listing of homosexuality as a mental disorder.", "A study published in ''Science'', the Rosenhan experiment, received much publicity and was viewed as an attack on the efficacy of psychiatric diagnosis.The APA was closely involved in the next significant revision of the mental disorder section of the ICD (version 8 in 1968).", "It decided to go ahead with a revision of the DSM, which was published in 1968.DSM-II was similar to DSM-I, listed 182 disorders, and was 134 pages long.", "The term \"reaction\" was dropped, but the term \"neurosis\" was retained.", "Both the DSM-I and the DSM-II reflected the predominant psychodynamic psychiatry, although both manuals also included biological perspectives and concepts from Kraepelin's system of classification.", "Symptoms were not specified in detail for specific disorders.", "Many were seen as reflections of broad underlying conflicts or maladaptive reactions to life problems that were rooted in a distinction between neurosis and psychosis (roughly, anxiety/depression broadly in touch with reality, as opposed to hallucinations or delusions disconnected from reality).", "Sociological and biological knowledge was incorporated, under a model that did not emphasize a clear boundary between normality and abnormality.", "The idea that personality disorders did not involve emotional distress was discarded.An influential 1974 paper by Robert Spitzer and Joseph L. Fleiss demonstrated that the second edition of the DSM (DSM-II) was an unreliable diagnostic tool.", "Spitzer and Fleiss found that different practitioners using the DSM-II rarely agreed when diagnosing patients with similar problems.", "In reviewing previous studies of eighteen major diagnostic categories, Spitzer and Fleiss concluded that \"there are no diagnostic categories for which reliability is uniformly high.", "Reliability appears to be only satisfactory for three categories: mental deficiency, organic brain syndrome (but not its subtypes), and alcoholism.", "The level of reliability is no better than fair for psychosis and schizophrenia and is poor for the remaining categories\".====Seventh printing of the DSM-II (1974)====As described by Ronald Bayer, a psychiatrist and gay rights activist, specific protests by gay rights activists against the APA began in 1970, when the organization held its convention in San Francisco.", "The activists disrupted the conference by interrupting speakers and shouting down and ridiculing psychiatrists who viewed homosexuality as a mental disorder.", "In 1971, gay rights activist Frank Kameny worked with the Gay Liberation Front collective to demonstrate at the APA's convention.", "At the 1971 conference, Kameny grabbed the microphone and yelled: \"Psychiatry is the enemy incarnate.", "Psychiatry has waged a relentless war of extermination against us.", "You may take this as a declaration of war against you.", "\"This gay activism occurred in the context of a broader anti-psychiatry movement that had come to the fore in the 1960s and was challenging the legitimacy of psychiatric diagnosis.", "Anti-psychiatry activists protested at the same APA conventions, with some shared slogans and intellectual foundations as gay activists.Taking into account data from researchers such as Alfred Kinsey and Evelyn Hooker, the seventh printing of the DSM-II, in 1974, no longer listed homosexuality as a category of disorder.", "After a vote by the APA trustees in 1973, and confirmed by the wider APA membership in 1974, the diagnosis was replaced with the category of \"sexual orientation disturbance\".===DSM-III (1980)===The emergence of DSM III represented a 'quantum leap' in terms of the scale and reach of the manual.", "In 1974, the decision to revise the DSM was made, and psychiatrist Robert Spitzer was selected as chair of the task force.", "The initial impetus was to make the DSM nomenclature consistent with that of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD).", "The revision took on a far wider mandate under the influence and control of Spitzer and his chosen committee members.", "One added goal was to improve the uniformity and validity of psychiatric diagnosis in the wake of a number of critiques, including the famous Rosenhan experiment.", "There was also felt a need to standardize diagnostic practices within the United States and with other countries, after research showed that psychiatric diagnoses differed between Europe and the United States.", "The establishment of consistent criteria was an attempt to facilitate the pharmaceutical regulatory process.The criteria adopted for many of the mental disorders were influenced by the Research Diagnostic Criteria (RDC) and Feighner Criteria, which had just been developed by a group of research-orientated psychiatrists based primarily at Washington University School of Medicine and the New York State Psychiatric Institute.", "However, the influence of clinical psychiatrists, themselves often working with psychoanalytic ideas were still strong.", "Other criteria, and potential new categories of disorder, were established by debate, argument and consensus during meetings of the committee chaired by Spitzer.", "A key aim was to base categorization on colloquial English (which would be easier to use by federal administrative offices), rather than by assumption of cause, although its categorical approach still assumed each particular pattern of symptoms in a category reflected a particular underlying pathology (an approach described as \"neo-Kraepelinian\").", "The psychodynamic view was marginalised, although still influential, in favor of a regulatory or legislative model that emphasised observable symptoms.", "A new \"multiaxial\" system attempted to yield a picture more amenable to a statistical population census, rather than a simple diagnosis.", "Spitzer argued \"mental disorders are a subset of medical disorders\", but the task force decided on this statement for the DSM: \"Each of the mental disorders is conceptualized as a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome.\"", "Personality disorders were placed on axis II along with \"mental retardation\".The first draft of DSM-III was ready within a year.", "It introduced many new categories of disorder, while deleting or changing others.", "A number of unpublished documents discussing and justifying the changes have recently come to light.", "Field trials sponsored by the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) were conducted between 1977 and 1979 to test the reliability of the new diagnoses.", "A controversy emerged regarding deletion of the concept of neurosis, a mainstream of psychoanalytic theory and therapy but seen as vague and unscientific by the DSM task force.", "Faced with enormous political opposition, DSM-III was in serious danger of not being approved by the APA Board of Trustees unless \"neurosis\" was included in some form; a political compromise reinserted the term in parentheses after the word \"disorder\" in some cases.", "Additionally, the diagnosis of ego-dystonic homosexuality replaced the DSM-II category of \"sexual orientation disturbance\".", "The gender identity disorder in children (GIDC) diagnosis was introduced in the DSM-III; prior to the DSM-III's publication in 1980, there was no diagnostic criteria for gender dysphoria.Finally published in 1980, DSM-III listed 265 diagnostic categories and was 494 pages long.", "It rapidly came into widespread international use and has been termed a revolution, or transformation, in psychiatry.When DSM-III was published, the developers made extensive claims about the reliability of the radically new diagnostic system they had devised, which relied on data from special field trials.", "However, according to a 1994 article by Stuart A. Kirk:===DSM-III-R (1987)===In 1987, DSM-III-R was published as a revision of the DSM-III, under the direction of Spitzer.", "Categories were renamed and reorganized, with significant changes in criteria.", "Six categories were deleted while others were added.", "Controversial diagnoses, such as Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder and Masochistic Personality Disorder, were considered and discarded.", "(Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder was later reincorporated in the DSM-5, published in 2013).", "\"Ego-dystonic homosexuality\" was also removed and was largely subsumed under \"sexual disorder not otherwise specified\", which could include \"persistent and marked distress about one's sexual orientation.\"", "Altogether, the DSM-III-R contained 292 diagnoses and was 567 pages long.", "Further efforts were made for the diagnoses to be purely descriptive, although the introductory text stated for at least some disorders, \"particularly the Personality Disorders, the criteria require much more inference on the part of the observer\"page xxiii.===DSM-IV (1994)===In 1994, DSM-IV was published, listing 410 disorders in 886 pages.", "The task force was chaired by Allen Frances and was overseen by a steering committee of twenty-seven people, including four psychologists.", "The steering committee created thirteen work groups of five to sixteen members, each work group having about twenty advisers in addition.", "The work groups conducted a three-step process: first, each group conducted an extensive literature review of their diagnoses; then, they requested data from researchers, conducting analyses to determine which criteria required change, with instructions to be conservative; finally, they conducted multi-center field trials relating diagnoses to clinical practice.", "A major change from previous versions was the inclusion of a clinical-significance criterion to almost half of all the categories, which required symptoms causing \"clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning\".", "Some personality-disorder diagnoses were deleted or moved to the appendix.", "==== DSM-IV Definitions ====The DSM-IV characterizes a mental disorder as \"a clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress or disability or with a significant increased risk of suffering death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom\".", "It also notes that \"although this manual provides a classification of mental disorders it must be admitted that no definition adequately specifies precise boundaries for the concept of 'mental disorder.", "\"==== DSM-IV Categorization ====The DSM-IV is a categorical classification system.", "The categories are prototypes, and a patient with a close approximation to the prototype is said to have that disorder.", "DSM-IV states, \"there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundaries\" but isolated, low-grade, and non-criterion (unlisted for a given disorder) symptoms are not given importance.", "Qualifiers are sometimes used: for example, to specify mild, moderate, or severe forms of a disorder.", "For nearly half the disorders, symptoms must be sufficient to cause \"clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning\", although DSM-IV-TR removed the distress criterion from tic disorders and several of the paraphilias due to their egosyntonic nature.", "Each category of disorder has a numeric code taken from the ICD coding system, used for health service (including insurance) administrative purposes.==== DSM-IV multi-axial system ====The DSM-IV was organized into a five-part axial system.", "Axis I provided information about clinical disorders, or any mental condition other than personality disorders and what was referred to in DSM editions prior to DSM-V as \"mental retardation\".", "Those were both covered on Axis II.", "Axis III covered medical conditions that could impact a person's disorder or treatment of a disorder and Axis IV covered psychosocial and environmental factors affecting the person.", "Axis V was the GAF, or global assessment of functioning, which was basically a numerical score between 0 and 100 that measured how much a person's psychological symptoms impacted their daily life.==== DSM-IV Sourcebooks ====The DSM-IV does not specifically cite its sources, but there are four volumes of \"sourcebooks\" intended to be APA's documentation of the guideline development process and supporting evidence, including literature reviews, data analyses, and field trials.", "The sourcebooks have been said to provide important insights into the character and quality of the decisions that led to the production of DSM-IV, and the scientific credibility of contemporary psychiatric classification.===DSM-IV-TR (2000)===A text revision of DSM-IV, titled DSM-IV-TR, was published in 2000.The diagnostic categories were unchanged as were the diagnostic criteria for all but nine diagnoses.", "The majority of the text was unchanged; however, the text of two disorders, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified and Asperger's disorder, had significant and/or multiple changes made.", "The definition of pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified was changed back to what it was in DSM-III-R and the text for Asperger's disorder was practically entirely rewritten.", "Most other changes were to the associated features sections of diagnoses that contained additional information such as lab findings, demographic information, prevalence, and course.", "Also, some diagnostic codes were changed to maintain consistency with ICD-9-CM." ], [ "DSM-5 (2013)", "The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the DSM-5, was approved by the Board of Trustees of the APA on December 1, 2012.Published on May 18, 2013, the DSM-5 contains extensively revised diagnoses and, in some cases, broadens diagnostic definitions while narrowing definitions in other cases.", "The DSM-5 is the first major edition of the manual in 20 years.", "DSM-5, and the abbreviations for all previous editions, are registered trademarks owned by the American Psychiatric Association.A significant change in the fifth edition is the deletion of the subtypes of schizophrenia: paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual.", "The deletion of the subsets of autistic spectrum disordernamely, Asperger's syndrome, classic autism, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specifiedwas also implemented, with specifiers regarding intensity: mild, moderate, and severe.Severity is based on social communication impairments and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, with three levels:# requiring support# requiring substantial support# requiring very substantial supportDuring the revision process, the APA website periodically listed several sections of the DSM-5 for review and discussion.===Future revisions and updates===Beginning with the fifth edition, the APA communicated that they intend to add subsequent revisions more often, to keep up with research in the field.", "It is notable that DSM-5 uses Arabic rather than Roman numerals.", "Beginning with DSM-5, the APA will use decimals to identify incremental updates (e.g., DSM-5.1, DSM-5.2) and whole numbers for new editions (e.g., DSM-5, DSM-6), similar to the scheme used for software versioning.The National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME), which is responsible for creating and publishing board exams for medical students around the United States, conforms to the use of DSM-5 criteria.=== DSM-5-TR (2022) ===A revision of DSM-5, titled DSM-5-TR, was published in March 2022, updating diagnostic criteria and ICD-10-CM codes.", "The diagnostic criteria for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder was changed, along with adding entries for prolonged grief disorder, unspecified mood disorder and stimulant-induced mild neurocognitive disorder.", "Prolonged grief disorder, which had been present in the ICD-11, had criteria agreed upon by consensus in a one day in-person workshop sponsored by the APA.", "A 2022 study found that higher rates of diagnosis of prolonged grief disorder in the ICD-11 could be explained by the DSM-5-TR criteria requiring symptoms persist for 12 months, and the ICD-11 requiring only 6 months.Three review groups for sex and gender, culture and suicide, along with an \"ethnoracial equity and inclusion work group\" were involved in the creation of the DSM-5-TR which led to additional sections for each mental disorder discussing sex and gender, racial and cultural variations, and adding diagnostic codes for specifying levels of suicidality and nonsuicidal self-injury for mental disorders.Other changed mental disorders included:* Autism spectrum disorder* Bipolar I disorder, Bipolar II disorder, and related bipolar disorders* Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder in the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders* Depressive episodes with short-duration hypomania* Intellectual developmental disorder* Delusional disorder* Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder* Brief psychotic disorder" ], [ "DSM Library", "The APA have supplemented the DSM with supporting works, collectively forming the \"DSM Library.\"", "As of 2022, the other books in the library are \"DSM-5 Handbook of Differential Diagnosis\", \"DSM-5 Clinical Cases\", \"DSM-5 Handbook on the Cultural Formulation Interview\" and \"Guía De Consulta De Los Criterios Diagnósticos Del DSM-5\"." ], [ "Criticisms", "Many different criticisms have been leveled against the DSM and its usefulness as a diagnostic manual.===Reliability and validity===The revisions of the DSM from the 3rd Edition forward have been mainly concerned with diagnostic reliabilitythe degree to which different diagnosticians agree on a diagnosis.", "Henrik Walter argued that psychiatry as a science can only advance if diagnosis is reliable.", "If clinicians and researchers frequently disagree about the diagnosis of a patient, then research into the causes and effective treatments of those disorders cannot advance.", "Hence, diagnostic reliability was a major concern of DSM-III.", "When the diagnostic reliability problem was thought to be solved, subsequent editions of the DSM were concerned mainly with \"tweaking\" the diagnostic criteria.", "Neither the issue of reliability or validity was settled.In 2013, shortly before the publication of DSM-5, the director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), Thomas R. Insel, declared that the agency would no longer fund research projects that relied exclusively on DSM diagnostic criteria, due to its lack of validity.", "Insel questioned the validity of the DSM classification scheme because \"diagnoses are based on a consensus about clusters of clinical symptoms\" as opposed to \"collecting the genetic, imaging, physiologic, and cognitive data to see how all the data – not just the symptoms – cluster and how these clusters relate to treatment response.", "\"Field trials of DSM-5 brought the debate of reliability back into the limelight, as the diagnoses of some disorders showed poor reliability.", "For example, a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, a common mental illness, had a poor reliability kappa statistic of 0.28, indicating that clinicians frequently disagreed on diagnosing this disorder in the same patients.", "The most reliable diagnosis was major neurocognitive disorder, with a kappa of 0.78.===Diagnosis based on superficial symptoms===By design, the DSM is primarily concerned with the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, rather than the underlying causes.", "It claims to collect these disorders based on statistical or clinical patterns.", "As such, it has been compared to a naturalist's field guide to birds, with similar advantages and disadvantages.", "The lack of a causative or explanatory basis, however, is not specific to the DSM, but rather reflects a general lack of pathophysiological understanding of psychiatric disorders.", "Proponents argue this absence of explanatory classification is necessary, but it presents a problem for researchers as it results in the grouping of individuals who may have little in common except superficial criteria.", "As DSM-III chief architect Robert Spitzer and DSM-IV editor Michael First outlined in 2005, \"little progress has been made toward understanding the pathophysiological processes and cause of mental disorders.", "If anything, the research has shown the situation is even more complex than initially imagined, and we believe not enough is known to structure the classification of psychiatric disorders according to etiology.", "\"While there is generally a lack of consensus on underlying causation for most psychiatric disorders, some proponents of specific psychopathological paradigms have faulted the DSM for failing to incorporate evidence from other disciplines.", "For instance, evolutionary psychology distinguishes between genuine cognitive malfunctions and malfunctions due to psychological adaptations (that is learned behaviors may be adaptive in one context but maladaptive in another).", "However, this distinction is one that is challenged within general psychology.There is also criticism of the strong operationalist viewpoint of the DSM.", "The DSM relies on operational definitions, which means that intuitive concepts like depression are defined by specific measurable criteria (observable behavior, specific timelines).", "Some have argued that instead of replacing metaphysical terms like \"desire\" or \"purpose\" the DSM chose to legitimize them by giving them operational definitions.", "However, this may have served only to provide a \"reassurance fetish\" for mainstream methodological practice, rather than representing a substantial and meaningful alteration of mainstream psychiatric practice.A central problem with the use of superficial symptoms is that psychiatry deals with the phenomena of consciousness, which adds much more complexity than the somatic symptoms and signs used by most of medicine.", "A 2013 review published in the ''European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience'' gives the example of the problem of superficial characterization of psychiatric signs and symptoms .", "If a patient says they \"feel depressed, sad, or down\" there are actually a wide variety of underlying experiences they could be referencing: \"not only depressed mood but also, for instance, irritation, anger, loss of meaning, varieties of fatigue, ambivalence, ruminations of different kinds, hyper-reflectivity, thought pressure, psychological anxiety, varieties of depersonalization, and even voices with negative content, and so forth.\"", "This criticism is especially pertinent to the structured interview, as simple \"yes or no\" questions may not be specific enough to truly confirm or deny the diagnostic criterion at issue.", "That is, whether a patient says yes or no will rely on their own understanding of the meaning of the various words in the question as well as their own interpretation of their experience.", "There is thus danger in being overconfident in the face value of the answers.", "The authors of the 2013 review give an example: A patient who was being administered the Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV Axis I Disorders denied thought insertion, but during a \"conversational, phenomenological interview\", a semi-structured interview tailored to the patient, the same patient admitted to experiencing thought insertion, along with a delusional elaboration.", "The authors suggested 2 reasons for this discrepancy: either the patient did not \"recognize his own experience in the rather blunt, implicitly either/or formulation of the structured-interview question\", or the experience did not \"fully articulate itself\" until the patient started talking about his experiences.===Obscuring the Root Causes of Psychological Distress===The role of the DSM-5 in protecting the interests of wealthy and politically powerful owners of the means of production in the United States has been criticized as well.", "Placing the blame for predictable and common psychological distress caused by the deleterious effects of economic inequality in the United States on individuals by attributing it to mental pathology has been criticized as hindering change of the root causes of the distress.", "The DSM-5's expansive criteria that attribute mental pathology to people with distress or impairment from a wide-ranging constellation of experiences has been criticized for pathologizing an unhelpful number of people for whom a psychiatric diagnosis is not helpful.===Overdiagnosis===Allen Frances, an outspoken critic of DSM-5, states that \"normality is an endangered species,\" because of \"fad diagnoses\" and an \"epidemic\" of over-diagnosing, and suggests that the \"DSM-5 threatens to provoke several more epidemics.\"", "Some researchers state that changes in diagnostic criteria, following each published version of the DSM, reduce thresholds for a diagnosis, which results in increases in prevalence rates for ADHD and autism spectrum disorder.", "Bruchmüller, et al.", "(2012) suggest that as a factor that may lead to overdiagnosis are situations when the clinical judgment of the diagnostician regarding a diagnosis (ADHD) is affected by heuristics.===Dividing lines===Despite caveats in the introduction to the DSM, it has long been argued that its system of classification makes unjustified categorical distinctions between disorders and uses arbitrary cut-offs between normal and abnormal.", "A 2009 psychiatric review noted that attempts to demonstrate natural boundaries between related DSM syndromes, or between a common DSM syndrome and normality, have failed.", "Some argue that rather than a categorical approach, a fully dimensional, spectrum or complaint-oriented approach would better reflect the evidence.In addition, it is argued that the current approach based on exceeding a threshold of symptoms does not adequately take into account the context in which a person is living, and to what extent there is internal disorder of an individual versus a psychological response to adverse situations.", "The DSM does include a step (\"Axis IV\") for outlining \"Psychosocial and environmental factors contributing to the disorder\" once someone is diagnosed with that particular disorder.Because an individual's degree of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts and can stem from various individual and social factors, the DSM's standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives.", "On the other hand, individuals who do not meet symptom counts may nevertheless experience comparable distress or disability in their life.===Cultural bias===Psychiatrists have argued that published diagnostic standards rely on an exaggerated interpretation of neurophysiological findings and so understate the scientific importance of social-psychological variables.", "Advocating a more culturally sensitive approach to psychology, critics such as Carl Bell and Marcello Maviglia contend that researchers and service-providers often discount the cultural and ethnic diversity of individuals.", "In addition, current diagnostic guidelines have been criticized as having a fundamentally Euro-American outlook.", "Although these guidelines have been widely implemented, opponents argue that even when a diagnostic criterion-set is accepted across different cultures, it does not necessarily indicate that the underlying constructs have any validity within those cultures; even reliable application can only demonstrate consistency, not legitimacy.", "Cross-cultural psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman contends that Western bias is ironically illustrated in the introduction of cultural factors to the DSM-IV: the fact that disorders or concepts from non-Western or non-mainstream cultures are described as \"culture-bound\", whereas standard psychiatric diagnoses are given no cultural qualification whatsoever, is to Kleinman revelatory of an underlying assumption that Western cultural phenomena are universal.", "Other cross-cultural critics largely share Kleinman's negative view toward the culture-bound syndrome, common responses included both disappointment over the large number of documented non-Western mental disorders still left out, and frustration that even those included were often misinterpreted or misrepresented.Mainstream psychiatrists have also been dissatisfied with these new culture-bound diagnoses, although not for the same reasons.", "Robert Spitzer, a lead architect of DSM-III, has held the opinion that the addition of cultural formulations was an attempt to placate cultural critics, and that they lack any scientific motivation or support.", "Spitzer also posits that the new culture-bound diagnoses are rarely used in practice, maintaining that the standard diagnoses apply regardless of the culture involved.", "In general, the mainstream psychiatric opinion remains that if a diagnostic category is valid, cross-cultural factors are either irrelevant or are only significant to specific symptom presentations.", "One result of this dissatisfaction was the development of the Azibo Nosology by Daudi Ajani Ya Azibo as an alternative to the DSM in treating patients of the African diaspora.Historically, the DSM tended to avoid issues involving religion; the DSM-5 relaxed this attitude somewhat.===Medicalization and financial conflicts of interest===There was extensive analysis and comment on DSM-IV (published in 1994) in the years leading up to the 2013 publication of DSM-5.It was alleged that the way the categories of DSM-IV were structured, as well as the substantial expansion of the number of categories within it, represented increasing medicalization of human nature, very possibly attributable to disease mongering by psychiatrists and pharmaceutical companies, the power and influence of the latter having grown dramatically in recent decades.", "In 2005, then APA President Steven Sharfstein released a statement in which he conceded that psychiatrists had \"allowed the biopsychosocial model to become the bio-bio-bio model\".", "It was reported that of the authors who selected and defined the DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, roughly half had financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry during the period 1989–2004, raising the prospect of a direct conflict of interest.", "The same article concluded that the connections between panel members and the drug companies were particularly strong involving those diagnoses where drugs are the first line of treatment, such as schizophrenia and mood disorders, where 100% of the panel members had financial ties with the pharmaceutical industry.William Glasser referred to DSM-IV as having \"phony diagnostic categories\", arguing that \"it was developed to help psychiatrists – to help them make money\".", "A 2012 article in ''The New York Times'' commented sharply that DSM-IV (then in its 18th year), through copyrights held closely by the APA, had earned the Association over $100 million.However, although the number of identified diagnoses had increased by more than 300% (from 106 in DSM-I to 365 in DSM-IV-TR), psychiatrists such as Zimmerman and Spitzer argued that this almost entirely represented greater specification of the forms of pathology, thereby allowing better grouping of similar patients.===Potential harm of labels===A core function of the DSM is the categorization of people's experiences into diagnoses based on symptoms.", "However, there is disagreement about the use of diagnoses as labels.", "Some individuals are relieved to find they have a recognized condition that they can apply a name to, and this has led to many people self-diagnosing.", "Others, however, question the accuracy of diagnosis, or feel they have been given a label that invites social stigma and discrimination (the terms \"mentalism\" and \"sanism\" have been used to describe such discriminatory treatment).Diagnoses can become internalized and affect an individual's self-identity, and some psychotherapists have found that the healing process can be inhibited and symptoms can worsen as a result.", "Some members of the psychiatric survivors movement (more broadly the consumer/survivor/ex-patient movement) actively campaign against their diagnoses, or the assumed implications, or against the DSM system in general.", "Additionally, it has been noted that the DSM often uses definitions and terminology that are inconsistent with a recovery model, and such content can erroneously imply excess psychopathology (e.g.", "multiple \"comorbid\" diagnoses) or chronicity.===Critiques of DSM-5===Psychiatrist Allen Frances has been critical of proposed revisions to the DSM–5.In a 2012 ''New York Times'' editorial, Frances warned that if this DSM version is issued unamended by the APA, \"it will medicalize normality and result in a glut of unnecessary and harmful drug prescription.", "\"In a December 2012, blog post on ''Psychology Today'', Frances provides his \"list of DSM 5's ten most potentially harmful changes:\"* Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder, for temper tantrums* Major Depressive Disorder, includes normal grief* Minor Neurocognitive Disorder, for normal forgetfulness in old age* Adult Attention Deficit Disorder, encouraging psychiatric prescriptions of stimulants* Binge Eating Disorder, for excessive eating* Autism, defining the disorder more specifically, possibly leading to decreased rates of diagnosis and the disruption of school services* First-time drug users will be lumped in with addicts* Behavioral Addictions, making a \"mental disorder of everything we like to do a lot.", "\"* Generalized Anxiety Disorder, includes everyday worries* Post-traumatic stress disorder, changes \"opened the gate even further to the already existing problem of misdiagnosis of PTSD in forensic settings.", "\"A group of 25 psychiatrists and researchers, among whom were Frances and Thomas Szasz, have published debates on what they see as the six most essential questions in psychiatric diagnosis:* Are they more like theoretical constructs or more like diseases?", "* How to reach an agreed definition?", "* Should the DSM-5 take a cautious or conservative approach?", "* What is the role of practical rather than scientific considerations?", "* How should it be used by clinicians or researchers?", "* Is an entirely different diagnostic system required?In 2011, psychologist Brent Robbins co-authored a national letter for the Society for Humanistic Psychology that has brought thousands into the public debate about the DSM.", "Over 15,000 individuals and mental health professionals have signed a petition in support of the letter.", "Thirteen other APA divisions have endorsed the petition.", "Robbins has noted that under the new guidelines, certain responses to grief could be labeled as pathological disorders, instead of being recognized as being normal human experiences." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese Classification and Diagnostic Criteria of Mental Disorders* Classification of mental disorders* Diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry* DSM-IV Codes* Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) Scale* International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD)* Kraepelinian dichotomy* Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual* Relational disorder (proposed DSM-5 new diagnosis)* Research Domain Criteria (RDoC), a framework being developed by the National Institute of Mental Health* Rosenhan experiment* Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV ''(SCID)''* Homosexuality in DSM" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* " ], [ "External links", " Official DSM-5 development website* Diagnostic Criteria from DSM-IV-TR* Diagnostic Criteria from DSM-IV-TR* The Multiaxial System of Diagnosis in DSM-IV Criteria" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dar es Salaam" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dar es Salaam''' (; from ) is the largest city and financial hub of Tanzania.", "It is also the capital of the Dar es Salaam Region.", "With a population of over eight million people, Dar es Salaam is the largest city in East Africa and the sixth-largest in Africa.", "Located on the Swahili coast, Dar es Salaam is an important economic center and one of the fastest-growing cities in the world.The town was founded by Majid bin Said, the first Sultan of Zanzibar, in 1865 or 1866.It was the main administrative and commercial center of German East Africa, Tanganyika, and Tanzania.", "The decision was made in 1974 to move the capital to Dodoma which was officially completed in 1996.Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's most prominent city for arts, fashion, media, film, television, and finance.", "It is the capital of the co-extensive Dar es Salaam Region, one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions, and consists of five districts: Kinondoni in the north; Ilala in the centre; Ubungo and Temeke in the south; and Kigamboni in the east across the Kurasini estuary." ], [ "History", "Image of the port of Dar es Salaam from the book ''Von Unseren Kolonien'' by Ottomar Beta in the year 1908In the 19th century, '''Mzizima''' (Swahili for \"healthy town\") was a coastal fishing village on the periphery of Indian Ocean trade routes.", "In 1865 or 1866, Sultan Majid bin Said of Zanzibar began building a new city very close to Mzizima and named it Dar es Salaam.", "The name is commonly translated from Arabic as \"abode (home) of peace\", from ''dar'' (\"house\"), and ''es salaam'' (\"of peace\").", "Dar es Salaam fell into decline after Majid's death in 1870, but was revived in 1887 when the German East Africa Company established a station there.", "The town's growth was facilitated by its role as the administrative and commercial centre of German East Africa and industrial expansion following the construction of the Central Railway Line in the early 1900s.In the East African campaign of World War I, British and Empire forces captured German East Africa.", "The Royal Navy bombarded the city with the monitor on 21 July 1916 and battleship on 21 August.", "The German colonial authorities surrendered the city on 3 September.", "German East Africa became the British Tanganyika Territory.Dar es Salaam remained the administrative and commercial centre.", "Under British indirect rule, European areas such as Oyster Bay and African areas (e.g., Kariakoo and Ilala) developed separately from the city centre.", "The city's population also included a large number of workers from British India, many of whom came to take advantage of trade and commercial opportunities.", "After World War II, Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth.Political developments, including the formation and growth of the Tanganyika African National Union, led to Tanganyika's independence from colonial rule in December 1961.Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, even when Tanganyika and the People's Republic of Zanzibar merged to form Tanzania in 1964.In 1973, provisions were made to relocate the capital to Dodoma, a more centrally located city in the interior.", "The relocation process to Dodoma was completed, although Dar es Salaam continued to be the location of most government offices.In 1967, the Tanzanian government declared the ''ujamaa'' policy, which made Tanzania lean towards socialism.", "The move hampered the potential growth of the city as the government encouraged people not to move into cities and instead remain in Ujamaa socialist villages.", "By the 1980s, the policy failed to combat the increasing poverty and hunger that Tanzania faced, and had delayed necessary development.", "This situation led to the liberalization policy of the 1980s that essentially ended socialism and silenced its proponents within Tanzania's government.Old Boma and St. Joseph's Cathedral prominently in viewUntil the late 1990s, Dar es Salaam was not regarded in the same echelon as Africa's leading cities like Cairo, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Lagos, or Addis Ababa.", "During the 2000s, businesses opened and prospered; growth expanded in the construction sector, with new multi-storey buildings, bridges and roads; Tanzanian banks headquartered in the city became better regulated; and the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange expanded.", "The port is prominent for entrepot trade with landlocked countries like Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, and the eastern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "The city's skyline features tall buildings, among them the 35-storey PSPF Tower (finished in 2015) and the Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA) Tower, the tallest in the country (completed in 2016).A number of historical buildings and elements of urban planning, such as parts of the harbour and streets going back to colonial times, still exist.", "The Old Boma, one of the city's oldest buildings, was built in 1866-67 by Majid bin Said, sultan of Zanzibar, and enlarged under German rule.", "The Botanical Gardens now are close to the National Museum of Tansania.", "The present-day State House goes back to Majid bin Said, and were the seat of the German and later the British colonial governments.", "Along with the Azania Front Lutheran Church, built between 1899 and 1902, and the Roman Catholic St. Joseph's Cathedral, constructed around the same period, Ocean Road Hospital also belongs to a number of early historical buildings in Dar es Salaam." ], [ "Geography", "Dar es Salaam is located at 6°48' S, 39°17' E (−6.8000, 39.2833), on a natural harbour on the coast of East Africa, with sandy beaches in some areas.===Districts of Dar es Salaam region=== Dar es Salaam Region is divided into five administrative districts, four of which are governed by municipal councils that are affiliated with the city's suburbs or wards.", "The regional commissioner is Aboubakar Kunenge.+Districts of Dar es Salaam Region District Population(2016) Area(km2) Ilala District 1,528,489 210 Kigamboni District 1,510,129 N/A Kinondoni District 1,164,177 527 Temeke District 204,029 656 Ubungo District 1,058,597 N/ADar es Salaam Region 5,465,420 1,393====Kinondoni====Kinondoni is the most populated of the districts.", "It houses half of the city's population and several high-income suburbs.Tanzanite BridgeMasaki, Oyster Bay and Ada Estate are the high-income suburbs located along the central beach.", "During the Colonial Era, they were the major European suburbs of the city.", "Diplomats and expatriates currently reside in these areas.", "Oyster Bay Beach (also known as Coco Beach) is the only white sandy beach east of Kinondoni.", "Mikocheni and Regent Estate are also suburbs within the district.", "These are high and middle-income areas with Mikocheni B enjoying a higher population density than Mikocheni A and Regent Estate.", "According to the 2012 census, the Mikocheni ward had a population of 32,947.Bagamoyo rd, Mwnanyamala, Kinondoni District, Dar es SalaamMsasani is a peninsula to the northeast of the city center and home to expatriates from the United Kingdom and other western countries.", "It contains a mixture of traditional shops and western-oriented resorts and stores including the redevelopment of the former Msani Slipway shipyard by architect Antoni FolkersMbezi Beach is the beachfront suburb located along the northern Dar es Salaam Beach.", "It contains several tourist hotels, residences and a kite-surfing area by Upepo Avenue.", "Sinza, Kijitonyama, Magomeni, Kinondoni and Mwenge are more ethnically mixed than the areas above and are located west of Dar es Salaam's Central Business District.====Ilala====The administrative district of Ilala contains almost all government offices, ministries, and the Central Business District.", "It is the transportation hub of the city, as the Julius Nyerere International Airport, Central Railway Station and Tazara Railway Station are all within the district's boundaries.", "The residential areas are mainly middle- to high-income, among them:The Askari Monument along Samora Avenue marks the exact centre of Dar es Salaam, in the Ilala district.", "Upanga and Kisutu have the highest concentration of Asian communities within Dar es Salaam, with residents of Indian and Arabic descent.", "These areas contain colonial houses and mansions built in Indian, Arabic and European styles.", "Upanga is divided into Upanga East and Upanga West.", "Kariakoo is the shopping district of the city: shops, bazaars, and merchants sell products from foodstuffs to hardware.", "The Kariakoo Market contains the only underground section of the city.", "It is the major supply point of the food consumed by all Dar es Salaam residents.", "Tabata, Segerea and Ukonga are located slightly farther west from the city center.", "Ilala, among the middle-income suburbs very near to the city center, is marked by the Askari Monument and suffers from gang activity.====Temeke====Temeke is the fifth industrial district of the city, where manufacturing (both heavy and light industry) is located.", "To the east is the Port of Dar es Salaam, the largest in the country.", "Temeke is believed to have the largest concentration of low-income residents due to industry.", "It is home to military and police officers as well as port officials.", "Kurasini, located on the harbour, contains Dar es Salaam Port, the Police College, the Mgulani Police Barracks and the Dar es Salaam International Trade Fair grounds.", "The main residents are police officers and port officials.Kigamboni Bridge at nightChang'ombe is one of the few higher-income areas in Temeke.", "It has maintained this status due to the presence of African high colonial officers and some industry owners from the Colonial Era.", "Chang'ombe houses the Dar es Salaam University College of Education, the National Stadium and Uhuru Stadium.", "Temeke, Mtoni, Tandika, Kijichi, and Mbagala are middle to low-income suburbs, of which the last is the largest suburb in the entire district.====Ubungo====The Ubungo terminal serves as a transportation link to most large Dar es Salaam urban nodes.", "The narrow-gauge commuter rail runs from there to the city centre, with ten level crossings along the route.This district is characterised with a lot of potential social and economic centres such as industries i.e.", "Urafiki textile industry, bus station and vatious institutes and universities such as National Institute of Transport(NIT)====Kigamboni====Kigamboni (also known as South Beach), a beachfront suburb on a peninsula, is home to an economically diverse population.", "Access to the suburb is mainly by ferry, although the Kigamboni Bridge provides an alternative.===Climate===Dar es Salaam experiences tropical climatic conditions, typified by hot and humid weather throughout much of the year due to its proximity to the equator and the warm Indian Ocean.", "It has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: ''Aw''/''As'').", "Annual rainfall is approximately , and in a normal year there are two rainy seasons: the \"long rains\" in April and May, and the \"short rains\" in November and December.==== Climate change ====A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a \"moderate\" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Dar es Salaam in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Barquisimeto in Venezuela.", "The annual temperature and temperatures of the warmest month would increase by , while the temperature of the coldest month would go down by .", "According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.Moreover, according to the 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, Dar es Salaam is one of 12 major African cities (Abidjan, Alexandria, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) which would be the most severely affected by the future sea level rise.", "It estimates that they would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion under RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5 by the year 2050.Additionally, RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages, while the additional accounting for the \"low-probability, high-damage events\" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the \"moderate\" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario.", "Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures." ], [ "Government", "The Julius Nyerere International Convention Centre in KivukoniIn his 1979 journal ''A Modern History of Tanganyika'', historian John Iliffe wrote, \"In 1949 the town became a municipality...with four honourable nominated Town Councillors who elected a Mayor.\"", "According to ''Associational Life in African Cities: Popular Responses to the Urban Crisis'', published in 2001: \"Until June 1996, Dar es Salaam was managed by the Dar es Salaam City Council...the highest policy-making body in the city.\"", "As of 2017, Paul Makonda serves as the commissioner of Dar es Salaam Region." ], [ "Demographics", "Urban areaDar es Salaam is the most populous city in Tanzania and the fifth most populous in Africa.", "In 2020, the population was estimated to be 6.4 million.When the 2012 national census was taken, the city had a population of 4,364,541, about ten percent of the country's total.", "The average private household size was 3.9 persons compared to the national average of 4.7.Less than half of the city's residents were married, with a rate lower than any other region in the country.", "The literacy rate in the city was 96%, while the national average was 78%.", "Between the 2002 and 2012 censuses, the city's 5.6% average annual growth rate was the highest in the country.More than three-quarters of the city's population live in informal settlements.", "In 2018, Dar es Salaam scored 0.631 (medium category) on the Human Development Index (HDI).", "The city's HDI has increased every year since 1992, and it ranked higher than any other region in the country except for one.Dar es Salaam is the second-fastest-growing city in the world and could have a population as high as 13.4 million by 2035.The population was estimated at 20,000 in 1900, 93,000 in 1957 and 273,000 in 1967.Census yearPopulation1978843,09019881,360,85020022,487,28820124,364,54120225,383,728" ], [ "Economy and infrastructure", "The Bank of TanzaniaDar es Salaam is Tanzania's most important city for both business and government.", "The city contains high concentrations of trade and other services and manufacturing compared to other parts of the country, which has about 65 percent of its population in rural areas.", "Downtown includes small businesses, many of which are run by traders and proprietors whose families originated in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent—areas of the world with which the settlements of the Tanzanian coast have had long-standing trading relations.The Dar es Salaam Central Business District is the largest in Tanzania and comprises the Kisutu, Kivukoni, Upanga and Kariakoo areas.", "The downtown area is located in the Ilala district.", "Kivukoni is home to the Tanzania Central Bank, The Bank of Tanzania, the Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange and the city's important Magogoni fish market.", "With businesses and offices, Kisutu is the location of Dar es Salaam central railway station, the PSPF Towers, and the TPA Tower.Dar es Salaam is undergoing major construction and development.", "The 35-storey PSPF Twin Towers are the second tallest building in the city and the country.", "The city has major infrastructural challenges, including an outdated transport system and occasional power rationing.===Financial services===The high rise buildings of Dar es salaamThe Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange (DSE) is the country's first stock market.===Retail===Dar es Salaam hosts the Mlimani City shopping mall, the City Mall in the Kisutu area, Quality Center Mall, GSM Pugu Shopping Mall, GSM Msasani Mall, and Dar Free Market Mall." ], [ "Transportation", "Magufuli Bus Terminal at Mbezi Luis.The Dar Rapid Transit (DART) is a bus-based mass-transit system connecting the suburbs of Dar es Salaam to the central business district.The Julius Nyerere International Airport, Dar es SalaamOn a natural harbour on the Indian Ocean, Dar es Salaam is one of the hubs of the Tanzanian transportation system, as the main railways and several highways originate in or near the city to provide convenient transportation for commuters.===Local public transport===Public minibus share taxis (''dala dala'') are the most common form of transport in Dar es Salaam and are often found at the major bus terminals of Makumbusho, Ubungo and other areas of the city.", "However, since the introduction of the motorcycle transit business known as \"bodaboda,\" most people prefer it, allowing them to get into the city faster as compared with the minibuses, which encounter heavy traffic.", "Other types of transport include motorcycles and bajaj (auto rickshaws).====Bus====The government has been introducing a metro bus system, Dar es Salaam bus rapid transit (''mwendo kasi'' in Kiswahili).", "The metro buses are managed by UDA-RT, a partnership between Usafiri Dar es Salaam (UDA) and the government.The bus rapid-transit system Phase 1 has been completed by UDA-RT and began operation on 10 May 2016.The first section runs between Kimara in the northwest to Kivukoni on the northern headland of the harbour.", "Phase 1 was funded by the World Bank, African Development Bank and the Tanzanian government.====Metro====Dar es Salaam will have a metro system, currently undergoing a feasibility study conducted by Mota-Engil and Dar Rapid Transit Agency.===Maritime transport=======Port====The Port of Dar es Salaam is Tanzania's busiest, handling 90% of the country's cargo.", "It is located in the Kurasini administrative ward of Temeke District southeast of the city's central business district.", "Due to a huge influx of cargo and the slow pace of expansion, a new cargo port northwest of Dar es Salaam is proposed at Bagamoyo.====Ferry====MV ''Kigamboni'' ferries run between southeast of Kivukoni and northwest of Kigamboni in Dar es Salaam.===Railway=======Dar es Salaam commuter rail====Travel to urban and suburban parts of the city is provided by the Dar es Salaam commuter rail.====Intra-city railway====Tanzania Railways operates the Central Line from Dar es Salaam west to Kigoma.====International railway====The city also hosts the head office of Tanzania–Zambia Railways Authority (TAZARA) built in the late 1960s to early 1970s.", "The main terminal is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district in north Yombo Vituka along the Nelson Mandela Road.", "The TAZARA Railway connects Dar es Salaam to Zambia.====SGR====Tanzania Standard Gauge Railway is a new railway station currently under construction.", "It will link the country to Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi and Congo.===Airport===The Julius Nyerere International Airport is the principal airport serving the country, with three operating terminals.", "Terminal Three is located at Kipawa in Ilala Municipality.", "The airport is located west of Dar es Salaam's central business district." ], [ "Culture", "===Art===The main gate of Nyumba ya Sanaa, with decorations by Tanzanian sculptor George LilangaThe Tingatinga painting style originates from Dar es Salaam.", "The Nyumba ya sanaa (\"House of Art\") is a cultural centre, workshop and retail outlet dedicated to Tanzanian art, showcasing and promoting Tanzanian craftsmanship.", "Prominent Tanzanian sculptor George Lilanga has donated some of his works to the centre, including decorations of the building's main entrance.===Music===A traditional African dance in Dar es SalaamThe music scene in Dar es Salaam is divided among several styles.", "The longest-standing style is live dance music (muziki wa dansi) played by bands such as DDC Mlimani Park Orchestra and Malaika Musical Band.", "Taarab, which was traditionally popular in Zanzibar has also found a niche.", "However, it remains small compared both to dance music and \"Bongo Flava,\" a broad category representing the Tanzanian take on hip hop and rhythm and blues that has quickly become the most popular locally produced music.", "The rap music scene is also present.", "Traditional music, which locally refers to tribal music, is still performed, but typically only on family-oriented occasions such as weddings.In the 1970s, the Ministry of National Youth Culture aimed to create a national culture stressing the importance of music.", "Dar es Salaam became the music center in Tanzania, with the local radio showcasing new bands and dominating the music and cultural scene.", "With this ''ujamaa'' (family) mentality governing culture and music, a unified people's culture was created, leading to the rise of hip hop culture.", "Throughout the years, the radio in Dar es Salaam has played a major role in the dissemination of music, because many people do not have television; cassettes are more common than CDs.===Tourism===National Museum of TanzaniaBeach on the peninsula of Kigamboni, Dar es SalaamDar es Salaam has two of the five museums that make up the National Museum of Tanzania consortium, namely the National Museum proper and the Makumbusho Cultural Centre & Village Museum.", "The National Museum is dedicated to the history of Tanzania; most notably, it exhibits some of the bones of ''Paranthropus boisei'' that were among the findings of Louis Leakey at Olduvai.", "In 2016, there was a breakthrough discovery in Northern Tanzania by a scientist, from the University of Dar es Salaam, of footprints thought to be of a hominid that predates ''Homo sapiens''.", "The Makumbusho Cultural Centre & Village Museum, located in the outskirts of the city on the road to Bagamoyo, showcases traditional huts from 16 different Tanzanian ethnic groups.", "There are also examples of traditional cultivation, as well as daily traditional music and dance shows.", "Close to the National Museum are also the botanical gardens, with tropical plants and trees.There are beaches on the Msasani peninsula north of Dar es Salaam and in Kigamboni to the south.", "Bongoyo Island can be reached by boat from the Msasani Slipway." ], [ "Places of worship", "Saint Joseph's Metropolitan Cathedral.", "Christianity is the largest religion in Tanzania.The city is home to several churches and mosques.", "The churches in the city belong to various denominations; for example, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dar es Salaam (Catholic Church), Anglican Church of Tanzania (Anglican Communion), Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania (Lutheran World Federation), Baptist Convention of Tanzania (Baptist World Alliance), Ilala Seventh Day Adventist Church and Assemblies of God.", "There is a Hindu temple like Shree Shankarashram temple, Shree Sanatan Dharma Sabha temple, Swaminarayan temple.", "Muslims make up 70% of the population in Dar es Salaam." ], [ "Sports", "===Stadium===Dar es Salaam is the sports center of Tanzania and hosts the second-largest stadium in East and Central Africa, the National Stadium, which can accommodate up to 60,000 people.Aerial view of the Tanzania National Main Stadium, with the Kurasini estuary in the background===Association football===The Tanzanian National Stadium hosts football clubs based in Dar es Salaam: Young Africans and Simba.", "It also hosts other Tanzanian football clubs and international matches.", "A new stadium in Dodoma with a much larger capacity has been proposed by the government as a donation from Morocco.Apart from the National Stadium, the city is home to two other stadiums: the Uhuru Stadium, the Karume Memorial Stadium and Chamazi Stadium.", "The Uhuru Stadium is used mainly for local tournaments and political gatherings, whilst the Karume Memorial Stadium is situated west of Kurasini and home to the Tanzania Football Federation.", "Azam Complex Chamazi is owned by Azam Football Club.===Golf===The Gymkhana Golf Courses located northwest of the Kivukoni area (between the city centre overlooking the shores of the Indian Ocean in the east and Barack Obama Drive), also have tennis courts, squash courts, and a fitness club.", "Outside of the metropolitan districts is Lugalo Military Golf Course located in the Lugalo Military Barracks.===Acrobatics===Founded in 2003, Mama Africa is a school known for training some of Africa's professional acrobats.===Boxing===Boxing is a popular sport in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam hosts numerous boxing galas organised throughout the year.", "Tanzanian professional boxer Francis Checka is the current World Boxing Federation (WBF) Super Middleweight Champion." ], [ "Media", "===Newspapers===The head office of Tanzania Telecommunications Company Ltd at Extelecom Building in Samora Avenue, east of KisutuNewspapers in Dar es Salaam are often sold by vendors weaving through stationary traffic at road intersections.", "English-language newspapers, with online versions, include ''The Citizen'' and ''The Guardian''.", "Swahili dailies ''Tanzania Daima'' and ''Mwananchi'' are also available.", "''Business Times'' is the only financial and economic newspaper in the city; it was established in 1988 and became the first private newspaper in Tanzania.", "''Business Times'' owns ''Majira'', another Swahili newspaper.===Television stations===Dar es Salaam is home to ITV, Sibuka, Channel Ten Television Station (formerly Dar es Salaam Television DTV) and Azam TV, a subscription-based service from the Azam group of companies.Television station Ayo TV is based in Ubungo, Dar es Salaam, as is the Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation.===Internet access===The ship-like building of Airtel Tanzania headquarters in Dar es SalaamInstallation of the trans-Indian Ocean backbone cable (SEACOM) in 2009 has, in theory, made Internet access much more readily available in Dar es Salaam in particular and in East Africa in general.", "However, roll-out to end-users is currently slow.", "Telephone-line coverage provided by the Tanzania Telecommunications Company Limited is limited, prices are high, and long contracts are required for purchase of bandwidth for small Internet service providers.", "The expressed aim of the SEACOM cable is to enable East Africa to develop economically through increased online trading.Internet cafés are found in the city centre, and free Wi-Fi hotspots are available in various government and nongovernment institutions as well as public transport.Mobile-telephone access to the Internet via 3G and 3.75G is still relatively expensive, though 4G is making its way through major cities and towns with plans to go nationwide in the advanced stages.===Radio===Dar es Salaam's first radio station began operation in the early 1950s with \"little more equipment than a microphone and a blanket hung over a wall...\" This project was overseen by Edward Twining." ], [ "Environment", "Since the 1990s, Dar es Salaam has experienced heavy and frequent flooding due to intense rainfall.", "The city is especially vulnerable to flooding, due to its lowland coastal orientation and the fact that the Msimbazi River flows through the city.", "The situation has worsened over the years, both due to climate change and the expansion of city pavement, which increases surface runoff.In 2019, flooding displaced 1,215 households.", "Between 2017 and 2018, the city experienced seven floods.", "The World Bank estimates that exposure to floods has impacted about 2 million people, or 39% of the population in Dar es Salaam.", "Flooding incidents destroy bridges and roads, disrupt transportation, increase risk of diseases such as cholera and skin infection, and are a barrier to reducing poverty." ], [ "Education", "Dar es Salaam has the highest concentration of educational opportunities in Tanzania and the city is home to several institutions of higher learning.===Universities===Nkrumah Hall at the University of Dar es SalaamThe University of Dar es Salaam is the oldest and second largest public university in Tanzania after the University of Dodoma.", "It is located in the western part of the city in north-east Ubungo, and occupies on Observation Hill, from the city centre.", "The university has 16,400 undergraduate and 2,700 postgraduate students.", "Ardhi University (ARU) was established on 1 July 1996 after transforming the former University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS), which was then a Constituent College of the University of Dar es Salaam.", "Historically, Ardhi University, dates back to 1956 when it started as Surveying Training School offering land surveying technician certificate courses at the present location of Mgulani Salvation Army Camp in Dar es Salaam.", "In 1958, the school was moved to the present location on Observation Hill.", "At present, there are over 80 PhD holders who have graduated from over 25 universities worldwide.", "The university comprises four schools, one institute and several centres, and offers undergraduate and postgraduate studies with postgraduate, bachelor's, master's and PhD degrees in various disciplines.", "The Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences consists of Muhimbili Campus and Mloganzila Campus.", "Muhimbili Campus is situated in Upanga, Ilala Municipality, along United Nations Road.", "Mloganzila Campus occupies and is located off the Dar es Salaam-Morogoro highway, from Dar es Salaam.", "The Open University of Tanzania is a full-fledged, accredited public institution of higher learning, featuring programmes leading to certificates, diplomas, undergraduate and postgraduate qualifications.", "Since it was founded, the university has enrolled students from Malawi, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, Hungary, Burundi, Libya, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Lesotho, Botswana and most of Tanzania.", ", total enrollment was 44,099, the majority of which was Tanzanian.", "Hubert Kairuki Memorial University is a private institution located on plot No.", "322 Regent Estate in the Mikocheni area, about from Dar es Salaam's city centre, off Ali Hassan Mwinyi and Old Bagamoyo Roads.", "International Medical and Technological University is a privately owned institute of higher education.", "Kampala International University began operations in 2009.The University Centre is situated on of land in the Gongo la Mboto area, Ilala District, from Mwalimu Julius Nyerere International Airport along Pugu Road." ], [ "Notable people", "Sir David Frank Adjaye (born 1966), London-based architect born in Dar es SalaamC.A.", "\"Peter\" Bransgrove (1914–1966), architect in Dar es Salaam from 1947 to 1966Joaquim Chissano (born 1939), the second President of Mozambique, from 1986 to 2005; headed the FRELIMO headquarters in Dar es SalaamKanyama Chiume (1929–2007), a leading nationalist in the struggle for Malawi's independence in the 1950s and 1960s and MinisterRoald Dahl (1916–1990) a British novelist, short-story writer and poet; he lived in Dar es Salaam from 1934 to 1939Jane Goodall (born 1934), scientist and primatologistGertrud von Hassel (1908-1999) a German teacher and painter Marin Hinkle (born 1966), actress, ''Two and a Half Men'' TV showRayah Kitule (born 1984), author and magazine editorRachel Luttrell (born 1971), actress, Stargate Atlantis, born in Dar es SalaamNairn McEwan (1941–2018), rugby union player and second national coach, born in Dar es Salaam.", "Bibi Titi Mohammed (1926–2000), politician and chair of the women's branch of TANUYoweri Museveni (born 1944), president of Uganda since 1986Godfrey Mwakikagile (born 1949), prominent Tanzanian author, Africanist scholar and journalistJuma Mwapachu (born 1942), Tanzanian diplomat, lawyer and author of books on African politics and economics; served as secretary-general of the East African Community (EAC)Herieth Paul (born 1995), fashion modelWalter Rodney (1942–1980) Guyanese historian, political activist; author of ''How Europe Underdeveloped Africa''Justinian Rweyemamu (1942–1982), Tanzanian economist, author and professor of economics at the University of Dar es Salaam; worked at the United Nations; economic adviser to Tanzania's first president, Julius NyerereMbwana Samatta (born 1992), footballer, 2015 CAF African Player of the Year; 68 caps for TanzaniaIssa G. Shivji (born 1946), Tanzanian scholar, and expert on constitutional law and development issuesAlly Sykes (1926–2013), politician and leading figure in Tanzania's independence movementHasheem Thabeet (born 1987), basketball player in the USPaul von Lettow-Vorbeck (1870–1964), commander of the German East Africa Army" ], [ "International relations", "Dar es Salaam is sister cities with:* Hamburg, Germany* Mumbai, India* Samsun, Turkey* Changzhou, Jiangsu, China* Sari, Iran" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Distributed computing" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''distributed system''' is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another.", "'''Distributed computing '''is a field of computer science that studies distributed systems.", "The components of a distributed system interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal.", "Three significant challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock, and managing the independent failure of components.", "When a component of one system fails, the entire system does not fail.", "Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications.A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a '''distributed program''', and ''distributed programming'' is the process of writing such programs.", "There are many different types of implementations for the message passing mechanism, including pure HTTP, RPC-like connectors and message queues.", "''Distributed computing'' also refers to the use of distributed systems to solve computational problems.", "In ''distributed computing'', a problem is divided into many tasks, each of which is solved by one or more computers, which communicate with each other via message passing." ], [ "Introduction", "The word ''distributed'' in terms such as \"distributed system\", \"distributed programming\", and \"distributed algorithm\" originally referred to computer networks where individual computers were physically distributed within some geographical area.", "The terms are nowadays used in a much wider sense, even referring to autonomous processes that run on the same physical computer and interact with each other by message passing.While there is no single definition of a distributed system, the following defining properties are commonly used as:* There are several autonomous computational entities (''computers'' or ''nodes''), each of which has its own local memory.", "* The entities communicate with each other by message passing.A distributed system may have a common goal, such as solving a large computational problem; the user then perceives the collection of autonomous processors as a unit.", "Alternatively, each computer may have its own user with individual needs, and the purpose of the distributed system is to coordinate the use of shared resources or provide communication services to the users.Other typical properties of distributed systems include the following:* The system has to tolerate failures in individual computers.", "* The structure of the system (network topology, network latency, number of computers) is not known in advance, the system may consist of different kinds of computers and network links, and the system may change during the execution of a distributed program.", "* Each computer has only a limited, incomplete view of the system.", "Each computer may know only one part of the input." ], [ "Parallel and distributed computing", "(a), (b): a distributed system.", "(c): a parallel system.Distributed systems are groups of networked computers which share a common goal for their work.The terms \"concurrent computing\", \"parallel computing\", and \"distributed computing\" have much overlap, and no clear distinction exists between them.", "The same system may be characterized both as \"parallel\" and \"distributed\"; the processors in a typical distributed system run concurrently in parallel.", "Parallel computing may be seen as a particularly tightly coupled form of distributed computing, and distributed computing may be seen as a loosely coupled form of parallel computing.", "Nevertheless, it is possible to roughly classify concurrent systems as \"parallel\" or \"distributed\" using the following criteria:* In parallel computing, all processors may have access to a shared memory to exchange information between processors.", "* In distributed computing, each processor has its own private memory (distributed memory).", "Information is exchanged by passing messages between the processors.The figure on the right illustrates the difference between distributed and parallel systems.", "Figure (a) is a schematic view of a typical distributed system; the system is represented as a network topology in which each node is a computer and each line connecting the nodes is a communication link.", "Figure (b) shows the same distributed system in more detail: each computer has its own local memory, and information can be exchanged only by passing messages from one node to another by using the available communication links.", "Figure (c) shows a parallel system in which each processor has a direct access to a shared memory.The situation is further complicated by the traditional uses of the terms parallel and distributed ''algorithm'' that do not quite match the above definitions of parallel and distributed ''systems'' (see below for more detailed discussion).", "Nevertheless, as a rule of thumb, high-performance parallel computation in a shared-memory multiprocessor uses parallel algorithms while the coordination of a large-scale distributed system uses distributed algorithms." ], [ "History", "The use of concurrent processes which communicate through message-passing has its roots in operating system architectures studied in the 1960s.", "The first widespread distributed systems were local-area networks such as Ethernet, which was invented in the 1970s.ARPANET, one of the predecessors of the Internet, was introduced in the late 1960s, and ARPANET e-mail was invented in the early 1970s.", "E-mail became the most successful application of ARPANET, and it is probably the earliest example of a large-scale distributed application.", "In addition to ARPANET (and its successor, the global Internet), other early worldwide computer networks included Usenet and FidoNet from the 1980s, both of which were used to support distributed discussion systems.The study of distributed computing became its own branch of computer science in the late 1970s and early 1980s.", "The first conference in the field, Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC), dates back to 1982, and its counterpart International Symposium on Distributed Computing (DISC) was first held in Ottawa in 1985 as the International Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs." ], [ "Architectures", "Various hardware and software architectures are used for distributed computing.", "At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of whether that network is printed onto a circuit board or made up of loosely coupled devices and cables.", "At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures: client–server, three-tier, ''n''-tier, or peer-to-peer; or categories: loose coupling, or tight coupling.", "* Client–server: architectures where smart clients contact the server for data then format and display it to the users.", "Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.", "* Three-tier: architectures that move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used.", "This simplifies application deployment.", "Most web applications are three-tier.", "* ''n''-tier: architectures that refer typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services.", "This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of application servers.", "* Peer-to-peer: architectures where there are no special machines that provide a service or manage the network resources.", "Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers.", "Peers can serve both as clients and as servers.", "Examples of this architecture include BitTorrent and the bitcoin network.Another basic aspect of distributed computing architecture is the method of communicating and coordinating work among concurrent processes.", "Through various message passing protocols, processes may communicate directly with one another, typically in a main/sub relationship.", "Alternatively, a \"database-centric\" architecture can enable distributed computing to be done without any form of direct inter-process communication, by utilizing a shared database.", "Database-centric architecture in particular provides relational processing analytics in a schematic architecture allowing for live environment relay.", "This enables distributed computing functions both within and beyond the parameters of a networked database." ], [ "Applications", "Reasons for using distributed systems and distributed computing may include:* The very nature of an application may ''require'' the use of a communication network that connects several computers: for example, data produced in one physical location and required in another location.", "* There are many cases in which the use of a single computer would be possible in principle, but the use of a distributed system is ''beneficial'' for practical reasons.", "For example: It can allow for much larger storage and memory, faster compute, and higher bandwidth than a single machine.", " It can provide more reliability than a non-distributed system, as there is no single point of failure.", "Moreover, a distributed system may be easier to expand and manage than a monolithic uniprocessor system.", "** It may be more cost-efficient to obtain the desired level of performance by using a cluster of several low-end computers, in comparison with a single high-end computer." ], [ "Examples", "Examples of distributed systems and applications of distributed computing include the following:* telecommunication networks: telephone networks and cellular networks, computer networks such as the Internet, wireless sensor networks, routing algorithms;* network applications: World Wide Web and peer-to-peer networks, massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities, distributed databases and distributed database management systems, network file systems, distributed cache such as burst buffers, distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and airline reservation systems;* real-time process control: aircraft control systems, industrial control systems;* parallel computation: scientific computing, including cluster computing, grid computing, cloud computing, and various volunteer computing projects, distributed rendering in computer graphics.", "* peer-to-peer" ], [ "Theoretical foundations", "===Models===Many tasks that we would like to automate by using a computer are of question–answer type: we would like to ask a question and the computer should produce an answer.", "In theoretical computer science, such tasks are called computational problems.", "Formally, a computational problem consists of ''instances'' together with a ''solution'' for each instance.", "Instances are questions that we can ask, and solutions are desired answers to these questions.Theoretical computer science seeks to understand which computational problems can be solved by using a computer (computability theory) and how efficiently (computational complexity theory).", "Traditionally, it is said that a problem can be solved by using a computer if we can design an algorithm that produces a correct solution for any given instance.", "Such an algorithm can be implemented as a computer program that runs on a general-purpose computer: the program reads a problem instance from input, performs some computation, and produces the solution as output.", "Formalisms such as random-access machines or universal Turing machines can be used as abstract models of a sequential general-purpose computer executing such an algorithm.The field of concurrent and distributed computing studies similar questions in the case of either multiple computers, or a computer that executes a network of interacting processes: which computational problems can be solved in such a network and how efficiently?", "However, it is not at all obvious what is meant by \"solving a problem\" in the case of a concurrent or distributed system: for example, what is the task of the algorithm designer, and what is the concurrent or distributed equivalent of a sequential general-purpose computer?The discussion below focuses on the case of multiple computers, although many of the issues are the same for concurrent processes running on a single computer.Three viewpoints are commonly used:; Parallel algorithms in shared-memory model* All processors have access to a shared memory.", "The algorithm designer chooses the program executed by each processor.", "* One theoretical model is the parallel random-access machines (PRAM) that are used.", "However, the classical PRAM model assumes synchronous access to the shared memory.", "* Shared-memory programs can be extended to distributed systems if the underlying operating system encapsulates the communication between nodes and virtually unifies the memory across all individual systems.", "* A model that is closer to the behavior of real-world multiprocessor machines and takes into account the use of machine instructions, such as Compare-and-swap (CAS), is that of ''asynchronous shared memory''.", "There is a wide body of work on this model, a summary of which can be found in the literature.", "; Parallel algorithms in message-passing model* The algorithm designer chooses the structure of the network, as well as the program executed by each computer.", "* Models such as Boolean circuits and sorting networks are used.", "A Boolean circuit can be seen as a computer network: each gate is a computer that runs an extremely simple computer program.", "Similarly, a sorting network can be seen as a computer network: each comparator is a computer.", "; Distributed algorithms in message-passing model* The algorithm designer only chooses the computer program.", "All computers run the same program.", "The system must work correctly regardless of the structure of the network.", "* A commonly used model is a graph with one finite-state machine per node.In the case of distributed algorithms, computational problems are typically related to graphs.", "Often the graph that describes the structure of the computer network ''is'' the problem instance.", "This is illustrated in the following example.===An example===Consider the computational problem of finding a coloring of a given graph ''G''.", "Different fields might take the following approaches:; Centralized algorithms* The graph ''G'' is encoded as a string, and the string is given as input to a computer.", "The computer program finds a coloring of the graph, encodes the coloring as a string, and outputs the result.", "; Parallel algorithms* Again, the graph ''G'' is encoded as a string.", "However, multiple computers can access the same string in parallel.", "Each computer might focus on one part of the graph and produce a coloring for that part.", "* The main focus is on high-performance computation that exploits the processing power of multiple computers in parallel.", "; Distributed algorithms* The graph ''G'' is the structure of the computer network.", "There is one computer for each node of ''G'' and one communication link for each edge of ''G''.", "Initially, each computer only knows about its immediate neighbors in the graph ''G''; the computers must exchange messages with each other to discover more about the structure of ''G''.", "Each computer must produce its own color as output.", "* The main focus is on coordinating the operation of an arbitrary distributed system.While the field of parallel algorithms has a different focus than the field of distributed algorithms, there is much interaction between the two fields.", "For example, the Cole–Vishkin algorithm for graph coloring was originally presented as a parallel algorithm, but the same technique can also be used directly as a distributed algorithm.Moreover, a parallel algorithm can be implemented either in a parallel system (using shared memory) or in a distributed system (using message passing).", "The traditional boundary between parallel and distributed algorithms (choose a suitable network vs. run in any given network) does not lie in the same place as the boundary between parallel and distributed systems (shared memory vs. message passing).===Complexity measures===In parallel algorithms, yet another resource in addition to time and space is the number of computers.", "Indeed, often there is a trade-off between the running time and the number of computers: the problem can be solved faster if there are more computers running in parallel (see speedup).", "If a decision problem can be solved in polylogarithmic time by using a polynomial number of processors, then the problem is said to be in the class NC.", "The class NC can be defined equally well by using the PRAM formalism or Boolean circuits—PRAM machines can simulate Boolean circuits efficiently and vice versa.In the analysis of distributed algorithms, more attention is usually paid on communication operations than computational steps.", "Perhaps the simplest model of distributed computing is a synchronous system where all nodes operate in a lockstep fashion.", "This model is commonly known as the LOCAL model.", "During each ''communication round'', all nodes in parallel (1) receive the latest messages from their neighbours, (2) perform arbitrary local computation, and (3) send new messages to their neighbors.", "In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network.", "Let ''D'' be the diameter of the network.", "On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2''D'' communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (''D'' rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (''D'' rounds).On the other hand, if the running time of the algorithm is much smaller than ''D'' communication rounds, then the nodes in the network must produce their output without having the possibility to obtain information about distant parts of the network.", "In other words, the nodes must make globally consistent decisions based on information that is available in their ''local D-neighbourhood''.", "Many distributed algorithms are known with the running time much smaller than ''D'' rounds, and understanding which problems can be solved by such algorithms is one of the central research questions of the field.", "Typically an algorithm which solves a problem in polylogarithmic time in the network size is considered efficient in this model.Another commonly used measure is the total number of bits transmitted in the network (cf.", "communication complexity).", "The features of this concept are typically captured with the CONGEST(B) model, which is similarly defined as the LOCAL model, but where single messages can only contain B bits.===Other problems===Traditional computational problems take the perspective that the user asks a question, a computer (or a distributed system) processes the question, then produces an answer and stops.", "However, there are also problems where the system is required not to stop, including the dining philosophers problem and other similar mutual exclusion problems.", "In these problems, the distributed system is supposed to continuously coordinate the use of shared resources so that no conflicts or deadlocks occur.There are also fundamental challenges that are unique to distributed computing, for example those related to ''fault-tolerance''.", "Examples of related problems include consensus problems, Byzantine fault tolerance, and self-stabilisation.Much research is also focused on understanding the ''asynchronous'' nature of distributed systems:* Synchronizers can be used to run synchronous algorithms in asynchronous systems.", "* Logical clocks provide a causal happened-before ordering of events.", "* Clock synchronization algorithms provide globally consistent physical time stamps.===Election===''Coordinator election'' (or ''leader election'') is the process of designating a single process as the organizer of some task distributed among several computers (nodes).", "Before the task is begun, all network nodes are either unaware which node will serve as the \"coordinator\" (or leader) of the task, or unable to communicate with the current coordinator.", "After a coordinator election algorithm has been run, however, each node throughout the network recognizes a particular, unique node as the task coordinator.The network nodes communicate among themselves in order to decide which of them will get into the \"coordinator\" state.", "For that, they need some method in order to break the symmetry among them.", "For example, if each node has unique and comparable identities, then the nodes can compare their identities, and decide that the node with the highest identity is the coordinator.The definition of this problem is often attributed to LeLann, who formalized it as a method to create a new token in a token ring network in which the token has been lost.Coordinator election algorithms are designed to be economical in terms of total bytes transmitted, and time.", "The algorithm suggested by Gallager, Humblet, and Spira for general undirected graphs has had a strong impact on the design of distributed algorithms in general, and won the Dijkstra Prize for an influential paper in distributed computing.Many other algorithms were suggested for different kinds of network graphs, such as undirected rings, unidirectional rings, complete graphs, grids, directed Euler graphs, and others.", "A general method that decouples the issue of the graph family from the design of the coordinator election algorithm was suggested by Korach, Kutten, and Moran.In order to perform coordination, distributed systems employ the concept of coordinators.", "The coordinator election problem is to choose a process from among a group of processes on different processors in a distributed system to act as the central coordinator.", "Several central coordinator election algorithms exist.===Properties of distributed systems===So far the focus has been on ''designing'' a distributed system that solves a given problem.", "A complementary research problem is ''studying'' the properties of a given distributed system.The halting problem is an analogous example from the field of centralised computation: we are given a computer program and the task is to decide whether it halts or runs forever.", "The halting problem is undecidable in the general case, and naturally understanding the behaviour of a computer network is at least as hard as understanding the behaviour of one computer.However, there are many interesting special cases that are decidable.", "In particular, it is possible to reason about the behaviour of a network of finite-state machines.", "One example is telling whether a given network of interacting (asynchronous and non-deterministic) finite-state machines can reach a deadlock.", "This problem is PSPACE-complete, i.e., it is decidable, but not likely that there is an efficient (centralised, parallel or distributed) algorithm that solves the problem in the case of large networks." ], [ "See also", "* Actor model* AppScale* BOINC* Code mobility* Dataflow programming* Decentralized computing* Distributed algorithm* Distributed algorithmic mechanism design* Distributed cache* Distributed GIS* Distributed networking* Distributed operating system* Eventual consistency* Edsger W. Dijkstra Prize in Distributed Computing* Federation (information technology)* Fog computing* Folding@home* Grid computing* Inferno* Internet GIS* Jungle computing* Layered queueing network* Library Oriented Architecture (LOA)* List of distributed computing conferences* List of volunteer computing projects* Model checking* OpenHarmony* HarmonyOS* Parallel distributed processing* Parallel programming model* Plan 9 from Bell Labs* Shared nothing architecture* Web GIS" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "; Books* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "; Articles* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "; Web sites* " ], [ "Further reading", "; Books .", "* * .", "* : Java Distributed Computing by Jim Faber, 1998 * .", "* * * ; Articles* .", "* ; Conference Papers" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dublin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dublin''' (; , or ) is the capital and largest city of Ireland.", "On a bay at the mouth of the River Liffey, it is in the province of Leinster, bordered on the south by the Dublin Mountains, a part of the Wicklow Mountains range.", "At the 2022 census, the city council area had a population of 592,713, while Dublin City and its suburbs had a population of 1,263,219, and County Dublin had a population of 1,501,500.A settlement was established in the area by the Gaels during or before the 7th century, followed by the Vikings.", "As the Kingdom of Dublin grew, it became Ireland's principal settlement by the 12th century Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland.", "The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest in the British Empire and sixth largest in Western Europe after the Acts of Union in 1800.Following independence in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, renamed Ireland in 1937., the city was listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) as a global city, with a ranking of \"Alpha minus\", which placed it among the top thirty cities in the world." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Dublin'' derives from the Irish word ''Duibhlinn'', early Classical Irish /, from (, , ) meaning \"black, dark\", and () \"pool\", referring to a dark tidal pool.", "This tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle.", "In Modern Irish the name is ''Duibhlinn'', and Irish rhymes from County Dublin show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced ''Duílinn'' .", "The original pronunciation is preserved in the names for the city in other languages such as Old English , Old Norse , modern Icelandic and modern Manx as well as Welsh and Breton .", "Other localities in Ireland also bear the name ''Duibhlinn'', variously anglicised as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin.", "Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote ''bh'' with a dot over the ''b'', rendering Duḃlinn or Duiḃlinn.", "Those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as ''Dublin''.", "Variations on the name are also found in traditionally Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (Gàidhealtachd, cognate with Irish Gaeltacht), such as ''An Linne Dhubh'' (\"the black pool\"), which is part of Loch Linnhe.It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as ''Duibhlinn'', from which ''Dyflin'' took its name.", "Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements where the modern city stands.", "The Viking settlement of about 841, ''Dyflin'', and a Gaelic settlement, Áth Cliath (\"ford of hurdles\") further up the river, at the present-day Father Mathew Bridge (also known as Dublin Bridge), at the bottom of Church Street.", "'''', meaning \"town of the hurdled ford\", is the common name for the city in modern Irish. ''''", "is a place name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. ''''", "was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, currently occupied by Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church.", "There are other towns of the same name, such as ''Àth Cliath'' in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is anglicised as Hurlford.", "The city is also referred to as '''' and '''' in Irish, particularly when spoken.", "These are contracted versions of ''''." ], [ "History", "The area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times; fish traps discovered from excavations during the construction of the Convention Centre Dublin indicate human habitation as far back as 6,000 years ago.", "Further traps were discovered closer to the old settlement of the city of Dublin on the south quays near St. James's Gate which also indicate mesolithic human activity.The writings of Ptolemy (the Greco-Roman astronomer and cartographer) in about 140 AD provide possibly the earliest reference to a settlement near Dublin.", "He called it ''Eblana polis'' ().Viking on a Longship in DublinFather Mathew Bridge, also known as Dublin BridgeDublin celebrated its 'official' millennium in 1988, meaning the Irish government recognised 988 as the year in which the city was settled and that this first settlement would later become the city of Dublin.It is now thought the Viking settlement of about 841 was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as ''Duibhlinn'', from which ''Dyflin'' took its name.", "Evidence indicating that Anglo-Saxons occupied Dublin before the Vikings arrived in 841 has been found in an archaeological dig in Temple Bar.Beginning in the 9th and 10th centuries, there were two settlements which later became modern Dublin.", "The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay.", "The Dubhlinn was a pool on the lowest stretch of the Poddle, where ships used to moor.", "This pool was finally fully infilled during the early 18th century, as the city grew.", "The Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library within Dublin Castle.", "''Táin Bó Cuailgne'' (\"The Cattle Raid of Cooley\") refers to ''Dublind rissa ratter Áth Cliath'', meaning \"Dublin, which is called Ath Cliath\".===Middle Ages===In 841, the Vikings established a fortified base in Dublin.", "The town grew into a substantial commercial center under Olaf Guthfrithson in the mid-to-late 10th century and, despite a number of attacks by the native Irish, it remained largely under Viking control until the Norman invasion of Ireland was launched from Wales in 1169.It was upon the death of Muirchertach Mac Lochlainn in early 1166 that Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht, proceeded to Dublin and was inaugurated ''King of Ireland'' without opposition.According to some historians, part of the city's early economic growth is attributed to a trade in slaves.", "Slavery in Ireland and Dublin reached its pinnacle in the 9th and 10th centuries.", "Prisoners from slave raids and kidnappings, which captured men, women and children, brought revenue to the Gaelic Irish Sea raiders, as well as to the Vikings who had initiated the practice.", "The victims came from Wales, England, Normandy and beyond.The King of Leinster, Diarmait Mac Murchada, after his exile by Ruaidhrí, enlisted the help of Strongbow, the Earl of Pembroke, to conquer Dublin.", "Following Mac Murrough's death, Strongbow declared himself King of Leinster after gaining control of the city.", "In response to Strongbow's successful invasion, Henry II of England affirmed his ultimate sovereignty by mounting a larger invasion in 1171 and pronounced himself Lord of Ireland.", "Around this time, the ''county of the City of Dublin'' was established along with certain liberties adjacent to the city proper.", "This continued down to 1840 when the barony of Dublin City was separated from the barony of Dublin.", "Since 2001, both baronies have been redesignated as the ''City of Dublin''.Dublin Castle, with its 13th-century tower, was the fortified seat of British rule in Ireland until 1922.Dublin Castle, which became the centre of Anglo-Norman power in Ireland, was founded in 1204 as a major defensive work on the orders of King John of England.", "Following the appointment of the first Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1229, the city expanded and had a population of 8,000 by the end of the 13th century.", "Dublin prospered as a trade centre, despite an attempt by King Robert I of Scotland to capture the city in 1317.It remained a relatively small walled medieval town during the 14th century and was under constant threat from the surrounding native clans.", "In 1348, the Black Death, a lethal plague which had ravaged Europe, took hold in Dublin and killed thousands over the following decade.Dubline, 1610; a contemporary map by John Speed (1896 reprint)Dublin was the heart of the area known as the Pale, a narrow strip of English settlement along the eastern coast, under the control of the English Crown.", "The Tudor conquest of Ireland in the 16th century spelt a new era for Dublin, with the city enjoying a renewed prominence as the centre of administrative rule in Ireland where English control and settlement had become much more extensive.", "Determined to make Dublin a Protestant city, Queen Elizabeth I established Trinity College in 1592 as a solely Protestant university and ordered that the Catholic St. Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals be converted to the Protestant church.", "The earliest map of the city of Dublin dates from 1610, and was by John Speed.The city had a population of 21,000 in 1640 before a plague from 1649 to 1651 wiped out almost half of the inhabitants.", "However, the city prospered again soon after as a result of the wool and linen trade with England and reached a population of over 50,000 in 1700.By 1698 the manufacture of wool employed 12,000 people.===Early modern===Henrietta Street, developed in the 1720s, is the earliest Georgian street in Dublin.As the city continued to prosper during the 18th century, Georgian Dublin became, for a short period, the second-largest city of the British Empire and the fifth largest city in Europe, with the population exceeding 130,000.While some medieval streets and layouts (including the areas around Temple Bar, Aungier Street, Capel Street and Thomas Street) were less affected by the wave of Georgian reconstruction, much of Dublin's architecture and layout dates from this period.Dublin grew even more dramatically during the 18th century, with the construction of many new districts and buildings, such as Merrion Square, Parliament House and the Royal Exchange.", "The Wide Streets Commission was established in 1757 at the request of Dublin Corporation to govern architectural standards on the layout of streets, bridges and buildings.", "In 1759, the Guinness brewery was founded; and would eventually grow to become the largest brewery in the world and the largest employer in Dublin.", "During the 1700s, linen was not subject to the same trade restrictions with England as wool, and became the most important Irish export.", "Over 1.5 million yards of linen was exported from Ireland in 1710, rising to almost 19 million yards by 1779.===Late modern and contemporary===The GPO on O'Connell Street was at the centre of the 1916 Easter Rising.Dublin suffered a period of political and economic decline during the 19th century following the Acts of Union 1800, under which the seat of government was transferred to the Westminster Parliament in London.", "The city played no major role in the Industrial Revolution, but remained the centre of administration and a transport hub for most of the island.", "Ireland had no significant sources of coal, the fuel of the time, and Dublin was not a centre of ship manufacturing, the other main driver of industrial development in Britain and Ireland.", "Belfast developed faster than Dublin during this period on a mixture of international trade, factory-based linen cloth production and shipbuilding.", "By 1814, the population of Dublin was 175,319 as counted under the Population Act, making the population of Dublin higher than any town in England except London.Damage in Dublin city centre following the 1916 Easter Rising with the ruins of the GPO to the leftThe Easter Rising of 1916, the Irish War of Independence, and the subsequent Irish Civil War resulted in a significant amount of physical destruction in central Dublin.", "The Government of the Irish Free State rebuilt the city centre and located the new parliament, the Oireachtas, in Leinster House.", "Since the beginning of Norman rule in the 12th century, the city has functioned as the capital in varying geopolitical entities: Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541), Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800), as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922), and the Irish Republic (1919–1922).", "Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, it became the capital of the Irish Free State (1922–1937) and now is the capital of Ireland.", "One of the memorials to commemorate that time is the Garden of Remembrance.Dublin was also a victim of the Northern Irish Troubles, although during this 30-year conflict, violence mainly occurred within Northern Ireland.", "A Loyalist paramilitary group, the Ulster Volunteer Force, bombed the city during this time – notably in an atrocity known as the Dublin and Monaghan bombings in which 34 people died, mainly in central Dublin.Large parts of Georgian Dublin were demolished or substantially redeveloped in the mid-20th century during a boom in office building.", "After this boom, the recessions of the 1970s and 1980s slowed down the pace of building.", "Cumulatively, this led to a large decline in the number of people living in the centre of the city, and by 1985 the city had approximately 150 acres of derelict land which had been earmarked for development and of office space.Since 1997, the landscape of Dublin has changed.", "The city was at the forefront of Ireland's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period, with private sector and state development of housing, transport and business.", "Following an economic decline during the Great Recession, Dublin has rebounded and has close to full employment, but has a significant problem with housing supply in both the city and surrounds." ], [ "Government", "===Local===Civic Offices of Dublin City CouncilDublin City Council is a unicameral assembly of 63 members elected every five years from local electoral areas.", "It is presided over by the Lord Mayor, who is elected for a yearly term and resides in Dublin's Mansion House.", "Council meetings occur at Dublin City Hall, while most of its administrative activities are based in the Civic Offices on Wood Quay.", "The party or coalition of parties with the majority of seats assigns committee members, introduces policies, and proposes the Lord Mayor.", "The Council passes an annual budget for spending on areas such as housing, traffic management, refuse, drainage, and planning.", "The Dublin City Manager is responsible for implementing City Council decisions but also has considerable executive power.===National===Leinster House on Kildare Street houses the Oireachtas.As the capital city, Dublin is the seat of the national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas.", "It is composed of the President of Ireland, Dáil Éireann as the house of representatives, and Seanad Éireann as the upper house.", "The President resides in Áras an Uachtaráin in Phoenix Park, while both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal residence on Kildare Street.", "It has been the home of the Irish parliament since the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922.The old Irish Houses of Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, which dissolved in 1801, are located in College Green.Government Buildings house the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber, the Department of Finance and the Office of the Attorney General.", "It consists of a main building (completed 1911) with two wings (completed 1921).", "It was designed by Thomas Manley Dean and Sir Aston Webb as the Royal College of Science.", "The First Dáil originally met in the Mansion House in 1919.The Irish Free State government took over the two wings of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries, while the central building became the College of Technology until 1989.Although both it and Leinster House were intended to be temporary locations, they became the permanent homes of parliament from then on.For elections to Dáil Éireann, there are five constituencies that are wholly or predominantly in the Dublin City area: Dublin Central (4 seats), Dublin Bay North (5 seats), Dublin North-West (3 seats), Dublin South-Central (4 seats) and Dublin Bay South (4 seats).", "Twenty TDs are elected in total.", "The constituency of Dublin West (4 seats) is partially in Dublin City, but predominantly in Fingal.At the 2020 general election, the Dublin city area elected 5 Sinn Féin, 3 Fine Gael, 3 Fianna Fáil, 3 Green Party, 3 Social Democrats, 1 Right to Change, 1 Solidarity–People Before Profit and 1 Labour TDs." ], [ "Geography", "===Landscape===Satellite image showing the River Liffey entering the Irish Sea as it divides Dublin into the Northside and the SouthsideDublin is situated at the mouth of the River Liffey and encompasses a land area of approximately in east-central Ireland.", "It is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range and sub range of the Wicklow Mountains, to the south and surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west.====Watercourses====The River Liffey divides the city in two, between the Northside and the Southside.", "The Liffey bends at Leixlip from a northeasterly route to a predominantly eastward direction, and this point also marks the transition to urban development from more agricultural land usage.", "The city itself was founded where the River Poddle met the Liffey, and the early Viking settlement was also facilitated by the small Stein or Steyne River, the larger Camac and the Bradogue, in particular.Two secondary rivers further divide the city: the River Tolka, running southeast into Dublin Bay, and the River Dodder running northeast to near the mouth of the Liffey, and these and the Liffey have multiple tributaries.", "A number of lesser rivers and streams also flow to the sea within the suburban parts of the city.Two canals – the Grand Canal on the southside and the Royal Canal on the northside – ring the inner city on their way from the west and the River Shannon.===Climate===Similar to much of the rest of northwestern Europe, Dublin experiences a maritime climate (''Cfb'') with mild-warm summers, cool winters, and a lack of temperature extremes.", "At Merrion Square, the coldest month is February, with an average minimum temperature of , and the warmest month is July, with an average maximum temperature of .", "Due to the urban heat island effect, Dublin city has the warmest summertime nights in Ireland.", "The average minimum temperature at Merrion Square in July is , and the lowest July temperature ever recorded at the station was on 3 July 1974.Dublin's sheltered location on the east coast makes it the driest place in Ireland, receiving only about half the rainfall of the west coast.", "Ringsend in the south of the city records the lowest rainfall in the country, with an average annual precipitation of , with the average annual precipitation in the city centre being .", "The main precipitation in winter is rain; however snow showers do occur between November and March.", "Hail is more common than snow.", "The city experiences long summer days and short winter days.", "Strong Atlantic winds are most common in autumn.", "These winds can affect Dublin, but due to its easterly location, it is least affected compared to other parts of the country.", "However, in winter, easterly winds render the city colder and more prone to snow showers.In the 20th century, smog and air-pollution were an issue in the city, precipitating a ban on bituminous fuels across Dublin.", "The ban was implemented in 1990 to address black smoke concentrations, that had been linked to cardiovascular and respiratory deaths in residents.", "Since the ban, non-trauma death rates, respiratory death rates and cardiovascular death rates have declined – by an estimated 350 deaths annually.Climate data for DublinMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °C (°F)9.6(49.3)8.8(47.8)8.4(47.1)9.1(48.4)10.4(50.7)12.3(54.1)14.1(57.4)14.9(58.8)14.8(58.6)14.1(57.4)13.1(55.6)11.3(52.3)11.7(53.1)Mean daily daylight hours8.010.012.014.016.017.016.015.013.011.09.08.012.4Average Ultraviolet index0124566542103Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Cityscape", "===Areas=======City centre====The historic city centre of Dublin is encircled by the Royal Canal and Grand Canal, bounded to the west by Heuston railway station and Phoenix Park, and to the east by the IFSC and the Docklands.", "O'Connell Street is the main thoroughfare of the inner city and many Dublin Bus routes, as well as the Green line of the Luas, have a stop at O'Connell Street.", "The main shopping streets of the inner city include Henry Street on the Northside, and Grafton Street on the Southside.Victorian-era buildings, such as the George's Street Arcade, are common in the south inner city.In some tourism and real-estate marketing contexts, inner Dublin is sometimes divided into a number of quarters.", "These include the Medieval Quarter (in the area of Dublin Castle, Christ Church and St Patrick's Cathedral and the old city walls), the Georgian Quarter (including the area around St Stephen's Green, Trinity College, and Merrion Square), the Docklands Quarter (around the Dublin Docklands and Silicon Docks), the Cultural Quarter (around Temple Bar), and Creative Quarter (between South William Street and George's Street).====Suburbs==== SandyfordDublin's Northside suburbs include areas such as Finglas, Ballymun, Clontarf, and Howth.", "The Southside's suburbs include Tallaght, Sandyford, and Dún Laoghaire.Starting in the late 2010s, there was a significant amount of high density residential developments in the suburbs of Dublin, with mid to high-rise apartments being built in Sandyford, Ashtown, and Tallaght.Molly Malone statue===Cultural divide===A north–south division once, to some extent, traditionally existed, with the River Liffey as the divider.", "The southside was, in recent times, generally seen as being more affluent and genteel than the northside.", "There have also been some social divisions evident between the coastal suburbs in the east of the city, and the newer developments further to the west.===Landmarks===Dublin has many landmarks and monuments dating back hundreds of years.", "One of the oldest is Dublin Castle, which was first founded as a major defensive work on the orders of England's King John in 1204, shortly after the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, when it was commanded that a castle be built with strong walls and good ditches for the defence of the city, the administration of justice, and the protection of the King's treasure.", "Largely complete by 1230, the castle was of typical Norman courtyard design, with a central square without a keep, bounded on all sides by tall defensive walls and protected at each corner by a circular tower.", "Sited to the south-east of Norman Dublin, the castle formed one corner of the outer perimeter of the city, using the River Poddle as a natural means of defence.One of Dublin's most prominent landmarks is the Spire of Dublin, officially entitled the \"Monument of Light.\"", "It is a conical spire made of stainless steel, completed in 2003 and located on O'Connell Street, where it meets Henry Street and North Earl Street.", "It replaced Nelson's Pillar and is intended to mark Dublin's place in the 21st century.", "The spire was designed by Ian Ritchie Architects, who sought an \"Elegant and dynamic simplicity bridging art and technology\".", "The base of the monument is lit and the top is illuminated to provide a beacon in the night sky across the city.The Old Library of Trinity College Dublin, holding the Book of Kells, is one of the city's most visited sites.", "The Book of Kells is an illustrated manuscript created by Irish monks circa 800 AD.", "The Ha'penny Bridge, an iron footbridge over the River Liffey, is one of the most photographed sights in Dublin and is considered to be one of Dublin's most iconic landmarks.The Spire of Dublin rises behind the statue of Jim Larkin.Other landmarks and monuments include Christ Church Cathedral and St Patrick's Cathedral, the Mansion House, the Molly Malone statue, the complex of buildings around Leinster House, including part of the National Museum of Ireland and the National Library of Ireland, The Custom House and Áras an Uachtaráin.", "Other sights include the Anna Livia monument.", "The Poolbeg Towers are also landmark features of Dublin, and visible from various spots around the city.===Parks===Aerial view of St Stephen's GreenThere are 302 parks and 66 green spaces within the Dublin City Council area as of 2018, with the council managing over of parks.", "Public parks include the Phoenix Park, Herbert Park, St Stephen's Green, Saint Anne's Park and Bull Island.", "The Phoenix Park is about west of the city centre, north of the River Liffey.", "Its perimeter wall encloses , making it one of the largest walled city parks in Europe.", "It includes large areas of grassland and tree-lined avenues, and since the 17th century has been home to a herd of wild fallow deer.", "The residence of the President of Ireland (Áras an Uachtaráin), which was built in 1751, is located in the park.", "The park is also home to Dublin Zoo, Ashtown Castle, and the official residence of the United States Ambassador.", "Music concerts are also sometimes held in the park.St Stephen's Green is adjacent to one of Dublin's main shopping streets, Grafton Street, and to a shopping centre named after it, while on its surrounding streets are the offices of a number of public bodies.Saint Anne's Park is a public park and recreational facility, shared between Raheny and Clontarf, both suburbs on the Northside.", "The park, the second largest municipal park in Dublin, is part of a former estate assembled by members of the Guinness family, beginning with Benjamin Lee Guinness in 1835.The largest municipal park is adjacent (North) Bull Island, also shared between Clontarf and Raheny, featuring a 5 km beach, Dollymount Strand.===City boundaries===From 1842, the boundaries of the city were comprehended by the baronies of Dublin City and the barony of Dublin.", "Over time, the city has absorbed area previously administered as part of County Dublin (now the three counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin), with a change in 1985 also returning areas to the county.+Changes to city boundariesYearChanges1900Transfer of former urban districts of Clontarf, Drumcondra, Clonliffe and Glasnevin, and New Kilmainham from County Dublin1930Transfer of former urban districts of Pembroke and Rathmines and Rathgar from County Dublin1931Transfer of Drumcondra, Glasnevin, Donnybrook and Terenure from County Dublin1941Transfer of Crumlin from County Dublin1942Transfer of former urban district of Howth from County Dublin1953Transfer of Finglas, Coolock and Ballyfermot from County Dublin.1985Transfer of Santry and Phoenix Park from County Dublin;transfer of Howth, Sutton and parts of Kilbarrack including Bayside to County Dublin1994Alterations to western boundaries in the vicinities of Ballyfermot and Cabra on establishment of new counties" ], [ "Economy", "Ulster Bank on George's Quay Plaza The Dublin region is the economic centre of Ireland, and was at the forefront of the country's economic expansion during the Celtic Tiger period.", "In 2009, Dublin was listed as the fourth richest city in the world by purchasing power and 10th richest by personal income.", "According to ''Mercer's 2011 Worldwide Cost of Living Survey'', Dublin was the 13th most expensive city in the European Union (down from 10th in 2010) and the 58th most expensive place to live in the world (down from 42nd in 2010).", ", approximately 874,400 people were employed in the Greater Dublin Area.", "Around 60% of people who are employed in Ireland's financial, ICT, and professional sectors are located in this area.A number of Dublin's traditional industries, such as food processing, textile manufacturing, brewing, and distilling have gradually declined, although Guinness has been brewed at the St. James's Gate Brewery since 1759.Economic improvements in the 1990s attracted a number of global pharmaceutical, information and communications technology companies to the city and Greater Dublin Area.", "Companies such as Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, PayPal, Yahoo!, Facebook, Twitter, Accenture, TikTok and Pfizer now have European headquarters or operational bases in the city with several located in enterprise clusters like the Digital Hub and Silicon Docks.", "The presence of these companies has driven economic expansion in the city and led to Dublin sometimes being referred to as the \"Tech Capital of Europe\".Financial services have also become important to the city since the establishment of Dublin's International Financial Services Centre in 1987.More than 500 operations are approved to trade under the IFSC programme.", "The centre is host to half of the world's top 50 banks and to half of the top 20 insurance companies.", "Many international firms have established major headquarters in the city, such as Citibank.", "The Irish Stock Exchange (ISEQ), Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) and Irish Enterprise Exchange (IEX) are also located in Dublin.", "Dublin has been positioned as one of the main cities vying to host Financial Services companies hoping to retain access to the Eurozone after Brexit.", "The Celtic Tiger also led to a temporary boom in construction, with large redevelopment projects in the Dublin Docklands and Spencer Dock.", "Completed projects include the Convention Centre, the 3Arena, and the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre.In the second quarter of 2018, Dublin touched its lowest unemployment rate in a decade, when it fell down to 5.7% as reported by the Dublin Economic Monitor.", "In November 2022, Dublin was ranked as one of the worst cities in the world for travel, health and cost of living.", "On 24 September 2022, thousands took to the streets in protest against the cost of living crisis." ], [ "Transport", "===Road===M50 motorway surrounding DublinThe road network in Ireland is primarily focused on Dublin.", "The M50 motorway, a semi-ring road which runs around the south, west and north of the city, connects important national primary routes to the rest of the country.", "In 2008, the West-Link toll bridge was replaced by the eFlow barrier-free tolling system, with a three-tiered charge system based on electronic tags and car pre-registration.The first phase of a proposed eastern bypass for the city is the Dublin Port Tunnel, which officially opened in 2006 to mainly cater for heavy vehicles.", "The tunnel connects Dublin Port and the M1 motorway close to Dublin Airport.", "The city is also surrounded by an inner and outer orbital route.", "The inner orbital route runs approximately around the heart of the Georgian city and the outer orbital route runs primarily along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads.The 2016 TomTom Traffic Index ranked Dublin the 15th most congested city in the world and the 7th most congested in Europe.====Bus====Dublin is served by a network of nearly 200 bus routes which cover the city and suburbs.", "The majority of these are provided by Dublin Bus, with a modest number having been transferred to Go Ahead Ireland in 2018.A number of smaller companies also operate.", "Fares are generally calculated on a stage system based on distance travelled.", "There are several different levels of fares, which apply on most services.", "A \"Real Time Passenger Information\" system was introduced at Dublin Bus bus stops in 2012 in which signs relay display the projected time of the next buses' arrival based on its GPS position.", "The National Transport Authority is responsible for integration of bus and rail services in Dublin and has been involved in introducing a pre-paid smart card, called a TFI Leap Card, which can be used on all of Dublin's public transport services.The BusConnects programme includes a number of proposed improvements to Dublin's bus network, including new spine and orbital routes.", "The spine routes are intended to increase the frequency of buses along major corridors, and the orbital routes aim to \"provide connections between suburbs and town centres, without having to travel into the City Centre\".", "In 2022, Dublin Bus began the process of electrifying its fleet with new battery-powered buses, with plans for 85% of Dublin buses to be zero-emission by 2032.====Cycling====Dublinbikes terminal in the DocklandsThe 2011 census indicated that 5.9% of commuters in Dublin cycled.", "A 2013 report by Dublin City Council on traffic flows crossing the canals in and out of the city found that just under 10% of all traffic was made up of cyclists, representing an increase of 14.1% over 2012 and an 87.2% increase over 2006 levels.", "The increase was attributed to measures such as the Dublinbikes bike rental scheme, the provision of cycle lanes, public awareness campaigns to promote cycling and the introduction of the 30 km/h city centre speed limit.Dublin City Council began installing cycle lanes and tracks throughout the city in the 1990s, and the city had over of specific on- and off-road tracks for cyclists.", "In 2011, the city was ranked 9th of major world cities on the ''Copenhagenize Index of Bicycle-Friendly Cities''.", "The same index showed a fall to 15th in 2015, and Dublin was outside the top 20 in 2017.Dublinbikes is a self-service bicycle rental scheme which has been in operation in Dublin since 2009.Sponsored by JCDecaux and Just Eat, the scheme consists of hundreds of unisex bicycles stationed at 44 terminals throughout the city centre.", "Users must make a subscription for either an annual Long Term Hire Card or purchase a three-day ticket.", ", Dublinbikes had over 66,000 long-term subscribers making over 2 million journeys per year.===Rail===Luas trams at the Tallaght terminusHeuston and Connolly stations are the two main railway termini in Dublin.", "Operated by Iarnród Éireann, the Dublin Suburban Rail network consists of five railway lines serving the Greater Dublin Area and commuter towns such as Drogheda and Dundalk in County Louth, Gorey in County Wexford, and extending as far as Portlaoise and once a day, Newry.", "One of the five lines is the electrified Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line, which runs primarily along the coast of Dublin, comprising 31 stations, from Malahide and Howth southwards as far as Greystones in County Wicklow.", "Commuter rail operates on the other four lines using Irish Rail diesel multiple units.", "In 2013, passengers for DART and Dublin Suburban lines were 16 million and 11.7 million, respectively (around 75% of all Irish Rail passengers).Dublin once had an extensive system of trams but this was largely phased out by 1949.A new light rail system, often described as a tram system, the Luas, was launched in 2004, and is run by Transdev Ireland (under contract from Transport Infrastructure Ireland), carrying over 34 million passengers annually.", "The network consists of two interconnecting lines; the Red Line links the Docklands and city centre with the south-western suburbs of Tallaght and Saggart, while the Green Line connects northern inner city suburbs and the main city centre with suburbs to the south of the city including Sandyford and Brides Glen.", "Together these lines comprise a total 67 stations and of track.", "Construction of a 6 km extension to the Green Line, bringing it into the north of the city, commenced in June 2013 and was opened for passenger travel on 9 December 2017.A metro service is proposed under the name of Metrolink, and planned to run from Dublin's northside to Charlemont via Dublin Airport and St. Stephen's Green.===Rail and ferry===Dublin Connolly is connected by bus to Dublin Port and ferries run by Irish Ferries and Stena Line to Holyhead for connecting trains on the North Wales Coast Line to Chester, Crewe and London Euston.", "Dublin Connolly to Dublin Port can be reached via Amiens Street, Dublin into Store Street or by Luas via Busáras where Dublin Bus operates services to the Ferry Terminal.===Air=======Dublin Airport====Dublin AirportDublin Airport (owned and operated by DAA) is located north of Dublin city, near Swords in the administrative county of Fingal.", "The headquarters of Ireland's flag carrier Aer Lingus and regional airline CityJet are located there, and those of low-cost carrier Ryanair nearby.", "The airport offers a short and medium-haul network, domestic services to regional airports in Ireland, and long-haul services to the United States, Canada, the Middle East and Hong Kong.", "Dublin Airport is the 11th busiest in the European Union, and by far the busiest airport on the island of Ireland.In 2015 and 2016, transatlantic traffic grew, with 158 summer flights a week to North America, making it the sixth largest European hub for that route over the year.", "Transatlantic traffic was also the fastest-growing segment of the market for the airport in 2016, in which a 16% increase from 2015 brought the yearly number of passengers travelling between Dublin and North America to 2.9 million.From 2010 to 2016, Dublin Airport saw an increase of nearly 9.5 million passengers in its annual traffic, as the number of commercial aircraft movements has similarly followed a growth trend from 163,703 in 2013 to 191,233 in 2015.In 2019, Dublin Airport was the 12th busiest airport in Europe, with almost 33 million passengers passing through the airport.", "====Other air transport====Dublin is also served by Weston Airport and other small facilities, by a range of helicopter operators, and the military and some State services use Casement Aerodrome nearby." ], [ "Education", "Dublin is the largest centre of education in Ireland, and is home to four universities and a number of other higher education institutions.", "It was the European Capital of Science in 2012.Trinity CollegeTrinity CollegeThe University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland, dating from the 16th century, and is located in the city centre.", "Its sole constituent college, Trinity College (TCD), was established by Royal Charter in 1592 under Elizabeth I.", "It was closed to Roman Catholics until 1793, and the Catholic hierarchy then banned Roman Catholics from attending until 1970.It is situated in the city centre, on College Green, and has over 18,000 students.The National University of Ireland (NUI) has its seat in Dublin, which is also the location of the associated ''constituent university'' of University College Dublin (UCD), which has over 30,000 students.", "Founded in 1854, it is now the largest university in Ireland.", "UCD's main campus is at Belfield, about from the city centre, in the southeastern suburbs.As of 2019, Dublin's principal, and Ireland's largest, institution for technological education and research, Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), with origins in 1887, has merged with two major suburban third level institutions, Institute of Technology, Tallaght and Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown, to form Technological University Dublin, Ireland's second largest university by student population.", "The new university offers a wide range of courses in areas include engineering, architecture, the sciences, health, journalism, digital media, hospitality, business, art and design, music and the humanities programmes, and has three long-term campuses, at Grangegorman, Tallaght and Blanchardstown.Dublin City University (DCU), formerly the National Institute for Higher Education (NIHE) Dublin, offers courses in business, engineering, science, communication courses, languages and primary education.", "It has around 16,000 students, and its main campus is located about from the city centre, in the northern suburbs.", "Aside from the main Glasnevin Campus, the Drumcondra campuses includes the former St. Patrick's College of Education, Drumcondra now also hosting students from the nearby Mater Dei Institute of Education and students from the Church of Ireland College of Education at the DCU Campus at All Hallows College.The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) conducts a medical school which is both a university (since 2019) and a recognised college of the NUI, and is situated at St. Stephen's Green in the city centre; there are also large medical schools within UCD and Trinity College.", "The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) provides education and research in art, design and media.", "The National College of Ireland (NCI) is also based in Dublin, as well as the Economic and Social Research Institute, a social science research institute, on Sir John Rogerson's Quay, and the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.The Institute of International and European Affairs is also in Dublin.", "Dublin Business School (DBS) is Ireland's largest private third level institution with over 9,000 students located on Aungier Street, and Griffith College Dublin has its main facility in Portobello.", "There are also smaller specialised colleges, including The Gaiety School of Acting.", "The Irish public administration and management training centre has its base in Dublin, the Institute of Public Administration provides a range of undergraduate and post graduate awards via the National University of Ireland and in some instances, Queen's University Belfast.Dublin is also home to the Royal Irish Academy, membership of which is considered Ireland's highest academic honour.The suburban town of Dún Laoghaire is home to the Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (IADT), which supports training and research in art, design, business, psychology and media technology.", "Dublin joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2019." ], [ "Demographics", "Dublin (city) population pyramid in 2022+ Main immigrant groups in Dublin City and suburbs (2016) Nationality Population Poland 33,751 UK 19,196 Romania 16,808 Lithuania 9,869 Brazil 8,903 Italy 6,834 India 6,546 Spain 6,341 Latvia 5,771 Mainland China 5,748 France 5,576 United States 4,042 Nigeria 2,563 Pakistan 2,515 Philippines 2,204The City of Dublin is the area administered by Dublin City Council.", "The traditional County Dublin includes the city and the administrative counties of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin.", "The Greater Dublin Area includes County Dublin and the adjoining counties, County Kildare, County Meath and County Wicklow.In the 2022 census, the population of the City of Dublin was 592,713, while the population of Dublin city and suburbs was 1,263,219.County Dublin had a population of 1,458,154, and the population of the Greater Dublin Area was 2,082,605.Of the population of Dublin city and its suburbs, 62.9% (794,925) were born in Dublin, 26.6% (336,021) were born outside of Ireland, while the remaining 10.5% (132,273) were born in a county other than Dublin.After World War II, Italians were by far the largest immigrant group in both Dublin and Ireland and became synonymous with the catering and restaurant landscape.", "Since the late 1990s, Dublin has experienced a significant level of net immigration, with the greatest numbers coming from the European Union, especially the United Kingdom, Poland and Lithuania.", "There is also immigration from outside Europe, including from Brazil, India, the Philippines, China and Nigeria.", "Dublin is home to a greater proportion of newer arrivals than any other part of the country.", "Sixty percent of Ireland's Asian population lives in Dublin.The capital attracts the largest proportion of non-Catholic migrants from other countries.", "Increased secularisation in Ireland has prompted a drop in regular Catholic church attendance in Dublin from over 90 percent in the mid-1970s down to 14 percent according to a 2011 survey and less than 2% in some areasAccording to the 2016 census, the population of Dublin was 86.2% white (including 862,381 white Irish 72.5%, 132,846 other white 13.2% and 5,092 0.5% white Irish traveller), 2% black (23,892), and 4.6% Asian (46,626).", "Additionally, 2.7% (27,412) are from other ethnic or cultural background, while 4.9% (49,092) did not state their ethnicity.", "In terms of religion, 68.2% identified as Catholic, 12.7% as other stated religions, with 19.1% having no religion or no religion stated., there were 1,367 families within the Dublin region living in homeless accommodation or other emergency housing." ], [ "Culture", "National Museum of Ireland===The arts===Dublin has a significant literary history, and produced many literary figures, including Nobel laureates William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw and Samuel Beckett.", "Other influential writers and playwrights include Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift and the creator of Dracula, Bram Stoker.", "It is also the location of key and notable works of James Joyce, including ''Ulysses'', which is set in Dublin and includes much topical detail.", "''Dubliners'' is a collection of short stories by Joyce about incidents and typical characters of the city during the early 20th century.", "Other renowned writers include J. M. Synge, Seán O'Casey, Brendan Behan, Maeve Binchy, John Banville and Roddy Doyle.", "Ireland's biggest libraries and literary museums are found in Dublin, including the National Print Museum of Ireland and National Library of Ireland.", "In July 2010, Dublin was named as a UNESCO City of Literature, joining Edinburgh, Melbourne and Iowa City with the permanent title.Book of KellsHandel's oratorio Messiah was first performed at Neal's Music Hall, in Fishamble Street, on 13 April 1742.There are several theatres within the city centre, and various well-known actors have emerged from the Dublin theatrical scene, including Noel Purcell, Michael Gambon, Brendan Gleeson, Stephen Rea, Colin Farrell, Colm Meaney and Gabriel Byrne.", "The best known theatres include the Gaiety, Abbey, Olympia, Gate, and Grand Canal.", "The Gaiety specialises in musical and operatic productions, and also opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films.", "The Abbey was founded in 1904 by a group that included Yeats with the aim of promoting indigenous literary talent.", "It went on to provide a breakthrough for some of the city's most famous writers, such as Synge, Yeats himself and George Bernard Shaw.", "The Gate was founded in 1928 to promote European and American Avant Garde works.", "The Grand Canal Theatre is a newer 2,111 capacity theatre which opened in 2010 in the Grand Canal Dock area.Apart from being the focus of the country's literature and theatre, Dublin is also the focal point for much of Irish art and the Irish artistic scene.", "The Book of Kells, a world-famous manuscript produced by Celtic monks in AD 800 and an example of Insular art, is on display in Trinity College.", "The Chester Beatty Library houses a collection of manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and decorative arts assembled by American mining millionaire (and honorary Irish citizen) Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875–1968).", "The collections date from 2700 BCE onwards and are drawn from Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe.Mosaic of the coat of arms of Dublin on the floor of City HallIn addition public art galleries are found across the city and are free to visit, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, the Douglas Hyde Gallery, the Project Arts Centre and the exhibition space of the Royal Hibernian Academy.", "Private galleries in Dublin include Green on Red Gallery, Kerlin Gallery, Kevin Kavanagh Gallery and Mother's Tankstation.Three branches of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin: Archaeology in Kildare Street, Decorative Arts and History in Collins Barracks and Natural History in Merrion Street.", "Dublin is home to the National College of Art and Design, which dates from 1746, and Dublin Institute of Design, founded in 1991.Dublinia is a living history attraction showcasing the Viking and Medieval history of the city.Dublin has long had an 'underground' arts scene, with Temple Bar hosting artists in the 1980s, and spaces such as the Project Arts Centre acting as a hub for collectives and new exhibitions.", "''The Guardian'' noted that Dublin's independent and underground arts flourished during the economic recession of .", "Dublin also has many dramatic, musical and operatic companies, including Festival Productions, Lyric Opera Productions, the Pioneers' Musical & Dramatic Society, Rathmines and Rathgar Musical Society, the Glasnevin Musical Society, Third Day Chorale, Second Age Theatre Company, Irish National Opera.Dublin was shortlisted to be World Design Capital 2014.Taoiseach Enda Kenny was quoted to say that Dublin \"would be an ideal candidate to host the World Design Capital in 2014\".In October 2021, Dublin was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Copenhagen, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia.===Entertainment===Dublin has a vibrant nightlife and is reputedly one of Europe's most youthful cities, with an estimate of 50% of citizens being younger than 25.There are many pubs across the city centre, with the area around St. Stephen's Green and Grafton Street, especially Harcourt Street, Camden Street, Wexford Street and Leeson Street, the location of many nightclubs and pubs.Temple BarThe best known area for nightlife is Temple Bar, south of the River Liffey.", "The area has become popular among tourists, including stag and hen parties from the UK.", "It was developed as Dublin's cultural quarter and does retain this spirit as a centre for small arts productions, photographic and artists' studios, and in the form of street performers and small music venues; however, it has been criticised as overpriced, false and dirty by Lonely Planet.", "The areas around Leeson Street, Harcourt Street, South William Street and Camden/George's Street are popular nightlife spots for locals.===Music===Live music is played on streets and at venues throughout Dublin, and the city has produced several musicians and groups of international success, including the Dubliners, Thin Lizzy, the Boomtown Rats, U2, the Script, Sinéad O'Connor, Boyzone, Kodaline, Fontaines D.C. and Westlife.", "Dublin has several mid-range venues that host live music throughout the week, including Whelans and Vicar Street.", "The 3Arena venue in the Dublin Docklands plays host to visiting global performers.===Shopping===Moore Street MarketGrafton StreetDublin city centre is a popular shopping destination for both locals and tourists.", "The city has numerous shopping districts, particularly around Grafton Street and Henry Street.", "The city centre is also the location of large department stores, including Arnotts, Brown Thomas and (prior to its 2015 closure) Clerys.While the city has seen the loss of some traditional market sites, Moore Street remains one of the city's oldest trading districts.", "There has also been some growth in local farmers' markets and other markets.", "In 2007, Dublin Food Co-op relocated to a warehouse in The Liberties area, where it is home to market and community events.", "Suburban Dublin has several modern retail centres, including Dundrum Town Centre, Blanchardstown Centre, the Square in Tallaght, Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in Clondalkin, Omni Shopping Centre in Santry, Nutgrove Shopping Centre in Rathfarnham, Northside Shopping Centre in Coolock and Swords Pavilions in Swords.===Media===Dublin is the centre of both media and communications in Ireland, with many newspapers, radio stations, television stations and telephone companies based there.", "RTÉ is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and is based in Donnybrook.", "Fair City is RTÉ's soap opera, located in the fictional Dublin suburb of ''Carraigstown''.Virgin Media Television, eir Sport, MTV Ireland and Sky News are also based in the city.", "The headquarters of An Post and telecommunications companies such as Eir, as well as mobile operators Vodafone and 3 are all located there.", "Dublin is also the headquarters of national newspapers such as ''The Irish Times'' and ''Irish Independent'', as well as local newspapers such as ''The Evening Herald''.As well as being home to RTÉ Radio, Dublin also hosts the national radio networks Today FM and Newstalk, and local stations.", "Commercial radio stations based in the city include 4fm (94.9 MHz), Dublin's 98FM (98.1 MHz), Radio Nova 100FM (100.3 MHz), Q102 (102.2 MHz), SPIN 1038 (103.8 MHz), FM104 (104.4 MHz), Sunshine 106.8 (106.8 MHz).", "There are also numerous community and special interest stations, including Dublin City FM (103.2 MHz), Dublin South FM (93.9 MHz), Liffey Sound FM (96.4 MHz), Near FM (90.3 MHz), and Raidió Na Life (106.4 MHz).===Sport=======GAA====Croke ParkCroke Park is the largest sport stadium in Ireland.", "The headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association, it has a capacity of 82,300.It is the third-largest stadium in Europe after Nou Camp in Barcelona and Wembley Stadium in London.", "It hosts the premier Gaelic football and hurling games, international rules football and irregularly other sporting and non-sporting events including concerts.", "Muhammad Ali fought there in 1972 and it played host to the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2003 Special Olympics.", "It also has conference and banqueting facilities.", "There is a GAA Museum there and tours of the stadium are offered, including a rooftop walk of the stadium.", "During the redevelopment of Lansdowne Road, Croke Park played host to the Irish Rugby Union Team and Republic of Ireland national football team as well as hosting the Heineken Cup rugby 2008–09 semi-final between Munster and Leinster, which set a world record attendance for a club rugby match.", "The Dublin GAA team plays most of their home league hurling games at Parnell Park.====Rugby Union====Aviva StadiumIRFU Stadium Lansdowne Road was laid out in 1874.This was the venue for home games of both the Irish Rugby Union Team and the Republic of Ireland national football team.", "A joint venture between the Irish Rugby Football Union, the FAI and the Government, saw it redeveloped into a new state-of-the-art 50,000 seat Aviva Stadium, which opened in May 2010.Lansdowne Road/Aviva Stadium hosted the Heineken Cup final in 1999, 2003, and 2013, and is also due to host the 2023 final.", "Rugby union team Leinster Rugby play their competitive home games in the RDS Arena & the Aviva Stadium while Donnybrook Stadium hosts their friendlies and A games, Ireland A and Women, Leinster Schools and Youths and the home club games of All Ireland League clubs Old Wesley and Bective Rangers.", "County Dublin is home for 13 of the senior rugby union clubs in Ireland including 5 of the 10 sides in the top division 1A.====Association football====Dublin is home to five League of Ireland association football clubs: Bohemian, Shamrock Rovers, Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic and University College Dublin.", "The first Irish side to reach the group stages of a European competition (2011–12 UEFA Europa League group stage) are Shamrock Rovers, who play at Tallaght Stadium in South Dublin.", "Bohemian F.C play at Dalymount Park, the oldest football stadium in the country, and home ground for the Ireland football team from 1904 to the 1970s.", "St Patrick's Athletic play at Richmond Park; University College Dublin at the UCD Bowl in Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown; and Shelbourne at Tolka Park.", "Tolka Park, Dalymount Park, UCD Bowl and Tallaght Stadium, along with the Carlisle Grounds in Bray, hosted all Group 3 games in the intermediary round of the 2011 UEFA Regions' Cup.", "Aviva Stadium hosted the 2011 UEFA Europa League Final.====Cricket====Dublin has two ODI cricket grounds in Castle Avenue (Clontarf Cricket Club) and Malahide Cricket Club Ground.", "College Park has Test status and played host to Ireland's first Test cricket match, a women's match against Pakistan in 2000.The men's Irish cricket team also played their first Test match against Pakistan at Malahide Cricket Club Ground during 2018.Leinster Lightning play their home inter-provincial matches in Dublin at College Park.====Other====The Dublin Marathon has been run since 1980 at the end of October.", "The Women's Mini Marathon has been run since 1983 on the first Monday in June, which is also a bank holiday in Ireland.", "It is said to be the largest all female event of its kind in the world.", "The Great Ireland Run takes place in Dublin's Phoenix Park in mid-April.Two Dublin baseball clubs compete in the Irish Baseball League.", "The Dublin Spartans and the Dublin Bay Hurricanes are both based at The O'Malley Fields at Corkagh Park.", "The Portmarnock Red Rox, from outside the city, competes in the Baseball Ireland B League.The Dublin area hosts greyhound racing at Shelbourne Park and horse racing at Leopardstown.", "The Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982.The national boxing arena is located in The National Stadium on the South Circular Road.", "The National Basketball Arena is located in Tallaght, is the home of the Irish basketball team, the venue for the basketball league finals, and has also hosted boxing and wrestling events.", "The National Aquatic Centre in Blanchardstown is Ireland's largest indoor water leisure facility.", "There are also Gaelic Handball, hockey and athletics stadia, most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics.===Cuisine===As of the 2022 Michelin Guide, six Dublin restaurants shared nine Michelin stars – including Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud, Liath and Chapter One with two.", "Irish-born Kevin Thornton was awarded two Michelin stars in 2001 – though his restaurant, Thornton's, closed in 2016.The Dublin Institute of Technology commenced a bachelor's degree in culinary skills in 1999.Historically, Irish coffee houses and cafes were associated with those working in media.", "Since the beginning of the 21st century, with the growth of apartment living in the city, Dublin's cafés attracted younger patrons looking for an informal gathering place and an ad hoc office.", "Cafés became more popular in the city, and Irish-owned coffee chains like Java Republic, Insomnia, and O'Brien's Sandwich Bars now compete internationally.", "In 2008, Irish barista Stephen Morrissey won the title of World Barista Champion." ], [ "Irish language", "Dublin was traditionally a city of two languages, English and Irish, a situation found also in the area around it, The Pale.", "The Irish of County Dublin represented the easternmost extension of a broad central dialect area which stretched between Leinster and Connacht, but had its own local characteristics.", "It may also have been influenced by the east Ulster dialect of County Meath and County Louth to the north.In the words of a 16th-century English administrator, William Gerard (1518–1581): \"All Englishe, and the most part with delight, even in Dublin, speak Irishe\".", "The Old English historian Richard Stanihurst (1547–1618) wrote as follows: \"When their posteritie became not altogither so warie in keeping, as their ancestors were valiant in conquering, the Irish language was free dennized in the English Pale: this canker tooke such deep root, as the bodie that before was whole and sound, was by little and little festered, and in manner wholly putrified\".English authorities of the Cromwellian period accepted the fact that Irish was widely spoken in the city and its surrounds.", "In 1655 several local dignitaries were ordered to oversee a lecture in Irish to be given in Dublin.", "In March 1656 a converted Catholic priest, Séamas Corcy, was appointed to preach in Irish at Bride's parish every Sunday, and was also ordered to preach at Drogheda and Athy.", "In 1657 the English colonists in Dublin presented a petition to the Municipal Council complaining that in Dublin itself \"there is Irish commonly and usually spoken\".In early 18th century Dublin, Irish was the language of a group of poets and scribes led by Seán and Tadhg Ó Neachtain.", "Scribal activity in Irish persisted in Dublin right through the 18th century.", "There were still native Irish speakers in County Dublin at the time of the 1851 census.Though the number of Irish speakers declined throughout Ireland in the 19th century, the end of the century saw a Gaelic revival, centred in Dublin and accompanied by renewed literary activity.", "This was the harbinger of a steady renewal of urban Irish, though with new characteristics of its own.Dublin now has many thousands of habitual Irish speakers, with the 2016 census showing that daily speakers (outside the education system) numbered 14,903.They form part of an urban Irish-speaking cohort which is generally better-educated than monoglot English speakers.The Dublin Irish-speaking cohort is supported by a number of Irish-medium schools.", "There are 12,950 students in the Dublin region attending 34 gaelscoileanna (Irish-language primary schools) and 10 gaelcholáistí (Irish-language secondary schools).Two Irish language radio stations, Raidió Na Life and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta, have studios in the city, and the online station Raidió Rí-Rá broadcasts from studios in the city.", "A number of Irish language agencies are also located in the capital.", "offers language classes and is used as a meeting place for different groups.", "The closest Gaeltacht to Dublin is the County Meath Gaeltacht of Ráth Cairn and Baile Ghib which is away." ], [ "International relations", "Dublin city council has an International Relations Unit, established in 2007.It works on hosting of international delegations, staff exchanges, international promotion of the city, twinning and partnerships, work with multi-city organisations such as Eurocities, economic partnerships and advice to other Council units.===Twin and partner cities===Dublin is twinned with five places: City Nation Since '''San Jose''' United States 1986 '''Liverpool''' United Kingdom 1997 '''Barcelona''' Spain 1998 '''Beijing''' China 2011 '''Ramallah''' Palestine 2023The city also has \"friendship\" or \"co-operation agreements\" with a number of other cities: Moscow (2009−) and St Petersburg (2010−) in Russia and Guadalajara in Mexico (2013−), and has previously proposed an agreement with Rio de Janeiro also.", "Previous agreements have included those with Mexico City (2014−2018), Tbilisi in Georgia (2014−2017) and Wuhan in China (2016−2019)." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "See also", "Dublin EnglishList of people from DublinList of subdivisions of County Dublin" ], [ "References", "'''Sources'''" ], [ "Further reading", "* John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, ''Dublin Journeys in America'' (High Table Publishing, 2003) * Pat Liddy, ''Dublin A Celebration: From the 1st to the 21st century'' (Dublin City Council, 2000) * Maurice Craig, ''The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880'' (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989) * Frank McDonald, ''Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin'' (Tomar Publishing, 1989) * Edward McParland, ''Public Architecture in Ireland 1680–1760'' (Yale University Press, 2001)" ], [ "External links", "* Dublin City Council – Official website of the local authority for Dublin* Dublin Tourist Board – Official tourism site* Dublin UNESCO City of Literature official site* Dublin Historic Maps, Boundaries & an OSM Miscellany" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "DirectX" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Microsoft DirectX''' is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms.", "Originally, the names of these APIs all began with \"Direct\", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth.", "The name ''DirectX'' was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the ''X'' standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection.", "When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the ''X'' was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology.", "The ''X'' initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles.", "Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering.", "As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names \"DirectX\" and \"Direct3D\" used interchangeably.The DirectX software development kit (SDK) consists of runtime libraries in redistributable binary form, along with accompanying documentation and headers for use in coding.", "Originally, the runtimes were only installed by games or explicitly by the user.", "Windows 95 did not launch with DirectX, but DirectX was included with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 2.Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0 both shipped with DirectX, as has every version of Windows released since.", "The SDK is available as a free download.", "While the runtimes are proprietary, closed-source software, source code is provided for most of the SDK samples.", "Starting with the release of Windows 8 Developer Preview, DirectX SDK has been integrated into Windows SDK." ], [ "Development history", "In late 1994, Microsoft was ready to release Windows 95, its next operating system.", "An important factor in the value consumers would place on it was the programs that would be able to run on it.", "Microsoft employee Alex St. John had been in discussions with various game developers asking how likely they would be to bring their MS-DOS games to Windows 95, and found the responses mostly negative; programmers had found that the Windows environment did not provide the necessary features which were available under MS-DOS using BIOS routines or direct hardware access.", "There were also strong fears of compatibility; a notable case of this was from ''Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King'' which was based on the WinG programming interface.", "Due to numerous incompatible graphics drivers from new Compaq computers that were not tested with the WinG interface which came bundled with the game, it crashed so frequently on many desktop systems that parents had flooded Disney's call-in help lines.St.", "John recognized the resistances for game development under Windows would be a limitation, and recruited two additional engineers, Craig Eisler and Eric Engstrom, to develop a better solution to get more programmers to develop games for Windows.", "The project was codenamed the Manhattan Project, like the World War II project of the same name, and the idea was to displace the Japanese-developed video game consoles with personal computers running Microsoft's operating system.", "It had initially used the radiation symbol as its logo but Microsoft asked the team to change the logo.", "Management did not agree to the project as they were already writing off Windows as a gaming platform, but the three committed towards this project's development.", "Their rebellious nature led Brad Silverberg, the senior vice president of Microsoft's office products, to name the trio the \"Beastie Boys\".Most of the work by the three was done among other assigned projects starting near the end of 1994.Within four months and with input from several hardware manufacturers, the team had developed the first set of application programming interfaces (APIs) which they presented at the 1995 Game Developers Conference.", "The SDK included libraries implementing DirectDraw for bit-mapped graphics, DirectSound for audio, and DirectPlay for communication between players over a network.", "Furthermore, an extended joystick API already present in Windows 95 was documented for the first time as DirectInput, while a description of how to implement the immediate start of the installation procedure of a software title after inserting its CD-ROM, a feature called AutoPlay, was also part of the SDK.", "The \"Direct\" part of the library was so named as these routines bypassed existing core Windows 95 routines and accessed the computer hardware only via a hardware abstraction layer (HAL).", "Though the team had named it the \"Game SDK\" (software development kit), the name \"DirectX\" came from one journalist that had mocked the naming scheme of the various libraries.", "The team opted to continue to use that naming scheme and call the project DirectX.The first version of DirectX was released in September 1995 as the Windows Games SDK.", "Its DirectDraw component was the Win32 replacement for the DCI and WinG APIs for Windows 3.1.DirectX allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia.", "Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 in his blog.To get more developers on board DirectX, Microsoft approached id Software's John Carmack and offered to port ''Doom'' and ''Doom 2'' from MS-DOS to DirectX, free of charge, with id retaining all publishing rights to the game.", "Carmack agreed, and Microsoft's Gabe Newell led the porting project.", "The first game was released as ''Doom 95'' in August 1996, the first published DirectX game.", "Microsoft promoted the game heavily with Bill Gates appearing in ads for the title.DirectX 2.0 became a component of Windows itself with the releases of Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 in mid-1996.Since Windows 95 was itself still new and few games had been released for it, Microsoft engaged in heavy promotion of DirectX to developers who were generally distrustful of Microsoft's ability to build a gaming platform in Windows.", "Alex St. John, the evangelist for DirectX, staged an elaborate event at the 1996 Computer Game Developers Conference which game developer Jay Barnson described as a Roman theme, including real lions, togas, and something resembling an indoor carnival.", "It was at this event that Microsoft first introduced Direct3D, and demonstrated multiplayer ''MechWarrior 2'' being played over the Internet.The DirectX team faced the challenging task of testing each DirectX release against an array of computer hardware and software.", "A variety of different graphics cards, audio cards, motherboards, CPUs, input devices, games, and other multimedia applications were tested with each beta and final release.", "The DirectX team also built and distributed tests that allowed the hardware industry to confirm that new hardware designs and driver releases would be compatible with DirectX.Prior to DirectX Microsoft had added OpenGL to their Windows NT platform.", "OpenGL had been designed as a cross-platform, window system independent software interface to graphics hardware by Silicon Graphics, Inc. to bring 3D graphics programming into the mainstream of application programming.", "Besides it could also be used for 2D graphics and imaging and was controlled by the Architectural Review Board (ARB) which included Microsoft.", "Direct3D was intended to be a Microsoft controlled alternative to OpenGL, focused initially on game use.", "As 3D gaming grew game developers were discovering that OpenGL could be used effectively for game development.", "At that point a \"battle\" began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D.", "Incidentally, OpenGL was supported at Microsoft by the DirectX team.", "If a developer chose to use the OpenGL 3D graphics API in computer games, the other APIs of DirectX besides Direct3D were often combined with OpenGL because OpenGL does not include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support).In a console-specific version, DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's Xbox, Xbox 360 and Xbox One console API.", "The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and Nvidia, which developed the custom graphics hardware used by the original Xbox.", "The Xbox API was similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies.", "The Xbox was code named DirectXbox, but this was shortened to Xbox for its commercial name.In 2002, Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0.Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing Shader Model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August 2004.As of April 2005, DirectShow was removed from DirectX and moved to the Microsoft Platform SDK instead.DirectX has been confirmed to be present in Microsoft's Windows Phone 8.Real-time raytracing was announced as DXR in 2018.Support for compiling HLSL to SPIR-V was also added in the DirectX Shader Compiler the same year." ], [ "Components", "DirectX is composed of multiple APIs:* Direct3D (D3D): Real-time 3D rendering API* DXGI: Enumerates adapters and monitors and manages swap chains for Direct3D 10 and later.", "* Direct2D: 2D graphics API* DirectWrite: Text rendering API* DirectCompute: API for general-purpose computing on graphics processing units* DirectX Diagnostics (DxDiag): A tool for diagnosing and generating reports on components related to DirectX, such as audio, video, and input drivers* XACT3: High-level audio API* XAudio2: Low-level audio API* DirectX Raytracing (DXR): Real-time raytracing API* DirectStorage: GPU-oriented file I/O API* DirectML: GPU-accelerated machine learning and artificial intelligence APIMicrosoft has deprecated the following components:* DirectX Media: Consists of: DirectAnimation for 2D/3D web animation, DirectShow for multimedia playback and streaming media DirectX Media Objects: Support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoders, and effects (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation Transforms; MFTs) DirectX Transform for web interactivity, and Direct3D Retained Mode for higher level 3D graphics DirectX plugins for audio signal processing** DirectX Video Acceleration for accelerated video playback (Deprecated in favor of Media Foundation)* DirectDraw: 2D graphics API (Deprecated in favor of Direct2D)* DirectInput: Input API for interfacing with keyboards, mice, joysticks, and game controllers (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of XInput for Xbox 360 controllers or standard WM_INPUT window message processing for keyboard and mouse input)* DirectPlay: Network API for communication over a local-area or wide-area network (Deprecated after version 8 in favor of Games for Windows Live and Xbox Live)* DirectSound: Audio API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)* DirectSound3D (DS3D): 3D sounds API (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)* DirectMusic: Components for playing soundtracks authored in DirectMusic Producer (Deprecated since DirectX 8 in favor of XAudio2 and XACT3)DirectX functionality is provided in the form of COM-style objects and interfaces.", "Additionally, while not DirectX components themselves, managed objects have been built on top of some parts of DirectX, such as Managed Direct3D and the XNA graphics library on top of Direct3D 9.Microsoft distributes debugging tool for DirectX called \"PIX\"." ], [ "Versions", "===DirectX 9===DirectX 9 was released in 2002 for Windows 98, Me, 2000 and XP, and currently is supported by all subsequent versions.", "Microsoft continues to make changes in DirectX 9.0c, causing support to be dropped for some of the aforementioned operating systems.", "As of January 2007, Windows 2000 or XP is required.", "This also introduced Shader Model 2.0 containing Pixel Shader 2.0 and Vertex Shader 2.0.Windows XP SP2 and newer include DirectX 9.0c, but may require a newer DirectX runtime redistributable installation for DirectX 9.0c applications compiled with the February 2005 DirectX 9.0 SDK or newer.===DirectX 10===Microsoft DirectX 10 logo wordmarkA major update to DirectX API, DirectX 10 ships with and is only available with Windows Vista (launched in late 2006) and later.", "Previous versions of Windows such as Windows XP are not able to run DirectX 10-exclusive applications.", "Rather, programs that are run on a Windows XP system with DirectX 10 hardware simply resort to the DirectX 9.0c code path, the latest available for Windows XP computers.Changes for DirectX 10 were extensive.", "Many former parts of DirectX API were deprecated in the latest DirectX SDK and are preserved for compatibility only: DirectInput was deprecated in favor of XInput, DirectSound was deprecated in favor of the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool system (XACT) and additionally lost support for hardware accelerated audio, since the Vista audio stack renders sound in software on the CPU.", "The DirectPlay DPLAY.DLL was also removed and was replaced with dplayx.dll; games that rely on this DLL must duplicate it and rename it to dplay.dll.In order to achieve backwards compatibility, DirectX in Windows Vista contains several versions of Direct3D:* '''Direct3D 9''': emulates Direct3D 9 behavior as it was on Windows XP.", "Details and advantages of Vista's Windows Display Driver Model are hidden from the application if WDDM drivers are installed.", "This is the only API available if there are only XP graphic drivers (XDDM) installed, after an upgrade to Vista for example.", "* '''Direct3D 9Ex''' (known internally during Windows Vista development as 9.0L or 9.L): allows full access to the new capabilities of WDDM (if WDDM drivers are installed) while maintaining compatibility for existing Direct3D applications.", "The Windows Aero user interface relies on D3D 9Ex.", "* '''Direct3D 10''': Designed around the new driver model in Windows Vista and featuring a number of improvements to rendering capabilities and flexibility, including Shader Model 4.Direct3D 10.1 is an incremental update of Direct3D 10.0 which shipped with, and required, Windows Vista Service Pack 1, which was released in February 2008.This release mainly sets a few more image quality standards for graphics vendors, while giving developers more control over image quality.", "It also adds support for cube map arrays, separate blend modes per-MRT, coverage mask export from a pixel shader, ability to run pixel shader per sample, access to multi-sampled depth buffers and requires that the video card supports Shader Model 4.1 or higher and 32-bit floating-point operations.", "Direct3D 10.1 still fully supports Direct3D 10 hardware, but in order to utilize all of the new features, updated hardware is required.===DirectX 11===Microsoft DirectX 11 logo wordmarkMicrosoft unveiled DirectX 11 at the Gamefest 08 event in Seattle.", "The Final Platform Update launched for Windows Vista on October 27, 2009, which was a week after the initial release of Windows 7, which launched with Direct3D 11 as a base standard.", "Major scheduled features including GPGPU support (DirectCompute), and Direct3D 11 with tessellation support and improved multi-threading support to assist video game developers in developing games that better utilize multi-core processors.", "Parts of the new API such as multi-threaded resource handling can be supported on Direct3D 9/10/10.1-class hardware.", "Hardware tessellation and Shader Model 5.0 require Direct3D 11 supporting hardware.", "Microsoft has since released the Direct3D 11 Technical Preview.", "Direct3D 11 is a strict superset of Direct3D 10.1 — all hardware and API features of version 10.1 are retained, and new features are added only when necessary for exposing new functionality.", "This helps to keep backwards compatibility with previous versions of DirectX.Four updates for DirectX 11 were released:* DirectX 11.1 is included in Windows 8.It supports WDDM 1.2 for increased performance, features improved integration of Direct2D (now at version 1.1), Direct3D, and DirectCompute, and includes DirectXMath, XAudio2, and XInput libraries from the XNA framework.", "It also features stereoscopic 3D support for gaming and video.", "DirectX 11.1 was also partially backported to Windows 7, via the Windows 7 platform update.", "* DirectX 11.2 is included in Windows 8.1 (including the RT version) and Windows Server 2012 R2.It added some new features to Direct2D like geometry realizations.", "It also added swap chain composition, which allows some elements of the scene to be rendered at lower resolutions and then composited via hardware overlay with other parts rendered at higher resolution.", "* DirectX 11.X is a superset of DirectX 11.2 running on the Xbox One.", "It actually includes some features, such as draw bundles, that were later announced as part of DirectX 12.", "* DirectX 11.3 was announced along with DirectX 12 at GDC and released in 2015.It is meant to complement DirectX 12 as a higher-level alternative.", "It is included with Windows 10.===DirectX 12===DirectX 12 was announced by Microsoft at GDC on March 20, 2014, and was officially launched alongside Windows 10 on July 29, 2015.The primary feature highlight for the new release of DirectX was the introduction of advanced low-level programming APIs for Direct3D 12 which can reduce driver overhead.", "Developers are now able to implement their own command lists and buffers to the GPU, allowing for more efficient resource utilization through parallel computation.", "Lead developer Max McMullen stated that the main goal of Direct3D 12 is to achieve \"console-level efficiency on phone, tablet and PC\".", "The release of Direct3D 12 comes alongside other initiatives for low-overhead graphics APIs including AMD's Mantle for AMD graphics cards, Apple's Metal for iOS and macOS and Khronos Group's cross-platform Vulkan.Multiadapter support will feature in DirectX 12 allowing developers to utilize multiple GPUs on a system simultaneously; multi-GPU support was previously dependent on vendor implementations such as AMD CrossFireX or NVIDIA SLI.", "''Implicit Multiadapter'' support will work in a similar manner to previous versions of DirectX where frames are rendered alternately across linked GPUs of similar compute-power.", "''Explicit Multiadapter'' will provide two distinct API patterns to developers.", "''Linked GPUs'' will allow DirectX to view graphics cards in SLI or CrossFireX as a single GPU and use the combined resources; whereas ''Unlinked GPUs'' will allow GPUs from different vendors to be utilized by DirectX, such as supplementing the dedicated GPU with the integrated GPU on the CPU, or combining AMD and NVIDIA cards.", "However, elaborate mixed multi-GPU setups requires significantly more attentive developer support.DirectX 12 is supported on all Fermi and later Nvidia GPUs, on AMD's GCN-based chips and on Intel's Haswell and later processors' graphics units.At SIGGRAPH 2014, Intel released a demo showing a computer generated asteroid field, in which DirectX 12 was claimed to be 50–70% more efficient than DirectX 11 in rendering speed and CPU power consumption.", "''Ashes of the Singularity'' was the first publicly available game to utilize DirectX 12.Testing by ''Ars Technica'' in August 2015 revealed slight performance regressions in DirectX 12 over DirectX 11 mode for the Nvidia GeForce 980 Ti, whereas the AMD Radeon R9 290x achieved consistent performance improvements of up to 70% under DirectX 12, and in some scenarios the AMD outperformed the more powerful Nvidia under DirectX 12.The performance discrepancies may be due to poor Nvidia driver optimizations for DirectX 12, or even hardware limitations of the card which was optimized for DirectX 11 serial execution; however, the exact cause remains unclear.The performance improvements of DirectX 12 on the Xbox are not as substantial as on the PC.In March 2018, DirectX Raytracing (DXR) was announced, capable of real-time ray-tracing on supported hardware, and the DXR API was added in the Windows 10 October 2018 update.In 2019 Microsoft announced the arrival of DirectX 12 to Windows 7 but only as a plug-in for certain game titles.===DirectX 12 Ultimate===Microsoft revealed DirectX 12 Ultimate in March 2020.DirectX 12 Ultimate will unify to a common library on both Windows 10 computers and the Xbox Series X and other ninth-generation Xbox consoles.", "Among the new features in Ultimate includes DirectX Raytracing 1.1, Variable Rate Shading, which gives programmers control over the level of detail of shading depending on design choices, Mesh Shaders, and Sampler Feedback.=== Version history ===+DirectX versionsVersionRelease dateNotesMajor Minor Number11.0 4.02.0095 September 30, 1995 Initially released as Windows Game SDK, replacing WinG for Windows 95 onward22.0 1996 Was shipped only with a few 3rd party applications2.0a 4.03.00.1096 June 5, 1996 Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows NT 4.0 exclusive3 3.0 4.04.00.0068 September 15, 1996 4.04.00.0069 1996 Later package of DirectX 3.0 included Direct3D 4.04.00.00693.0a 4.04.00.0070 December 1996 Windows NT 4.0 SP3 (and above)Last version supporting Windows NT 4.03.0b 4.04.00.0070 December 1996 This was a very minor update to 3.0a that fixed a cosmetic problem with the Japanese version of Windows 9544.0 ''Never released'' DirectX 4 was never released.", "Raymond Chen of Microsoft explained in his book, ''The Old New Thing'', that after DirectX 3 was released, Microsoft began developing versions 4 and 5 at the same time.", "Version 4 was to be a shorter-term release with small features, whereas version 5 would be a more substantial release.", "The lack of interest from game developers in the features stated for DirectX 4 resulted in it being shelved, and the large amount of documents that already distinguished the two new versions resulted in Microsoft choosing to not re-use version 4 to describe features intended for version 5.55.0 4.05.00.0155 (RC55) August 4, 1997 Available as a beta for Windows 2000 that would install on Windows NT 4.04.05.00.0155 (RC66) Installer included on the Windows 95 OSR 2.5 installation media5.2 4.05.01.1600 (RC00) May 5, 1998 DirectX 5.2 release for Windows 954.05.01.1998 (RC0) June 25, 1998 Windows 98 exclusive66.0 4.06.00.0318 (RC3) August 7, 1998 Windows CE as implemented on Dreamcast and other devices6.1 4.06.02.0436 (RC0) February 3, 1999 6.1a 4.06.03.0518 (RC0) May 5, 1999 Windows 98 Second Edition exclusive.", "This is last version that runs on 486 or older CPU.77.0 4.07.00.0700 (RC1) September 22, 1999 4.07.00.0700 February 17, 2000 Windows 2000 exclusive7.0a December 17, 1999 Released only for Windows 95 to 984.07.00.0716 (RC0) March 8, 2000 4.07.00.0716 (RC1) 2000 7.1 4.07.01.3000 (RC1) September 14, 2000 Windows Me exclusive.", "Last version to have built-in RGB software rendering support88.0 4.08.00.0400 (RC10) November 10, 2000 8.0a 4.08.00.0400 (RC14) January 24, 2001 Last version supporting Windows 95 and last version to have software rendering support in dxdiag.exe8.1 4.08.01.0810 October 25, 2001 Windows XP, Windows XP SP1, Windows Server 2003 and Xbox exclusive4.08.01.0881 (RC7) November 8, 2001 This version is for the down level operating systems (Windows 98, Windows Me and Windows 2000)8.1a 4.08.01.0901 (RC?)", "2002 This release includes an update to Direct3D (D3d8.dll)8.1b 4.08.01.0901 (RC7) June 25, 2002 This update includes a fix to DirectShow on Windows 2000 (Quartz.dll)8.2 4.08.02.0134 (RC0) 2002 Same as the DirectX 8.1b but includes DirectPlay 8.299.0 4.09.00.0900 (RC4) December 19, 2002 First major version of DirectX 99.0a 4.09.00.0901 (RC6) March 26, 2003 9.0b 4.09.00.0902 (RC2) August 13, 2003 9.0c4.09.00.0904 (RC0) July 22, 2004 First 9.0c versionPeriodic hybrid 32-bit/64-bit updates, starting from October 2004, were released bimonthly until August 2007, and quarterly thereafter.", "The last update was released in June 20104.09.00.0904 August 6, 2004 / April 21, 2008* Xbox 360, Windows XP SP2 and SP3, Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Server 2003 R2December 8, 2006Last version supporting Windows 98, 98 SE and MeFebruary 5, 2010Final 9.0c version and last supporting Windows 2000, XP and XP SP1June 7, 2010Last major version of DirectX 9 and last supporting Windows XP SP2 and SP31010 6.00.6000.16386 November 30, 2006 Windows Vista exclusive10.1 6.00.6001.18000 February 4, 2008 Windows Vista SP1, Windows Server 2008Includes Direct3D 10.16.00.6002.18005 April 28, 2009 Windows Vista SP2, Windows Server 2008 SP2Includes Direct3D 10.11111 6.01.7600.16385 October 22, 2009 Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 6.00.6002.18107 October 27, 2009 Windows Vista SP2 and Windows Server 2008 SP2, through the Platform Update for Windows Vista and Windows Server 20086.01.7601.17514 February 16, 2011 Windows 7 SP1, Windows Server 2008 R2 SP111.1 6.02.9200.16384 August 1, 2012 Windows 7 SP1 (partially), Windows 8, Windows RT, Windows Server 201211.2 6.03.9600.16384 October 18, 2013 Windows 8.1, Windows RT, Windows Server 2012 R2, Xbox One1212 10.00.10240.16384 July 29, 2015 Windows 10, Xbox One10.00.15063.0000 March 20, 2017 Windows 10, Depth Bounds Testing and Programmable MSAA added10.00.17763.0000 November 20, 2019 Direct3D 12 only for Windows 7 SP1, via a dedicated source code package for app developers12.1 10.00.17763.0001October 2, 2018 Windows 10, DirectX Raytracing support added10.00.18362.0116May 19, 2019 Windows 10, Variable Rate Shading (VRS) support added12.210.00.19041.0928November 10, 2020Windows 10, Xbox Series X, Ultimate10.00.22000.1000October 5, 2021Windows 11, Added native refresh rate switching and improved graphics capabilities to Windows Subsystem for LinuxThe version number as reported by Microsoft's DxDiag tool (version 4.09.0000.0900 and higher) use the x.xx.xxxx.xxxx format for version numbers.", "However, the DirectX and Windows XP MSDN page claims that the registry always has been in the x.xx.xx.xxxx format.", "Therefore, when the above table lists a version as '4.09.00.0904' Microsoft's DxDiag tool may have it as '4.09.0000.0904'." ], [ "Compatibility", "Various releases of Windows have included and supported various versions of DirectX, allowing newer versions of the operating system to continue running applications designed for earlier versions of DirectX until those versions can be gradually phased out in favor of newer APIs, drivers, and hardware.APIs such as Direct3D and DirectSound need to interact with hardware, and they do this through a device driver.", "Hardware manufacturers have to write these drivers for a particular DirectX version's device driver interface (or DDI), and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible.", "Some hardware devices have only DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, one must install DirectX in order to use that hardware).", "Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available.", "This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based Windows Update driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.Prior to DirectX 10, DirectX runtime was designed to be ''backward compatible'' with older drivers, meaning that newer versions of the APIs were designed to interoperate with older drivers written against a previous version's DDI.", "The application programmer had to query the available hardware capabilities using a complex system of \"cap bits\" each tied to a particular hardware feature.", "Direct3D 7 and earlier would work on any version of the DDI, Direct3D 8 requires a minimum DDI level of 6 and Direct3D 9 requires a minimum DDI level of 7.However, the Direct3D 10 runtime in Windows Vista cannot run on older hardware drivers due to the significantly updated DDI, which requires a unified feature set and abandons the use of \"cap bits\".Direct3D 10.1 introduces \"feature levels\" 10_0 and 10_1, which allow use of only the hardware features defined in the specified version of Direct3D API.", "Direct3D 11 adds level 11_0 and \"10 Level 9\" - a subset of the Direct3D 10 API designed to run on Direct3D 9 hardware, which has three feature levels (9_1, 9_2 and 9_3) grouped by common capabilities of \"low\", \"med\" and \"high-end\" video cards; the runtime directly uses Direct3D 9 DDI provided in all WDDM drivers.", "Feature level 11_1 has been introduced with Direct3D 11.1.===.NET Framework===In 2002, Microsoft released a version of DirectX compatible with the Microsoft .NET Framework, thus allowing programmers to take advantage of DirectX functionality from within .NET applications using compatible languages such as managed C++ or the use of the C# programming language.", "This API was known as \"Managed DirectX\" (or MDX for short), and claimed to operate at 98% of performance of the underlying native DirectX APIs.", "In December 2005, February 2006, April 2006, and August 2006, Microsoft released successive updates to this library, culminating in a beta version called Managed DirectX 2.0.While Managed DirectX 2.0 consolidated functionality that had previously been scattered over multiple assemblies into a single assembly, thus simplifying dependencies on it for software developers, development on this version has subsequently been discontinued, and it is no longer supported.", "The Managed DirectX 2.0 library expired on October 5, 2006.During the GDC 2006, Microsoft presented the XNA Framework, a new managed version of DirectX (similar but not identical to Managed DirectX) that is intended to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, HLSL and other tools in one package.", "It also supports the execution of managed code on the Xbox 360.The XNA Game Studio Express RTM was made available on December 11, 2006, as a free download for Windows XP.", "Unlike the DirectX runtime, Managed DirectX, XNA Framework or the Xbox 360 APIs (XInput, XACT etc.)", "have not shipped as part of Windows.", "Developers are expected to redistribute the runtime components along with their games or applications.No Microsoft product including the latest XNA releases provides DirectX 10 support for the .NET Framework.The other approach for DirectX in managed languages is to use third-party libraries like: SlimDX, an open source library for DirectX programming on the .NET Framework* SharpDX, which is an open source project delivering the full DirectX API for .NET on all Windows platforms, allowing the development of high performance game, 2D and 3D graphics rendering as well as real-time sound applications* DirectShow.NET for the DirectShow subset* Windows API CodePack for .NET Framework , which is an open source library from Microsoft." ], [ "Alternatives", "There are alternatives to the DirectX family of APIs, with OpenGL, its successor Vulkan, Metal and Mantle having the most features comparable to Direct3D.", "Examples of other APIs include SDL, Allegro, OpenMAX, OpenML, OpenAL, OpenCL, FMOD, SFML etc.", "Many of these libraries are cross-platform or have open codebases.", "There are also alternative implementations that aim to provide the same API, such as the one in Wine.", "Furthermore, the developers of ReactOS are trying to reimplement DirectX under the name \"ReactX\"." ], [ "See also", "* ActiveX* Comparison of OpenGL and Direct3D* Direct3D* DirectX plugin* DxDiag* Graphics Device Interface (GDI)* Graphics pipeline* Simple DirectMedia Layer* Timeout Detection and Recovery* Vulkan" ], [ "Gallery", "File:DirectX 1 logo.png\|DirectX 1.0–8.2 logoFile:Directx9.png\|DirectX 9.0 logoFile:DirectX 12 Ultimate.png\|DirectX 12 Ultimate logo" ], [ "Notes", ":1.After installing this version, it's possible to install up to Nov 2007 on 98/98SE, and up to Feb 2010 on Me" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Microsoft's DirectX developer site* * The State of DirectX 10 - Image Quality & Performance" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Slalom skiing" ], [ "Introduction", "Tonje Sekse competes in the slalom'''Slalom''' is an alpine skiing and alpine snowboarding discipline, involving skiing between poles or gates.", "These are spaced more closely than those in giant slalom, super giant slalom and downhill, necessitating quicker and shorter turns.", "Internationally, the sport is contested at the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships, and at the Olympic Winter Games." ], [ "History", "Nathalie Eklund skis slalom at Trysil, Norway in 2011The term '''slalom''' comes from the Morgedal/Seljord dialect of the Norwegian word \"slalåm\": \"sla\", meaning \"slightly inclining hillside\", and \"låm\", meaning \"track after skis\".", "The inventors of modern skiing classified their trails according to their difficulty.", "''Slalåm'' was a trail used in Telemark by boys and girls not yet able to try themselves on the more challenging runs.", "''Ufsilåm'' was a trail with one obstacle (''ufse'') like a jump, a fence, a difficult turn, a gorge, a cliff (often more than high), et cetera.", "''Uvyrdslåm'' was a trail with several obstacles.", "A Norwegian military downhill competition in 1767 included racing downhill among trees \"without falling or breaking skis\".", "Sondre Norheim and other skiers from Telemark practiced ''uvyrdslåm'' or \"disrespectful/reckless downhill\" where they raced downhill in difficult and untested terrain (i.e., off piste).", "The 1866 \"ski race\" in Oslo was a combined cross-country, jumping and slalom competition.", "In the slalom participants were allowed use poles for braking and steering, and they were given points for style (appropriate skier posture).", "During the late 19th century Norwegian skiers participated in all branches (jumping, slalom, and cross-country) often with the same pair of skis.", "Slalom and variants of slalom were often referred to as hill races.", "Around 1900 hill races were abandoned in the Oslo championships at Huseby and Holmenkollen.", "Mathias Zdarsky's development of the Lilienfeld binding helped change hill races into a specialty of the Alps region.The rules for the modern slalom were developed by Arnold Lunn in 1922 for the British National Ski Championships, and adopted for alpine skiing at the 1936 Winter Olympics.", "Under these rules gates were marked by pairs of flags rather than single ones, were arranged so that the racers had to use a variety of turn lengths to negotiate them, and scoring was on the basis of time alone, rather than on both time and style." ], [ "Course", "Example of a slalom course, whereby the skier passes through pairs of poles (gates) of alternating colors.A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates, formed by alternating pairs of red and blue poles.", "The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate, with the tips of both skis and the skier's feet passing between the poles.", "A course has 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 for women.", "The vertical drop for a men's course is and measures slightly less for women.", "The gates are arranged in a variety of configurations to challenge the competitor.Because the offsets are relatively small in slalom, ski racers take a fairly direct line and often knock the poles out of the way as they pass, which is known as blocking.", "(The main blocking technique in modern slalom is cross-blocking, in which the skier takes such a tight line and angulates so strongly that he or she is able to block the gate with the outside hand.)", "Racers employ a variety of protective equipment, including shin pads, hand guards, helmets and face guards." ], [ "Clearing the gates", "Traditionally, bamboo poles were used for gates, the rigidity of which forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate.", "In the early 1980s, rigid poles were replaced by hard plastic poles, hinged at the base.", "The hinged gates require, according to FIS rules, only that the skis and boots of the skier go around each gate.The new gates allow a more direct path down a slalom course through the process of cross-blocking or shinning the gates.", "Cross-blocking is a technique in which the legs go around the gate with the upper body inclined toward, or even across, the gate; in this case the racer's outside pole and shinguards hit the gate, knocking it down and out of the way.", "Cross-blocking is done by pushing the gate down with the arms, hands, or shins.", "By 1989, most of the top technical skiers in the world had adopted the cross-block technique." ], [ "Equipment", "Bottom: 2013 FIS legal slalom race skis, top: giant slalom race skis from 2006With the innovation of shaped skis around the turn of the 21st century, equipment used for slalom in international competition changed drastically.", "World Cup skiers commonly skied on slalom skis at a length of in the 1980s and 1990s but by the 2002 Olympic Winter Games in Salt Lake City, the majority of competitors were using skis measuring or less.The downside of the shorter skis was that athletes found that recoveries were more difficult with a smaller platform underfoot.", "Out of concern for the safety of athletes, the FIS began to set minimum ski lengths for international slalom competition.", "The minimum was initially set at for men and for women, but was increased to for men and for women for the 2003–2004 season.", "The equipment minimums and maximums imposed by the International Ski Federation (FIS) have created a backlash from skiers, suppliers, and fans.", "The main objection is that the federation is regressing the equipment, and hence the sport, by two decades.", "American Bode Miller hastened the shift to the shorter, more radical sidecut skis when he achieved unexpected success after becoming the first Junior Olympic athlete to adopt the equipment in giant slalom and super-G in 1996.A few years later, the technology was adapted to slalom skis as well." ], [ "Men's slalom World Cup podiums", "In the following table men's slalom World Cup podiums in the World Cup since first season in 1967.Season1st2nd3rd1967 Jean-Claude Killy Guy Perillat Heinrich Messner1968 Dumeng Giovanoli Jean-Claude Killy Patrick Russel1969 Alain Penz Alfred Matt Jean-Noel Augert Patrick Russel 1970 Alain Penz Jean-Noël Augert Patrick Russel 1971 Jean-Noël Augert Gustav Thöni Tyler Palmer1972 Jean-Noël Augert Andrzej Bachleda Roland Thöni1973 Gustav Thöni Christian Neureuther Jean-Noël Augert1974 Gustav Thöni Christian Neureuther Johann Kniewasser1975 Ingemar Stenmark Gustav Thöni Piero Gros1976 Ingemar Stenmark Piero Gros Gustav Thöni Hans Hinterseer1977 Ingemar Stenmark Klaus Heidegger Paul Frommelt1978 Ingemar Stenmark Klaus Heidegger Phil Mahre1979 Ingemar Stenmark Phil Mahre Christian Neureuther1980 Ingemar Stenmark Bojan Križaj Christian Neureuther1981 Ingemar Stenmark Phil Mahre Bojan Križaj Steve Mahre1982 Phil Mahre Ingemar Stenmark Steve Mahre1983 Ingemar Stenmark Stig Strand Andreas Wenzel1984 Marc Girardelli Ingemar Stenmark Franz Gruber1985 Marc Girardelli Paul Frommelt Ingemar Stenmark1986 Rok Petrovič Bojan Križaj Ingemar Stenmark Paul Frommelt 1987 Bojan Križaj Ingemar Stenmark Armin Bittner1988 Alberto Tomba Günther Mader Felix McGrath1989 Armin Bittner Alberto Tomba Marc Girardelli Ole Kristian Furuseth1990 Armin Bittner Alberto Tomba Ole Kristian Furuseth 1991 Marc Girardelli Ole Kristian Furuseth Rudolf Nierlich1992 Alberto Tomba Paul Accola Finn Christian Jagge1993 Thomas Fogdö Alberto Tomba Thomas Stangassinger1994 Alberto Tomba Thomas Stangassinger Jure Košir1995 Alberto Tomba Michael Tritscher Jure Košir1996 Sebastien Amiez Alberto Tomba Thomas Sykora1997 Thomas Sykora Thomas Stangassinger Finn Christian Jagge1998 Thomas Sykora Thomas Stangassinger Hans Petter Buraas1999 Thomas Stangassinger Jure Košir Finn Christian Jagge2000 Kjetil André Aamodt Ole Kristian Furuseth Matjaž Vrhovnik2001 Benjamin Raich Heinz Schilchegger Mario Matt2002 Ivica Kostelić Bode Miller Jean-Pierre Vidal2003 Kalle Palander Ivica Kostelić Rainer Schönfelder2004 Rainer Schönfelder Kalle Palander Benjamin Raich2005 Benjamin Raich Rainer Schönfelder Manfred Pranger2006 Giorgio Rocca Kalle Palander Benjamin Raich2007 Benjamin Raich Mario Matt Jens Byggmark2008 Manfred Mölgg Jean-Baptiste Grange Reinfried Herbst2009 Jean-Baptiste Grange Ivica Kostelić Julien Lizeroux2010 Reinfried Herbst Julien Lizeroux Silvan Zurbriggen2011 Ivica Kostelić Jean-Baptiste Grange André Myhrer2012 André Myhrer Ivica Kostelić Marcel Hirscher2013 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Ivica Kostelić2014 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Henrik Kristoffersen2015 Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther Alexander Khoroshilov2016 Henrik Kristoffersen Marcel Hirscher Felix Neureuther2017 Marcel Hirscher Henrik Kristoffersen Manfred Mölgg2018 Marcel Hirscher Henrik Kristoffersen André Myhrer2019 Marcel Hirscher Clément Noël Daniel Yule2020 Henrik Kristoffersen Clément Noël Daniel Yule2021 Marco Schwarz Clément Noël Ramon Zenhäusern2022 Henrik Kristoffersen Manuel Feller Atle Lie McGrath" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dachshund" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''dachshund''' ( or ; German: \"badger dog\"), also known as the '''wiener dog''' or sausage dog, '''badger dog''' and '''doxie''', is a short-legged, long-bodied, hound-type dog breed.", "The dog may be smooth-haired, wire-haired, or long-haired.", "Coloration varies.The dachshund was bred to scent, chase, and flush out badgers and other burrow-dwelling animals.", "The miniature dachshund was bred to hunt small animals such as rabbits.The dachshunds was ranked 9th in registrations with the American Kennel Club in 2022." ], [ "Etymology", "Dapple dachshund with spotted coat A smooth dachshundA standard long-haired dachshundA black-and-tan miniature dachshundThe name ''dachshund'' is of German origin, and means \"badger dog,\" from (\"badger\") and (\"dog, hound\").", "The German word ''Dachshund'' is pronounced .", "The pronunciation varies in English: variations of the first and second syllables include , and , , .", "It may be incorrectly pronounced as ''hound'' by some English speakers.", "Although is a German word, in modern Germany, the dogs are more commonly known by the short name .", "Working dogs are less commonly known as .Because of their long, narrow build, they are often nicknamed wiener or sausage dog." ], [ "Classification", "While classified in the hound group or scent hound group in the United States and Great Britain, the breed has its own group in the countries which belong to the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation).", "Many dachshunds, especially the wire-haired subtype, may exhibit behavior and appearance similar to the terrier group of dogs.", "An argument can be made for the scent (or hound) group classification because the breed was developed to use scent to trail and hunt animals, and probably descended from the Saint Hubert Hound like many modern scent hound breeds such as bloodhounds and Basset Hounds; but with the persistent personality and love for digging that probably developed from the terrier, it can also be argued that they could belong in the terrier, or \"earth dog\", group." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Appearance ===A wire-haired dachshundA typical dachshund is long-bodied and muscular with short stubby legs.", "Its front paws are disproportionately large, being paddle-shaped and particularly suitable for digging.", "Its skin is loose enough not to tear while tunneling in tight burrows to chase prey.", "Its snout is long.==== Coat and color ====A redhaired miniature dachshundThere are three dachshund coat varieties: smooth coat (short hair), long-haired, and wire-haired.", "Longhaired dachshunds have a silky coat and short featherings on legs and ears.", "Wire-haired dachshunds are the least common coat variety in the United States (although it is the most common in Germany) and the most recent coat to appear in breeding standards.Dachshunds have a wide variety of colors and patterns, the most common one being red.", "Their base coloration can be single-colored (either red or cream), tan pointed (black and tan, chocolate and tan, blue and tan, or isabella and tan), and in wire-haired dogs, a color referred to as wildboar.", "Patterns such as dapple (merle), sable, brindle and piebald also can occur on any of the base colors.", "Dachshunds in the same litter may be born in different coat colors depending on the genetic makeup of the parents.The dominant color in the breed is red, followed by black and tan.", "Tan pointed dogs have tan (or cream) markings over the eyes, ears, paws, and tail.", "The reds range from coppers to deep rusts, with or without somewhat common black hairs peppered along the back, face and ear edges, lending much character and an almost burnished appearance; this is referred to among breeders and enthusiasts as an \"overlay\" or \"sabling\".", "Sabling should not be confused with a more unusual coat color referred to as sable.", "At a distance, a sable dachshund looks somewhat like a black and tan dog.", "Upon closer examination, however, one can observe that along the top of the dog's body, each hair is actually banded with red at the base near the skin transitioning to mostly black along the length of the strand.", "An additional striking coat marking is the brindle pattern.", "\"Brindle\" refers to dark stripes over a solid background—usually red.", "If a dachshund is brindled on a dark coat and has tan points, it will have brindling on the tan points only.", "Even one single, lone stripe of brindle is a brindle.", "If a dachshund has one single spot of dapple, it is a dapple.The Dachshund Club of America (DCA) and the American Kennel Club (AKC) consider Double Dapple to be out of standard and a disqualifying color in the show ring.", "Piebald is now a recognized color in the Dachshund Club of America (DCA) breed standard.Dogs that are double-dappled have the merle pattern of a dapple, but with distinct white patches that occur when the dapple gene expresses itself twice in the same area of the coat.", "The DCA excluded the wording \"double-dapple\" from the standard in 2007 and now strictly uses the wording \"dapple\" as the double dapple gene is commonly responsible for blindness and deafness.A black and tan miniature dachshund with brindle markings==== Size ==== A golden haired dachshundDachshunds come in three sizes: standard, miniature, and ''kaninchen'' (German for \"rabbit\").", "Although the standard and miniature sizes are recognized almost universally, the rabbit size is not recognized by clubs in the United States and the United Kingdom.", "The rabbit size is recognized by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) (FCI), which contain kennel clubs from 83 countries all over the world.", "An increasingly common size for family pets falls between the miniature and the standard size; these are frequently referred to as \"tweenies,\" which is not an official classification.A full-grown standard dachshund typically weighs to , while the miniature variety normally weighs less than .", "The kaninchen weighs to .", "According to kennel club standards, the miniature (and kaninchen, where recognized) differs from the full-size only by size and weight, thus offspring from miniature parents must never weigh more than the miniature standard to be considered a miniature as well.", "While many kennel club size divisions use weight for classification, such as the American Kennel Club, other kennel club standards determine the difference between the miniature and standard by chest circumference; some kennel clubs, such as in Germany, even measure chest circumference in addition to height and weight.==== Eye color ====Red piebald long-haired miniature dachshund puppyLight-colored dachshunds can sport amber, light brown, or green eyes; however, kennel club standards state that the darker the eye color, the better.", "Dapple and double dapple dachshunds can have multi-coloured \"wall\" eyes with fully blue, partially blue or patched irises due to the effect of the dapple gene on eye pigmentation expression.", "\"Wall\" eye is permissible according to DCA standards but undesirable by AKC standards.", "Piebald-patterned dachshunds will never have blue in their eyes, unless the dapple pattern is present.=== Temperament ===Dachshunds can be stubborn and refuse commands, especially if chasing a small animal which they have a propensity for.", "As dachshunds were originally used as badger hunters they have a keen sense for chasing smaller animals.", "Dachshunds are often stubborn, making them a challenge to train.Dachshunds can be aggressive to strangers and other dogs.", "Despite this, they are rated in the intelligence of dogs as an average working dog with a persistent ability to follow trained commands 50% of the time or more.They can have a loud bark.", "Some bark quite a lot and may need training to stop, while others will not bark much at all.", "Dachshunds can be standoffish toward strangers.", "A Japanese study found the Miniature Dachshund to have higher rates of refusing to move whilst on a walk, barking at outside noises whilst inside, barking at strangers visiting their home, separation anxiety, inappropriate elimination (faecal and urinary incontinence), hesitancy to approach unknown humans and canines, and aggression towards family members.", "Highlighting the breed's stubbornness and aggression.", "A double dapple long-haired dachshundDachshund puppyA climbing dachshundAccording to the American Kennel Club's breed standards, \"the dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed.", "Any display of shyness is a serious fault.\"", "Their temperament and body language give the impression that they do not know or care about their relatively small size.", "Like many small hunting dogs, they will challenge a larger dog.", "Indulged dachshunds may become snappy or extremely obstinate.A 2008 University of Pennsylvania study of 6,000 dog owners who were interviewed indicated that dogs of smaller breeds were more likely to be \"genetically predisposed toward aggressive behaviour\".", "Dachshunds were rated the most aggressive, with 20% having bitten strangers, as well as high rates of attacks on other dogs and their owners.", "The study noted that attacks by small dogs were unlikely to cause serious injuries and because of this were probably under-reported." ], [ "Health", "Two dachshund puppiesThe breed is prone to spinal problems, especially intervertebral disk disease (IVDD), due in part to an extremely long spinal column and short rib cage.", "The risk of injury may be worsened by obesity, jumping, rough handling, or intense exercise, which place greater strain on the vertebrae.", "About 20–25% of dachshunds will develop IVDD.", "Dachshunds with a number of calcified intervertebral discs at a young age have a higher risk of developing disc disease in later life.", "In addition, studies have shown that development of calcified discs is highly heritable in the breed.", "An appropriate screening programme for IVDD has been identified by Finnish researchers and a UK IVDD screening programme has been developed for breeders with the aim to reduce prevalence of spinal problems.Treatment consists of combinations of crate confinement and courses of anti-inflammatory medications (steroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like carprofen and meloxicam), or chronic pain medications, like tramadol.", "Serious cases may require surgery to remove the troublesome disk contents.", "A dog may need the aid of a cart to get around if paralysis occurs.A minimally invasive procedure called \"percutaneous laser disk ablation\" has been developed at the Oklahoma State University Veterinary Hospital.", "Originally, the procedure was used in clinical trials only on dachshunds that had suffered previous back incidents.", "Since dachshunds are prone to back issues, the goal is to expand this treatment to dogs in a normal population.In addition to back problems, the breed is prone to patellar luxation where the kneecap can become dislodged.", "Dachshunds may also be affected by osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease).", "The condition seems to be mainly limited to wire-haired Dachshunds, with 17% being carriers.", "A genetic test is available to allow breeders to avoid breeding carriers to carriers.", "In such pairings, each puppy will have a 25% chance of being affected.In some double dapples, there are varying degrees of vision and hearing loss, including reduced or absent eyes.", "Not all double dapples have problems with their eyes and/or ears, which may include degrees of hearing loss, full deafness, malformed ears, congenital eye defects, reduced or absent eyes, partial or full blindness, or varying degrees of both vision and hearing problems; but heightened problems can occur due to the genetic process in which two dapple genes cross, particularly in certain breeding lines.", "Dapple genes, which are dominant genes, are considered \"dilution\" genes, meaning whatever color the dog would have originally carried is lightened, or diluted, randomly; two dominant \"dilution\" genes can cancel each other out, or \"cross\", removing all color and producing a white recessive gene, essentially a white mutation.", "When occurring genetically within the eyes or ears, this white mutation can be detrimental to development, causing hearing or vision problems.Other dachshund health problems include hereditary epilepsy, granulomatous meningoencephalitis, dental issues, Cushing's syndrome, thyroid and autoimmune problems, various allergies and atopies, and various eye conditions including cataracts, glaucoma, progressive retinal atrophy, corneal ulcers, nonulcerative corneal disease, sudden acquired retinal degeneration, and cherry eye.", "Dachshunds are also 2.5 times more likely than other breeds of dogs to develop patent ductus arteriosus, a congenital heart defect.", "Dilute color dogs (Blue, Isabella, and Cream) are very susceptible to color dilution alopecia, a skin disorder that can result in hair loss and extreme sensitivity to sun.", "Since the occurrence and severity of these health problems is largely hereditary, breeders are working to eliminate these.Factors influencing the litter size of puppies and the proportion of stillborn puppies per litter were analyzed in normally sized German dachshunds.", "The records analyzed contained data on 42,855 litters.", "It was found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.", "It was also found that young and older dams had smaller litter sizes and more stillborn puppies than middle-aged dams.A study in Japan found the Miniature Dachshund to have lower rates of glaucoma than other breeds.", "With 2.4% of cases belonging to the breed but the breed making up 10.1% of visits to the veterinary hospital.===Life expectancy===A study in Japan of pet cemetery data put the Miniature Dachshund life expectancy at just below 14 years, just below the average of all breeds.", "A survey in the UK of breed club members found the Dachshund to have a life expectancy of above 12 and a half years." ], [ "History", "An old-style dachshund showing the longer legsIllustration of a dachshund baying a European badgerThe dachshund is a creation of German breeders and includes elements of German, French, and English hounds and terriers.", "Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of Queen Victoria, who was particularly enamored of the breed.The first verifiable references to the dachshund, originally named the \"'''Dachs Kriecher'''\" (\"badger crawler\") or \"'''Dachs Krieger'''\" (\"badger warrior\"), came from books written in the early 18th century.", "Prior to that, there exist references to \"badger dogs\" and \"hole dogs\", but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds.", "The original German dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between , and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern dachshund is descended from the latter).", "Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and badger-baiting, dachshunds were also commonly used for rabbit and fox hunting, for locating wounded deer, and in packs were known to hunt game as large as wild boar and as fierce as the wolverine.There are huge differences of opinion as to when dachshunds were specifically bred for their purpose of hunting badger, as the American Kennel Club states the dachshund was bred in the 15th century, while the Dachshund Club of America states that foresters bred the dogs in the 18th or 19th century.Double-dapple dachshunds, which are prone to eye disease, blindness, or hearing problems, are generally believed to have been introduced to the United States between 1879 and 1885.The flap-down ears and famous curved tail of the dachshund have deliberately been bred into the dog.", "In the case of the ears, this is to keep grass seeds, dirt, and other matter from entering the ear canal.", "The curved tail is dual-purposed: to be seen more easily in long grass and, in the case of burrowing dachshunds, to help haul the dog out if it becomes stuck in a burrow.The smooth-haired dachshund, the oldest style, may be a cross between the German Shorthaired Pointer, a Pinscher, and a Bracke (a type of bloodhound), or to have been produced by crossing a short Bruno Jura Hound with a pinscher.", "Others believe it was a cross from a miniature French pointer and a pinscher; others claim that it was developed from the St. Hubert Hound, also a bloodhound, in the 18th century, and still others believe that they were descended from Basset Hounds, based upon their scent abilities and general appearance.", "The exact origins of the dachshund are therefore unknown.", "According to William Loeffler, from '' The American Book of the Dog (1891)'', in the chapter on dachshunds: \"The origin of the Dachshund is in doubt, our best authorities disagreeing as to the beginning of the breed.\"", "What can be agreed on, however, is that the smooth dachshund gave rise to both the long-haired and the wire-haired varieties.There are two theories about how the standard long-haired dachshund came about.", "One theory is that smooth dachshunds would occasionally produce puppies which had slightly longer hair than their parents.", "By selectively breeding these animals, breeders eventually produced a dog which consistently produced long-haired offspring, and the long-haired dachshund was born.", "Another theory is that the standard long-haired dachshund was developed by breeding smooth dachshunds with various land and water spaniels.", "The long-haired dachshund may be a cross among any of the small dog breeds in the spaniel group, including the German Stoeberhund, and the smooth dachshund.The wire-haired dachshund, the last to develop, was bred in the late 19th century.", "There is a possibility the wire-haired dachshund was a cross between the smooth dachshund and various hard-coated terriers and wire-haired pinschers, such as the Schnauzer, the Dandie Dinmont Terrier, the German Wirehaired Pointer, or perhaps the Scottish Terrier." ], [ "Symbol of Germany", "Dachshunds have traditionally been viewed as a symbol of Germany.", "Political cartoonists commonly used the image of the dachshund to ridicule Germany.", "During World War I, the dachshund's popularity in the United States plummeted because of this association.", "As a result, they were often called \"liberty hounds\", just as \"liberty cabbage\" became a term for sauerkraut mostly in North America.", "The stigma of the association was revived to a lesser extent during World War II, though it was comparatively short-lived.", "Kaiser Wilhelm II and German field marshal Erwin Rommel were known for keeping dachshunds.Due to the association of the breed with Germany, as well as its particular popularity among dog keepers in Munich at the time, the dachshund was chosen as the first official mascot for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, with the name Waldi." ], [ "Sports", "A smooth dachshund in an organized raceSome people train and enter their dachshunds to compete in dachshund races, such as the Wiener Nationals.", "Several races across the United States routinely draw several thousand attendees.Despite the popularity of these events, the Dachshund Club of America opposes \"wiener racing\", as many greyhound tracks use the events to draw large crowds to their facilities.", "The DCA is also worried about potential injuries to dogs, due to their predisposition to back injuries.", "Another favorite sport is earthdog trials, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles attempting to locate either an artificial bait or live but caged (and thus protected) rats." ], [ "''Dackel'' versus ''Teckel''", "In Germany, dachshunds are widely called ''Dackel'' (both singular and plural).", "Among hunters, they are mainly referred to as ''Teckel''.", "There are kennels which specialize in breeding hunting dachshunds, the so-called ''jagdliche Leistungszucht'' (\"hunting-related performance breeding\") or ''Gebrauchshundezucht'' (\"working dog breeding\"), as opposed to breeding family dogs.", "Therefore, it is sometimes incorrectly believed that ''Teckel'' is either a name for the hunting breed or a mark for passing the test for a trained hunting dog (called \"VGP\", \"Verband-Gebrauchsprüfung\") in Germany." ], [ "Popularity", "Dachshunds are one of the most popular dogs in the United States, ranking 12th in the 2018 AKC registration statistics.", "They are popular with urban and apartment dwellers, ranking among the top 10 most popular breeds in 76 of 190 major US cities surveyed by the AKC.", "There are organized local dachshund clubs in most major American cities, including New York, New Orleans, Portland, Los Angeles, and Chicago.File:Adolf Eberle Dackelfamilie.jpg\|''Die Dackelfamilie mit Jäger und Magd'' (The Dachshund family with Hunter and Maid) by Adolf EberleFile:Jean-Baptiste Oudry - Hound with Gun and Dead Game - WGA16780.jpg\|Jean-Baptiste Oudry – Dachshund with Gun and Dead Game, 1740File:L Riedler Hunde 1 Wie wird es enden.jpg\|How will it end?", "''Wie wird es enden?''", "c. 1900.File:Dackel mit Bierkrug.jpg\|German (Swabian) postcard with inscription \"This beer belongs to my master!\"", "c. 1900.File:Carl Reichert - Curious dachshund puppies and a frog.jpg\|Curious Dachshund Puppies & A Frog.", "Carl Reichert." ], [ "Notable dogs and owners", "* John F. Kennedy bought a dachshund puppy while touring Europe in 1937 for his then-girlfriend Olivia.", "The puppy, named Dunker, never left Germany after Kennedy started to get allergic reactions.", "* Grover Cleveland, the 22nd and 24th President, had a dachshund in the White House.", "* William Randolph Hearst was an avid lover of dachshunds.", "When his own dachshund Helena died, he eulogized her in his \"In The News\" column.", "* Fred, E. B.", "White's dachshund, appeared in many of his famous essays.", "* Lump (; German for \"rascal\"), the pet of Pablo Picasso, who was thought to have inspired some of his artwork.", "''Picasso & Lump'' tells the story of Picasso and Lump.", "* Jack Ruby, the killer of Lee Harvey Oswald, had a dachshund named Sheba, which he often referred to as his wife.", "At the time he murdered Oswald, he had four of them—although he once had as many as 10.", "* Andy Warhol had a pair of dachshunds, Archie and Amos, whom he depicted in his paintings and mentioned frequently in his diaries.", "* Stanley and Boodgie, immortalized on canvas by owner David Hockney, and published in the book ''David Hockney's Dog Days''.", "* Wadl and Hexl, Kaiser Wilhelm II's famous ferocious pair.", "Upon arriving at Archduke Franz Ferdinand's country seat, Konopiště castle, on a semi-official visit, they promptly proceeded to do away with one of the Austro-Hungarian heir presumptive's priceless golden pheasants, thereby almost causing an international incident.", "Another one of his beloved dachshunds, Senta, is currently buried at Huis Doorn, Wilhelm's manor in the Netherlands.", "* In Zelenogorsk, Russia, a parade of dachshunds pass by a dachshund monument every July 25 to commemorate the day the city was founded.", "* Joe was the dachshund of General Claire Lee Chennault, commander of the Flying Tigers and then the China Air Task Force of the US Army Air Forces, and became the mascot of those organizations.", "* Maxie, a dachshund owned by actress Marie Prevost, tried to awaken his dead mistress, who was found with small bites on her legs.", "Maxie's barking eventually summoned neighbors to the scene.", "The incident inspired the 1977 Nick Lowe song \"Marie Prevost\".", "* Liliane Kaufmann, wife of Edgar J. Kaufmann who commissioned the home Fallingwater from Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935, was a well-known breeder and owner of long-haired dachshunds.", "At the Fallingwater bookstore, visitors are able to purchase a book titled ''Moxie'', which is about one of the dachshunds who lived at Fallingwater.", "Liliane raised long-haired dachshunds and they traveled from Pittsburgh to Bear Run with her.", "* The former Queen of Denmark, Margrethe II, is one of several Danish royals to keep dachshunds.", "Margrethe of Denmark has a particular fondness of dachshunds and has kept many throughout her life.", "Her 80th birthday, celebrated in 2020, was marked by posing with one of her favourites (Lilia) on the grounds of Fredensborg Castle.", "* Obie is a dachshund who became infamous for his obesity, weighing as much as , more than twice a normal-weight standard dachshund.", "He reached his target weight of in July 2013.", "* Carole Lombard and Clark Gable had a dachshund named Commissioner.", "* Crusoe the Celebrity Dachshund gained fame on social media.", "In 2015, Crusoe came out with his ''The New York Times'' best-selling book titled ''Crusoe: Adventures of the Wiener Dog Extraordinaire!''.", "In 2018, Crusoe came out with another book titled ''Crusoe: The Worldly Weiner Dog''.", "At the 9th annual Shorty Awards, Crusoe won the best animal category.", "In 2018, Crusoe won the People's Choice Awards Animal Star of 2018." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* List of dog breeds* ''Nintendogs: Dachshund and Friends''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dachshund Breed Standard Russian Kennel Club 13 March 2001* Dachshund Breed Standard Poland Kennel Club 9 May 2001" ], [ "External links", "* * Dachshund pronunciation" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Data structure" ], [ "Introduction", "A data structure known as a hash table.", "In computer science, a '''data structure''' is a data organization, management, and storage format that is usually chosen for efficient access to data.", "More precisely, a data structure is a collection of data values, the relationships among them, and the functions or operations that can be applied to the data, i.e., it is an algebraic structure about data." ], [ "Usage", "Data structures serve as the basis for abstract data types (ADT).", "The ADT defines the logical form of the data type.", "The data structure implements the physical form of the data type.Different types of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks.", "For example, relational databases commonly use B-tree indexes for data retrieval, while compiler implementations usually use hash tables to look up identifiers.Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services.", "Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms.", "Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design.", "Data structures can be used to organize the storage and retrieval of information stored in both main memory and secondary memory." ], [ "Implementation", "Data structures can be implemented using a variety of programming languages and techniques, but they all share the common goal of efficiently organizing and storing data.", "Data structures are generally based on the ability of a computer to fetch and store data at any place in its memory, specified by a pointer—a bit string, representing a memory address, that can be itself stored in memory and manipulated by the program.", "Thus, the array and record data structures are based on computing the addresses of data items with arithmetic operations, while the linked data structures are based on storing addresses of data items within the structure itself.", "This approach to data structuring has profound implications for the efficiency and scalability of algorithms.", "For instance, the contiguous memory allocation in arrays facilitates rapid access and modification operations, leading to optimized performance in sequential data processing scenarios.", "The implementation of a data structure usually requires writing a set of procedures that create and manipulate instances of that structure.", "The efficiency of a data structure cannot be analyzed separately from those operations.", "This observation motivates the theoretical concept of an abstract data type, a data structure that is defined indirectly by the operations that may be performed on it, and the mathematical properties of those operations (including their space and time cost)." ], [ "Examples", "type hierarchy of the programming language Python 3.There are numerous types of data structures, generally built upon simpler primitive data types.", "Well known examples are:* An array is a number of elements in a specific order, typically all of the same type (depending on the language, individual elements may either all be forced to be the same type, or may be of almost any type).", "Elements are accessed using an integer index to specify which element is required.", "Typical implementations allocate contiguous memory words for the elements of arrays (but this is not always a necessity).", "Arrays may be fixed-length or resizable.", "* A linked list (also just called ''list'') is a linear collection of data elements of any type, called nodes, where each node has itself a value, and points to the next node in the linked list.", "The principal advantage of a linked list over an array is that values can always be efficiently inserted and removed without relocating the rest of the list.", "Certain other operations, such as random access to a certain element, are however slower on lists than on arrays.", "* A record (also called ''tuple'' or ''struct'') is an aggregate data structure.", "A record is a value that contains other values, typically in fixed number and sequence and typically indexed by names.", "The elements of records are usually called ''fields'' or ''members''.", "In the context of object-oriented programming, records are known as plain old data structures to distinguish them from objects.", "* Hash tables, also known as hash maps, are data structures that provide fast retrieval of values based on keys.", "They use a hashing function to map keys to indexes in an array, allowing for constant-time access in the average case.", "Hash tables are commonly used in dictionaries, caches, and database indexing.", "However, hash collisions can occur, which can impact their performance.", "Techniques like chaining and open addressing are employed to handle collisions.", "* Graphs are collections of nodes connected by edges, representing relationships between entities.", "Graphs can be used to model social networks, computer networks, and transportation networks, among other things.", "They consist of vertices (nodes) and edges (connections between nodes).", "Graphs can be directed or undirected, and they can have cycles or be acyclic.", "Graph traversal algorithms include breadth-first search and depth-first search.", "* Stacks and queues are abstract data types that can be implemented using arrays or linked lists.", "A stack has two primary operations: push (adds an element to the top of the stack) and pop (removes the topmost element from the stack), that follow the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle.", "Queues have two main operations: enqueue (adds an element to the rear of the queue) and dequeue (removes an element from the front of the queue) that follow the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle.", "* Trees represent a hierarchical organization of elements.", "A tree consists of nodes connected by edges, with one node being the root and all other nodes forming subtrees.", "Trees are widely used in various algorithms and data storage scenarios.", "Binary trees (particularly heaps), AVL trees, and B-trees are some popular types of trees.", "They enable efficient and optimal searching, sorting, and hierarchical representation of data.", "* A trie, also known as a prefix tree, is a specialized tree data structure used for the efficient retrieval of strings.", "Tries store characters of a string as nodes, with each edge representing a character.", "They are particularly useful in text processing scenarios like autocomplete, spell-checking, and dictionary implementations.", "Tries enable fast searching and prefix-based operations on strings." ], [ "Language support", "Most assembly languages and some low-level languages, such as BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language), lack built-in support for data structures.", "On the other hand, many high-level programming languages and some higher-level assembly languages, such as MASM, have special syntax or other built-in support for certain data structures, such as records and arrays.", "For example, the C (a direct descendant of BCPL) and Pascal languages support structs and records, respectively, in addition to vectors (one-dimensional arrays) and multi-dimensional arrays.Most programming languages feature some sort of library mechanism that allows data structure implementations to be reused by different programs.", "Modern languages usually come with standard libraries that implement the most common data structures.", "Examples are the C++ Standard Template Library, the Java Collections Framework, and the Microsoft .NET Framework.Modern languages also generally support modular programming, the separation between the interface of a library module and its implementation.", "Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details.", "Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java, and Smalltalk, typically use classes for this purpose.Many known data structures have concurrent versions which allow multiple computing threads to access a single concrete instance of a data structure simultaneously." ], [ "See also", "* Abstract data type* Concurrent data structure* Data model* Dynamization* Linked data structure* List of data structures* Persistent data structure* Plain old data structure* Queap* Succinct data structure* Tree (data structure)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Peter Brass, ''Advanced Data Structures'', Cambridge University Press, 2008, * Donald Knuth, ''The Art of Computer Programming'', vol.", "1.Addison-Wesley, 3rd edition, 1997, * Dinesh Mehta and Sartaj Sahni, ''Handbook of Data Structures and Applications'', Chapman and Hall/CRC Press, 2004, * Niklaus Wirth, ''Algorithms and Data Structures'', Prentice Hall, 1985," ], [ "Further reading", "* Alfred Aho, John Hopcroft, and Jeffrey Ullman, ''Data Structures and Algorithms'', Addison-Wesley, 1983, * G. H. Gonnet and R. Baeza-Yates, '' Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures - in Pascal and C'', second edition, Addison-Wesley, 1991, * Ellis Horowitz and Sartaj Sahni, ''Fundamentals of Data Structures in Pascal'', Computer Science Press, 1984," ], [ "External links", "* Descriptions from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures* Data structures course* An Examination of Data Structures from .NET perspective* Schaffer, C. ''Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Dmitri Shostakovich" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich''' (9 August 1975) was a Soviet-era Russian composer and pianist who became internationally known after the premiere of his First Symphony in 1926 and thereafter was regarded as a major composer.Shostakovich achieved early fame in the Soviet Union, but had a complex relationship with its government.", "His 1934 opera ''Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk'' was initially a success, but eventually was condemned by the Soviet government, putting his career at risk.", "In 1948 his work was denounced under the Zhdanov Doctrine, with professional consequences lasting several years.", "Even after his censure was rescinded in 1956, performances of his music were occasionally subject to state interventions, as with his Thirteenth Symphony (1962).", "Shostakovich was a member of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (1947) and the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union (from 1962 until his death), as well as chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers (1960–1968).", "Over the course of his career, he earned several important awards, including the Order of Lenin, from the Soviet government.Shostakovich combined a variety of different musical techniques in his works.", "His music is characterized by sharp contrasts, elements of the grotesque, and ambivalent tonality; he was also heavily influenced by neoclassicism and by the late Romanticism of Gustav Mahler.", "His orchestral works include 15 symphonies and six concerti (two each for piano, violin, and cello).", "His chamber works include 15 string quartets, a piano quintet, and two piano trios.", "His solo piano works include two sonatas, an early set of 24 preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues.", "Stage works include three completed operas and three ballets.", "Shostakovich also wrote several song cycles, and a substantial quantity of music for theatre and film.Shostakovich's reputation has continued to grow after his death.", "Scholarly interest has increased significantly since the late 20th century, including considerable debate about the relationship between his music and his attitudes toward the Soviet government." ], [ "Biography", "=== Youth ===Birthplace of Shostakovich (now School No.", "267).", "Commemorative plaque at left.Born into a Russian family that lived on Podolskaya Street in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, Shostakovich was the second of three children of Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina.", "Shostakovich's immediate forebears came from Siberia, but his paternal grandfather, Bolesław Szostakowicz, was of Polish Roman Catholic descent, tracing his family roots to the region of the town of Vileyka in today's Belarus.", "A Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863–64, Szostakowicz was exiled to Narym in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitry Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II.", "When his term of exile ended, Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia.", "He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family.", "His son Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narym in 1875 and studied physics and mathematics at Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899.He then went to work as an engineer under Dmitri Mendeleev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg.", "In 1903, he married another Siberian immigrant to the capital, Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, one of six children born to a Siberian Russian.Their son, Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich, displayed musical talent after he began piano lessons with his mother at the age of nine.", "On several occasions, he displayed a remarkable ability to remember what his mother had played at the previous lesson, and would get \"caught in the act\" of playing the previous lesson's music while pretending to read different music placed in front of him.", "In 1918, he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party murdered by Bolshevik sailors.In 1919, at age 13, Shostakovich was admitted to the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov, who monitored his progress closely and promoted him.", "Shostakovich studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev and Elena Rozanova, composition with Maximilian Steinberg, and counterpoint and fugue with Nikolay Sokolov, who became his friend.", "He also attended Alexander Ossovsky's music history classes.", "In 1925, he enrolled in the conducting classes of Nikolai Malko, where he conducted the conservatory orchestra in a private performance of Beethoven's First Symphony.", "According to the recollections of the composer's classmate, :Shostakovich stood at the podium, played with his hair and jacket cuffs, looked around at the hushed teenagers with instruments at the ready and raised the baton.", "...", "He neither stopped the orchestra, nor made any remarks; he focused his entire attention on aspects of tempi and dynamics, which were very clearly displayed in his gestures.", "The contrasts between the \"Adagio molto\" of the introduction and \"Allegro con brio\" first theme were quite striking, as were those between the percussive accents of the chords (woodwinds, French horns, pizzicato strings) and the momentarily extended piano in the introduction following them.", "In the character given to the pattern of the first theme, I recall, there was both vigorous striving and lightness; in the bass part there was an emphasized pliancy of tenderly threaded articulation....", "Moments of these sorts... were discoveries of an improvised order, born from an intuitively refined understanding of the character of a piece and the elements of musical imagery embedded in it.", "And the players enjoyed it.On 20 March 1925, Shostakovich's music was played in Moscow for the first time, in a program which also included works by his friend Vissarion Shebalin.", "To the composer's disappointment, the critics and public there received his music coolly.", "During his visit to Moscow, Mikhail Kvadri introduced him to Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who helped the composer find accommodation and work there, and sent a driver to take him to a concert in \"a very stylish automobile\".Shostakovich's musical breakthrough was the First Symphony, written as his graduation piece at the age of 19.Initially, Shostakovich aspired only to perform it privately with the conservatory orchestra and prepared to conduct the scherzo himself.", "By late 1925, Malko agreed to conduct its premiere with the Leningrad Philharmonic Orchestra after Steinberg and Shostakovich's friend Boleslav Yavorsky brought the symphony to his attention.", "On 12 May 1926, Malko led the premiere of the symphony; the audience received it enthusiastically, demanding an encore of the scherzo.", "Thereafter, Shostakovich regularly celebrated the date of his symphonic debut.=== Early career ===Shostakovich in 1925After graduation, Shostakovich embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry keyboard style was often criticized.", "Shostakovich maintained a heavy performance schedule until 1930; after 1933, he performed only his own compositions.", "Along with , Grigory Ginzburg, Lev Oborin, and Josif Shvarts, he was among the Soviet contestants in the inaugural I International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927.Bogdanov-Berezhovsky later remembered:, who heard Shostakovich play his Chopin programs before he went to Warsaw, said that his \"anti-sentimental\" playing, which eschewed rubato and extreme dynamic contrasts, was unlike anything he had ever heard.", "called Shostakovich's playing \"profound and lacking any salon-like mannerisms.", "\"Shostakovich was stricken with appendicitis on the opening day of the competition, but his condition improved by the time of his first performance on 27 January 1927.", "(He had his appendix removed on 25 April.)", "According to Shostakovich, his playing found favor with the audience.", "He persisted into the final round of the competition but ultimately earned only a diploma, no prize; Oborin was declared the winner.", "Shostakovich was upset about the result but for a time resolved to continue a career as performer.", "While recovering from his appendectomy in April 1927, Shostakovich said he was beginning to reassess those plans:After the competition, Shostakovich and Oborin spent a week in Berlin.", "There he met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by Shostakovich's First Symphony that he conducted its first performance outside Russia later that year.", "Leopold Stokowski led the American premiere the next year in Philadelphia and also made the work's first recording.In 1927, Shostakovich wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled ''To October''), a patriotic piece with a pro-Soviet choral finale.", "Owing to its modernism, it did not meet with the same enthusiasm as his First.", "This year also marked the beginning of Shostakovich's close friendship with musicologist and theatre critic Ivan Sollertinsky, whom he had first met in 1921 through their mutual friends Lev Arnshtam and Lydia Zhukova.", "Shostakovich later said that Sollertinsky \"taught him to understand and love such great masters as Brahms, Mahler, and Bruckner\" and that he instilled in him \"an interest in music ... from Bach to Offenbach.", "\"While writing the Second Symphony, Shostakovich also began work on his satirical opera ''The Nose'', based on the story by Nikolai Gogol.", "In June 1929, against the composer's wishes, the opera was given a concert performance; it was ferociously attacked by the Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (RAPM).", "Its stage premiere on 18 January 1930 opened to generally poor reviews and widespread incomprehension among musicians.", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Shostakovich worked at TRAM, a proletarian youth theatre.", "Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack.", "Much of this period was spent writing his opera ''Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk'', which was first performed in 1934.It was initially immediately successful, on both popular and official levels.", "It was described as \"the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party\", and as an opera that \"could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture\".Shostakovich married his first wife, Nina Varzar, in 1932.Difficulties led to a divorce in 1935, but the couple soon remarried when Nina became pregnant with their first child, Galina.=== First denunciation ===Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk'' by Helikon Opera in 2014On 17 January 1936, Joseph Stalin paid a rare visit to the opera for a performance of a new work, ''Quiet Flows the Don'', based on the novel by Mikhail Sholokhov, by the little-known composer Ivan Dzerzhinsky, who was called to Stalin's box at the end of the performance and told that his work had \"considerable ideological-political value\".", "On 26 January, Stalin revisited the opera, accompanied by Vyacheslav Molotov, Andrei Zhdanov and Anastas Mikoyan, to hear ''Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District''.", "He and his entourage left without speaking to anyone.", "Shostakovich had been forewarned by a friend that he should postpone a planned concert tour in Arkhangelsk in order to be present at that particular performance.", "Eyewitness accounts testify that Shostakovich was \"white as a sheet\" when he went to take his bow after the third act.The next day, Shostakovich left for Arkhangelsk, where he heard on 28 January that ''Pravda'' had published an editorial titled \"Muddle Instead of Music\", complaining that the opera was a \"deliberately dissonant, muddled stream of sounds ...that quacks, hoots, pants and gasps.\"", "Shostakovich continued his performance tour as scheduled, with no disruptions.", "From Arkhangelsk, he instructed Isaac Glikman to subscribe to a clipping service.", "The editorial was the signal for a nationwide campaign, during which even Soviet music critics who had praised the opera were forced to recant in print, saying they \"failed to detect the shortcomings of ''Lady Macbeth'' as pointed out by ''Pravda''\".", "There was resistance from those who admired Shostakovich, including Sollertinsky, who turned up at a composers' meeting in Leningrad called to denounce the opera and praised it instead.", "Two other speakers supported him.", "When Shostakovich returned to Leningrad, he had a telephone call from the commander of the Leningrad Military District, who had been asked by Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky to make sure that he was all right.", "When the writer Isaac Babel was under arrest four years later, he told his interrogators that \"it was common ground for us to proclaim the genius of the slighted Shostakovich.", "\"On 6 February, Shostakovich was again attacked in ''Pravda'', this time for his light comic ballet ''The Limpid Stream'', which was denounced because \"it jangles and expresses nothing\" and did not give an accurate picture of peasant life on a collective farm.", "Fearful that he was about to be arrested, Shostakovich secured an appointment with the Chairman of the USSR State Committee on Culture, Platon Kerzhentsev, who reported to Stalin and Molotov that he had instructed the composer to \"reject formalist errors and in his art attain something that could be understood by the broad masses\", and that Shostakovich had admitted being in the wrong and had asked for a meeting with Stalin, which was not granted.The ''Pravda'' campaign against Shostakovich caused his commissions and concert appearances, and performances of his music, to decline markedly.", "His monthly earnings dropped from an average of as much as 12,000 rubles to as little as 2,000.1936 marked the beginning of the Great Terror, in which many of Shostakovich's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed.", "These included Tukhachevsky, executed 12 June 1937; his brother-in-law Vsevolod Frederiks, who was eventually released but died before he returned home; his close friend Nikolai Zhilyayev, a musicologist who had taught Tukhachevsky, was executed; his mother-in-law, the astronomer Sofiya Mikhaylovna Varzar, who was sent to a camp in Karaganda and later released; his friend the Marxist writer Galina Serebryakova, who spent 20 years in the gulag; his uncle Maxim Kostrykin (died); and his colleagues Boris Kornilov (executed) and Adrian Piotrovsky (executed).Shostakovich's daughter Galina was born during this period in 1936; his son Maxim was born two years later.", "'''Withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony'''Shostakovich before 1941The publication of the ''Pravda'' editorials coincided with the composition of Shostakovich's Fourth Symphony.", "The work continued a shift in his style, influenced by the music of Mahler, and gave him problems as he attempted to reform his style.", "Despite the ''Pravda'' articles, he continued to compose the symphony and planned a premiere at the end of 1936.Rehearsals began that December, but according to Isaac Glikman, who had attended the rehearsals with the composer, the manager of the Leningrad Philharmonic persuaded Shostakovich to withdraw the symphony.", "Shostakovich did not repudiate the work and retained its designation as his Fourth Symphony.", "(A reduction for two pianos was performed and published in 1946, and the work was finally premiered in 1961.", ")In the months between the withdrawal of the Fourth Symphony and the completion of the Fifth on 20 July 1937, the only concert work Shostakovich composed was the ''Four Romances on Texts by Pushkin''.", "'''Fifth Symphony and return to favor'''The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was musically more conservative than his recent works.", "Premiered on 21 November 1937 in Leningrad, it was a phenomenal success.", "The Fifth brought many to tears and welling emotions.", "Later, Shostakovich's purported memoir, ''Testimony'', stated: \"I'll never believe that a man who understood nothing could feel the Fifth Symphony.", "Of course they understood, they understood what was happening around them and they understood what the Fifth was about.", "\"The success put Shostakovich in good standing once again.", "Music critics and the authorities alike, including those who had earlier accused him of formalism, claimed that he had learned from his mistakes and become a true Soviet artist.", "In a newspaper article published under Shostakovich's name, the Fifth was characterized as \"A Soviet artist's creative response to just criticism.\"", "The composer Dmitry Kabalevsky, who had been among those who disassociated themselves from Shostakovich when the ''Pravda'' article was published, praised the Fifth and congratulated Shostakovich for \"not having given in to the seductive temptations of his previous 'erroneous' ways.", "\"It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his string quartets.", "In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Leningrad Conservatory, which provided some financial security.=== Second World War ===In 1939, before Soviet forces attempted to invade Finland, the Party Secretary of Leningrad Andrei Zhdanov commissioned a celebratory piece from Shostakovich, the ''Suite on Finnish Themes'', to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army paraded through Helsinki.", "The Winter War was a bitter experience for the Red Army, the parade never happened, and Shostakovich never laid claim to the authorship of this work.", "It was not performed until 2001.After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad.", "He tried to enlist in the military but was turned away because of his poor eyesight.", "To compensate, he became a volunteer for the Leningrad Conservatory's firefighter brigade and delivered a radio broadcast to the Soviet people. ''''", "The photograph for which he posed was published in newspapers throughout the country.Shostakovich's most famous wartime contribution was the Seventh Symphony.", "The composer wrote the first three movements in Leningrad while it was under siege; he completed the work in Kuybyshev (now Samara), where he and his family had been evacuated.", "According to a radio address he made on 17 September 1941, he continued work on the symphony in order to show his fellow citizens that everyone had a \"soldier's duty\" to ensure life went on.", "In another article written on 8 October, he wrote that the Seventh was a \"symphony about our age, our people, our sacred war, and our victory.\"", "Shostakovich finished his Seventh Symphony on 27 December.", "The symphony was premiered by the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra in Kuibyshev on 29 March and soon performed in London and the United States, where several conductors vied to conduct its first American performance.", "It was subsequently performed in Leningrad while the city was still under siege.", "The city's remaining orchestra only had 14 musicians left, which led conductor Karl Eliasberg to reinforce it by recruiting anyone who could play an instrument.The Shostakovich family moved to Moscow in spring 1943, by which time the Red Army was on the offensive.", "As a result, Soviet authorities and the international public were puzzled by the tragic tone of the Eighth Symphony, which in the Western press had briefly acquired the nickname \"Stalingrad Symphony\".", "The symphony was received tepidly in the Soviet Union and the West.", "Olin Downes expressed his disappointment in the piece, but Carlos Chávez, who had conducted the symphony's Mexican premiere, praised it highly.Shostakovich had expressed as early as 1943 his intention to cap his wartime trilogy of symphonies with a grandiose Ninth.", "On 16 January 1945, he announced to his students that he had begun work on its first movement the day before.", "In April, his friend Isaac Glikman heard an extensive portion of the first movement, noting that it was \"majestic in scale, in pathos, in its breathtaking motion\".", "Shortly thereafter, Shostakovich ceased work on this version of the Ninth, which remained lost until musicologist Olga Digonskaya rediscovered it in December 2003.Shostakovich began to compose his actual, unrelated Ninth Symphony in late July 1945; he completed it on 30 August.", "It was shorter and lighter in texture than its predecessors.", "Gavriil Popov wrote that it was \"splendid in its joie de vivre, gaiety, brilliance, and pungency!\"", "By 1946 it was the subject of official criticism.", "Israel Nestyev asked whether it was the right time for \"a light and amusing interlude between Shostakovich's significant creations, a temporary rejection of great, serious problems for the sake of playful, filigree-trimmed trifles.\"", "The ''New York World-Telegram'' of 27 July 1946 was similarly dismissive: \"The Russian composer should not have expressed his feelings about the defeat of Nazism in such a childish manner\".", "Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his Second Piano Trio, dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a Jewish-inspired finale.In 1947, Shostakovich was made a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR.=== Second denunciation ===In 1948, Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree.", "Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, accused the composers (including Sergei Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian) of writing inappropriate and formalist music.", "This was part of an ongoing anti-formalism campaign intended to root out all Western compositional influence as well as any perceived \"non-Russian\" output.", "The conference resulted in the publication of the Central Committee's Decree \"On V. Muradeli's opera ''The Great Friendship''\", which targeted all Soviet composers and demanded that they write only \"proletarian\" music, or music for the masses.", "The accused composers, including Shostakovich, were summoned to make public apologies in front of the committee.", "Most of Shostakovich's works were banned, and his family had privileges withdrawn.", "Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time \"he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed.", "\"The decree's consequences for composers were harsh.", "Shostakovich was among those dismissed from the Conservatory altogether.", "For him, the loss of money was perhaps the heaviest blow.", "Others still in the Conservatory experienced an atmosphere thick with suspicion.", "No one wanted his work to be understood as formalist, so many resorted to accusing their colleagues of writing or performing anti-proletarian music.During the next few years, Shostakovich composed three categories of work: film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official rehabilitation, and serious works \"for the desk drawer\".", "The last included the Violin Concerto No.", "1 and the song cycle ''From Jewish Folk Poetry''.", "The cycle was written at a time when the postwar anti-Semitic campaign was already under way, with widespread arrests, including that of Dobrushin and Yiditsky, the compilers of the book from which Shostakovich took his texts.The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, when Stalin decided that the Soviets needed to send artistic representatives to the Cultural and Scientific Congress for World Peace in New York City, and that Shostakovich should be among them.", "For Shostakovich, it was a humiliating experience, culminating in a New York press conference where he was expected to read a prepared speech.", "Nicolas Nabokov, who was present in the audience, witnessed Shostakovich starting to read \"in a nervous and shaky voice\" before he had to break off \"and the speech was continued in English by a suave radio baritone\".", "Fully aware that Shostakovich was not free to speak his mind, Nabokov publicly asked him whether he supported the then recent denunciation of Stravinsky's music in the Soviet Union.", "A great admirer of Stravinsky who had been influenced by his music, Shostakovich had no alternative but to answer in the affirmative.", "Nabokov did not hesitate to write that this demonstrated that Shostakovich was \"not a free man, but an obedient tool of his government.\"", "Shostakovich never forgave Nabokov for this public humiliation.", "That same year, he was obliged to compose the cantata ''Song of the Forests'', which praised Stalin as the \"great gardener\".Stalin's death in 1953 was the biggest step toward Shostakovich's rehabilitation as a creative artist, which was marked by his Tenth Symphony.", "It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the DSCH and Elmira motifs, Elmira Nazirova being a pianist and composer who had studied under Shostakovich in the year before his dismissal from the Moscow Conservatory), the meaning of which is still debated, while the savage second movement, according to ''Testimony'', is intended as a musical portrait of Stalin.", "The Tenth ranks alongside the Fifth and Seventh as one of Shostakovich's most popular works.", "1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the \"desk drawer\" works.During the 1940s and 1950s, Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils, Galina Ustvolskaya and Elmira Nazirova.", "In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954.He taught Ustvolskaya from 1939 to 1941 and then from 1947 to 1948.The nature of their relationship is far from clear: Mstislav Rostropovich described it as \"tender\".", "Ustvolskaya rejected a proposal of marriage from him after Nina's death.", "Shostakovich's daughter, Galina, recalled her father consulting her and Maxim about the possibility of Ustvolskaya becoming their stepmother.", "Ustvolskaya's friend Viktor Suslin said that she had been \"deeply disappointed by Shostakovich's conspicuous silence\" when her music faced criticism after her graduation from the Leningrad Conservatory.", "The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely in his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956.He married his second wife, Komsomol activist Margarita Kainova, in 1956; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced five years later.In 1954, Shostakovich wrote the Festive Overture, opus 96; it was used as the theme music for the 1980 Summer Olympics.", "(His '\"Theme from the film ''Pirogov'', Opus 76a: Finale\" was played as the cauldron was lit at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece.", ")In 1959, Shostakovich appeared on stage in Moscow at the end of a concert performance of his Fifth Symphony, congratulating Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for their performance (part of a concert tour of the Soviet Union).", "Later that year, Bernstein and the Philharmonic recorded the symphony in Boston for Columbia Records.=== Joining the Party ===The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: he joined the Communist Party.", "The government wanted to appoint him Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers, but to hold that position he was required to obtain Party membership.", "It was understood that Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party from 1953 to 1964, was looking for support from the intelligentsia's leading ranks in an effort to create a better relationship with the Soviet Union's artists.", "This event has variously been interpreted as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, the result of political pressure, and his free decision.", "On the one hand, the apparat was less repressive than it had been before Stalin's death.", "On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears, and that he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed.", "Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal.", "In 1960, he was appointed Chairman of the RSFSR Union of Composers; from 1962 until his death, he also served as a delegate in the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.", "By joining the party, Shostakovich also committed himself to finally writing the homage to Lenin that he had promised before.", "His Twelfth Symphony, which portrays the Bolshevik Revolution and was completed in 1961, was dedicated to Lenin and called \"The Year 1917\".Shostakovich in 1950Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the Eighth String Quartet, composed in only three days.", "He subtitled the piece \"To the victims of fascism and war\", ostensibly in memory of the Dresden fire bombing that took place in 1945.Yet like the Tenth Symphony, the quartet incorporates quotations from several of his past works and his musical monogram.", "Shostakovich confessed to his friend Isaac Glikman, \"I started thinking that if some day I die, nobody is likely to write a work in memory of me, so I had better write one myself.\"", "Several of Shostakovich's colleagues, including Natalya Vovsi-Mikhoels and the cellist Valentin Berlinsky, were also aware of the Eighth Quartet's biographical intent.", "Peter J. Rabinowitz has also pointed to covert references to Richard Strauss's ''Metamorphosen'' in it.In 1962, Shostakovich married for the third time, to Irina Supinskaya.", "In a letter to Glikman, he wrote, \"her only defect is that she is 27 years old.", "In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable.\"", "According to Galina Vishnevskaya, who knew the Shostakoviches well, this marriage was a very happy one: \"It was with her that Dmitri Dmitriyevich finally came to know domestic peace...", "Surely, she prolonged his life by several years.\"", "In November, he conducted publicly for the only time in his life, leading a couple of his own works in Gorky; otherwise he declined to conduct, citing nerves and ill health.That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his Thirteenth Symphony (subtitled ''Babi Yar'').", "The symphony sets a number of poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, the first of which commemorates a massacre of Ukrainian Jews during the Second World War.", "Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media and was not banned, but it remained controversial.", "After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem that said that Russians and Ukrainians had died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar.In 1965, Shostakovich raised his voice in defence of poet Joseph Brodsky, who was sentenced to five years of exile and hard labor.", "Shostakovich co-signed protests with Yevtushenko, fellow Soviet artists Kornei Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova, Samuil Marshak, and the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.", "After the protests, the sentence was commuted, and Brodsky returned to Leningrad.=== Later life ===In 1964, Shostakovich composed the music for the Russian film ''Hamlet'', which was favorably reviewed by ''The New York Times'': \"But the lack of this aural stimulation—of Shakespeare's eloquent words—is recompensed in some measure by a splendid and stirring musical score by Dmitri Shostakovich.", "This has great dignity and depth, and at times an appropriate wildness or becoming levity\".In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka.", "Beginning in 1958, he suffered from a debilitating condition that particularly affected his right hand, eventually forcing him to give up piano playing; in 1965, it was diagnosed as poliomyelitis, but consensus on his diagnosis is unclear.", "He also suffered heart attacks in 1966,1970, and 1971, as well as several falls in which he broke both his legs; in 1967, he wrote in a letter: \"Target achieved so far: 75% (right leg broken, left leg broken, right hand defective).", "All I need to do now is wreck the left hand and then 100% of my extremities will be out of order.", "\"A preoccupation with his own mortality permeates Shostakovich's later works, such as the later quartets and the Fourteenth Symphony of 1969 (a song cycle based on a number of poems on the theme of death).", "This piece also finds Shostakovich at his most extreme with musical language, with 12-tone themes and dense polyphony throughout.", "He dedicated the Fourteenth to his close friend Benjamin Britten, who conducted its Western premiere at the 1970 Aldeburgh Festival.", "The Fifteenth Symphony of 1971 is, by contrast, melodic and retrospective in nature, quoting Wagner, Rossini and the composer's own Fourth Symphony.=== Death ===Shostakovich voting in the election of the Council of Administration of Soviet Musicians in Moscow in 1974 (photograph by Yuri Shcherbinin)Despite suffering from motor neurone disease (ALS) or some other neurological ailment from as early as the 1950s, Shostakovich insisted upon writing all his own correspondence and music himself, even when his right hand became virtually unusable.", "His last work was his Viola Sonata, which was first performed officially on 1 October 1975.Shostakovich suffered from lung cancer (he was a heavy smoker).", "His death is variously attributed to lung cancer or heart failure, both diseases associated with smoking.Shostakovich died on 9 August 1975 at the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow.", "A civic funeral was held; he was interred in Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.", "According to the ''New York Times'', \"He was known to have suffered from heart ailments that dated to his hospitalization for a heart attack in 1964\".", "=== Legacy ===Shostakovich left behind several recordings of his own piano works; other noted interpreters of his music include Mstislav Rostropovich, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Maria Yudina, David Oistrakh, and members of the Beethoven Quartet.Shostakovich's influence on later composers outside the former Soviet Union has been relatively slight.", "His influence can be seen in some Nordic composers, such as Lars-Erik Larsson.", "Many of his Russian contemporaries, and his pupils at the Leningrad Conservatory, were strongly influenced by his style (including German Okunev, Sergei Slonimsky, and Boris Tishchenko, whose Fifth Symphony of 1978 is dedicated to Shostakovich's memory).", "Shostakovich's conservative idiom has grown increasingly popular with audiences as the avant-garde has declined in influence and debate about his political views has developed.The Shostakovich Peninsula on Alexander Island, Antarctica, is named for him." ], [ "Music", "=== Overview ===Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal but with elements of atonality and chromaticism.", "In some of his later works (e.g., the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows.", "His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, each totaling 15.The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part.", "Among the most popular are the Fifth and Seventh Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets.", "Other works include the operas ''Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk'', ''The Nose'' and the unfinished ''The Gamblers'', based on the comedy by Gogol; six concertos (two each for piano, violin and cello); two piano trios; and a large quantity of film music.Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: Bach in his fugues and passacaglias; Beethoven in the late quartets; Mahler in the symphonies; and Berg in his use of musical codes and quotations.", "Among Russian composers, he particularly admired Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas ''Boris Godunov'' and ''Khovanshchina'' he reorchestrated; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of ''Lady Macbeth'' and the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in satirical works such as \"Rayok\".", "Prokofiev's influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and first concerto.", "The influence of Russian church and folk music is evident in his works for unaccompanied choir of the 1950s.Shostakovich's relationship with Stravinsky was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, \"Stravinsky the composer I worship.", "Stravinsky the thinker I despise.\"", "He was particularly enamoured of the ''Symphony of Psalms'', presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962.", "(The meeting of the two composers was not very successful; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's \"cruelty\" to him.", ")Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones that followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, \"without 'Party guidance' ...", "I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage.\"", "Articles Shostakovich published in 1934 and 1935 cited Berg, Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, \"and especially Stravinsky\" among his influences.", "Key works of the earlier period are the First Symphony, which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; ''The Nose'' (\"The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works\"); ''Lady Macbeth'', which precipitated the denunciation; and the Fourth Symphony, described in Grove's Dictionary as \"a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date\".", "The Fourth was also the first piece in which Mahler's influence came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shostakovich took to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful.After 1936, Shostakovich's music became more conservative.", "During this time he also composed more chamber music.", "While his chamber works were largely tonal, the late chamber works, which Grove's Dictionary calls a \"world of purgatorial numbness\", included tone rows, although he treated these thematically rather than serially.", "Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output.=== Jewish themes ===In the 1940s, Shostakovich began to show an interest in Jewish themes.", "He was intrigued by Jewish music's \"ability to build a jolly melody on sad intonations\".", "Examples of works that included Jewish themes are the Fourth String Quartet (1949), the First Violin Concerto (1948), and the ''Four Monologues on Pushkin Poems'' (1952), as well as the Piano Trio in E minor (1944).", "He was further inspired to write with Jewish themes when he examined Moisei Beregovski's 1944 thesis on Jewish folk music.In 1948, Shostakovich acquired a book of Jewish folk songs, from which he composed the song cycle ''From Jewish Folk Poetry''.", "He initially wrote eight songs meant to represent the hardships of being Jewish in the Soviet Union.", "To disguise this, he added three more meant to demonstrate the great life Jews had under the Soviet regime.", "Despite his efforts to hide the real meaning in the work, the Union of Composers refused to approve his music in 1949 under the pressure of the anti-Semitism that gripped the country.", "''From Jewish Folk Poetry'' could not be performed until after Stalin's death in March 1953, along with all the other works that were forbidden.=== Self-quotations ===Throughout his compositions, Shostakovich demonstrated a controlled use of musical quotation.", "This stylistic choice had been common among earlier composers, but Shostakovich developed it into a defining characteristic of his music.", "Rather than quoting other composers, Shostakovich preferred to quote himself.", "Musicologists such as Sofia Moshevich, Ian McDonald, and Stephen Harris have connected his works through their quotations.One example is the main theme of Katerina's aria, ''Seryozha, khoroshiy moy'', from the fourth act of ''Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District''.", "The aria's beauty comes as a breath of fresh air in the intense, overbearing tone of the scene, in which Katerina visits her lover Sergei in prison.", "The theme is made tragic when Sergei betrays her and finds a new lover upon blaming Katerina for his incarceration.More than 25 years later, Shostakovich quoted this theme in his Eighth String Quartet.", "In the midst of this quartet's oppressive and somber themes, the cello introduces the Seryozha theme \"in the 'bright' key of F-sharp major\" about three minutes into the fourth movement.", "This theme emerges once again in his Fourteenth String Quartet.", "As in the Eighth Quartet, the cello introduces the theme, which here serves as a dedication to the cellist of the Beethoven String Quartet, Sergei Shirinsky.=== Posthumous publications ===In 2004, the musicologist Olga Digonskaya discovered a trove of Shostakovich manuscripts at the Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow.", "In a cardboard file were some \"300 pages of musical sketches, pieces and scores\" in Shostakovich's hand.", "A composer friend bribed Shostakovich's housemaid to regularly deliver the contents of Shostakovich's office waste bin to him, instead of taking it to the garbage.", "Some of those cast-offs eventually found their way into the Glinka.", "...", "The Glinka archive \"contained a huge number of pieces and compositions which were completely unknown or could be traced quite indirectly,\" Digonskaya said.Among these were Shostakovich's piano and vocal sketches for a prologue to an opera, ''Orango'' (1932).", "They were orchestrated by the British composer Gerard McBurney and premiered in December 2011 by the Los Angeles Philharmonic conducted by Esa-Pekka Salonen.=== Reputation ===According to McBurney, opinion is divided on whether Shostakovich's music is \"of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand\".", "William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as \"the greatest composer of the 20th century\".", "Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove's Dictionary that \"Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power.", "\"Some modern composers have been critical.", "Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as \"the second, or even third pressing of Mahler\".", "The Romanian composer and Webern disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich \"a hack in a trance\".", "A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of ''Lady Macbeth'': \"brutally hammering ... and monotonous\".", "English composer and musicologist Robin Holloway described his music as \"battleship-grey in melody and harmony, factory-functional in structure; in content all rhetoric and coercion\".In the 1980s, the Finnish conductor and composer Esa-Pekka Salonen was critical of Shostakovich and refused to conduct his music.", "For instance, he said in 1987:Salonen has since performed and recorded several of Shostakovich's works, including leading the world premiere of ''Orango'', but has dismissed the Fifth Symphony as \"overrated\", adding that he was \"very suspicious of heroic things in general\".Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of popular music; the vulgarity of \"low\" music is a notable influence on this \"greatest of eclectics\".", "McBurney traces this to the avant-garde artistic circles of the early Soviet period in which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create \"patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration\" that gave his music large-scale structure." ], [ "Personality", "Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was \"obsessed with cleanliness\".", "He synchronised the clocks in his apartment and regularly sent himself cards to test how well the postal service was working.", "Elizabeth Wilson's ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' indexes 26 references to his nervousness.", "Mikhail Druskin remembers that even as a young man the composer was \"fragile and nervously agile\".", "Yuri Lyubimov comments, \"The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius.\"", "In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, \"his face was a bag of tics and grimaces.", "\"In Shostakovich's lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee).", "His favorite football club was Zenit Leningrad (now Zenit Saint Petersburg), which he would watch regularly.", "He also enjoyed card games, particularly patience.Shostakovich was fond of satirical writers such as Gogol, Chekhov and Mikhail Zoshchenko.", "Zoshchenko's influence in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese.", "Zoshchenko noted the contradictions in the composer's character: \"he is ... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely direct, pure child ... but also hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured).", "\"Shostakovich was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was \"completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody.\"", "This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of Andrei Sakharov in 1973.His widow later told that his name was included without his permission.", "But he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the Supreme Soviet.", "Oleg Prokofiev said, \"he tried to help so many people that ... less and less attention was paid to his pleas.\"", "When asked if he believed in God, Shostakovich said \"No, and I am very sorry about it.\"" ], [ "Orthodoxy and revisionism", "Shostakovich's response to official criticism and whether he used music as a kind of covert dissidence is a matter of dispute.", "He outwardly conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line.", "But it is evident he disliked many aspects of the regime, as confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaac Glikman, and the satirical cantata \"Rayok\", which ridiculed the \"anti-formalist\" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death.", "He was a close friend of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 during the Great Purge.It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music.", "The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book ''Testimony'', which claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov.", "The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages, placing Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to Alexander Pushkin.", "He incorporated many quotations and motifs in his work, most notably his musical signature DSCH.", "His longtime musical collaborator Yevgeny Mravinsky said, \"Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations.", "\"The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, although Maxim said in 1981 that Volkov's book was not his father's work.", "Volkov has further argued, both in ''Testimony'' and in ''Shostakovich and Stalin'', that Shostakovich adopted the role of the ''yurodivy'' or holy fool in his relations with the government.Maxim Shostakovich has also commented on ''Testimony'' and Volkov more favorably since 1991, when the Soviet regime fell.", "To Allan B. Ho and Dmitry Feofanov, he confirmed that his father had told him about \"meeting a young man from Leningrad who knows his music extremely well\" and that \"Volkov did meet with Shostakovich to work on his reminiscences\".", "Maxim has repeatedly said he is \"a supporter both of ''Testimony'' and of Volkov.\"", "Other prominent revisionists are Ian MacDonald, whose book ''The New Shostakovich'' put forward further revisionist interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances.Musicians and scholars including Laurel Fay and Richard Taruskin contested the authenticity and debate the significance of ''Testimony'', alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information directly from the composer.", "Fay documents these allegations in her 2002 article \"Volkov's ''Testimony'' reconsidered\", showing that the only pages of the original ''Testimony'' manuscript that Shostakovich had signed and verified are word-for-word reproductions of earlier interviews he gave, none of which are controversial.", "Ho and Feofanov have countered that at least two of the signed pages contain controversial material: for instance, \"on the first page of chapter 3, where Shostakovich notes that the plaque that reads 'In this house lived Vsevolod Meyerhold\|Vsevolod Meyerhold' should also say 'And in this house his wife was brutally murdered'.\"" ], [ "Recorded legacy", "A Russian stamp in Shostakovich's memory, published in 2000In May 1958, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with André Cluytens, as well as some short piano works.", "These were issued on LP by EMI and later reissued on CD.", "Shostakovich recorded the two concertos in stereo in Moscow for Melodiya.", "Shostakovich also played the piano solos in recordings of the Cello Sonata, Op.", "40 with cellist Daniil Shafran and also with Mstislav Rostropovich; the Violin Sonata, Op.", "134, in a private recording made with violinist David Oistrakh; and the Piano Trio, Op.", "67 with violinist David Oistrakh and cellist Miloš Sádlo.", "There is also a short newsreel of Shostakovich as soloist in a 1930s concert performance of the closing moments of his first piano concerto.", "A color film of Shostakovich supervising the Soviet revival of ''The Nose'' in 1974 was also made." ], [ "Awards", "'''Soviet Union'''* Hero of Socialist Labour (1966)* Order of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966)* Order of the October Revolution (1971)* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1940)* People's Artist of the RSFSR (1948)* People's Artist of the USSR (1954)* International Peace Prize (1954)* Lenin Prize (1958 – for the Symphony No.", "11 \"The Year 1905\")* Stalin Prize (1941 – for Piano Quintet; 1942 – for the Symphony No.", "7; 1946 – for Piano Trio No.", "2; 1950 – for ''Song of the Forests'' and the score for the film ''The Fall of Berlin''; 1952 – for ''Ten Poems on Texts by Revolutionary Poets'')* USSR State Prize (1968 – for the cantata ''The Execution of Stepan Razin'' for bass, chorus and orchestra)* Glinka State Prize of the RSFSR (1974 – for the String Quartet No.", "14 and choral cycle ''Loyalty'')Shevchenko National Prize (1976, posthumous – for the opera ''Katerina Izmailova'')'''Academic titles''' Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1960)'''Other awards'''* Léonie Sonning Music Prize (1973)* Wihuri Sibelius Prize (1958)* Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966)In 1962, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Scoring of a Musical Picture for ''Khovanshchina'' (1959)." ], [ "See also", "* Sinyavsky–Daniel trial* ''The Noise of Time'', a novel by Julian Barnes about Shostakovich* ''Europe Central'', a novel by William T. Vollmann featuring Shostakovich as one of its main characters* ''Shostakovich (1969–1981)'', a series of oil paintings in tribute to the composer by Aubrey Williams" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations", "=== References ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Orig.", "in Polish 1973.", "* * * * * * * * :: :: * * :: :: :: (2nd ed.", "– Kindle) Faber and Faber.", "2010..::" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * * Complete catalogue of works, with many additional comments by Sikorski* The Shostakovich Debate: Interpreting the composer's life and music* * University of Houston Moderated Discussion List: Dmitri Shostakovich and other Russian Composers" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Doom (1993 video game)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Doom''''' is a first-person shooter game developed and published by id Software.", "Released on December 10, 1993, for DOS, it is the first installment in the ''Doom'' franchise.", "The player assumes the role of a space marine, later unofficially referred to as Doomguy, fighting through hordes of undead humans and invading demons.", "The game begins on the moons of Mars and finishes in hell, with the player traversing each level to find its exit or defeat its final boss.", "It is an early example of 3D graphics in video games, and has enemies and objects as 2D images, a technique sometimes referred to as 2.5D graphics.", "''Doom'' was the third major independent release by id Software, after ''Commander Keen'' (1990–1991) and ''Wolfenstein 3D'' (1992).", "In May 1992, id started developing a darker game focused on fighting demons with technology, using a new 3D game engine from the lead programmer, John Carmack.", "The designer Tom Hall initially wrote a science fiction plot, but he and most of the story were removed from the project, with the final game featuring an action-heavy design by John Romero and Sandy Petersen.", "Id published ''Doom'' as a set of three episodes under the shareware model, marketing the full game by releasing the first episode free.", "A retail version with an additional episode was published in 1995 by GT Interactive as ''The Ultimate Doom''.", "''Doom'' was a critical and commercial success, earning a reputation as one of the best and most influential video games of all time.", "It sold an estimated 3.5 million copies by 1999, and up to 20 million people are estimated to have played it within two years of launch.", "It has been termed the \"father\" of first-person shooters and is regarded as one of the most important games in the genre.", "It has been cited by video game historians as shifting the direction and public perception of the medium as a whole, as well as sparking the rise of online games and communities.", "It led to an array of imitators and clones, as well as a robust modding scene and the birth of speedrunning as a community.", "Its high level of graphic violence led to controversy from a range of groups.", "''Doom'' has been ported to a variety of platforms both officially and unofficially and has been followed by several games in the series, including ''Doom II'' (1994), ''Doom 3'' (2004), ''Doom'' (2016), and ''Doom Eternal'' (2020), as well as the films ''Doom'' (2005) and ''Doom: Annihilation'' (2019)." ], [ "Gameplay", "alt=A hand holding a chainsaw with enemies standing on a path through green liquid''Doom'' is a first-person shooter presented with 3D graphics.", "While the environment is shown in a 3D perspective, the enemies and objects are instead 2D sprites rendered at fixed angles, a technique sometimes referred to as 2.5D graphics or billboarding.", "In the single-player campaign mode, the player controls an unnamed space marine—later unofficially termed \"Doomguy\"—through military bases on the moons of Mars and in hell.", "To finish a level, the player must traverse through labyrinthine areas to reach a marked exit room.", "Levels are grouped into named episodes, with the final level of each focusing on a boss fight.While traversing the levels, the player must fight a variety of enemies, including demons and possessed undead humans.", "Enemies often appear in large groups.", "The five difficulty levels adjust the number of enemies and amount of damage they do, with enemies moving faster than normal on the hardest difficulty setting.", "The monsters have simple behavior: they move toward their opponent if they see or hear them, and attack by biting, clawing, or using magic abilities such as fireballs.The player must manage supplies of ammunition, health, and armor while traversing the levels.", "The player can find weapons and ammunition throughout the levels or can collect them from dead enemies, including a pistol, a chainsaw, a plasma rifle, and the BFG 9000.The player also encounters pits of toxic waste, ceilings that lower and crush objects, and locked doors requiring a collectable keycard or a remote switch.", "Power-ups include health or armor points, a mapping computer, partial invisibility, a radiation suit against toxic waste, invulnerability, or a super-strong melee berserker status.", "Cheat codes allow the player to unlock all weapons, walk through walls, or become invulnerable.Two multiplayer modes are playable over a network: cooperative, in which two to four players team up to complete the main campaign, and deathmatch, in which two to four players compete to kill the other players' characters as many times as possible.", "Multiplayer was initially only playable over local networks, but a four-player online multiplayer mode was made available one year after launch through the DWANGO service." ], [ "Plot", "''Doom'' is divided into three episodes, each containing about nine levels: \"Knee-Deep in the Dead\", \"The Shores of Hell\", and \"Inferno\".", "A fourth episode, \"Thy Flesh Consumed\", was added in an expanded version, ''The Ultimate Doom'', released two years after ''Doom''.", "The campaign contains very few plot elements, with a minimal story presented mostly through the instruction manual and text descriptions between episodes.In the future, an unnamed marine is posted to a dead-end assignment on Mars after assaulting a superior officer who ordered his unit to fire on civilians.", "The Union Aerospace Corporation, which operates radioactive waste facilities there, allows the military to conduct secret teleportation experiments that turn deadly.", "A base on Phobos urgently requests military support, while Deimos disappears entirely, and the marine joins a combat force to secure Phobos.", "He waits at the perimeter as ordered while the entire assault team is wiped out.", "With no way off the moon, and armed with only a pistol, he enters the base intent on revenge.In \"Knee-Deep in the Dead\", the marine fights demons and possessed humans in the military and waste facilities on Phobos.", "The episode ends with the marine defeating two powerful Barons of Hell guarding a teleporter to the Deimos base.", "After the battle, the marine passes through the teleporter and is knocked unconscious by a horde of enemies, awakening with only a pistol.", "In \"The Shores of Hell\", the marine fights through corrupted research facilities on Deimos, culminating in the defeat of a gigantic cyberdemon.", "From an overlook, he discovers that the moon is floating above hell and rappels down to the surface.", "In \"Inferno\", the marine battles through hell itself and destroys a cybernetic spider-demon that masterminded the invasion of the moons.", "When a portal to Earth opens, the marine steps through to discover that Earth has been invaded.", "\"Thy Flesh Consumed\" follows the marine's initial assault on the Earth invaders, setting the stage for ''Doom II''." ], [ "Development", "===Concept===alt=Black and white photo of the head and shoulders of a man wearing glassesId Software released ''Wolfenstein 3D'' in May 1992.Later called the \"grandfather of 3D shooters\", it established the genre's popularity and its reputation for fast action and technological advancement.", "When most of the studio began work on additional episodes for ''Wolfenstein'', id co-founder and lead programmer John Carmack instead began technical research on a new game.", "Following the release of ''Wolfenstein 3D: Spear of Destiny'' in September 1992, the team began to plan their next game.", "They were tired of ''Wolfenstein'' and wanted to create another 3D game using a new engine Carmack was developing.", "Co-founder and lead designer Tom Hall proposed a new game in the ''Commander Keen'' series, but the team decided that the ''Keen'' platforming gameplay was a poor fit for Carmack's fast-paced 3D engines.", "Additionally, the other co-founders, designer John Romero and lead artist Adrian Carmack—no relation to John Carmack—wanted to create something in a darker style than the ''Keen'' games.", "John Carmack then came up with another concept: a game about using technology to fight demons, inspired by the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' campaigns the team played, combining the styles of ''Evil Dead II'' and ''Aliens''.", "The project's working title was ''Green and Pissed'', but Carmack renamed it ''Doom'' based on a line from the 1986 film ''The Color of Money'': What you got in there?'", "/ 'In here?", "Doom.The team agreed to pursue the ''Doom'' concept, and development began in November 1992.The initial development team was composed of five people: programmers John Carmack and Romero, artists Adrian Carmack and Kevin Cloud, and designer Hall.", "They moved operations to a dark office building, naming it \"Suite 666\" while drawing inspiration from the noises they heard from a neighboring dental practice.", "They also decided to cut ties with Apogee Software, their previous publisher, and self-publish ''Doom'', as they felt that they were outgrowing the publisher and could make more money by self-publishing.===Design===Model of the Spider Mastermind created for the game by alt=Photograph of model of a brain mounted on a three-legged robotic base with actuating mechanisms and exposed wires.", "The brain has a face with mouth and red eyes, and a small arm with grasping hands emerging from each side.In November, Hall delivered a design document that he called the \"Doom Bible\", detailing the project's plot, backstory, and design goals.", "His design was a science fiction horror concept wherein scientists on the Moon open a portal to an alien invasion.", "Over a series of levels, the player discovers that the aliens are demons while hell steadily infects the level design.", "John Carmack not only disliked the proposed story but dismissed the idea of having a story at all: \"Story in a game is like story in a porn movie; it's expected to be there, but it's not that important.\"", "Rather than a deep story, he wanted to focus on technological innovation, dropping the levels and episodes of ''Wolfenstein'' in favor of a fast, continuous world.", "Hall disliked the idea, but the rest of the team sided with Carmack.", "Hall spent the next few weeks reworking the ''Doom Bible'' to work with Carmack's technological ideas.", "However, the team then realized that Carmack's vision for a seamless world would be impossible given the hardware limitations, and Hall was forced to rework the design document once again.At the start of 1993, id put out a press release, touting Hall's story about fighting off demons while \"knee-deep in the dead\".", "The press release proclaimed the new 3D engine features that John Carmack had created, as well as aspects including multiplayer, that had not yet even been designed.", "Early versions were built to match the ''Doom Bible'', and a \"pre-alpha\" version of the first level included Hall's introductory base scene.", "Initial versions also retained ''Wolfenstein''s arcade-style scoring, but this was later removed as it clashed with ''Doom''s intended tone.", "The studio also experimented with other game systems before removing them, such as lives, an inventory, a secondary shield, and a complex user interface.alt=Color photograph of the face of a smiling man with long black hair and glassesSoon, however, the ''Doom Bible'' as a whole was rejected.", "Romero wanted a game even \"more brutal and fast\" than ''Wolfenstein'', which did not leave room for the character-driven plot Hall had created.", "Additionally, the team believed it emphasized realism over entertaining gameplay, and they did not see the need for a design document at all.", "Some ideas were retained, but the story was dropped and most of the design was removed.", "By early 1993, Hall created levels that became part of an internal demo.", "Carmack and Romero, however, rejected the military architecture of Hall's level design.", "Romero especially believed that the boxy, flat level designs failed to innovate on ''Wolfenstein'', and failed to show off the engine's capabilities.", "He began to create his own, more abstract levels, which the rest of the team saw as a great improvement.Hall was upset with the reception of his designs and how little impact he was having as the lead designer.", "He was also upset with how much he was having to fight with John Carmack to get what he saw as obvious gameplay improvements, such as flying enemies, and began to spend less time at work.", "The other developers, however, felt that Hall was not in sync with the team's vision and was becoming a problem.", "In July the other founders of id fired Hall, who went to work for Apogee.", "He was replaced by Sandy Petersen in September, ten weeks before the game was released.", "Petersen later recalled that John Carmack and Romero wanted to hire other artists instead, but Cloud and Adrian disagreed, saying that a designer was required to help build a cohesive gameplay experience.", "The team also added a third programmer, Dave Taylor.Petersen and Romero designed the rest of ''Doom'' levels, with different aims: the team believed that Petersen's designs were more technically interesting and varied, while Romero's were more aesthetically interesting.", "In late 1993, a month before release, John Carmack began to add multiplayer.", "After the multiplayer component was coded, the development team began playing four-player games, which Romero termed \"deathmatch\", and Cloud named the act of killing other players \"fragging\".", "According to Romero, the deathmatch mode was inspired by fighting games such as ''Street Fighter II'', ''Fatal Fury'', and ''Art of Fighting''.===Engine===''Doom'' was written largely in the C programming language, with a few elements in assembly language.", "The developers used NeXT computers running the NeXTSTEP operating system.", "The level and graphical data was stored in WAD files, short for \"Where's All the Data?", "\", separately from the engine.", "This allowed for any part of the design to be changed without needing to adjust the engine code.", "Carmack designed this system so that fans could easily modify the game; he had been impressed by the modifications made by fans of ''Wolfenstein 3D'' and wanted to support that by releasing a map editor with an easily swappable file structure.Unlike ''Wolfenstein'', which has flat levels with walls at right angles, the ''Doom'' engine allows for walls and floors at any angle or height but does not allow areas to be stacked vertically.", "The lighting system is based on adjusting the color palette of surfaces directly.", "Rather than calculating how light traveled from light sources to surfaces using ray tracing, the game calculates the \"light level\" of a small area based on the predetermined brightness of said area.", "It then modifies the color palette of that section's surface textures to mimic how dark it would look.", "This same system is used to cause far away surfaces to look darker than close ones.Romero came up with new ways to use Carmack's lighting engine, such as strobe lights.", "He programmed engine features such as switches and movable stairs and platforms.", "After Romero's complex level designs started to cause problems with the engine, Carmack began to use binary space partitioning to quickly select the reduced portion of a level that the player could see at a given time.", "Taylor, along with programming other features, added cheat codes to aid in development and left them in for players.===Art direction===Adrian Carmack was the lead artist for ''Doom'', with Kevin Cloud as an additional artist.", "They designed the monsters to be \"nightmarish\", with graphics that were realistic and dark instead of staged or rendered.", "A mixed media approach was taken to create them.", "The artists sculpted models of some of the enemies and took pictures of them in stop motion from five to eight different angles so that they could be rotated realistically in-game.", "The images were then digitized and converted to 2D characters with a program written by John Carmack.", "Adrian Carmack made clay models for a few demons and had Gregor Punchatz build latex and metal sculptures of the others.", "The weapons were made from combined parts of children's toys.", "The developers photographed themselves as well, using Cloud's arm for the marine's arm holding a gun, and Adrian's snakeskin boots and wounded knee for textures.", "The cover art was created by Don Ivan Punchatz, Gregor Punchatz's father, who worked from a short description of the game rather than detailed references.", "Romero was the body model used for cover; he posed during a photoshoot to demonstrate to the intended model what the pose should look like, and Punchatz used his photo.As with ''Wolfenstein 3D'', id hired composer Bobby Prince to create the music and sound effects.", "Romero directed Prince to make the music in techno and metal styles.", "Many tracks were directly inspired by songs by metal bands such as Alice in Chains and Pantera.", "Prince believed that ambient music would be more appropriate and produced numerous tracks in both styles in hope of convincing the team, and Romero incorporated both.", "Prince did not make music for specific levels, as they were composed before the levels were completed.", "Instead, Romero assigned each track to each level late in development.", "Prince created the sound effects based on short descriptions or concept art of a monster or weapon and adjusted them to match the completed animations.", "The monster sounds were created from animal noises, and Prince designed all the sounds to be distinct on the limited sound hardware of the time, even when many sounds were playing at once.", "He also designed the sound effects to play on different frequencies from those used for the MIDI music, so they would clearly cut through the music." ], [ "Release", "Id Software planned to self-publish ''Doom'' for DOS-based computers and set up a distribution system leading up to the release.", "Jay Wilbur, who had been hired as CEO and sole member of the business team, planned the marketing and distribution of ''Doom''.", "As id would make the most money from copies they sold directly to customers—up to 85% of the planned price—he decided to leverage the shareware market as much as possible.", "He believed that the mainstream press was uninterested in the game and bought only a single ad in any gaming magazine.", "Instead, he gave software retailers the option to sell copies of the first ''Doom'' episode at any price, in hopes of motivating customers to buy the full game directly from id.The team planned to release ''Doom'' in the third quarter of 1993 but ultimately needed more time.", "By December 1993, the team was working non-stop, with several employees sleeping at the office.", "Taylor said that the work gave him such a rush that he would pass out from the intensity.", "Id only gave a single press preview, to ''Computer Gaming World'' in June, to a glowing response, but had also released development updates to the public continuously throughout development on the nascent internet.", "Id began receiving calls from people interested in the game or angry that it had missed its planned release date, as anticipation built over the year.", "At midnight on December 10, 1993, after working for 30 straight hours testing, the development team at id uploaded the first episode to the internet, letting interested players distribute it for them.", "The team was unable to connect to the FTP server at the University of Wisconsin–Madison where they planned to upload the game, since there were so many users already connected in anticipation of the release.", "The network administrator was forced to first increase the number of connections, and then kick off all users to make room.", "When the upload finished 30 minutes later, 10,000 people attempted to download the game at once, crashing the university's network.Within hours of ''Doom''s release, university networks began banning ''Doom'' multiplayer games, as a rush of players overwhelmed their systems.", "The morning after release, John Carmack quickly released a patch in response to complaints of network congestion from administrators, who still needed to implement ''Doom''-specific rules to keep their networks from crashing from the load.===Ports===To promote Windows 95, Microsoft CEO Bill Gates showcased a video presentation while digitally superimposed into ''Doom''.\|alt=Screen shot of Bill Gates avatar in a Doom game holding a shotgunIn 1995, id created an expanded version of ''Doom'' for the retail market with a fourth episode of levels, which was published by GT Interactive as ''The Ultimate Doom''.", "''Doom'' has also been ported to numerous different platforms, independent from id Software.", "The first port of ''Doom'' was an unofficial port to Linux, released by id programmer Dave Taylor in 1994; it was hosted by id but not supported or made official.", "Microsoft attempted to hire id to port ''Doom'' to Windows in 1995 to promote Windows as a gaming platform, and Microsoft CEO Bill Gates briefly considered buying the company.", "When id declined, Microsoft made its own licensed port, with a team led by Gabe Newell.", "One promotional video for Windows 95 had Gates digitally superimposed into the game.Other official ports of ''Doom'' were released for the 32X and Atari Jaguar in 1994, SNES and PlayStation in 1995, 3DO in 1996, Sega Saturn in 1997, Acorn Risc PC in 1998, Game Boy Advance in 2001, Xbox 360 in 2006, iOS in 2009, and Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and Android in 2019.Some of these became bestsellers even many years after the initial release.", "The ports did not all have the same content, with some having fewer levels, such as the 32X port created by John Carmack, which was released with only two-thirds of the game's levels in order to meet the console's launch date, while the PlayStation port includes ''The Ultimate Doom'' and ''Doom II''.", "The source code for ''Doom'' was released under a non-commercial license in 1997, and freely released under the GNU General Public License in 1999.Due to the release of its source code, ''Doom'' has been unofficially ported to numerous platforms.", "These ports include esoteric devices such as smart thermostats, pianos, and ''Doom'' itself, which led to variations of a long-running meme, \"Can it run ''Doom''?\"", "and \"It runs ''Doom''\"." ], [ "Reception", "===Sales===Upon its release in December 1993, ''Doom'' became an \"overnight phenomenon\".", "It was an immediate financial success for id, making a profit within a day after release.", "Although the company estimated that only 1% of shareware downloaders bought the full game, this was enough to generate initial daily revenue of , selling in one day what ''Wolfenstein'' had sold in one month.", "By May 1994, Wilbur said that the game had sold over 65,000 copies, and estimated that the shareware version had been downloaded over 1 million times.", "In 1995, Wilbur estimated the first-year sales as 140,000, while in 2002 Petersen said it had sold around 200,000 copies in its first year.By late 1995, ''Doom'' was estimated to be installed on more computers worldwide than Microsoft's new operating system, Windows 95.According to PC Data, by April 1998 ''Doom''s shareware edition had yielded 1.36 million units sold and in revenue in the United States.", "This led PC Data to declare it the country's 4th-best-selling computer game since 1993.", "''The Ultimate Doom'' sold over 780,000 units by September 1999, and all versions combined sold 3.5 million copies by the end of 1999.In addition to sales, an estimated six million people played the shareware version by 2002; other sources estimated in 2000 that 10–20 million people played ''Doom'' within 24 months of its launch.===Reviews===''Doom'' was highly praised in contemporaneous reviews.", "In April 1994, a few months after release, ''PC Gamer UK'' named it the third-best computer game of all time, claiming \"''Doom'' has already done more to establish the PC's arcade clout than any other title in gaming history,\" and ''PC Gamer US'' named it the best computer game of all time that August.", "It won the Best Action Adventure award at ''Cybermania '94''.", "''GamesRadar UK'' named ''Doom'' Game of the Year in 1993 shortly after release, and ''Computer Gaming World'' and ''PC Gamer UK'' did the same the year after.Reviewers heavily praised the single-player gameplay: ''Electronic Entertainment'' called it \"a skull-banging, palm-sweating, blood-pounding game\", while ''The Age'' said it was \"a technically superb and thrilling 3D adventure\".", "''PC Zone'' called it the best arcade game ever, and it and ''Computer Gaming World'' praised the variety of monsters and weapons.", "''Computer Gaming World'' concluded that it was \"a virtuoso performance\".", "Other reviewers, while also praising the gameplay, commented on the lack of complexity: ''Computer and Video Games'' found it captivating and praised the variety and complexity of the level design, but called the overall gameplay repetitive, while ''Dragon'' similarly praised the fast gameplay and level design, but said that overall it lacked depth.", "''Edge'' praised the graphics and levels but criticized the straightforward shooting gameplay.", "The review concluded: \"If only you could talk to these creatures, then perhaps you could try and make friends with them, form alliances... Now, that would be interesting.\"", "The review attracted mockery and \"if only you could talk to these creatures\" became a running joke in video game culture.", "The multiplayer gameplay was praised: ''Computer Gaming World'' called it \"the most intense gaming experience available\", and ''Dragon'' called it \"the biggest adrenaline rush available on computers\".", "''PC Zone'' named it as the best multiplayer game available, in addition to the best arcade game.The 3D graphics and art style were praised by reviewers; ''Computer Gaming World'' called the graphics remarkable, while ''Edge'' said that it \"made serious advances in what people will expect of 3D graphics in future\", surpassing not only prior games but games that had yet to be released.", "''Compute!''", "and ''Electronic Games'' similarly called the graphics excellent and unlike any other game's.", "''PC Zone'', ''Dragon'', ''Computer Gaming World'', and ''Electronic Entertainment'' all praised the atmosphere and art direction, saying that the level design, lighting effects, and sound effects combined to create a \"claustrophobic\" and \"nightmarish experience\".", "''Computer Gaming World'' also praised the music, as did ''The Mercury News'', which called it as \"ominous as the scenario\".===Other versions===''The Ultimate Doom'' received mixed reviews upon its release in 1995, as in the review from ''PC Zone'', which gave it a score of 90/100 for new players but 20/100 for anyone who had the original game.", "The reviewer viewed it as solely a level pack due to the lack of new features and compared it negatively to the hundreds of free fan-made levels available on the internet.", "''Joystick'' disliked the limited amount of additional content and recommended it only to major fans or those who had not played it.", "''Fusion'' reviewed the edition positively, praising the difficulty of the new levels, as did ''GameSpot'', which reviewed it from the perspective of introducing the game to new players.The first ports of ''Doom'' received comparable reviews to the original PC version.", "''VideoGames'', ''GamePro'', and ''Computer and Video Games'' all gave the Jaguar version high scores, comparing it favorably with the PC version.", "''GamePro'' and ''Computer and Video Games'' also rated the 32X version highly, though they noted that the graphics were worse and the game shorter than the PC or Jaguar versions.", "The 1995 ports received mixed reviews.", "The PlayStation version was rated highly by ''HobbyConsolas'', ''GamePro'', and ''Maximum'', which praised the inclusion of ''Doom II'' and extra levels, and favorably compared it to other PlayStation shooter games.", "The SNES version, however, was noted for weaker graphics and unresponsive controls, though reviewers such as ''Computer and Video Games'', ''GamePro'', and ''Next Generation'' were split on awarding high or middling scores due to these faults.", "Later 1990s ports received worse reviews; the 3DO port was panned by ''GamePro'' and ''Maximum'' for having worse graphics, a smaller screen size, and less intelligent enemies than any previous version, and the Sega Saturn port also met with low reviews for poor graphics and low quality from ''Mean Machines'' and ''Sega Saturn Magazine''." ], [ "Legacy", "''Doom'' has been termed \"inarguably the most important\" first-person shooter, as well as the \"father\" of the genre.", "Although not the first in the genre, it was the game with the greatest impact.", "Dan Pinchbeck in ''Doom: Scarydarkfast'' (2013) noted the direct influence of ''Doom''s design choices on those of first-person and third-person shooter games two decades later, as influenced by the games released in the intervening years.", "''Doom'', and to a lesser extent ''Wolfenstein 3D'', has been characterized as \"marking a turning point\" in the perception of video games in popular culture, with ''Doom'' and first-person shooters in general becoming the predominant perception of video games in media.", "Historians such as Tristan Donovan in ''Replay: The History of Video Games'' (2010) have termed it as causing a \"paradigm shift\", prompting the rise in popularity of 3D games, first-person shooters, licensed technology between developers, and support for game modifications.", "It helped spark the rise of both online multiplayer games and player-driven content generation, and popularized the business model of online distribution.", "In their book ''Dungeons & Dreamers: A Story of how Computer Games Created a Global Community'' in 2014, Brad King and John Borland claimed that ''Doom'' was one of the first widespread instances of an \"online collective virtual reality\", and did more than any other game to create a modern world of \"networked games and gamers\".", "''PC Gamer'' proclaimed ''Doom'' the most influential game of all time in 2004, and in 2023 said its development was one of the most well-documented in the history of video games.It has also been used in scholarly research since its release, including for machine learning, video game aesthetics and design, and the effects of video games on aggression, memory, and attention.", "In 2007 ''Doom'' was listed among the ten \"game canon\" video games selected for preservation by the Library of Congress, and in 2015 The Strong National Museum of Play inducted ''Doom'' to its World Video Game Hall of Fame as part of its initial set of games.", "''Doom'' has continued to be included highly in lists of the best video games ever for nearly three decades since its release.", "In 1995, ''Next Generation'' said it was \"the most talked about PC game ever\".", "The PC version was ranked the 3rd best video game by ''Flux'' in 1995, and in 1996 was ranked fifth best and third most innovative by ''Computer Gaming World''.", "In 2000, ''Doom'' was ranked as the second-best game ever by ''GameSpot''.", "The following year, it was voted the number one game of all time in a poll among over 100 game developers and journalists conducted by ''GameSpy'', and was ranked the sixth best game by ''Game Informer''.", "GameTrailers ranked it the most \"breakthrough PC game\" in 2009 and ''Game Informer'' again ranked it the sixth-best game that same year.", "''Doom'' has also been ranked among the best games of all time by ''GamesMaster'', ''Hyper'', ''The Independent'', ''Entertainment Weekly'', ''GamesTM'', ''Jeuxvideo.com'', ''Gamereactor'', ''Time'', ''Polygon'', and ''The Times'', among others, as recently as 2023.===Clones===By 1998, the phrase \"alt=Double-line graph.", "X-axis is years from 1993 to 2002.Y-axis shows usenet post counts ranging from 0 to 1200 per month.", "Red line (\"doom+clone\" or \"doom+clones\") peaks at about 400 in 1996, and tails off to zero again by 2002.Blue line (\"first+person+shooter\" or \"first+person+shooters\") grows mostly monotonically to about 1120 by 2002, with an intermediate peak of about 850 in 2000.The two lines cross in late 1997.Both lines are close to zero before late 1993, when \"Doom released\" is noted with a visual marker.The success of ''Doom'' led to dozens of new first-person shooter games.", "In 1998, ''PC Gamer'' declared it \"probably the most imitated game of all time\".", "These games were often referred to as \"''Doom'' clones\", with \"first-person shooter\" only overtaking it as the name of the genre after a few years.", "As the \"first-person shooter\" genre label had not yet solidified at the time, ''Doom'' was described as a \"first person perspective adventure\" and \"atmospheric 3-D action game\".", "''Doom'' clones ranged from close imitators to more innovative takes on the genre.", "Id Software licensed the ''Doom'' engine to several other companies, which resulted in several games similar to ''Doom'', including ''Heretic'' (1994), ''Hexen: Beyond Heretic'' (1995), and ''Strife: Quest for the Sigil'' (1996).", "A ''Doom''-based game called ''Chex Quest'' was released in 1996 by Ralston Foods as a promotion to increase cereal sales.", "Other games were inspired by ''Doom'', if not rumored to be built by reverse engineering the game's engine, including LucasArts's ''Star Wars: Dark Forces'' (1995).", "Several other games termed ''Doom'' clones, such as ''PowerSlave'' (1996) and ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (1996), used the 1995 Build engine, a 2.5D engine inspired by ''Doom'' created by Ken Silverman with some consultation with John Carmack.===Sequel and franchise===After completing ''Doom'', id Software began working on a sequel using the same engine, ''Doom II'', which was released to retail on October 10, 1994, ten months after the first game.", "GT Interactive had approached id before the release of ''Doom'' with plans to release a retail version of ''Doom'' and ''Doom II''.", "Id chose to create the sequel as a set of episodes rather than a new game, allowing John Carmack and the other programmers to begin work on id's next game, ''Quake''.", "''Doom II'' was the United States' highest-selling software product of 1994 and sold more than copies within a year.", "''Doom II'' was followed by an expansion pack from id, ''Master Levels for Doom II'' (1995), consisting of 21 commissioned levels and over 3000 user-created levels for ''Doom'' and ''Doom II''.", "Two sets of ''Doom II'' levels by different amateur map-making teams were released together by id as the standalone game ''Final Doom'' (1996).", "''Doom'' and ''Doom II'' were both included, along with previous id games, in the ''id Anthology'' compilation (1996).", "The ''Doom'' franchise has continued since the 1990s in several iterations and forms.", "The video game series includes ''Doom 3'' (2004), ''Doom'' (2016), and ''Doom Eternal'' (2020), along with other spin-off video games.", "It additionally includes multiple novels, a comic book, board games, and two films: ''Doom'' (2005) and ''Doom: Annihilation'' (2019).===Controversies===alt=Screen shot of a rocket exploding, causing multiple enemies to burst into bloody chunks''Doom'' was notorious for its high levels of graphic violence and satanic imagery, which generated controversy from a broad range of groups.", "''Doom'' for the 32X was one of the first video games to be given a Mature 17+ rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board due to its violent gore and nature, while ''Doom II'' was the first.", "In Germany, shortly after its publication, ''Doom'' was classified as \"harmful to minors\" by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons and could not be sold to children or displayed where they could see it, which was only rescinded in 2011.", "''Doom'' again sparked controversy in the United States when it was found that Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, who committed the Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999, were avid players.", "While planning for the massacre, Harris said in his journal that the killing would be \"like playing ''Doom''\".", "A rumor spread afterward that Harris had designed a custom ''Doom'' level that looked like the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, which he used to practice for the shooting.", "Although Harris did design several custom ''Doom'' levels, which later became known as the \"Harris levels\", none were based on the school.", "''Doom'' was dubbed a \"mass murder simulator\" by critic and Killology Research Group founder David Grossman.In the earliest release versions, the level E1M4: Command Control contains a swastika-shaped structure, which was put in as a homage to ''Wolfenstein 3D''.", "The swastika was removed in later versions, out of respect for a military veteran's request, according to Romero.===Community===''Doom''s popularity and innovations attracted a community that has persisted for decades since.", "The deathmatch mode was an important factor in its popularity.", "''Doom'' was the first game to coin the term \"deathmatch\" and introduced multiplayer shooting battles to a wide audience.", "This led to a widespread community of players who had never experienced fast-paced multiplayer combat before.Another popular aspect of ''Doom'' was the versatility of its WAD files, enabling user-generated levels and other game modifications.", "John Carmack and Romero had strongly advocated for mod support, overriding other id employees who were concerned about commercial and legal implications.", "Although WAD files exposed the game data, id provided no instructions for how they worked.", "Still, players were able to modify leaked alpha versions of the game, allowing them to release level editors within weeks of the game's release.On January 26, 1994, university student Brendon Wyber led a group to create the first full level editor, the Doom Editor Utility, leading to the first custom level by Jeff Bird in March.", "It was followed by \"countless\" others, including many based on other franchises like ''Aliens'' and ''Star Wars'' total conversion mods, as well as DeHackEd, a level editor first released in 1994 by Greg Lewis that allowed editing of the game engine.", "Soon after the first mods appeared, id CEO Wilbur posted legal terms to the company's website, allowing mod authors to charge money without any fees to id, while also absolving the company of responsibility or support.", "''Doom'' mods were widely popular, earning favorable comparisons to the official level additions seen in ''The Ultimate Doom''.", "Thousands of user-created levels were released in the first few years after the release; over 3000 such levels for ''Doom'' and ''Doom II'' were included in the official retail release ''Master Levels for Doom II'' (1995).", "WizardWorks released multiple collections of mods of ''Doom'' and ''Doom II'' under the name ''D!Zone''.", "At least one mod creator, Tim Willits, was later hired at id Software.", "Mods have continued to be produced, with the community Cacowards awarding the best of each year.", "In 2016, Romero created two new ''Doom'' levels: E1M4b (\"Phobos Mission Control\") and E1M8b (\"Tech Gone Bad\").", "In 2018, for the 25th anniversary of ''Doom'', Romero announced ''Sigil'', an unofficial fifth episode containing nine levels.", "It was released on May 22, 2019, for with a soundtrack by Buckethead, and then released again for free on May 31 with a soundtrack by James Paddock.", "A physical release was later produced.", "A sixth episode, ''Sigil II'', was released on the game's 30th anniversary, December 10, 2023, again for for a digital copy with a soundtrack by Valient Thorr, as well as physical editions on floppy disk.In addition to WAD files, ''Doom'' includes a feature that allowed players to record and play back gameplay using files called demos, or game replays.", "Although the concept of speedrunning a video game existed before ''Doom'', its release coincided with a wave of popularity for speedrunning, amplified by the online communities built on the nascent Internet.", "Demos were lightweight files that could be shared more easily than video files on internet bulletin board systems at the time.", "As a result, ''Doom'' is credited with creating the video game speedrunning community.", "The speedrunning community for ''Doom'' has continued for decades.", "As recently as 2019, community members have broken records originally set in 1998.", "''Doom'' has been termed as having \"one of the longest-running speedrunning communities\" as well as being \"the quintessential speedrunning game\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * " ], [ "External links", " * The \"Official\" Doom FAQ* Source code for ''Doom''" ] ]	wikipedia
[ [ "Denver" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denver''' ( ) is a consolidated city and county, the capital, and most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado.", "Its population was 715,522 at the 2020 census, a 19.22% increase since 2010.It is the 19th-most populous city in the United States and the fifth most populous state capital.", "It is the principal city of the Denver–Aurora–Lakewood metropolitan statistical area, the most populous metropolitan statistical area in Colorado and the first city of the Front Range Urban Corridor.Denver is in the western United States, in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains.", "Its downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River, about east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains.", "It is named after James W. Denver, a governor of the Kansas Territory.", "It is nicknamed the '''Mile High City''' because its official elevation is exactly one mile () above sea level.", "The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the longitudinal reference for the Mountain Time Zone, passes directly through Denver Union Station.Denver is ranked as a Beta world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.", "The 10-county Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 2,963,821 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 19th most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area.", "The 12-county Denver–Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had a population of 3,623,560 at the 2020 U.S. census, making it the 17th most populous U.S. primary statistical area.", "Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, an oblong urban region stretching across two states with a population of 5,055,344 at the 2020 U.S. census.", "Its metropolitan area is the most populous within a radius and it is the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona.", "In 2016, it was named the best place to live in the United States by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''." ], [ "History", "Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver visited his namesake city in 1875 and in 1882.The \"Bronco Buster\", a variation of Frederic Remington's \"Bronco Buster\" Western sculpture at the Denver capitol grounds, a gift from J.K. Mullen in 1920The greater Denver area was inhabited by several Indigenous peoples such as Apaches, Utes, Cheyennes, Comanches, and Arapahoes.", "Native American names for Denver include , , and Tüapü (Ute).", "By the terms of the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie between the United States and various tribes including the Cheyenne and Arapaho, the United States unilaterally defined and recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho territory as ranging from the North Platte River in present-day Wyoming and Nebraska southward to the Arkansas River in present-day Colorado and Kansas.", "This definition specifically encompasses the land of modern Metropolitan Denver.", "But the discovery in November 1858 of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado (then part of the western Kansas Territory) brought on a gold rush and a consequent flood of white immigration across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands.", "Colorado territorial officials pressured federal authorities to redefine and reduce the extent of Indian treaty lands.In the summer of 1858, during the Pike's Peak Gold Rush, a group of gold prospectors from Lawrence, Kansas, established Montana City as a mining town on the banks of the South Platte River in what was then western Kansas Territory, on traditional lands of Cheyenne and Arapaho.", "This was the first historical settlement in what later became the city of Denver.", "But the site faded quickly, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria (named after the gold-mining town of Auraria, Georgia) and St. Charles City.On November 22, 1858, General William Larimer and Captain Jonathan Cox, both land speculators from eastern Kansas Territory, placed cottonwood logs to stake a claim on the bluff overlooking the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek, across the creek from the existing mining settlement of Auraria, and on the site of the existing townsite of St. Charles.", "Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver.", "Larimer hoped the town's name would help it be selected as the county seat of Arapahoe County, but unbeknownst to him, Governor Denver had already resigned from office.", "The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho.", "The site of these first towns is now occupied by Confluence Park near downtown Denver.", "Edward W. Wynkoop came to Colorado in 1859 and became one of the city's founders.", "Wynkoop Street in Denver is named after him.Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new immigrants.", "Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading.", "In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria.", "In May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pike's Peak Express in order to secure the region's first overland wagon route.", "Offering daily service for \"passengers, mail, freight, and gold\", the Express reached Denver on a trail that trimmed westward travel time from twelve days to six.", "In 1863, Western Union furthered Denver's dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus.On February 18, 1861, six chiefs of the Southern Cheyenne and four of the Arapaho signed the Treaty of Fort Wise with the United States at Bent's New Fort at Big Timbers near what is now Lamar, Colorado.", "They ceded more than 90 percent of the lands designated for them by the Fort Laramie Treaty, including the area of modern Denver.", "Some Cheyennes opposed to the treaty, saying that it had been signed by a small minority of the chiefs without the consent or approval of the rest of the tribe, that the signatories had not understood what they signed, and that they had been bribed to sign by a large distribution of gifts.", "The territorial government of Colorado, however, claimed the treaty was a \"solemn obligation\" and considered that those Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile and planning a war.Ten days later, on February 28, 1861, the Colorado Territory was created, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1, 1861, and Denver City was incorporated on November 7, 1861.Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902.In 1867, Denver City became the acting territorial capital, and in 1881 was chosen as the permanent state capital in a statewide ballot.", "With its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver.", "On August 1, 1876, Colorado was admitted to the Union.This disagreement on the validity of Treaty of Fort Wise escalated to bring about the Colorado War of 1864 and 1865, during which the brutal Sand Creek massacre against Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples occurred.", "The aftermath of the war was the dissolution of the reservation in Eastern Colorado, the signing of Medicine Lodge Treaty which stipulated that the Cheyenne and Arapaho peoples would be relocated outside of their traditional territory.", "This treaty term was achieved, even though the treaty was not legally ratified by the tribal members, as per the treaty's own terms.", "Thus, by the end of 1860s, this effectively and completely cleared the Denver area of its indigenous inhabitants.", "\"Pioneer Mothers of Colorado\" statue at ''The Denver Post'' buildingAlthough by the close of the 1860s Denver residents could look with pride at their success establishing a vibrant supply and service center, the decision to route the nation's first transcontinental railroad through Cheyenne City, rather than Denver, threatened the prosperity of the young town.", "The transcontinental railroad passed a daunting away, but citizens mobilized to build a railroad to connect Denver to it.", "Spearheaded by visionary leaders, including Territorial Governor John Evans, David Moffat, and Walter Cheesman, fundraising began.", "Within three days, $300,000 had been raised, and citizens were optimistic.", "Fundraising stalled before enough was raised, forcing these visionary leaders to take control of the debt-ridden railroad.", "Despite challenges, on June 24, 1870, citizens cheered as the Denver Pacific completed the link to the transcontinental railroad, ushering in a new age of prosperity for Denver.Finally linked to the rest of the nation by rail, Denver prospered as a service and supply center.", "The young city grew during these years, attracting millionaires with their mansions, as well as a mixture of crime and poverty of a rapidly growing city.", "Denver citizens were proud when the rich chose Denver and were thrilled when Horace Tabor, the Leadville mining millionaire, built a business block at 16th and Larimer, as well as the elegant Tabor Grand Opera House.", "Luxurious hotels, including the much-loved Brown Palace Hotel, soon followed, as well as splendid homes for millionaires, such as the Croke, Patterson, Campbell Mansion at 11th and Pennsylvania and the now-demolished Moffat Mansion at 8th and Grant.", "Intent on transforming Denver into one of the world's great cities, leaders wooed industry and attracted laborers to work in these factories.Soon, in addition to the elite and a large middle class, Denver had a growing population of immigrant German, Italian, and Chinese laborers, soon followed by African Americans from the Deep South and Hispanic workers.", "The influx of the new residents strained available housing.", "In addition, the Silver Crash of 1893 unsettled political, social, and economic balances.", "Competition among the different ethnic groups was often expressed as bigotry, and social tensions gave rise to the Red Scare.", "Americans were suspicious of immigrants, who were sometimes allied with socialist and labor union causes.", "After World War I, a revival of the Ku Klux Klan attracted white native-born Americans who were anxious about the many changes in society.", "Unlike the earlier organization that was active in the rural South, KKK chapters developed in urban areas of the Midwest and West, including Denver, and into Idaho and Oregon.", "Corruption and crime also developed in Denver.Between 1880 and 1895, the city underwent a huge rise in corruption, as crime bosses, such as Soapy Smith, worked side by side with elected officials and the police to control elections, gambling, and bunco gangs.", "The city also suffered a depression in 1893 after the crash of silver prices.", "In 1887, the precursor to the international charity United Way was formed in Denver by local religious leaders, who raised funds and coordinated various charities to help Denver's poor.", "By 1890, Denver had grown to be the second-largest city west of Omaha, Nebraska.", "In 1900, whites represented 96.8% of Denver's population.", "The African American and Hispanic populations increased with migrations of the 20th century.", "Many African Americans first came as workers on the railroad, which had a terminus in Denver, and began to settle there.Between the 1880s and 1930s, Denver's floriculture industry developed and thrived.", "This period became known locally as the Carnation Gold Rush.A bill proposing a state constitutional amendment to allow home rule for Denver and other municipalities was introduced in the legislature in 1901 and passed.", "The measure called for a statewide referendum, which voters approved in 1902.On December 1 that year, Governor James Orman proclaimed the amendment part of the state's fundamental law.", "The City and County of Denver came into being on that date and was separated from Arapahoe and Adams counties.Early in the 20th century, Denver, like many other cities, was home to a pioneering Brass Era car company.", "The Colburn Automobile Company made cars copied from one of its contemporaries, Renault.From 1953 to 1989, the Rocky Flats Plant, a DOE nuclear weapon facility that was about 15 miles from Denver, produced fissile plutonium \"pits\" for nuclear warheads.", "A major fire at the facility in 1957, as well as leakage from nuclear waste stored at the site between 1958 and 1968, resulted in the contamination of some parts of Denver, to varying degrees, with plutonium-239, a harmful radioactive substance with a half-life of 24,200 years.", "A 1981 study by the Jefferson County health director, Carl Johnson, linked the contamination to an increase in birth defects and cancer incidence in central Denver and nearer Rocky Flats.", "Later studies confirmed many of his findings.", "Plutonium contamination was still present outside the former plant site .", "It presents risks to building the envisioned Jefferson Parkway, which would complete Denver's automotive beltway.Downtown Denver cityscape, 1964.Includes Denver's oldest church (Trinity United Methodist), first building of the Mile High Center complex, Lincoln Center, old brownstone part of the Brown Palace Hotel, and Cosmopolitan Hotel – since demolished.In 1970, Denver was selected to host the 1976 Winter Olympics to coincide with Colorado's centennial celebration, but in November 1972, Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games.", "They were moved to Innsbruck, Austria.", "The notoriety of being the only city ever to decline to host an Olympiad after being selected has made subsequent bids difficult.", "The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by State Representative Richard Lamm.", "He was subsequently elected to three terms (1975–87) as Colorado governor.", "Denver explored a potential bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics, but no bid was submitted.In 2010, Denver adopted a comprehensive update of its zoning code, which was developed to guide development as envisioned in adopted plans such as Blueprint Denver, Transit Oriented Development Strategic Plan, Greenprint Denver, and the Strategic Transportation Plan.Denver has hosted the Democratic National Convention twice, in 1908 and 2008.It promoted the city on the national, political, and socioeconomic stage.", "On August 10–15, 1993, Denver hosted the Catholic Church's 6th World Youth Day, which was attended by an estimated 500,000, making it the largest gathering in Colorado history.In December 2021 a gunman killed five people in Denver and Lakewood.", "A public art mural and exhibit at the History Colorado Center was installed in the city that honored artist Alicia Cardenas, who was one of the victims of the shooting.Denver has been known historically as the ''Queen City of the Plains'' and the ''Queen City of the West'', because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the High Plains region in eastern Colorado and along the foothills of the Colorado Front Range.", "Several U.S. Navy ships have been named in honor of the city." ], [ "Geography", "Central Downtown Denver325x325pxDenver is in the center of the Front Range Urban Corridor, between the Rocky Mountains to the west and the High Plains to the east.", "Its topography consists of plains in the city center with hilly areas to the north, west, and south.", "At the 2020 United States census, the City and County of Denver had an area of , including of water.", "The City and County of Denver is surrounded by three other counties: Adams County to the north and east, Arapahoe County to the south and east, and Jefferson County to the west.Denver's nickname is the \"Mile-High City\", as its official elevation is above sea level, defined by the elevation of the spot of a benchmark on the steps of the State Capitol building.", "The elevation of the entire city ranges from .", "Denver lies from the nearest point of the Gulf of California, the nearest ocean to the city.===Neighborhoods===Denver's 78 official neighborhoodsAs of January 2013, the City and County of Denver defined 78 official neighborhoods that the city and community groups use for planning and administration.", "Although the city's delineation of the neighborhood boundaries is somewhat arbitrary, it corresponds roughly to the definitions residents use.", "These \"neighborhoods\" should not be confused with cities or suburbs, which may be separate entities within the metro area.The character of the neighborhoods varies significantly and includes everything from large skyscrapers to late-19th-century houses to modern, suburban-style developments.", "Generally, the neighborhoods closest to the city center are denser, older, and contain more brick building material.", "Many neighborhoods away from the city center were developed after World War II and are built with more modern materials and style.", "Some of the neighborhoods even farther from the city center, or recently redeveloped parcels anywhere in the city, have either very suburban characteristics or are new urbanist developments that attempt to recreate the feel of older neighborhoods.Denver does not have larger area designations, unlike the City of Chicago, which has larger areas that house the neighborhoods (e.g., Northwest Side).", "Denver residents use the terms \"north\", \"south\", \"east\", and \"west\".Construction along Cherokee Street in the Golden Triangle neighborhoodDenver also has a number of neighborhoods not reflected in the administrative boundaries.", "These neighborhoods may reflect the way people in an area identify themselves or they might reflect how others, such as real estate developers, have defined those areas.", "Well-known non-administrative neighborhoods include the historic and trendy LoDo (short for \"Lower Downtown\"), part of the city's Union Station neighborhood; Uptown, straddling North Capitol Hill and City Park West; Curtis Park, part of the Five Points neighborhood; Alamo Placita, the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; Park Hill, a successful example of intentional racial integration; and Golden Triangle, in the Civic Center.One of Denver's newer neighborhoods was built on the former site of Stapleton International Airport, which was named after former Denver mayor Benjamin Stapleton, who was a member of the Ku Klux Klan.", "In 2020, the neighborhood's community association voted to change the neighborhood's name from Stapleton to Central Park (see more in Politics section below).", "The Central Park neighborhood itself has 12 \"neighborhoods\" within its boundaries.===Adjacent counties, municipalities and census-designated places==='''North:''' '''''Adams County''''', Berkley, Northglenn, Commerce City'''West:''' '''''Jefferson County''''', Arvada, Wheat Ridge, Lakeside, Mountain View, Edgewater, Lakewood, Dakota Ridge'''Denver''''''Enclave:''' '''''Arapahoe County''''', Glendale, Holly Hills'''''Adams County''''''''East:''' Aurora'''''Arapahoe County''''''''South:''' '''''Arapahoe County''''', Bow Mar, Littleton, Sheridan, Englewood, Cherry Hills Village, Greenwood Village, Aurora===Climate===Denver features a continental semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: ''BSk'') with generally low humidity and around 3,100 hours of sunshine per year, although humid microclimates can be found nearby depending on exact location.", "It has four distinct seasons and receives most of its precipitation from April through August.", "Due to its inland location on the High Plains, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the region can be subject to sudden changes in weather.July is the warmest month, with an average high temperature of .", "Summers range from warm to hot with occasional, sometimes severe, afternoon thunderstorms and high temperatures reaching on 38 days annually, and occasionally .", "December, the coldest month of the year, has an average daily high temperature of .", "Winters consist of periods of snow and very low temperatures alternating with periods of milder weather due to the warming effect of Chinook winds.", "In winter, daytime highs occasionally exceed , but they also often fail to reach during periods of cold weather.", "Occasionally, daytime highs can even fail to rise above due to arctic air masses.", "On the coldest nights of the year, lows can fall to or below, with the city experiencing a low of on December 22, 2022, with a wind chill of .", "Snowfall is common throughout the late fall, winter and early spring, averaging for 1981–2010; but in the 2021 winter season, Denver began the month of December without any snowfall for the first time in history.", "The average window for measurable (≥) snow is October 17 through April 27; however, measurable snowfall has occurred as early as September 4 and as late as June 3.Extremes in temperature range from on January 9, 1875, up to as recently as June 28, 2018.Due to the city's high elevation and aridity, diurnal temperature variation is large throughout the year.Tornadoes are rare west of the I-25 corridor; one notable exception was an F3 tornado that struck south of downtown on June 15, 1988.On the other hand, the suburbs east of Denver and the city's east-northeastern extension (Denver International Airport) can see a few tornadoes, often weak landspout tornadoes, each spring and summer, especially during June, with the enhancement of the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone (DCVZ).", "The DCVZ, also known as the Denver Cyclone, is a variable vortex of storm-forming air flow usually found north and east of downtown, and which often includes the airport.", "Heavy weather from the DCVZ can disrupt airport operations.", "In a study looking at hail events in areas with a population of at least 50,000, Denver was found to be ranked 10th most prone to hail storms in the continental United States.", "In fact, Denver has had three of the top 10 costliest hailstorms in U.S. history, on July 11, 1990; July 20, 2009; and May 8, 2017.Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December, January and February, Weather Channel ranked Denver the 18th-coldest major U.S. city .Denver's official weather station is at Denver International Airport, roughly from downtown.", "A 2019 analysis showed the average temperature at Denver International Airport, , was significantly cooler than downtown, .", "Many of the suburbs also have warmer temperatures and there is controversy regarding the location of the official temperature readings.Climate data for DenverMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearMean daily daylight hours10.011.012.013.014.015.015.014.012.011.010.09.012.2Average Ultraviolet index2357911111075326.2Source: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Demographics", "As of the 2020 census, the population of the City and County of Denver was 715,522, making it the 19th most populous U.S. city.", "The Denver–Aurora–Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 2,697,476 and ranked as the 21st most populous U.S. metropolitan statistical area, and the larger Denver–Aurora–Boulder Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2013 population of 3,277,309 and ranked as the 18th most populous U.S. metropolitan area.", "Denver is the most populous city within a radius centered in the city and of magnitude.", "Denverites is a term used for residents of Denver.Ethnic origins in DenverAccording to the 2020 census, the City and County of Denver contained 715,522 people and 301,501 households.", "The population density was including the airport.", "There were 338.341 housing units at an average density of .", "However, the average density throughout most Denver neighborhoods tends to be higher.", "Without the 80249 zip code (47.3 sq mi, 8,407 residents) near the airport, the average density increases to around 5,470 per square mile.", "Denver, Colorado, is at the top of the list of 2017 Best Places to Live, according to ''U.S.", "News & World Report'', landing a place in the top two in terms of affordability and quality of lifestyle.Map of racial distribution in Denver, 2010 U.S. Census.", "Each dot is 25 people: '''White''', '''Black''', '''Asian''', '''Hispanic''', or '''Other''' (yellow) Historical racial composition 2020 2010 1990 1970 1940 White (Non-Hispanic) 54.9% 52.2% 61.4% 74.5% 97.3% Hispanic or Latino 29.3% 31.8% 23.0% 15.2% n/a Black 9.8% 9.7% 12.8% 9.1% 2.4% Mixed 3.3% 2.1% Asian 4.1% 3.3% 2.4% 1.4% 0.2%===2020 census===According to the 2020 United States census, the racial composition of Denver was as follows:* White: 80.9 (Non-Hispanic Whites: 54.9%)* Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 29.3%; Mexican Americans made up 24.9% of the city's population.", "* Black or African American: 9.8%* Asian: 4.1% (0.8% Vietnamese, 0.6% Chinese, 0.5% Indian, 0.3% Korean, 0.3% Japanese, 0.3% Filipino, 0.2% Burmese, 0.1% Cambodian)* Native American: 1.7%* Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.2%* Two or more races: 3.3%+'''Denver, Colorado – Racial and ethnic composition'''(''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2000Pop 2010% 2000% 2010White alone (NH)287,997313,012388,76451.93%52.15%54.33%Black or African American alone (NH)59,92158,38861,09810.80%9.73%8.54%Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH)3,8463,5253,7400.69%0.59%0.52%Asian alone (NH)15,13719,92527,1982.73%3.32%3.80%Pacific Islander alone (NH)4734951,3950.09%0.08%0.19%Other race alone (NH)9751,2083,7460.18%0.20%0.52%Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)10,58312,64030,1211.91%2.11%4.21%Hispanic or Latino (any race)175,704190,965199,46031.68%31.82%27.88%'''Total''''''554,636''''''600,158''''''715,522''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''Approximately 70.3% of the population (over five years old) spoke only English at home.", "An additional 23.5% of the population spoke Spanish at home.", "In terms of ancestry, 31.8% were Hispanic or Latino, 14.6% of the population were of German ancestry, 9.7% were of Irish ancestry, 8.9% were of English ancestry, and 4.0% were of Italian ancestry.There were 250,906 households, of which 23.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families.", "39.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.27, and the average family size was 3.14.Age distribution was 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 33 years.", "Overall there were 102.1 males for every 100 females.", "Due to a skewed sex ratio wherein single men outnumber single women, some protologists had nicknamed the city as ''Menver''.The median household income was $45,438, and the median family income was $48,195.Males had a median income of $36,232 versus $33,768 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $24,101.19.1% of the population and 14.6% of families were below the poverty line.", "Out of the total population, 25.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.Denver has one of the largest populations of Mexican-Americans in the entire United States.", "Approximately one third of the city is Hispanic, with the overwhelming majority of them being of Mexican descent.", "Many of them speak Spanish at home.English, German, Irish, Swedish, Italian, Polish, Chinese, Japanese, Greek, and Russian immigrants immigrated to Denver by the 1920s.===Languages===, 72.28% (386,815) of Denver residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 21.42% (114,635) spoke Spanish, 0.85% (4,550) Vietnamese, 0.57% (3,073) African languages, 0.53% (2,845) Russian, 0.50% (2,681) Chinese, 0.47% (2,527) French, and 0.46% (2,465) German.", "In total, 27.72% (148,335) of Denver's population aged five and older spoke a language other than English.===Longevity===According to a report in the Journal of the American Medical Association, residents of Denver had a 2014 life expectancy of 80.02 years." ], [ "Economy", "The 17th street district includes many financial, business and corporate buildings.The United States Mint in Denver (2010)Republic Plaza, Colorado's tallest buildingWells Fargo \"Cash Register\" Building: Denver's most famous skyscraper1144 15th St: One of Denver's newest skyscrapersThe Denver MSA has a gross metropolitan product of $157.6 billion in 2010, making it the 18th largest metro economy in the United States.", "Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the country's major transportation systems.", "Because Denver is the largest city within , it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the Mountain States, Southwest states, as well as all western states.", "Another benefit for distribution is that Denver is nearly equidistant from large cities of the Midwest, such as Chicago and St. Louis and some large cities of the West Coast, such as Los Angeles and San Francisco.Over the years, the city has been home to other large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country.", "Several well-known companies originated in or have relocated to Denver.", "William Ainsworth opened the Denver Instrument Company in 1895 to make analytical balances for gold assayers.", "Its factory is now in Arvada.", "AIMCO (NYSE: AIV)—the largest owner and operator of apartment communities in the United States, with approximately 870 communities comprising nearly 136,000 units in 44 states—is headquartered in Denver, employing approximately 3,500 people.", "Also, Samsonite Corp., the world's largest luggage manufacturer, began in Denver in 1910 as Shwayder Trunk Manufacturing Company, but Samsonite closed its NE Denver factory in 2001, and moved its headquarters to Massachusetts after a change of ownership in 2006.The Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Company, founded in Denver in 1911, is now a part of telecommunications giant Lumen Technologies (previously CenturyLink).On October 31, 1937, Continental Airlines, now United Airlines, moved its headquarters to Stapleton Airport in Denver, Colorado (before United Airlines later moved to its current home in Chicago).", "Robert F. Six arranged to have the headquarters moved to Denver from El Paso, Texas because Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers.", "Continental later moved to Houston from Denver, but merged with United Airlines in 2013.Throughout that time, the company held a large employee base in the Denver area, which is home to the United Airlines Flight Training Center in the Central Park neighborhood.", "MediaNews Group purchased the ''Denver Post'' in 1987; the company is based in Denver.", "The Gates Corporation, the world's largest producer of automotive belts and hoses, was established in S. Denver in 1919.Russell Stover Candies made its first chocolate candy in Denver in 1923, but moved to Kansas City in 1969.The original Frontier Airlines began operations at Denver's old Stapleton International Airport in 1950; Frontier was reincarnated at DIA in 1994.Scott's Liquid Gold, Inc., has been making furniture polish in Denver since 1954.Village Inn restaurants began as a single pancake house in Denver in 1958.Big O Tires, LLC, of Centennial opened its first franchise in 1962 in Denver.", "The Shane Company sold its first diamond jewelry in 1971 in Denver.", "In 1973 Re/Max made Denver its headquarters.", "Johns Manville Corp., a manufacturer of insulation and roofing products, relocated its headquarters to Denver from New York in 1972.CH2M Hill, an engineering and construction firm, relocated from Oregon to the Denver Technological Center in 1980.The Ball Corporation sold its glass business in Indiana in the 1990s and moved to suburban Broomfield; Ball has several operations in greater Denver.Molson Coors Brewing Company established its U.S. headquarters in Denver in 2005, but announced its departure in 2019.Its subsidiary and regional wholesale distributor, Coors Distributing Company, is in NW Denver.", "The Newmont Mining Corporation, the second-largest gold producer in North America and one of the largest in the world, is headquartered in Denver.", "MapQuest, an online site for maps, directions and business listings, is headquartered in Denver's LoDo district.Large Denver-area employers that have headquarters elsewhere include Lockheed Martin Corp., United Airlines, Kroger Co. and Xcel Energy, Inc.Development in the bustling Union Station section of downtownGeography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence, with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area.", "Along with federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects, and more jobs are brought to the city by virtue of its being the capital of the state of Colorado.", "The Denver area is home to the former nuclear weapons plant Rocky Flats, the Denver Federal Center, Byron G. Rogers Federal Building and United States Courthouse, the Denver Mint, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.In 2005, a $310.7 million expansion of the Colorado Convention Center was completed, doubling its size.", "The hope was the center's expansion would elevate the city to one of the top 10 cities in the nation for holding a convention.Denver's position near the mineral-rich Rocky Mountains encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area.", "In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the city's economic success.", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, the energy crisis in America and resulting high oil prices created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera ''Dynasty''.", "Denver was built up considerably during this time with the construction of many new downtown skyscrapers.", "When the price of oil dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, the Denver economy also dropped, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including former mayor and governor John Hickenlooper, a former geologist), and the nation's highest office vacancy rate (30%).", "The industry has recovered and the region has 700 employed petroleum engineers.", "Advances in hydraulic fracturing have made the DJ Basin of Colorado into an accessible and lucrative oil play.", "Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as Ovintiv, Halliburton, Smith International, Rio Tinto Group, Newmont Mining, and Chevron Corporation, headquartered or having significant operations.", "Denver is in 149th place in terms of the cost of doing business in the United States.The first Chipotle Mexican Grill, near the campus of the University of DenverDenver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC−7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia on the same business day.", "Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a \"one-bounce\" real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day.", "Qwest Communications now part of CenturyLink, Dish Network Corporation, Starz, DIRECTV, and Comcast are a few of the many telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area.", "These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late 1990s.", "After a rise in unemployment in the Great Recession, Denver's unemployment rate recovered and had one of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation at 2.6% in November 2016.As of December 2016, the unemployment rate for the Denver–Aurora–Broomfield MSA is 2.6%.", "The Downtown region has seen increased real estate investment with the construction of several new skyscrapers from 2010 onward and major development around Denver Union Station.Denver has also enjoyed success as a pioneer in the fast-casual restaurant industry, with many popular national chain restaurants founded and based in Denver.", "Quiznos and Smashburger were founded and headquartered in Denver.", "Qdoba Mexican Grill, Noodles & Company, and Good Times Burgers & Frozen Custard originated in Denver, but have moved their headquarters to the suburbs of Wheat Ridge, Broomfield, and Golden, respectively.", "Chipotle Mexican Grill was founded in Denver, but moved its headquarters to Newport Beach, California in 2018.In 2015, Denver ranked No.", "1 on ''Forbes'' list of the Best Places for Business and Careers." ], [ "Culture", "thumbApollo Hall opened soon after the city's founding in 1859 and staged many plays for eager settlers.", "In the 1880s Horace Tabor built Denver's first opera house.", "After the start of the 20th century, city leaders embarked on a city beautification program that created many of the city's parks, parkways, museums, and the Municipal Auditorium, which was home to the 1908 Democratic National Convention and is now known as the Ellie Caulkins Opera House.", "Denver and the metropolitan areas around it continued to support culture.In July 1982, Denver hosted the World Theatre Festival at the Denver Center for Performing Arts, which comprised a program of 114 performances of 18 plays, by theatre companies from 13 countries, across 25 days.In 1988, voters in the Denver Metropolitan Area approved the Scientific and Cultural Facilities Tax (commonly known as SCFD), a 0.1% (1 cent per $10) sales tax that contributes money to various cultural and scientific facilities and organizations throughout the Metro area.", "The tax was renewed by voters in 1994 and 2004 and allowed the SCFD to operate until 2018.Ballot issue 4B in 2016 won approval 62.8 percent to 37.2 percent, by Denver metro area voters, to extend the SCFD sales tax until 2030.Denver is home to a wide array of museums.", "Many are nationally recognized, including a new wing for the Denver Art Museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, the nation's second-largest Performing Arts Center after Lincoln Center in New York City, and bustling neighborhoods such as LoDo, filled with art galleries, restaurants, bars and clubs.", "That is part of the reason Denver was, in 2006, recognized for the third year in a row as the best city for singles.", "Its neighborhoods also continue their influx of diverse people and businesses while the city's cultural institutions grow and prosper.", "The city acquired the estate of abstract expressionist painter Clyfford Still in 2004 and built a museum to exhibit his works near the Denver Art Museum.", "The Denver Museum of Nature and Science holds an aquamarine specimen valued at over $1 million, as well as specimens of the state mineral, rhodochrosite.", "Every September the Denver Mart, at 451 E. 58th Avenue, hosts a gem and mineral show.", "The state history museum, History Colorado Center, opened in April 2012.It features hands-on and interactive exhibits, artifacts and programs about Colorado history.", "It was named in 2013 by ''True West Magazine'' as one of the top-ten \"must see\" history museums in the country.", "History Colorado's Byers-Evans House Museum and the Molly Brown House are nearby.Denver has numerous art districts, including Denver's Art District on Santa Fe and the River North Art District (RiNo).While Denver may not be as recognized for historical musical prominence as some other American cities, it has an active pop, jazz, jam, folk, metal, and classical music scene, which has nurtured several artists and genres to regional, national, and even international attention.", "Of particular note is Denver's importance in the folk scene of the 1960s and 1970s.", "Well-known folk artists such as Bob Dylan, Judy Collins and John Denver lived in Denver at various points during this time and performed at local clubs.", "Three members of the widely popular group Earth, Wind, and Fire are also from Denver.", "More recent Denver-based artists include India Aire, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, The Lumineers, Air Dubai, The Fray, Flobots, Cephalic Carnage, Axe Murder Boyz, Deuce Mob, Havok, Bloodstrike, Primitive Man, and Five Iron Frenzy.", "Denver is also home to the Denver Record Collectors Expo, a biannual music collectors event.Because of its proximity to the mountains and generally sunny weather, Denver has gained a reputation as being a very active, outdoor-oriented city.", "Many Denver residents spend the weekends in the mountains; skiing in the winter and hiking, climbing, kayaking, and camping in the summer.Denver and surrounding cities are home to a large number of local and national breweries.", "Many of the region's restaurants have on-site breweries, and some larger brewers offer tours, including Coors and New Belgium Brewing Company.", "The city also welcomes visitors from around the world when it hosts the annual Great American Beer Festival each fall.Denver used to be a major trading center for beef and livestock when ranchers would drive (or later transport) cattle to the Denver Union Stockyards for sale.", "As a celebration of that history, for more than a century Denver has hosted the annual National Western Stock Show, attracting as many as 10,000 animals and 700,000 attendees.", "The show is held every January at the National Western Complex northeast of downtown.Denver has one of the country's largest populations of Mexican Americans and hosts four large Mexican American celebrations: Cinco de Mayo (with over 500,000 attendees), in May; El Grito de la Independencia, in September; the annual Lowrider show, and the Dia De Los Muertos art shows/events in North Denver's Highland neighborhood, and the Lincoln Park neighborhood in the original section of West Denver.Denver is known for its dedication to New Mexican cuisine and the chile.", "It is best known for its green and red chile sauce, Colorado burrito, Southwest (Denver) omelette, breakfast burrito, empanadas, chiles rellenos, and tamales.", "Denver is also known for other types of food such as Rocky Mountain oysters, rainbow trout, and the Denver sandwich.The Dragon Boat Festival in July, Moon Festival in September and Chinese New Year are annual events in Denver for the Chinese and Asian-American communities.", "Chinese hot pot (huo guo) and Korean BBQ restaurants have been growing in popularity.", "The Denver area has two Chinese newspapers, the ''Chinese American Post'' and the ''Colorado Chinese News''.", "A Korean Newspaper, the \"Colorado Times News\" is also based in Denver.Denver has long been a place tolerant of the LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) community.", "Many gay bars can be found on Colfax Avenue and on South Broadway.", "Every June, Denver hosts the annual Denver PrideFest in Civic Center Park, the largest LGBTQ Pride festival in the Rocky Mountain region.Denver is the setting for ''The Bill Engvall Show'', Tim Allen's ''Last Man Standing'' and the 18th season of MTV's ''The Real World''.", "It was also the setting for the prime time drama ''Dynasty'' from 1981 to 1989 (although the show was mostly filmed in Los Angeles).", "From 1998 to 2002 the city's Alameda East Veterinary Hospital was home to the Animal Planet series ''Emergency Vets'', which spun off three documentary specials and the current Animal Planet series ''E-Vet Interns''.", "The city is also the setting for the Disney Channel sitcom ''Good Luck Charlie''.File:Denver Pavilions sign and escalators.jpg\|Denver Pavilions is a popular arts, entertainment, and shopping center on the 16th Street Mall in downtown Denver.File:Denver Performing Arts Complex.jpg\|Denver Performing Arts ComplexFile:Denver Art Museum.JPG\|Denver Art MuseumFile:Civiccenter1.JPG\|Civic Center Park, with museums and the central library in background" ], [ "Sports", "Denver is home to a variety of sports teams and is one of 13 U.S. cities with teams from four major league sports (the Denver metro area is the smallest metropolitan area in the country to have a team in all four major sports leagues).", "Including MLS soccer, it is also one of 10 U.S. cities to have five major sports teams.The Denver Broncos of the National Football League have drawn crowds of over 70,000 since their origins in the early 1960s, and continue to draw fans today to their current home Empower Field at Mile High.", "The Broncos have sold out every home game (except for strike-replacement games) since 1970.The Broncos have advanced to eight Super Bowls and won back-to-back titles in 1997 and 1998, and won again in 2015.The Colorado Rockies were created as an expansion franchise in 1993 and Coors Field opened in 1995.The Rockies advanced to the playoffs that year but were eliminated in the first round.", "In 2007, they advanced to the playoffs as a wild-card entrant, won the NL Championship Series, and brought the World Series to Denver for the first time but were swept in four games by the Boston Red Sox.Denver has been home to two National Hockey League teams.", "The Colorado Rockies played from 1976 to 1982, but later moved to the New York metropolitan area to become the New Jersey Devils.", "The Colorado Avalanche joined in 1995, after relocating from Quebec City.", "While in Denver, they have won three Stanley Cups in 1996, 2001, and 2022.The Denver Nuggets joined the American Basketball Association in 1967 and the National Basketball Association in 1976.The Nuggets won their first NBA championship in 2023.The Avalanche and Nuggets have both played at Ball Arena (formerly known as Pepsi Center) since 1999.The Major League Soccer team Colorado Rapids play in Dick's Sporting Goods Park, an 18,000-seat soccer-specific stadium opened for the 2007 MLS season in the Denver suburb of Commerce City.", "The Rapids won the MLS Cup in 2010.+ Major League sports teamsClubLeagueVenueAttendanceAttendance rank in LeagueStartChampionship Denver Broncos NFL Empower Field at Mile High 76,388 5th of 32 1960 1997, 1998, 2015 Colorado Rockies MLB Coors Field 32,196 14th of 30 1993 Denver Nuggets NBA Ball Arena 19,669 6th of 30 1967 2023 Colorado Avalanche NHL Ball Arena 17,991 13th of 32 1995 1996, 2001, 2022 Colorado Rapids MLS Dick's Sporting Goods Park 15,409 28th of 29 1996 2010Denver has several additional professional teams.", "In 2006, Denver established a Major League Lacrosse team, the Denver Outlaws.", "They play in Empower Field at Mile High.", "In 2006, the Denver Outlaws won the Western Conference Championship and then won their first championship in 2014 eight years later.", "They also won in 2016 and 2018 and would fold in 2020 with the MLL-PLL merger.", "The Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League play at Ball Arena.", "They won championships in 2006 and 2022.In 2018, the Denver Bandits were established as the first professional football team for women in Colorado and will be a part of the initial season for the Women's National Football Conference (WNFC) in 2019.Denver submitted the winning bid to host the 1976 Winter Olympics but subsequently withdrew, giving it the distinction of being the first city to back out after having won its bid to host the Olympics.", "Denver and Colorado Springs hosted the 1962 World Ice Hockey Championships.File:Invesco Field at Mile High.jpg\|Empower Field at Mile High, home of the Denver Broncos of the National Football League (NFL)File:Pepsi Center, Denver.jpg\|Ball Arena, home to the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association (NBA), the Colorado Avalanche of the National Hockey League (NHL), and the Colorado Mammoth of the National Lacrosse League (NLL)File:Coors field aerial 1.JPG\|Coors Field, home of the Colorado Rockies of Major League Baseball (MLB)File:DSG Park, June 21 2017.jpg\|Dick's Sporting Goods Park, home of the Colorado Rapids of Major League Soccer (MLS)" ], [ "Parks and recreation", ", Denver had over 200 parks, from small pocket parks all over the city to the giant City Park.", "Denver also has 29 recreation centers providing places and programming for resident's recreation and relaxation.Many of Denver's parks were acquired from state lands in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.", "This coincided with the City Beautiful movement, and Denver mayor Robert Speer (1904–12 and 1916–18) set out to expand and beautify the city's parks.", "Reinhard Schuetze was the city's first landscape architect, and he brought his German-educated landscaping genius to Washington Park, Cheesman Park, and City Park among others.", "Speer used Schuetze as well as other landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Saco Rienk DeBoer to design not only parks such as Civic Center Park, but many city parkways and tree-lawns.", "Cheesman Park neighbor the Denver Botanic Gardens displays the beauty and versatility of micro-climates within the semi-arid Denver Basin.", "All of these parks were fed with South Platte River water diverted through the city ditch.In addition to the parks within Denver, the city acquired land for mountain parks starting in the 1911s.", "Over the years, Denver has acquired, built and maintained approximately of mountain parks, including Red Rocks Park, which is known for its scenery and musical history revolving around the unique Red Rocks Amphitheatre.", "Denver also owns the mountain on which the Winter Park Resort ski area operates in Grand County, west of Denver.", "City parks are important places for Denverites and visitors, inciting controversy with every change.", "Denver continues to grow its park system with the development of many new parks along the Platte River through the city, and with Central Park and Bluff Lake Nature Center in the Central Park neighborhood redevelopment.", "All of these parks are important gathering places for residents and allow what was once a dry plain to be lush, active, and green.", "Denver is also home to a large network of public community gardens, most of which are managed by Denver Urban Gardens, a non-profit organization.Since 1974, Denver and the surrounding jurisdictions have rehabilitated the urban South Platte River and its tributaries for recreational use by hikers and cyclists.", "The main stem of the South Platte River Greenway runs along the South Platte into Adams County in the north.", "The Greenway project is recognized as one of the best urban reclamation projects in the U.S., winning, for example, the Silver Medal Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence in 2001., ParkScore by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Denver as having the 18th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities.", "The report noted that 89% of Denverites live within a 10-minute walk of a park.File:The 1908 pavilion in Denver, Colorado's, Cheesman Park LCCN2015633572.tif\|Cheesman Park started as a cemetery.File:Carla Madison Recreation Center.JPG\|The Carla Madison Recreation Center, completed in 2017File:Red Rocks Amphitheater.JPG\|Red Rocks is a Denver park and world-famous amphitheater in the foothills.File:Washington Park Denver.JPG\|Washington ParkFile:Dmp.JPG\|Genesee Park is the largest of the Denver Mountain Parks." ], [ "Government", "Denver City and County BuildingColorado Supreme Court, just before completionColorado State Capitol looking eastDenver is a consolidated city-county with a mayor elected on a nonpartisan ballot, a 13-member city council, and an auditor.", "The Denver City Council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing, and can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials.", "All elected officials have four-year terms, with a maximum of three terms.", "The current mayor is Mike Johnston.Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government.", "The mayor can approve or veto any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions.", "The council can override the mayor's veto with a nine votes, and the city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council.", "The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually for financial reasons.The Denver Department of Safety oversees three branches: the Denver Police Department, Denver Fire Department, and Denver Sheriff Department.", "The Denver County Court is an integrated Colorado County Court and Municipal Court and is managed by Denver instead of the state.===Politics===While Denver elections are nonpartisan, Democrats have long dominated the city's politics; most citywide officials are known to be registered with the Democratic Party.", "The mayor's office has been occupied by a Democrat since the 1963 municipal election.", "All the city's seats in the state legislature are held by Democrats.In statewide elections, the city also tends to favor Democrats, though Republicans were occasionally competitive until the turn of the millennium.", "The last Republican to win Denver in a gubernatorial election was John A.", "Love in 1970 by a narrow majority.", "Bill Owens in 2002 remains the last Republican governor to receive at least 40% of Denver's vote.", "The last Republican Senator to carry Denver was William L. Armstrong during his 1984 landslide.", "The last statewide Republican officeholder to carry Denver was Secretary of State Victoria Buckley in 1994 by 1.2% margin; she was, at the time, the highest ranking African-American Republican woman in the United States.In federal elections, Denver is a Democratic stronghold.", "It has supported a Democrat for president in every election since 1960, except 1972 and 1980.The city has swung heavily to the Democrats since the 1980s; Ronald Reagan is the last Republican to garner even 40 percent of the city's vote.", "At the federal level, Denver is the heart of , which includes all of Denver and parts of Arapahoe County.", "It is the most Democratic district in the Mountain West and has been in Democratic hands for all but two terms since 1933.It is currently represented by Democrat Diana DeGette.Benjamin F. Stapleton was the mayor of Denver for two periods, from 1923 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1947.He was responsible for many civic improvements, notably during his second term, when he had access to funds and manpower from the New Deal.", "During this time, the park system was considerably expanded and the Civic Center completed.", "His signature project was the construction of Denver Municipal Airport, which began in 1929 amid heavy criticism.", "It was later renamed Stapleton International Airport in his honor.", "Today, the airport has been replaced by a neighborhood initially named Stapleton.", "In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, because of Stapleton's demonstrated racism and prominent membership in the Ku Klux Klan, neighborhood residents changed the name to Central Park.", "Stapleton Street continues to bear his name.During the 1960s and 1970s, Denver was one of the centers of the Chicano Movement.", "The boxer-turned-activist Rodolfo \"Corky\" Gonzales formed an organization called the Crusade for Justice, which battled police brutality, fought for bilingual education, and, most notably, hosted the First National Chicano Youth Liberation Conference in March 1969.In recent years, Denver has taken a stance on helping people who are or become homeless, particularly under the administrations of mayors John Hickenlooper and Wellington Webb.", "At a rate of 19 homeless per 10,000 residents in 2011 as compared to 50 or more per 10,000 residents for the four metro areas with the highest rate of homelessness, Denver's homeless population and rate of homeless are both considerably lower than many other major cities.", "But residents of the city streets suffer Denver winters – which, although mild and dry much of the time, can have brief periods of extremely cold temperatures and snow.In 2005, Denver became the first major U.S. city to vote to make the private possession of less than an ounce of marijuana legal for adults 21 and older.", "The city voted 53.5 percent in favor of the marijuana legalization measure, which, as then-mayor John Hickenlooper pointed out, was without effect, because the city cannot usurp state law, which at that time treated marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time.", "Denver passed an initiative in the fourth quarter of 2007 requiring the mayor to appoint an 11-member review panel to monitor the city's compliance with the 2005 ordinance.", "In May 2019, Denver became the first U.S. city to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms after an initiative passed with 50.6% of the vote.", "The measure prohibits Denver from using any resources to prosecute adults over 21 for personal use of psilocybin mushrooms, though such use remains illegal under state and federal law.Denver hosted the 2008 Democratic National Convention, which was the centennial of the city's first hosting of the landmark 1908 convention.", "It also hosted the G7 summit between June 20 and 22 in 1997 and the 2000 National Convention of the Green Party.", "In 1972, 1981, and 2008, Denver also hosted the Libertarian Party of the United States National Convention.", "The 1972 Convention was notable for nominating Tonie Nathan for vice president, the first woman, as well as the first Jew, to receive an electoral vote in a United States presidential election.On October 3, 2012, the University of Denver hosted the first of the three 2012 presidential debates.In July 2019, Mayor Hancock said that Denver will not assist U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agents with immigration raids.===Taxes===The City and County of Denver levies an occupational privilege tax (OPT or head tax) on employers and employees.", "If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over $500 for that work in a single month, the employee and employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered.", "The employer is liable for $4 per employee per month and the employee is liable for $5.75 per month.", "It is the employer's responsibility to withhold, remit, and file the OPT returns.", "If an employer does not comply, the employer can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest." ], [ "Education", "Denver Public Schools (DPS) is the public school system in all of Denver.", "It educates approximately 92,000 students in 92 elementary schools, 44 K-8 schools, 34 middle schools, 18 high schools, and 19 charter schools.", "The first school of what is now DPS was a log cabin that opened in 1859, which later became East High School.", "East High School, along with the other three directional high schools (West, North, and South), made up the first four high schools in Denver.", "The district boundaries are coextensive with the city limits.", "The Cherry Creek School District serves some areas with Denver postal addresses that are outside the city limits.Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs.", "Three major public schools constitute the Auraria Campus: the University of Colorado Denver, Metropolitan State University of Denver, and Community College of Denver.", "The private University of Denver was the first institution of higher learning in the city and was founded in 1864.Other prominent Denver higher education institutions include Johnson & Wales University, Catholic (Jesuit) Regis University and the city has Roman Catholic and Jewish institutions, as well as a health sciences school.", "In addition to those schools within the city, there are a number of schools throughout the surrounding metro area.File:East High School in Denver, Colorado LCCN2015633554.tif\|Denver East High School has seen several world-famous people walk the halls as future alumni.File:CU Denver Student Wellness Center and Student Commons Building on the Downtown Denver Campus .jpg\|University of Colorado-Denver in downtownFile:Ritchie Center sunrise 2006.jpg\|The Ritchie Center at University of Denver" ], [ "Media", "The Denver metropolitan area is served by a variety of media outlets in print, radio, television, and the Internet.===Television stations===Denver is the 16th-largest market in the country for television, according to the 2009–2010 rankings from Nielsen Media Research.", " KWGN-TV, channel 2, a CW O&O station owned by Nexstar Media Group, who also owns Fox affiliate KDVR 31.KWGN is run by KDVR management and is Colorado's first TV station, on the air since July 1952.", "KCDO-TV, channel 3, an independent station owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, who also own KMGH-TV as part of a duopoly.", " KCNC-TV, channel 4, a CBS O&O station.", "* KRMA-TV, channel 6, the flagship of Rocky Mountain PBS, a state network of five public TV stations throughout Colorado.", "* KMGH-TV, channel 7, an ABC affiliate owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, previously owned by the McGraw-Hill company for 40 years prior to 2012.The station is part of a duopoly with KCDO-TV.", "* KUSA-TV, channel 9, an NBC affiliate owned by Tegna, who also owns KTVD 20, a MyNetworkTV affiliate.", "* KBDI-TV, channel 12, a secondary PBS member station.", "* KDEN-TV, channel 25, a Telemundo O&O station.", "* KPJR-TV, channel 38, a TBN O&O station.", "* KCEC, channel 50, a Univision affiliate.", "* KETD, channel 53, is a Christian station owned by the LeSEA Broadcasting group.===Radio stations===Denver is also served by over 40 AM and FM radio stations, covering a wide variety of formats and styles.", "Denver–Boulder radio is the No.", "19 market in the United States, according to the Spring 2011 Arbitron ranking (up from No.", "20 in Fall 2009).", "For a list of Denver radio stations, see List of radio stations in Colorado.===Print===After continued rivalry between Denver's two main newspapers, ''The Denver Post'' and the ''Rocky Mountain News'', the papers merged operations in 2001 under a joint operating agreement that formed the Denver Newspaper Agency.", "This arrangement lasted until February 2009 when the E. W. Scripps Company, the owner of the ''Rocky Mountain News'', closed the paper.", "There are also several alternative or localized newspapers published in Denver, including the ''Westword'', ''Law Week Colorado'', ''Out Front Colorado'' and the ''Intermountain Jewish News''.", "Denver is home to multiple regional magazines such as ''5280'', which takes its name from the city's mile-high elevation ().", "The ''Colorado Times News'' is a Korean-language publication based in Denver." ], [ "Transportation", "Dawn over downtown Denver, viewed from the north with Pikes Peak and the southern Front Range to the south===City streets===U.S.", "Highway 40 through Denver.Most of Denver has a straightforward street grid oriented to the four cardinal directions.", "Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as \"00\", which are Broadway (the east–west median, running north–south) and Ellsworth Avenue (the north–south median, running east–west).", "Colfax Avenue, a major east–west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500) north of the median.", "Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and several others, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. Blvd and Montview Blvd.", "), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named.There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the South Platte River and Cherry Creek.", "Most of the streets downtown and in LoDo run northeast–southwest and northwest–southeast.", "This system has an unplanned benefit for snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N–S/E–W grid, only the N–S streets would receive sunlight.", "With the grid oriented to the diagonal directions, the NW–SE streets receive sunlight to melt snow in the morning and the NE–SW streets receive it in the afternoon.", "This idea was from Henry Brown the founder of the Brown Palace Hotel.", "There is now a plaque across the street from the Brown Palace Hotel that honors this idea.", "The NW–SE streets are numbered, while the NE–SW streets are named.", "The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place.", "The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts.", "There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid.", "There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid, such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard.", "Larimer Street, named after William Larimer Jr., the founder of Denver, which is in the heart of LoDo, is the oldest street in Denver.Speer Boulevard runs north–south through downtown Denver.All roads in the downtown grid system are streets (e.g., 16th Street, Stout Street), except for the five NE–SW roads nearest the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway: Cheyenne Place, Cleveland Place, Court Place, Tremont Place and Glenarm Place.", "Roads outside that system that travel east–west are designated \"avenues\" and those that travel north–south are designated \"streets\" (e.g., Colfax Avenue, Lincoln Street).", "Boulevards are higher capacity streets and travel any direction (more commonly north and south).", "Smaller roads are sometimes referred to as places, drives (though not all drives are smaller capacity roads; some are major thoroughfares) or courts.", "Most streets outside the area between Broadway and Colorado Boulevard are organized alphabetically from the city's center.East of Colorado Boulevard, the naming convention of streets takes on a predictable pattern of going through the alphabet by using each letter twice (i.e.", "AA, BB, CC, DD, through YY – there is no Z).", "The first street is almost always named after a plant or fruit, the second street is almost always named after a foreign place or location.", "For example, Jersey Street / Jasmine Street, Quebec Street / Quince Street, and Syracuse Street / Spruce Street.", "Inexplicably, the letter Y only has one street (Yosemite), and there is no Z.", "This double-alphabet naming convention continues in some form into Aurora, Colorado.Some Denver streets have bicycle lanes, leaving a patchwork of disjointed routes throughout the city.", "There are over of paved, off-road, bike paths in Denver parks and along bodies of water, like Cherry Creek and the South Platte.", "This allows for a significant portion of Denver's population to be bicycle commuters and has led to Denver being known as a bicycle-friendly city.", "Some residents strongly oppose bike lanes, which has caused some plans to be watered down or nixed.", "The review process for one bike line on Broadway will last over a year before city council members will make a decision.", "In addition to the many bike paths, Denver launched B-Cycle – a citywide bicycle sharing program – in late April 2010.The B-Cycle network was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch, boasting 400 bicycles.The Denver Boot, a car-disabling device, was first used in Denver.===Cycling===The League of American Bicyclists rated Colorado as the sixth most bicycle-friendly state in the nation for 2014.This is due in large part to Front Range cities like Boulder, Fort Collins and Denver placing an emphasis on legislation, programs and infrastructure developments that promote cycling as a mode of transportation.", "Walk Score has rated Denver as the fourth most bicycle-friendly large city in the United States.", "According to data from the 2011 American Community Survey, Denver ranks 6th among US cities with populations over 400,000 in terms of the percentage of workers who commute by bicycle at 2.2% of commuters.B-Cycle – Denver's citywide bicycle sharing program – was the largest in the United States at the time of its launch in 2010, boasting 400 bicycles.", "B-Cycle ridership peaked in 2014, then steadily declined.", "The program announced it would cease operations at the end of January 2020.The city announced plans to seek one or more new contractors to run a bike-share program starting mid-2020.=== Electric rental scooters ===In 2018, electric scooter services began to place scooters in Denver.", "Hundreds of unsanctioned LimeBike and Bird electric scooters appeared on Denver streets in May, causing an uproar.", "In June, the city ordered the companies to remove them and acted quickly to create an official program, including a requirement that scooters be left at RTD stops and out of the public right-of-way.", "Lime and Bird scooters then reappeared in late July, with limited compliance.", "Uber's Jump e-bikes arrived in late August, followed by Lyft's nationwide electric scooter launch in early September.", "Lyft says that it will, each night, take the scooters to the warehouse for safety checks, maintenance and charging.", "Additionally, Spin and Razor each were permitted to add 350 scooters.===Walkability===2017 rankings by Walk Score placed Denver twenty-sixth among 108 U.S. cities with a population of 200,000 or greater.", "City leaders have acknowledged the concerns of walkability advocates that Denver has serious gaps in its sidewalk network.", "The 2019 \"Denver Moves: Pedestrians\" plan outlines a need for approximate $1.3 billion in sidewalk funding, plus $400 million for trails.", "In 2022, Denver voters passed Initiative 307, dubbed \"Denver Deserves Sidewalks\", to complete sidewalk construction and repair by shifting responsibility for sidewalk maintenance from property owners to the city and imposing a new fee on property owners based on the length of a property's sidewalk frontage, although the measure may be revised in the course of implementation.===Modal characteristics===In 2015, 9.6 percent of Denver households lacked a car, and in 2016, this was virtually unchanged (9.4 percent).", "The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016.Denver averaged 1.62 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.===Freeways and highways===Denver is primarily served by the interstate freeways I-25 and I-70.The problematic intersection of the two interstates is referred to locally as \"the mousetrap\" because, when viewed from the air, the junction (and subsequent vehicles) resemble mice in a large trap.", "* alt= '''Interstate 25''' runs north–south from New Mexico through Denver to Wyoming* alt= '''Interstate 225''' traverses neighboring Aurora.", "I-225 was designed to link Aurora with I-25 in the southeastern corner of Denver, and I-70 to the north of Aurora, with construction starting May 1964 and ending May 21, 1976.", "* alt= '''Interstate 70''' runs east–west from Utah to Maryland.", "It is also the primary corridor on which motorists access the mountains.", "* alt= '''Interstate 270''' runs concurrently with US 36 from an interchange with Interstate 70 in northeast Denver to an interchange with Interstate 25 north of Denver.", "The freeway continues as US 36 from the interchange with Interstate 25.", "* alt= '''Interstate 76''' begins from I-70 just west of the city in Arvada.", "It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at I-80.", "* alt= '''US 6''' follows the alignment of 6th Avenue west of I-25, and connects downtown Denver to the west-central suburbs of Golden and Lakewood.", "It continues west through Utah and Nevada to Bishop, California.", "To the east, it continues as far as Provincetown, on Cape Cod in Massachusetts.", "alt= '''US 285''' ends its route through New Mexico and Texas at Interstate 25 in the University Hills neighborhood.", " alt= '''US 85''' also travels through Denver.", "This highway is often used as an alternate route to Castle Rock instead of taking Interstate 25.", "* alt= '''U.S.", "Route 87''' runs north–south and through Denver.", "It is concurrent with I-25 the entire length in the state.", "* alt= '''US 36''' connects Denver to Boulder and Rocky Mountain National Park near Estes Park.", "It runs east into Ohio, after crossing four other states.", "* alt= '''State Highway 93''' starts in the western Metropolitan area in Golden, Colorado, and travels almost to meet with SH 119 in central Boulder.", "This highway is often used as an alternate route to Boulder instead of taking US 36.", "* alt= '''State Highway 470''' ('''C-470''', '''SH 470''') is the southwestern portion of the Denver metro area's beltway.", "Originally planned as Interstate 470 in the 1960s, the beltway project was attacked on environmental impact grounds and the interstate beltway was never built.", "The portion of \"Interstate 470\" built as a state highway is the present-day SH 470, which is a freeway for its entire length.Denver also has a nearly complete beltway known as \"the 470's\".", "These are SH 470 (also known as C-470), a freeway in the southwest Metro area, and two toll highways, E-470 (from southeast to northeast) and Northwest Parkway (from terminus of E-470 to US 36).", "SH 470 was intended to be I-470 and built with federal highway funds, but the funding was redirected to complete conversion of downtown Denver's 16th Street to a pedestrian mall.", "As a result, construction was delayed until 1980 after state and local legislation was passed.", "I-470 was also once called \"The Silver Stake Highway\", from Gov.", "Lamm's declared intention to drive a silver stake through it and kill it.A highway expansion and transit project for the southern I-25 corridor, dubbed T-REX (Transportation Expansion Project), was completed on November 17, 2006.The project installed wider and additional highway lanes, and improved highway access and drainage.", "The project also includes a light rail line that traverses from downtown to the south end of the metro area at Lincoln Avenue.", "The project spanned almost along the highway with an additional line traveling parallel to part of I-225, stopping just short of Parker Road.Metro Denver highway conditions can be accessed on the Colorado Department of Transportation COtrip website.===Mass transportation===Denver RTD light rail and bus linesDenver Union StationMass transportation throughout the Denver metropolitan area is managed and coordinated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD).", "RTD operates more than 1,000 buses serving over 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions in eight counties around the Denver and Boulder metropolitan areas.", "Additionally, RTD operates nine rail lines, the A, B, D, E, G, H, L, N, R, and W, with a total of of track, serving 44 stations.", "The D, E, H, L, R, and W lines are light rail while the A Line, B Line, G Line and N Line are commuter rail.FasTracks is a commuter rail, light rail, and bus expansion project approved by voters in 2004, which will serve neighboring suburbs and communities.", "The W Line, or West line, opened in April 2013 serving Golden/Federal Center.", "The commuter rail A Line from Denver Union Station to Denver International Airport opened in April 2016 with ridership exceeding RTD's early expectations.", "The light rail R Line through Aurora opened in February 2017.The G Line to the suburb of Arvada (originally planned to open in the Fall of 2016) opened on April 26, 2019.The N Line to Commerce City and Thornton opened on September 21, 2020.An express bus service, known as the Flatiron Flyer, serves to connect Boulder and Denver.", "The service, billed as bus rapid transit, has been accused of bus rapid transit creep for failing to meet the majority of BRT requirements, including level boarding and all-door entry.", "A commuter rail connection to Boulder and its suburb of Longmont, also part of the FasTracks ballot initiative and an extension of the B Line, is planned to be finished by RTD, but no construction funds have yet been identified prior to 2040.RTD is currently considering an interim commuter service which would run rush-hour trains from Longmont to Denver.The Colorado Department of Transportation runs Bustang, a bus system that offers weekday and weekend service connecting Denver with Grand Junction, Colorado Springs, Fort Collins and Gunnison.Commuter rail station at Denver International AirportGreyhound Lines, the intercity bus operator, has a major hub in Denver, with routes to New York City, Portland, Reno, Las Vegas, and their headquarters, Dallas.", "Subsidiary Autobuses Americanos provides service to El Paso.", "Allied bus operators Express Arrow, and Burlington Trailways provide service to Billings, Omaha, Indianapolis, and Alamosa.Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Denver, operating its ''California Zephyr'' daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco.", "Amtrak Thruway service operated by private bus companies links the Denver station with Rocky Mountain points.", "In 2017 the Colorado legislature reinvigorated studies of passenger rail service along the Front Range, potentially connecting Denver to Fort Collins and Pueblo, or further to Amtrak connections in Cheyenne, Wyoming and Trinidad.", "Front Range Passenger Rail is a current proposal (as of 2023) to link the cities from Pueblo in the south, north to Fort Collins and possibly to Cheyenne, Wyoming.At Albuquerque, New Mexico, Denver Thruway connections are made daily with the Amtrak ''Southwest Chief''.", "Additionally, the Ski Train operated on the former Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, which took passengers between Denver and the Winter Park Ski Resort, but it is no longer in service.", "The Ski Train made its final run to Winter Park on March 29, 2009.The service was revived on a trial basis in 2016 with a great amount of local fanfare.", "Further development of a mountain corridor rail option, though publicly popular, has been met with resistance from politicians, namely the director of Colorado Department of Transportation.", "The Ski Train did return to service under Amtrak with the name \"Winter Park Express\" in 2017, and currently runs only on Saturdays, Sundays, and major holidays during the winter ski seasons.Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today.", "Trains stop in Denver at historic Union Station, where travelers can access RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city.", "Union Station will also serve as the main juncture for rail travel in the metro area, at the completion of FasTracks.", "The city also plans to invest billions to bringing frequent public transit within one-fourth of a mile of most of its residents.====Denver public transportation statistics====The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Denver and Boulder, Colorado—for example, to and from work, on a weekday—is 77 minutes; 31% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 14 minutes, while 25% of riders wait for over 20 minutes, on average, every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 31% travel over in a single direction.===Airports===Inside the main terminal of Denver International AirportOutside view of the main terminal, DIADenver International Airport (IATA: DEN, ICAO: KDEN), commonly known as DIA, serves as the primary airport for the Front Range Urban Corridor surrounding Denver.", "DIA is east-northeast of the Colorado State Capitol and opened in 1995.DIA is the 3rd busiest airport in the world with 58.8 million passengers in 2021; it had the 5th highest number of passengers in the U.S., 61 million, in the pre-pandemic year 2019.It covers more than , making it the largest airport by land area in the United States and larger than the island of Manhattan.", "DIA serves as a major hub for United Airlines, is the headquarters and primary hub for Frontier Airlines, and is a major focus city and the fastest-growing market for Southwest Airlines.In 2017, Denver International Airport was rated by Skytrax as the 28th-best airport in the world, falling to second place in the United States behind Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport.", "Skytrax also named DIA as the second-best regional airport in North America for 2017, and the fourth-best regional airport in the world.Three general aviation airports serve the Denver area.", "Rocky Mountain Metropolitan Airport (KBJC) is north-northwest, Centennial Airport (KAPA) is south-southeast, and Colorado Air and Space Port (KCFO), formerly Front Range Airport, is east of the state capitol.Centennial Airport also offers limited commercial airline service, on two cargo airlines.In the past, Denver has been home to several other airports that are no longer operational.", "Stapleton International Airport was closed in 1995 when it was replaced by DIA.", "Lowry Air Force Base was a military flight training facility that ceased flight operations in 1966, with the base finally closing in 1994.Both Stapleton and Lowry have since been redeveloped into primarily residential neighborhoods.", "Buckley Space Force Base is the only military facility in the Denver area." ], [ "Notable people" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Denver's relationship with Brest, France, began in 1948, making it the second-oldest sister city in the United States.", "In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited World War II–ravaged Brest.", "When she returned, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital.", "The gift led to the development of the sister city program with Brest.", "There were serious efforts in the early 2000s, in both Denver and Sochi, Russian Federation, to establish sister-city ties, but the negotiations did not come to fruition.Since then, Denver has established relationships with additional sister cities:* Brest, France (1948)* Takayama, Japan (1960)* Nairobi, Kenya (1975)* Karmiel, Israel (1977)* Cuernavaca, Mexico (1983)* Potenza, Italy (1983)* Chennai, India (1984)* Kunming, China (1985)* Axum, Ethiopia (1995)* Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (2001)* Akureyri, Iceland (2012)" ], [ "See also", "Bibliography of ColoradoGeography of ColoradoHistory of ColoradoArapahoe County, Kansas TerritoryArrappahoe County, Jefferson TerritoryArapahoe County, Colorado TerritoryArapahoe County, ColoradoNational Register of Historic Places listings in DenverIndex of Colorado-related articlesList of Colorado-related listsList of counties in ColoradoList of municipalities in ColoradoList of statistical areas in ColoradoOutline of ColoradoFront Range Urban CorridorUSS ''Denver'', 3 ships" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* City and County of Denver website" ] ]	wikipedia

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