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[ [ "Dhrystone" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dhrystone''' is a synthetic computing benchmark program developed in 1984 by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of system (integer) programming.", "The Dhrystone grew to become representative of general processor (CPU) performance.", "The name \"Dhrystone\" is a pun on a different benchmark algorithm called Whetstone, which emphasizes floating point performance.With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software, including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal.", "He then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs: procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc.", "From this he wrote the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix.", "Dhrystone was published in Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson (\"version 1.1\") greatly contributing to its popularity." ], [ "Dhrystone vs. Whetstone", "The Dhrystone benchmark contains no floating point operations, thus the name is a pun on the then-popular Whetstone benchmark for floating point operations.", "The output from the benchmark is the number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code loop per second).Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are ''synthetic'' benchmarks, meaning that they are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic the processor usage of some common set of programs.", "Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strove to mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but eventually became most popular in its Fortran version, reflecting the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s." ], [ "Issues addressed by Dhrystone", "Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose (\"integer\") performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers.", "Various modern compiler static code analysis techniques (such as elimination of dead code: for example, code which uses the processor but produces internal results which are not used or output) make the use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult.", "Version 2.0 of the benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March 1988, had a number of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques.", "Yet it was carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark.", "This effort to foil compilers was only partly successful.", "Dhrystone 2.1, released in May of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of Dhrystone.Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have been cited with the Dhrystone.", "Most of these, including the small code size and small data set size, were understood at the time of its publication in 1984.More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations, which is largely language-related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as normal variables in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple variable assignment in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in the C library.", "Another issue is that the score reported does not include information which is critical when comparing systems such as which compiler was used, and what optimizations.Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark, but its continuing value in establishing true performance is questionable.", "It is easy to use, well documented, fully self-contained, well understood, and can be made to work on almost any system.", "In particular, it has remained in broad use in the embedded computing world, though the recently developed EEMBC benchmark suite, the CoreMark standalone benchmark, HINT, Stream, and even Bytemark are widely quoted and used, as well as more specific benchmarks for the memory subsystem (Cachebench), TCP/IP (TTCP), and many others." ], [ "Results", "Dhrystone may represent a result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second) because instruction count comparisons between different instruction sets (e.g.", "RISC vs. CISC) can confound simple comparisons.", "For example, the same high-level task may require many more instructions on a RISC machine, but might execute faster than a single CISC instruction.", "Thus, the Dhrystone score counts only the number of program iteration completions per second, allowing individual machines to perform this calculation in a machine-specific way.", "Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the '''DMIPS''' (Dhrystone MIPS) obtained when the Dhrystone score is divided by 1757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the VAX 11/780, nominally a 1 MIPS machine).Another way to represent results is in DMIPS/MHz, where DMIPS result is further divided by CPU frequency, to allow for easier comparison of CPUs running at different clock rates." ], [ "Shortcomings", "Using Dhrystone as a benchmark has pitfalls: * It features unusual code that is not usually representative of modern real-life programs.", "* It is susceptible to compiler optimizations.", "For example, it does a lot of string copying in an attempt to measure string copying performance.", "However, the strings in Dhrystone are of known constant length and their starts are aligned on natural boundaries, two characteristics usually absent from real programs.", "Therefore, an optimizer can replace a string copy with a sequence of word moves without any loops, which will be much faster.", "This optimization consequently overstates system performance, sometimes by more than 30%.", "* Dhrystone's small code size may fit in the instruction cache of a modern CPU, so that instruction fetch performance is not rigorously tested.", "Similarly, Dhrystone may also fit completely in the data cache, thus not exercising data cache miss performance.", "To counter fits-in-the-cache problem, the SPECint benchmark was created in 1988 to include a suite of (initially 8) much larger programs (including a compiler) which could not fit into L1 or L2 caches of that era." ], [ "See also", "*Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC)*Geekbench" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Dhrystone Benchmark: Rationale for Version 2 and Measurement Rules (Reinhold P. Weicker, 1988)* DHRYSTONE Benchmark Program (Reinhold P. Weicker, 1995)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dave Winer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dave Winer''' (born May 2, 1955, in Queens, New York City) is an American software developer, entrepreneur, and writer who resides in New York City.", "Winer is noted for his contributions to outliners, scripting, content management, and web services, as well as blogging and podcasting.", "He is the founder of the software companies Living Videotext, Userland Software and Small Picture Inc., a former contributing editor for the Web magazine HotWired, the author of the ''Scripting News'' weblog, a former research fellow at Harvard Law School, and current visiting scholar at New York University's Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute." ], [ "Early life and education", "Winer was born on May 2, 1955, in Queens, New York City, the son of Eve Winer, PhD, a school psychologist, and Leon Winer, PhD, a former professor of the Columbia University Graduate School of Business.", "Winer is also the grandnephew of German novelist Arno Schmidt and a relative of Hedy Lamarr.", "He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1972.Winer received a BA in Mathematics from Tulane University in New Orleans in 1976.In 1978 he received an MS in Computer Science from the University of Wisconsin–Madison." ], [ "Career", "===Early work in outliners===In 1979 Dave Winer became an employee of Personal Software, where he worked on his own product idea named VisiText, which was his first attempt to build a commercial product around an \"expand and collapse\" outline display and which ultimately established outliners as a software product.", "In 1981 he left the company and founded Living Videotext to develop this still-unfinished product.", "The company was based in Mountain View, CA, and grew to more than 50 employees.ThinkTank, which was based on VisiText, was released in 1983 for Apple II and was promoted as an \"idea processor.\"", "It became the \"first popular outline processor, the one that made the term generic.\"", "A ThinkTank release for the IBM PC followed in 1984, as well as releases for the Macintosh 128K and 512K.", "Ready, a RAM resident outliner for the IBM PC released in 1985, was commercially successful but soon succumbed to the competing Sidekick product by Borland.", "MORE, released for Apple's Macintosh in 1986, combined an outliner and a presentation program.", "It became \"uncontested in the marketplace\" and won the MacUser's Editor's Choice Award for \"Best Product\" in 1986.In 1987, at the height of the company's success, Winer sold Living Videotext to Symantec for an undisclosed but substantial transfer of stock that \"made his fortune.\"", "Winer continued to work at Symantec's Living Videotext division, but after six months he left the company in pursuit of other challenges.===Years at UserLand===Winer founded UserLand Software in 1988 and served as the company's CEO until 2002.UserLand's original flagship product, Frontier, was a system-level scripting environment for the Mac.", "Winer's pioneering weblog, ''Scripting News'', takes its name from this early interest.", "Frontier was an outliner-based scripting language, echoing Winer's longstanding interest in outliners and anticipating code-folding editors of the late 1990s.Winer became interested in web publishing while helping automate the production process of the strikers' online newspaper during San Francisco's newspaper strike of November 1994, According to Newsweek, through this experience, he \"revolutionized Net publishing.\"", "Winer subsequently shifted the company's focus to online publishing products, enthusiastically promoting and experimenting with these products while building his websites and developing new features.", "One of these products was Frontier's NewsPage Suite of 1997, which supported the publication of Winer's ''Scripting News'' and was adopted by a handful of users who \"began playing around with their own sites in the Scripting News vein.\"", "These users included notably Chris Gulker and Jorn Barger, who envisaged blogging as a networked practice among users of the software.Winer was named a Seybold Fellow in 1997, to assist the executives and editors that comprised the Seybold Institute in ensuring \"the highest quality and topicality\" in their educational program, the Seybold Seminars; the honor was bestowed for his \"pioneering work in web-based publishing systems.\"", "Keen to enter the \"competitive arena of high-end Web development,\" Winer then came to collaborate with Microsoft and jointly developed the XML-RPC protocol.", "This led to the creation of SOAP, which he co-authored with Microsoft's Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein.In December 1997, acting on the desire to \"offer much more timely information,\" Winer designed and implemented an XML syndication format for use on his ''Scripting News'' weblog, thus making an early contribution to the history of web syndication technology.", "By December 2000, competing dialects of RSS included several varieties of Netscape's RSS, Winer's RSS 0.92, and an RDF-based RSS 1.0.Winer continued to develop the branch of the RSS fork originating from RSS 0.92, releasing in 2002 a version called RSS 2.0.Winer's advocacy of web syndication in general and RSS 2.0 in particular convinced many news organizations to syndicate their news content in that format.", "For example, in early 2002 ''The New York Times'' entered an agreement with UserLand to syndicate many of their articles in RSS 2.0 format.", "Winer resisted calls by technologists to have the shortcomings of RSS 2.0 improved.", "Instead, he froze the format and turned its ownership over to Harvard University.With products and services based on UserLand's Frontier system, Winer became a leader in blogging tools from 1999 onward, as well as a \"leading evangelist of weblogs.\"", "In 2000 Winer developed the Outline Processor Markup Language OPML, an XML format for outlines, which originally served as the native file format for Radio UserLand's outliner application and has since been adopted for other uses, the most common being to exchange lists of web feeds between web feed aggregators.", "UserLand was the first to add an \"enclosure\" tag in its RSS, modifying its blog software and its aggregator so that bloggers could easily link to an audio file (see podcasting and history of podcasting).In February 2002 Winer was named one of the \"Top Ten Technology Innovators\" by InfoWorld.In June 2002 Winer underwent life-saving bypass surgery to prevent a heart attack and as a consequence stepped down as CEO of UserLand shortly after.", "He remained the firm's majority shareholder, however, and claimed personal ownership of Weblogs.com.===Writer===As \"one of the most prolific content generators in Web history,\" Winer has enjoyed a long career as a writer and has come to be counted among Silicon Valley's \"most influential web voices.", "\"Winer started ''DaveNet'', \"a stream-of-consciousness newsletter distributed by e-mail\" in November 1994 and maintained Web archives of the \"goofy and informative\" 800-word essays since January 1995, which earned him a Cool Site of the Day award in March 1995.From the start, the \"Internet newsletter\" ''DaveNet'' was widely read among industry leaders and analysts, who experienced it as a \"real community.\"", "Dissatisfied with the quality of the coverage that the Mac and, especially, his own Frontier software received in the trade press, Winer saw ''DaveNet'' as an opportunity to \"bypass\" the conventional news channels of the software business.", "Satisfied with his success, he \"reveled in the new direct email line he had established with his colleagues and peers, and in his ability to circumvent the media.\"", "In the early years, Winer often used ''DaveNet'' to vent his grievances against Apple's management, and as a consequence of his strident criticism came to be seen as \"the most notorious of the disgruntled Apple developers.\"", "Redacted ''DaveNet'' columns were published weekly by the web magazine ''HotWired'' between June 1995 and May 1996.", "''DaveNet'' was discontinued in 2004.Winer's ''Scripting News'', described as \"one of the web's oldest blogs,\" launched in February 1997 and earned him titles such as \"protoblogger\" and \"forefather of blogging.\"", "''Scripting News'' started as \"a home for links, offhand observations, and ephemera\" and allowed Winer to mix \"his roles as a widely read pundit and an ambitious entrepreneur.\"", "Offering an \"as-it-happened portrait of the work of writing software for the Web in the 1990s,\" the site became an \"established must-read for industry insiders.\"", "''Scripting News'' continues to be updated regularly.===Visiting scholar positions===Winer spent one year as a resident fellow at the Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet & Society, where he worked on using weblogs in education.", "While there, he launched ''Weblogs at Harvard Law School'' using UserLand software, and held the first BloggerCon conferences.", "Winer's fellowship ended in June 2004.In 2010 Winer was appointed visiting scholar at New York University's Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute.===Return to Outliners===On December 19, 2012, Winer co-founded Small Picture, Inc. with Kyle Shank; Small Picture is a corporation that builds two outlining products, Little Outliner and Fargo.", "Little Outliner, an entry-level outliner designed to teach new users about outliners, which launched on March 25, 2013.Fargo, the company's \"primary product\", launched less than a month later, on April 17, 2013.Fargo is a free browser-based outliner which syncs with a user's Dropbox account.", "Small Picture has stated that in future it may offer paid-for services to Fargo users.", "Fargo was retired at the end of September 2017." ], [ "Projects and activities", "===24 Hours of Democracy===In February 1996, while working as a columnist for HotWired, Winer organized 24 Hours of Democracy, an online protest against the recently passed Communications Decency Act.", "As part of the protest, over 1,000 people, among them Microsoft chairman Bill Gates, posted essays to the Web on the subject of democracy, civil liberty and freedom of speech.===Edit This Page===In December 1999, Winer became the \"proprietor of a growing free blog service\" at EditThisPage.com, hosting \"approximately 20,000 sites\" in February 2001.The service closed in December 2005.===Podcasting=== \tWiner has been given \"credit for the invention of the podcasting model.\"", "Having received user requests for audioblogging features since October 2000, especially from Adam Curry, Winer decided to include new functionality in RSS 0.92 by defining a new element called \"enclosure,\" which would pass the address of a media file to the RSS aggregator.", "He demonstrated the RSS enclosure feature on January 11, 2001, by enclosing a Grateful Dead song in his ''Scripting News'' weblog.Winer's weblogging product, Radio Userland, the program favored by Curry, had a built-in aggregator and thus provided both the \"send\" and \"receive\" components of what was then called audioblogging.", "In July 2003 Winer challenged other aggregator developers to provide support for enclosures.", "In October 2003, Kevin Marks demonstrated a script to download RSS enclosures and pass them to iTunes for transfer to an iPod.", "Curry then offered an RSS-to-iPod script that moved MP3 files from Radio UserLand to iTunes.", "The term \"podcasting\" was suggested by Ben Hammersley in February 2004.Winer also has an occasional podcast, Morning Coffee Notes, which has featured guests such as Doc Searls, Mike Kowalchik, Jason Calacanis, Steve Gillmor, Peter Rojas, Cecile Andrews, Adam Curry, Betsy Devine and others.=== BloggerCon ===BloggerCon is a user-focused conference for the blogger community.", "BloggerCon I (October 2003) and II (April 2004), were organized by Dave Winer and friends at Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for the Internet and Society in Cambridge, Mass.", "BloggerCon III met at Stanford Law School on November 6, 2004.===Weblogs.com===Weblogs.com provided a free ping-server used by many blogging applications, as well as free hosting to many bloggers.", "After leaving Userland, Winer claimed personal ownership of the site, and in mid-June 2004 he shut down its free blog-hosting service, citing lack of resources and personal problems.", "A swift and orderly migration off Winer's server was facilitated by Rogers Cadenhead, whom Winer then hired to port the server to a more stable platform.", "In October 2005, VeriSign bought the Weblogs.com ping-server from Winer and promised that its free services would remain free.", "The podcasting-related web site audio.weblogs.com was also included in the $2.3 million deal.===Share your OPML===Winer opened his self-described \"commons for sharing outlines, feeds, and taxonomy\" in May 2006.The site allowed users to publish and syndicate blogrolls and aggregator subscriptions using OPML.", "Winer suspended its service in January 2008.===Rebooting the News===Since 2009, Winer has collaborated with New York University's associate professor of journalism Jay Rosen on ''Rebooting the News'', a weekly podcast on technology and innovation in journalism.", "It was announced on July 1, 2011, that the show would be on break, as NYU itself was, from June to September.", "However, no new episodes have been released since, making show #94 released on May 23, 2011, the last." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Scripting News Dave Winer's weblog* The Computer Chronicles - The New Macs (1987) Dave Winer / Living Videotext Interview about the Apple Macintosh II" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 10" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1317 – The \"Nyköping Banquet\": King Birger of Sweden treacherously seizes his two brothers Valdemar, Duke of Finland and Eric, Duke of Södermanland, who were subsequently starved to death in the dungeon of Nyköping Castle.", "*1508 – The League of Cambrai is formed by Pope Julius II, Louis XII of France, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor and Ferdinand II of Aragon as an alliance against Venice.", "*1520 – Martin Luther burns his copy of the papal bull ''Exsurge Domine'' outside Wittenberg's Elster Gate.", "*1541 – Thomas Culpeper and Francis Dereham are executed for having affairs with Catherine Howard, Queen of England and wife of Henry VIII.===1601–1900===*1652 – Defeat at the Battle of Dungeness causes the Commonwealth of England to reform its navy.", "*1665 – The Royal Netherlands Marine Corps is founded by Michiel de Ruyter.", "*1684 – Isaac Newton's derivation of Kepler's laws from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper ''De motu corporum in gyrum'', is read to the Royal Society by Edmond Halley.", "*1768 – The first edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' is published.", "*1799 – France adopts the metre as its official unit of length.", "*1817 – Mississippi becomes the 20th U.S.", "state.", "*1861 – American Civil War: The Confederate States of America accept a rival state government's pronouncement that declares Kentucky to be the 13th state of the Confederacy.", "* 1861 – Forces led by Nguyễn Trung Trực, an anti-colonial guerrilla leader in southern Vietnam, sink the French lorcha ''L'Esperance''.", "*1864 – American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: Major General William Tecumseh Sherman's Union Army troops reach the outer Confederate defenses of Savannah, Georgia.", "*1877 – Russo-Turkish War: The Russian Army captures Plevna after a 5-month siege.", "The garrison of 25,000 surviving Turks surrenders.", "The Russian victory is decisive for the outcome of the war and the Liberation of Bulgaria.", "*1896 – Alfred Jarry's ''Ubu Roi'' premieres in Paris.", "A riot breaks out at the end of the performance.", "*1898 – Spanish–American War: The Treaty of Paris is signed, officially ending the conflict.", "Spain cedes administration of Cuba to the United States, and the United States agrees to pay Spain $20 million for the Philippines.===1901–present===*1901 – The first Nobel Prize ceremony is held in Stockholm on the fifth anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.", "*1902 – The opening of the reservoir of the Aswan Dam in Egypt.", "*1906 – U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the mediation of the Russo-Japanese War, becoming the first American to win a Nobel Prize in any field.", "*1907 – The worst night of the Brown Dog riots in London, when 1,000 medical students, protesting against the existence of a memorial for animals that have been vivisected, clash with 400 police officers.", "*1909 – Selma Lagerlöf becomes the first female writer to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "*1932 – Thailand becomes a constitutional monarchy.", "*1936 – Abdication Crisis: Edward VIII signs the ''Instrument of Abdication''.", "*1941 – World War II: The Royal Navy capital ships and are sunk by Imperial Japanese Navy torpedo bombers near British Malaya.", "* 1941 – World War II: Battle of the Philippines: Imperial Japanese forces under the command of General Masaharu Homma land on Luzon.", "*1942 – World War II: Government of Poland in exile send Raczyński's Note (the first official report on the Holocaust) to 26 governments who signed the Declaration by United Nations.", "*1948 – The Human Rights Convention is signed by the United Nations.", "*1949 – Chinese Civil War: The People's Liberation Army begins its siege of Chengdu, the last Kuomintang-held city in mainland China, forcing President of the Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek and his government to retreat to Taiwan.", "*1953 – British Prime Minister Winston Churchill receives the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "*1963 – Zanzibar gains independence from the United Kingdom as a constitutional monarchy, under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah.", "* 1963 – An assassination attempt on the British High Commissioner in Aden kills two people and wounds dozens more.", "*1968 – Japan's biggest heist, the still-unsolved \"300 million yen robbery\", is carried out in Tokyo.", "*1978 – Arab–Israeli conflict: Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin and President of Egypt Anwar Sadat are jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.", "*1979 – Kaohsiung Incident: Taiwanese pro-democracy demonstrations are suppressed by the KMT dictatorship, and organizers are arrested.", "*1983 – Democracy is restored in Argentina with the inauguration of President Raúl Alfonsín.", "*1984 – United Nations General Assembly recognizes the Convention against Torture.", "*1989 – Mongolian Revolution: At the country's first open pro-democracy public demonstration, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj announces the establishment of the Mongolian Democratic Union.", "*1991 – Nursultan Nazarbayev is sworn in as the 1st President of Kazakhstan.", "*1991 – The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic is renamed into the Republic of Kazakhstan.", "*1993 – The last shift leaves Wearmouth Colliery in Sunderland.", "The closure of the 156-year-old pit marks the end of the old County Durham coalfield, which had been in operation since the Middle Ages.", "*1994 – Rwandan genocide: Maurice Baril, military advisor to the U.N. Secretary-General and head of the Military Division of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, recommends that UNAMIR stand down.", "*1995 – The Israeli army withdraws from Nablus pursuant to the terms of Oslo Accord.", "*1996 – The new Constitution of South Africa is promulgated by Nelson Mandela.", "*1999 – Helen Clark is sworn in as Prime Minister of New Zealand, the second woman to hold the post and the first following an election.", "*2005 – Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145 crashes at Port Harcourt International Airport in Nigeria, killing 108 people.", "*2014 – Palestinian minister Ziad Abu Ein is killed after the suppression of a demonstration by Israeli forces in the village (Turmus'ayya) in Ramallah.", "*2015 – Rojava conflict: The Syrian Democratic Council is established in Dêrik, forming the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces in northeast Syria.", "*2016 – Two explosions outside a football stadium in Istanbul, Turkey, kill 38 people and injure 166 others.", "*2017 – ISIL is defeated in Iraq.", "*2019 – The Ostrava hospital attack in the Czech Republic results in eight deaths, including the perpetrator.", "*2021 – A widespread, deadly, and violent tornado outbreak slams the Central, Midwestern, and Southern regions of the United States.", "Eighty-nine people are killed by the tornadoes, with most of the fatalities occurring in Kentucky, where a single tornado kills 57 people, and injures hundreds of others." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 553 – Houzhu, emperor of the Chen dynasty (d. 604)*1376 – Edmund Mortimer, English nobleman and rebel (d. 1409)*1452 – Johannes Stöffler, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1531)*1472 – Anne de Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk (d. 1481)*1489 – Gaston of Foix, Duke of Nemours (d. 1512)*1588 – Isaac Beeckman, Dutch scientist and philosopher (d. 1637)===1601–1900===*1610 – Adriaen van Ostade, Dutch painter (d. 1685)*1654 – Giovanni Gioseffo dal Sole, Italian painter (d. 1719)*1658 – Lancelot Blackburne, Archbishop of York (d. 1743)*1713 – Johann Nicolaus Mempel, German cantor and organist (d. 1747)*1751 – George Shaw, English botanist and zoologist (d. 1813)*1776 – Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este (d. 1848)*1783 – María Bibiana Benítez, Puerto Rican poet and playwright (d. 1873)*1787 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, American educator, founded the American School for the Deaf (d. 1851)*1804 – Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi, German mathematician and academic (d. 1851)*1805 – William Lloyd Garrison, American journalist and activist, founded ''The Liberator'' (d. 1879)* 1805 – Joseph Škoda, Czech physician, dermatologist, and academic (d. 1881)*1811 – Caroline Mehitable Fisher Sawyer, American poet, biographer, and editor (d. 1894)*1815 – Ada Lovelace, English mathematician and computer scientist (d. 1852)*1821 – Nikolay Nekrasov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1877)*1822 – César Franck, Belgian organist and composer (d. 1890)*1824 – George MacDonald, Scottish minister, author, and poet (d. 1905)*1827 – Eugene O'Keefe, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (d. 1913)*1830 – Emily Dickinson, American poet (d. 1886)*1851 – Melvil Dewey, American librarian, created the Dewey Decimal System (d. 1931)*1866 – Louis Bolk, Dutch anatomist and biologist (d. 1930)*1870 – Jadunath Sarkar, Indian historian (d. 1958)* 1870 – Adolf Loos, Austrian architect and theoretician (d. 1933)* 1870 – Pierre Louÿs, Belgian-French author and poet (d. 1925)*1878 – C. Rajagopalachari, Indian lawyer and politician, 45th Governor-General of India (d. 1972)*1878 – Mohammad Ali Jauhar, Indian Muslim activist (d. 1931)*1882 – Otto Neurath, Austrian sociologist and philosopher (d. 1945)* 1882 – Shigenori Tōgō, Japanese politician, 37th Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1950)*1883 – Giovanni Messe, Italian field marshal and politician (d. 1968)*1885 – Elizabeth Baker, American economist and academic (d. 1973)* 1885 – Marios Varvoglis, Greek composer and conductor (d. 1967)*1886 – Victor McLaglen, English-American actor (d. 1959) *1889 – Ray Collins, American actor (d. 1965) *1890 – László Bárdossy, Hungarian politician and diplomat, 33rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1946)*1891 – Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis, English field marshal and politician, 17th Governor General of Canada (d. 1969)* 1891 – Arlie Mucks, American discus thrower and shot putter (d. 1967)* 1891 – Nelly Sachs, German-Swedish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1970)*1896 – Torsten Bergström, Swedish actor and director (d. 1948)===1901–present===*1903 – Una Merkel, American actress (d. 1986)*1904 – Antonín Novotný, Czechoslovak politician, President of Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, General Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (d. 1975)*1906 – Harold Adamson, American lyricist (d. 1980)* 1906 – Jules Ladoumègue, French runner (d. 1973)*1907 – Rumer Godden, English author and poet (d. 1998)* 1907 – Lucien Laurent, French footballer and coach (d. 2005)* 1907 – Amedeo Nazzari, Italian actor (d. 1979)*1908 – Olivier Messiaen, French composer and ornithologist (d. 1992)*1909 – Hermes Pan, American dancer and choreographer (d. 1990)*1910 – Ambrosio Padilla, Filipino basketball player and politician (d. 1996)*1911 – Chet Huntley, American journalist (d. 1974)*1912 – Philip Hart, American lawyer and politician, 49th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (d. 1976)* 1912 – Tetsuji Takechi, Japanese theatrical and film director, critic, and author (d. 1988)* 1912 – René Toribio, Guadeloupean politician (d. 1990)*1913 – Pannonica de Koenigswarter, English-American jazz patron and writer (d. 1988)* 1913 – Morton Gould, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1996)* 1913 – Harry Locke, English actor (d. 1987)* 1913 – Ray Nance, American trumpeter, violinist, and singer (d. 1976)*1914 – Dorothy Lamour, American actress and singer (d. 1996)*1915 – Nicky Barr, Australian rugby player, soldier, and pilot (d. 2006)*1916 – Walt Arfons, American race car driver (d. 2013)*1918 – Anne Gwynne, American actress (d. 2003)* 1918 – Anatoli Tarasov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995)*1919 – Alexander Courage, American composer and conductor (d. 2008)*1920 – Clarice Lispector, Ukrainian-Brazilian journalist and author (d. 1977)* 1920 – Reginald Rose, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2002)*1921 – Toh Chin Chye, Singaporean academic and politician, 1st Deputy Prime Minister of Singapore (d. 2012)*1922 – Agnes Nixon, American television writer and director (d. 2016)*1923 – Harold Gould, American actor (d. 2010)* 1923 – Clorindo Testa, Italian-Argentinian architect, designed the National Library of the Argentine Republic and Marriott Plaza Hotel (d. 2013)*1924 – Ken Albers, American singer and musician (d. 2007)* 1924 – Michael Manley, Jamaican pilot and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Jamaica (d. 1997)*1925 – Carolyn Kizer, American poet and academic (d. 2014)*1926 – Guitar Slim, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1959)*1927 – Bob Farrell, American businessman, founded Farrell's Ice Cream Parlour (d. 2015)* 1927 – Danny Matt, German-Israeli general (d. 2013)*1928 – Barbara Nichols, American actress (d. 1976)*1930 – Wayne D. Anderson, American baseball player and coach (d. 2013)* 1930 – Ray Felix, American basketball player (d. 1991)* 1930 – Michael Jopling, Baron Jopling, English farmer and politician, Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food*1931 – Peter Baker, English-South African footballer and manager (d. 2016)*1933 – Philip R. Craig, American author (d. 2007)* 1933 – Mako Iwamatsu, Japanese actor (d. 2006)*1934 – Howard Martin Temin, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)*1935 – Terry Allcock, English footballer and cricketer* 1935 – Jaromil Jireš, Czech director and screenwriter (d. 2001)*1936 – Howard Smith, American journalist, director, and producer (d. 2014)*1938 – Bill Dunk, Australian golfer* 1938 – Yuri Temirkanov, Russian viola player and conductor (d. 2023)*1939 – Dick Bavetta, American basketball player and referee* 1939 – Barry Cunliffe, English archaeologist and academic*1941 – Ken Campbell, English actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2008)* 1941 – Fionnula Flanagan, Irish actress and producer* 1941 – Tommy Kirk, American actor (d. 2021)* 1941 – Tommy Rettig, American child actor (d. 1996)* 1941 – Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer and actor (d. 1985)*1942 – Ann Gloag, Scottish nurse and businesswoman*1944 – Andris Bērziņš, Latvian businessman and politician, 8th President of Latvia* 1944 – John Birt, Baron Birt, English businessman* 1944 – Steve Renko, American baseball player*1945 – Mukhtar Altynbayev, Kazakhstani general and politician, 3rd Defence Minister of Kazakhstan*1946 – Douglas Kenney, American satirist (d. 1980)*1947 – Rasul Guliyev, Azerbaijani engineer and politician, 22nd Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan*1948 – Dušan Bajević, Bosnian footballer and manager* 1948 – Jessica Cleaves, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1948 – Jasuben Shilpi, Indian sculptor (d. 2013)*1949 – Yasmin Alibhai-Brown, Ugandan-English journalist and author* 1949 – David Perdue, American politician*1950 – John Boozman, American football player, lawyer, and politician* 1950 – Simon Owen, New Zealand golfer*1951 – Johnny Rodriguez, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist*1952 – Clive Anderson, English lawyer and television host* 1952 – Susan Dey, American actress* 1952 – Greg Mortimer, Australian geologist and mountaineer * 1952 – Greg Laurie, American author and pastor* 1952 – Paul Varul, Estonian lawyer and politician, 6th Estonian Minister of Justice*1953 – Chris Bury, American journalist and academic*1954 – Eudine Barriteau, Barbadian economist and academic* 1954 – Price Cobb, American race car driver and manager* 1954 – Jack Hues, English singer-songwriter and musician*1956 – Rod Blagojevich, American lawyer and politician, 40th Governor of Illinois* 1956 – Roberto Cassinelli, Italian lawyer and politician* 1956 – Jan van Dijk, Dutch footballer and manager*1957 – Michael Clarke Duncan, American actor (d. 2012)* 1957 – Paul Hardcastle, English composer and producer* 1957 – Prem Rawat, Indian-American guru and educator*1958 – Cornelia Funke, German-American author* 1958 – Kathryn Stott, English pianist and academic*1959 – Mark Aguirre, American basketball player and coach* 1959 – Udi Aloni, American-Israeli director and author* 1959 – Kevin Ash, English journalist and author (d. 2013)* 1959 – Wolf Hoffmann, German guitarist *1960 – Kenneth Branagh, British actor director, producer, and screenwriter* 1960 – Kōichi Satō, Japanese actor*1961 – Mark McKoy, Canadian hurdler and sprinter* 1961 – Nia Peeples, American singer and actress*1962 – Rakhat Aliyev, Kazakh politician and diplomat (d. 2015)* 1962 – John de Wolf, Dutch footballer and manager*1963 – Jahangir Khan, Pakistani squash player*1964 – Stephen Billington, English actor* 1964 – Stef Blok, Dutch banker and politician, Dutch Minister of the Interior* 1964 – Bobby Flay, American chef and author* 1964 – Edith González, Mexican actress (d. 2019)*1965 – Greg Giraldo, American lawyer, comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2010)* 1965 – J Mascis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1965 – Stephanie Morgenstern, Swiss-Canadian actress, producer, and screenwriter*1966 – Rein Ahas, Estonian geographer and academic* 1966 – Robin Brooke, New Zealand rugby player* 1966 – Mel Rojas, Dominican baseball player* 1966 – Penelope Trunk, American writer*1968 – Yōko Oginome, Japanese singer, actress, and voice actress*1969 – Darren Berry, Australian cricketer and coach* 1969 – Rob Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and executive*1970 – Kevin Sharp, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1970 – Bryant Stith, American basketball player and coach*1972 – Donavon Frankenreiter, American surfer, singer-songwriter, and guitarist* 1972 – Brian Molko, British-Belgian singer-songwriter*1973 – Rusty LaRue, American basketball player and coach* 1973 – Gabriela Spanic, Venezuelan actress *1974 – Meg White, American drummer*1975 – Steve Bradley, American wrestler (d. 2008)* 1975 – Emmanuelle Chriqui, Canadian actress* 1975 – Josip Skoko, Australian footballer*1976 – Shane Byrne, English motorcycle racer *1978 – Anna Jesień, Polish hurdler* 1978 – Summer Phoenix, American actress*1979 – Matt Bentley, American wrestler* 1979 – Iain Brunnschweiler, English cricketer* 1979 – Yang Jianping, Chinese recurve archer*1980 – Sarah Chang, American violinist*1981 – Taufik Batisah, Singaporean singer* 1981 – Rene Bourque, Canadian ice hockey player* 1981 – Fábio Rochemback, Brazilian footballer*1982 – Claudia Hoffmann, German sprinter* 1982 – Sultan Kösen, Turkish farmer, tallest living person*1983 – Patrick Flueger, American actor* 1983 – Xavier Samuel, Australian actor*1984 – JTG, American wrestler*1985 – Charlie Adam, Scottish footballer* 1985 – Roman Červenka, Czech ice hockey player* 1985 – Matt Forte, American football player* 1985 – Trésor Mputu, Congolese footballer* 1985 – Raven-Symoné, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1985 – Lê Công Vinh, Vietnamese footballer*1986 – Kahlil Bell, American football player*1987 – Gonzalo Higuaín, French-Argentinian footballer*1988 – Wilfried Bony, Ivorian footballer * 1988 – Neven Subotić, Serbian footballer*1989 – Marion Maréchal-Le Pen, French politician* 1989 – Tom Sexton, Australian-Irish rugby player*1990 – Kazenga LuaLua, Congolese-English footballer* 1990 – Sakiko Matsui, Japanese singer and actress * 1990 – Wil Myers, American baseball player* 1990 – Teyana Taylor, American singer, songwriter, choreographer, and actress* 1990 – Shoya Tomizawa, Japanese motorcycle racer (d. 2010)*1991 – KiKi Layne, American actress* 1991 – Eric Reid, American football player* 1991 – Dion Waiters, American basketball player*1992 – Carlos Rodón, American baseball player* 1992 – Melissa Roxburgh, Canadian-American actress*1994 – Richard Kennar, Samoan rugby league player* 1994 – Matti Klinga, Finnish footballer*1995 – Tacko Fall, Senegalese basketball player*1996 – Joe Burrow, American football player* 1996 – Kang Daniel, South Korean singer and entrepreneur*1997 – Viktoriia Savtsova, Ukrainian Paralympic swimmer*1998 – Lucia Bronzetti, Italian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 925 – Sancho I, king of Pamplona* 949 – Herman I, Duke of Swabia* 990 – Folcmar, bishop of Utrecht*1041 – Michael IV the Paphlagonian, Byzantine emperor (b.", "1010)*1081 – Nikephoros III Botaneiates, deposed Byzantine Emperor (b. c.1002)*1113 – Radwan, ruler of Aleppo*1310 – Stephen I, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1271)*1454 – Ignatius Behnam Hadloyo, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch.", "*1475 – Paolo Uccello, Italian painter (b.", "1397)*1508 – René II, Duke of Lorraine (b.", "1451)*1541 – Thomas Culpeper, English courtier (b.", "1514)* 1541 – Francis Dereham, English courtier (b. c. 1513)*1561 – Caspar Schwenckfeld, German theologian and writer===1601–1900===*1618 – Giulio Caccini, Italian composer and educator (b.", "1551)*1626 – Edmund Gunter, English mathematician and academic (b.", "1581)*1665 – Tarquinio Merula, Italian organist, violinist, and composer (b.", "1594)*1736 – António Manoel de Vilhena, Portuguese soldier and politician (b.", "1663)*1791 – Jacob Frank, Polish religious leader (b.", "1726)*1831 – Thomas Johann Seebeck, German physicist and academic (b.", "1770)*1850 – Józef Bem, Polish general and physicist (b.", "1794)* 1850 – François Sulpice Beudant, French mineralogist and geologist (b.", "1787)*1865 – Leopold I of Belgium (b.", "1790)*1867 – Sakamoto Ryōma, Japanese samurai and politician (b.", "1836)*1896 – Alfred Nobel, Swedish chemist and engineer, invented Dynamite and founded the Nobel Prize (b.", "1833)===1901–present===*1909 – Red Cloud, American tribal chief (of the Oglala nation) (b.", "1822)*1911 – Joseph Dalton Hooker, English botanist and explorer (b.", "1817)*1917 – Mackenzie Bowell, English-Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Canada (b.", "1823)*1920 – Horace Elgin Dodge, American businessman, co-founded Dodge (b.", "1868)*1922 – Clement Lindley Wragge, English meteorologist and author (b.", "1852)*1926 – Nikola Pašić, Serbian politician, 46th Prime Minister of Serbia (b.", "1845)*1928 – Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Scottish architect and painter (b.", "1868)*1929 – Harry Crosby, American publisher and poet (b.", "1898)*1932 – Joseph Carruthers, Australian politician, 16th Premier of New South Wales (b.", "1857)*1936 – Bobby Abel, English cricketer (b.", "1857)* 1936 – Luigi Pirandello, Italian dramatist, novelist, and poet Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1867)*1939 – John Grieb, American gymnast and triathlete (b.", "1879)*1941 – Colin Kelly, American captain and pilot (b.", "1915)*1944 – John Brunt, English captain, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1922)*1945 – Theodor Dannecker, German captain (b.", "1913)*1946 – Walter Johnson, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (b.", "1887)* 1946 – Damon Runyon, American newspaperman and short story writer (b.", "1884)*1948 – Na Hye-sok, South Korean journalist, poet, and painter (b.", "1896)*1951 – Algernon Blackwood, English author and playwright (b.", "1869)*1953 – Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Indian-English scholar and translator (b.", "1872)*1956 – David Shimoni, Russian-Israeli poet and translator (b.", "1891)*1957 – Napoleon Zervas, Greek general (b.", "1891)*1958 – Adolfo Camarillo, American horse breeder, rancher, and philanthropist (b.", "1864)*1963 – K. M. Panikkar, Indian historian and diplomat (b.", "1894)*1967 – Otis Redding, American singer-songwriter and producer (b.", "1941)*1968 – Karl Barth, Swiss theologian and author (b.", "1886)* 1968 – George Forrest, Northern Irish lawyer and politician (b.", "1921)* 1968 – Thomas Merton, American monk and author (b.", "1915)*1972 – Mark Van Doren, American poet, critic, and academic (b.", "1894)*1973 – Wolf V. Vishniac, German-American microbiologist and academic (b.", "1922)*1974 – Toshinari Shōji, Japanese general (b.", "1890)*1977 – Adolph Rupp, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1901)*1978 – Ed Wood, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1924)*1979 – Ann Dvorak, American actress (b.", "1911)*1982 – Freeman Gosden, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1899)*1987 – Jascha Heifetz, Lithuanian-American violinist and educator (b.", "1901)*1988 – Richard S. Castellano, American actor (b.", "1933)* 1988 – Johnny Lawrence, English cricketer and coach (b.", "1911)* 1988 – Dorothy de Rothschild, English philanthropist and activist (b.", "1895)*1990 – Armand Hammer, American businessman, founded Occidental Petroleum (b.", "1898)*1991 – Greta Kempton, Austrian-American painter and academic (b.", "1901)*1992 – Dan Maskell, English tennis player and sportscaster (b.", "1908)*1993 – Alice Tully, American soprano (b.", "1902)*1994 – Keith Joseph, English lawyer and politician, Secretary of State for Education (b.", "1918)* 1994 – Alex Wilson, Canadian-American sprinter (b.", "1905)*1995 – Darren Robinson, American rapper (b.", "1967)*1996 – Faron Young, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b.", "1932)*1999 – Rick Danko, Canadian singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (b.", "1943)* 1999 – Franjo Tuđman, Croatian general and politician, 1st President of Croatia (b.", "1922)* 1999 – Woodrow Borah, American historian of Spanish America (b.", "1912)*2000 – Marie Windsor, American actress (b.", "1919)*2001 – Ashok Kumar, Indian actor, singer, and producer (b.", "1911)*2002 – Andres Küng, Swedish journalist and politician (b.", "1945)* 2002 – Ian MacNaughton, Scottish actor, director, and producer (b.", "1925)*2003 – Sean McClory, Irish actor and director (b.", "1924)*2004 – Gary Webb, American journalist and author (b.", "1955)*2005 – Mary Jackson, American actress (b.", "1910)* 2005 – Eugene McCarthy, American poet, academic, and politician (b.", "1916)* 2005 – Richard Pryor, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1940)*2006 – Olivia Coolidge, English-American author and educator (b.", "1908)* 2006 – Augusto Pinochet, Chilean general and dictator, 30th President of Chile (b.", "1915)*2007 – Vitali Hakko, Turkish businessman, founded Vakko (b.", "1913)*2009 – Vladimir Teplyakov, Russian soldier and physicist (b.", "1925)*2010 – John Fenn, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1917)* 2010 – J. Michael Hagopian, Armenian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1913)* 2010 – MacKenzie Miller, American horse trainer and breeder (b.", "1921)*2012 – Iajuddin Ahmed, Bangladeshi academic and politician, 13th President of Bangladesh (b.", "1931)* 2012 – Antonio Cubillo, Spanish lawyer and politician (b.", "1930)* 2012 – Tommy Roberts, English fashion designer (b.", "1942)*2013 – Alan Coleman, English-Australian director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Jim Hall, American guitarist and composer (b.", "1930)* 2013 – Don Lund, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Srikanta Wadiyar, Indian politician and the titular Maharaja of Mysore(b.", "1946)*2014 – Ralph Giordano, German author and publicist (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Robert B. Oakley, American diplomat, 19th United States Ambassador to Pakistan (b.", "1931)* 2014 – Bob Solinger, Canadian ice hockey player (b.", "1925)* 2014 – Judy Baar Topinka, American journalist and politician (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Gerard Vianen, Dutch cyclist (b.", "1944)*2015 – Ron Bouchard, American race car driver and businessman (b.", "1948)* 2015 – Denis Héroux, Canadian director and producer (b.", "1940)* 2015 – Arnold Peralta, Honduran footballer (b.", "1989)* 2015 – Dolph Schayes, American basketball player and coach (b.", "1928)*2017 – Bruce Brown, American filmmaker (b.", "1937)* 2017 – Max Clifford, British publicist (b.", "1943)* 2017 – Charles M. Green Jr., American Internet personality (b.", "1950)* 2017 – Curtis W. Harris, American minister (b.", "1924)*2019 – Philip McKeon, American actor (b.", "1964)* 2019 – Gershon Kingsley, American composer and musician (b.", "1922)* 2019 – Emily Mason, American painter (b.", "1932)*2020 – Tommy \"Tiny\" Lister Jr., American actor and wrestler (b.", "1958)* 2020 – Joseph Safra, Lebanese-Brazilian financier (b.1938)* 2020 – Carol Sutton, American actress (b.", "1944)* 2020 – Barbara Windsor, English actress (b.", "1937)*2021 – Michael Nesmith, American musician (The Monkees), songwriter, actor, producer, and novelist (b.", "1942)*2023 – Julian Carroll, American politician, 54th Governor of Kentucky (b.", "1931)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Alfred Nobel Day or ''Nobeldagen'' (Sweden)*Christian feast day:**Behnam, Sarah, and the Forty Martyrs (Syriac Orthodox Church)**Eulalia of Mérida **Karl Barth (Episcopal Church (USA))**Thomas Merton (Episcopal Church (USA))**Translation of the Holy House of Loreto**December 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Constitution Day (Thailand)*Human Rights Day (International)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 10" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Taiko" ], [ "Introduction", "This performance at the alt=Video of are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments.", "In Japanese, the term refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called and to the form of ensemble drumming more specifically called .", "The process of constructing varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method.", "have a mythological origin in Japanese folklore, but historical records suggest that were introduced to Japan through Chinese and Korean cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from the Haniwa period depicting drums has also been found.", "Some are similar to instruments originating from India.", "Archaeological evidence also supports the view that were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period.", "Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremony and concert performances.", "In modern times, have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan.", "performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and later in 1961 by the Ondekoza, and was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as Kodo, Yamato, Tao, Taikoza, Fuun No Kai, Sukeroku Taiko, etc.", "Other performance styles, such as , have also emerged from specific communities in Japan.", "performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil.", "Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm, form, stick grip, clothing, and the particular instrumentation.", "Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped as well as smaller .", "Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments." ], [ "History", "===Origin===alt=Three plain clay figures, featuring long, skirt-like columnar bases.", "The outer two figures are depicted playing drums.", "Only one figure, in the middle, has a head.The origin of the and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions.", "Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the , a drum that originated in South China.", "This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of .", "Certain court music styles, especially and , arrived in Japan through both China and Korea.", "In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to .", "Certain percussive patterns and terminology in , an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the , also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in performance.Archaeological evidence shows that were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE, during the latter part of the Kofun period, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals.", "This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture.", "Two of these figures are depicted playing drums; one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height.", "This statue is titled \"Man Beating the \" and is considered the oldest evidence of performance in Japan.", "Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.The , the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of .", "The myth tells how Amaterasu, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame-no-Uzume when others had failed.", "Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it.", "Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of music.===Use in warfare===alt=A woman wearing a kimono and traditional hairstyle kneels on a tatami mat, playing a drum in front of her with two sticks.In feudal Japan, were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum.", "During the 16th-century Warring States period, specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing.", "Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts.", "According to the war chronicle , nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy.", "Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century Emperor Keitai offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named .", "The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.===In traditional settings=== have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration.", "In the kabuki play ''The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles'', scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by to create dramatic tension.", "Noh theatre also features music, where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns.", "The school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes.", "Differences between these patterns include changes in tempo, accent, dynamics, pitch, and function in the theatrical performance.", "Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.", "continue to be used in , a classical music tradition typically performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in addition to local temples and shrines.", "In , one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the .", "have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan.", "They are also used to accompany religious ritual music.", "In , a category of music and dances stemming from Shinto practices, frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals.", "In Buddhist traditions, are used for ritual dances as part of the Bon Festival.", ", along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.======A group performing in alt=refer to captionIn addition to the instruments, the term also refers to the performance itself, and commonly to one style called , or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums).", "was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951.He is considered a master performer and helped transform performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines.", "Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written music.", "Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation, Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments.", "Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in performance.Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances.", "They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances.", "Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s.", "Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi, and has been referred to as the first group who toured professionally.", "Globally, performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.", "was also developed through the leadership of , who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to playing and took them to Sado Island for training where Den and his family had settled in 1968.Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly ; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called that required considerable strength to play well.", "Den called the group \"Za Ondekoza\" or Ondekoza for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running.", "In 1975, Ondekoza was the first group to tour in the United States.", "Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms.", "In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi.", "Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers.", "Kodo is one of the most recognized groups both in Japan and worldwide.Estimates of the number of groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan, but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of groups.", "Some pieces that have emerged from early groups that continue to be performed include Yatai-bayashi from Ondekoza, from Osuwa Daiko, and from Kodo." ], [ "Categorization", "+ Taiko by construction method Others Taiko have been developed into a broad range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions.", "An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by Francis Taylor Piggott in 1909.Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used, but some are not classified, such as the toy den-den daiko.With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity.", "The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes.", "Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used.Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process.", "''Byō-uchi-daiko'' are constructed with the drumhead nailed to the body.", "''Shime-daiko'' are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes.", "Contemporary ''shime-daiko'' are tensioned using bolts or turnbuckles systems attached to the drum body.", "''Tsuzumi'' are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin.", "''Byō-uchi-daiko'' were historically made only using a single piece of wood; they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood.", "Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees.", "The preferred wood is the Japanese zelkova or ''keyaki'', but a number of other woods, and even wine barrels, have been used to create taiko.", "''Byō-uchi-daiko'' cannot be tuned.The typical ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is the ''nagadō-daiko'', an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel.", "''Nagadō-daiko'' are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in shaku (units of roughly 30 cm).", "Head diameters range from .", "are the smallest of these drums and are usually about in diameter.", "The is a medium-sized ''nagadō-daiko'' ranging from , and weighing about .", "vary in size, and are often as large as in diameter.", "Some ''ō-daiko'' are difficult to move due to their size, and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space, such as temple or shrine.", "''Ō-daiko'' means \"large drum\" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum.", "The other type of ''byō-uchi-daiko'' is called a and can be any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body.", "''Shime-daiko'' are a set of smaller, roughly snare drum-sized instrument that are tunable.", "The tensioning system usually consists of hemp cords or rope, but bolt or turnbuckle systems have been used as well.", ", sometimes referred to as \"taiko\" in the context of theater, have thinner heads than other kinds of shime-daiko.", "The head includes a patch of deerskin placed in the center, and in performance, drum strokes are generally restricted to this area.", "The is a heavier type of ''shime-daiko''.", "They are available in sizes 1–5, and are named according to their number: ''namitsuke'' (1), ''nichō-gakke'' (2), ''sanchō-gakke'' (3), ''yonchō-gakke'' (4), and ''gochō-gakke'' (5).", "The ''namitsuke'' has the thinnest skins and the shortest body in terms of height; thickness and tension of skins, as well as body height, increase toward the ''gochō-gakke''.", "The head diameters of all ''shime-daiko'' sizes are around .", "is a type of racket-shaped Japanese drum.", "It is the only Japanese traditional drum without a sound box and only one skin.", "It is played with a drumstick while hanging it with the other hand.File:Taiwanese taiko drummer.jpg|A middle-sized ''chū-daiko'' being played on a slanted standFile:Kodo Taiko Drum.JPG|This ''ō-daiko'' from a Kodo performance features a tomoe design on its skin.File:Shime Daiko drum - Shime Taiko Trommel.jpg|Example of a ''shime-daiko'', tensioned using ropeFile:Okedo Daiko drum - Okedo Taiko Trommel.jpg|Example of an ''okedō'', tensioned using ropeFile:162 Museu de la Música, tsuridaiko, tambor japonès.jpg|A ''tsuri-daiko'' on display at the Museu de la Música de BarcelonaFile:Kotsuzumi (Small Hourglass Drum) with Peonies LACMA M.89.134.1.jpg|A 17th-century ''ko-tsuzumi''File:Gifujyou5851.JPG|An ''uchiwa-daiko.", "''+ Taiko by theatrical usage Gagakki Noh Kabuki dadaiko ō-tsuzumi ko-tsuzumitsuri-daiko ko-tsuzumi ō-tsuzumi san-no-tsuzumi nagauta shime-daiko nagauta shime-daiko kakko ō-daiko''Okedō-daiko'' or simply ''okedō'', are a type of ''shime-daiko'' that are stave-constructed using narrower strips of wood, have a tube-shaped frame.", "Like other ''shime-daiko'', drum heads are attached by metal hoops and fastened by rope or cords.", "''Okedō'' can be played using the same drumsticks (called ''bachi'') as ''shime-daiko'', but can also be hand-played.", "''Okedō'' come in short- and long-bodied types.", "''Tsuzumi'' are a class of hourglass-shaped drums.", "The drum body is shaped on a spool and the inner body carved by hand.", "Their skins can be made from cowhide, horsehide, or deerskin.", "While the ''ō-tsuzumi'' skins are made from cowhide, ''ko-tsuzumi'' are made from horsehide.", "While some classify ''tsuzumi'' as a type of taiko, others have described them as a drum entirely separate from taiko.Taiko can also be categorized by the context in which they are used.", "The ''miya-daiko'', for instance, is constructed in the same manner as other ''byō-uchi-daiko'', but is distinguished by an ornamental stand and is used for ceremonial purposes at Buddhist temples.", "The (a ''ko-daiko'') and (a ''nagadō-daiko'' with a cigar-shaped body) are used in sumo and festivals respectively.woodprint block by Yashima Gakutei illustrating a woman playing a ''tsuri-daiko''|alt=refer to captionSeveral drums, categorized as ''gagakki'', are used in the Japanese theatrical form, gagaku.", "The lead instrument of the ensemble is the kakko, which is a smaller ''shime-daiko'' with heads made of deerskin, and is placed horizontally on a stand during performance.", "A ''tsuzumi'', called the ''san-no-tsuzumi'' is another small drum in gagaku that is placed horizontally and struck with a thin stick.", "are the largest drums of the ensemble, and have heads that are about in diameter.", "During performance, the drum is placed on a tall pedestals and surrounded by a rim decoratively painted with flames and adorned with mystical figures such as wyverns.", "''Dadaiko'' are played while standing, and are usually only played on the downbeat of the music.", "The is a smaller drum that produces a lower sound, its head measuring about in diameter.", "It is used in ensembles that accompany bugaku, a traditional dance performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace and in religious contexts.", "''Tsuri-daiko'' are suspended on a small stand, and are played sitting down.", "''Tsuri-daiko'' performers typically use shorter mallets covered in leather knobs instead of bachi.", "They can be played simultaneously by two performers; while one performer plays on the head, another performer uses bachi on the body of the drum.The larger ''ō-tsuzumi'' and smaller ''ko-tsuzumi'' are used in the opening and dances of Noh theater.", "Both drums are struck using the fingers; players can also adjust pitch by manually applying pressure to the ropes on the drum.", "The color of the cords of these drums also indicates the skill of the musician: Orange and red for amateur players, light blue for performers with expertise, and lilac for masters of the instrument.", "''Nagauta-shime daiko'' or ''uta daiko'' are also featured in Noh performance.Many taiko in Noh are also featured in kabuki performance and are used in a similar manner.", "In addition to the ''ō-tsuzumi'', ''ko-tsuzumi'', and ''nagauta-shime daiko'', Kabuki performances make use of the larger ''ō-daiko'' offstage to help set the atmosphere for different scenes." ], [ "Construction", "===Process===Taiko construction has several stages, including making and shaping of the drum body (or shell), preparing the drum skin, and tuning the skin to the drumhead.", "Variations in the construction process often occur in the latter two parts of this process.", "Historically, ''byō-uchi-daiko'' were crafted from trunks of the Japanese zelkova tree that were dried out over years, using techniques to prevent splitting.", "A master carpenter then carved out the rough shape of the drum body with a chisel; the texture of the wood after carving softened the tone of the drum.", "In contemporary times, taiko are carved out on a large lathe using wood staves or logs that can be shaped to fit drum bodies of various sizes.", "Drumheads can be left to air-dry over a period of years, but some companies use large, smoke-filled warehouses to hasten the drying process.", "After drying is complete, the inside of the drum is worked with a deep-grooved chisel and sanded.", "Lastly, handles are placed onto the drum.", "These are used to carry smaller drums and they serve an ornamental purpose for larger drums.Taiko drum manufacturing display in the alt=A display at the Osaka Human Rights Museum depicting two workers, wielding large mallets, in the process of applying appropriate tension to a taiko.The skins or heads of taiko are generally made from cowhide from Holstein cows aged about three or four years.", "Skins also come from horses, and bull skin is preferred for larger drums.", "Thinner skins are preferred for smaller taiko, and thicker skins are used for larger ones.", "On some drumheads, a patch of deer skin placed in the center serves as the target for many strokes during performance.", "Before fitting it to the drum body the hair is removed from the hide by soaking it in a river or stream for about a month; winter months are preferred as colder temperatures better facilitate hair removal.", "To stretch the skin over the drum properly, one process requires the body to be held on a platform with several hydraulic jacks underneath it.", "The edges of the cowhide are secured to an apparatus below the jacks, and the jacks stretch the skin incrementally to precisely apply tension across the drumhead.", "Other forms of stretching use rope or cords with wooden dowels or an iron wheel to create appropriate tension.", "Small tension adjustments can be made during this process using small pieces of bamboo that twist around the ropes.", "Particularly large drumheads are sometimes stretched by having several workers, clad in stockings, hop rhythmically atop it, forming a circle along the edge.", "After the skin has dried, tacks, called ''byō'', are added to the appropriate drums to secure it; ''chū-daiko'' require about 300 of them for each side.", "After the body and skin have been finished, excess hide is cut off and the drum can be stained as needed.===Drum makers===Several companies specialize in the production of taiko.", "One such company that created drums exclusively for the Emperor of Japan, Miyamoto Unosuke Shoten in Tokyo, has been making taiko since 1861.The Asano Taiko Corporation is another major taiko-producing organization, and has been producing taiko for over 400 years.", "The family-owned business started in Mattō, Ishikawa, and, aside from military equipment, made taiko for Noh theater and later expanded to creating instruments for festivals during the Meiji period.", "Asano currently maintains an entire complex of large buildings referred to as Asano Taiko Village, and the company reports producing up to 8000 drums each year.", "As of 2012, there is approximately one major taiko production company in each prefecture of Japan, with some regions having several companies.", "Of the manufacturers in Naniwa, Taikoya Matabē is one of the most successful and is thought to have brought considerable recognition to the community and attracted many drum makers there.", "Umetsu Daiko, a company that operates in Hakata, has been producing taiko since 1821." ], [ "Performance", "Taiko performance styles vary widely across groups in terms of the number of performers, repertoire, instrument choices, and stage techniques.", "Nevertheless, a number of early groups have had broad influence on the tradition.", "For instance, many pieces developed by Ondekoza and Kodo are considered standard in many taiko groups.===Form===Kata is the posture and movement associated with taiko performance.", "The notion is similar to that of kata in martial arts: for example, both traditions include the idea that the hara is the center of being.", "Author Shawn Bender argues that kata is the primary feature that distinguishes different taiko groups from one another and is a key factor in judging the quality of performance.", "For this reason, many practice rooms intended for taiko contain mirrors to provide visual feedback to players.", "An important part of kata in taiko is keeping the body stabilized while performing and can be accomplished by keeping a wide, low stance with the legs, with the left knee bent over the toes and keeping the right leg straight.", "It is important that the hips face the drum and the shoulders are relaxed.", "Some teachers note a tendency to rely on the upper body while playing and emphasize the importance of the holistic use of the body during performance.Some groups in Japan, particularly those active in Tokyo, also emphasize the importance of the lively and spirited ''iki'' aesthetic.", "In taiko, it refers to very specific kinds of movement while performing that evoke the sophistication stemming from the mercantile and artisan classes active during the Edo period (1603–1868).", "''Bachi'' are sticks used specifically for taiko performance, and can be slightly thicker than typical drum sticks.|alt=Different types of drum sticks for taiko, called bachi, are displayed flat on a surface.The sticks for playing taiko are called ''bachi'', and are made in various sizes and from different kinds of wood such as white oak, bamboo, and Japanese magnolia.", "''Bachi'' are also held in a number of different styles.", "In ''kumi-daiko'', it is common for a player to hold their sticks in a relaxed manner between the V-shape of the index finger and thumb, which points to the player.", "There are other grips that allow performers to play much more technically difficult rhythms, such as the ''shime'' grip, which is similar to a matched grip: the ''bachi'' are gripped at the back end, and the fulcrum rests between the performer's index finger and thumb, while the other fingers remain relaxed and slightly curled around the stick.Performance in some groups is also guided by principles based on Zen Buddhism.", "For instance, among other concepts, the San Francisco Taiko Dojo is guided by emphasizing communication, respect, and harmony.", "The way the ''bachi'' are held can also be significant; for some groups, ''bachi'' represent a spiritual link between the body and the sky.", "Some physical parts of taiko, like the drum body, its skin, and the tacks also hold symbolic significance in Buddhism.===Instrumentation===alt=Video; refer to caption''Kumi-daiko'' groups consist primarily of percussive instruments where each of the drums plays a specific role.", "Of the different kinds of taiko, the most common in groups is the ''nagadō-daiko''.", "''Chū-daiko'' are common in taiko groups and represent the main rhythm of the group, whereas ''shime-daiko'' set and change tempo.", "A ''shime-daiko'' often plays the Jiuchi, a base rhythm holding together the ensemble.", "''Ō-daiko'' provide a steady, underlying pulse and serve as a counter-rhythm to the other parts.", "It is common for performances to begin with a single stroke roll called an ''''.", "The player starts slowly, leaving considerable space between strikes, gradually shortening the interval between hits, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits.", "Oroshi are also played as a part of theatrical performance, such as in Noh theater.Drums are not the only instruments played in the ensemble; other Japanese instruments are also used.", "Other kinds of percussion instruments include the , a hand-sized gong played with a small mallet.", "In kabuki, the shamisen, a plucked string instrument, often accompanies taiko during the theatrical performance.", "''Kumi-daiko'' performances can also feature woodwinds such as the shakuhachi and the shinobue.Voiced calls or shouts called kakegoe and kiai are also common in taiko performance.", "They are used as encouragement to other players or cues for transition or change in dynamics such as an increase in tempo.", "In contrast, the philosophical concept of ma, or the space between drum strikes, is also important in shaping rhythmic phrases and creating appropriate contrast.===Clothing===There is a wide variety of traditional clothing that players wear during taiko performance.", "Common in many ''kumi-daiko'' groups is the use of the happi, a decorative, thin-fabric coat, and traditional headbands called hachimaki.", "Tabi, , and are also typical.", "During his time with the group Ondekoza, Eitetsu Hayashi suggested that a loincloth called a fundoshi be worn when performing for French fashion designer Pierre Cardin, who saw Ondekoza perform for him in 1975.The Japanese group Kodo has sometimes worn fundoshi for its performances." ], [ "Education", "Taiko performance is generally taught orally and through demonstration.", "Historically, general patterns for taiko were written down, such as in the 1512 encyclopedia called the ''Taigensho'', but written scores for taiko pieces are generally unavailable.", "One reason for the adherence to an oral tradition is that, from group to group, the rhythmic patterns in a given piece are often performed differently.", "Furthermore, ethnomusicologist William P. Malm observed that Japanese players within a group could not usefully predict one another using written notation, and instead did so through listening.", "In Japan, printed parts are not used during lessons.Orally, patterns of onomatopoeia called kuchi shōga are taught from teacher to student that convey the rhythm and timbre of drum strikes for a particular piece.", "For example, represents a single strike to the center of the drum, where as represents two successive strikes, first by the right and then the left, and lasts the same amount of time as one ''don'' strike.", "Some taiko pieces, such as ''Yatai-bayashi'', include patterns that are difficult to represent in Western musical notation.", "The exact words used can also differ from region to region.More recently, Japanese publications have emerged in an attempt to standardize taiko performance.", "The Nippon Taiko Foundation was formed in 1979; its primary goals were to foster good relations among taiko groups in Japan and to both publicize and teach how to perform taiko.", "Daihachi Oguchi, the leader of the Foundation, wrote ''Japan Taiko'' with other teachers in 1994 out of concern that correct form in performance would degrade over time.", "The instructional publication described the different drums used in ''kumi-daiko'' performance, methods of gripping, correct form, and suggestions on instrumentation.", "The book also contains practice exercises and transcribed pieces from Oguchi's group, Osuwa Daiko.", "While there were similar textbooks published before 1994, this publication had much more visibility due to the Foundation's scope.The system of fundamentals ''Japan Taiko'' put forward was not widely adopted because taiko performance varied substantially across Japan.", "An updated 2001 publication from the Foundation, called the , describes regional variations that depart from the main techniques taught in the textbook.", "The creators of the text maintained that mastering a set of prescribed basics should be compatible with learning local traditions." ], [ "Regional styles", "Aside from ''kumi-daiko'' performance, a number of folk traditions that use taiko have been recognized in different regions in Japan.", "Some of these include from Sado Island, '''' from the town of Kokura, and '''' from Iwate Prefecture.===Eisa===alt=An eisa folk dancing troupe performs at night at the 2010 Okinawa International Carnival.A variety of folk dances originating from Okinawa, known collectively as eisa, often make use of the taiko.", "Some performers use drums while dancing, and generally speaking, perform in one of two styles: groups on the Yokatsu Peninsula and on Hamahiga Island use small, single-sided drums called whereas groups near the city of Okinawa generally use ''shime-daiko''.", "Use of ''shime-daiko'' over ''pāranku'' has spread throughout the island, and is considered the dominant style.", "Small ''nagadō-daiko'', referred to as ''ō-daiko'' within the tradition, are also used and are worn in front of the performer.", "These drum dances are not limited to Okinawa and have appeared in places containing Okinawan communities such as in São Paulo, Hawaii, and large cities on the Japanese mainland.===Hachijō-daiko===alt=Two women wearing kimonos perform traditional Hachijō-daiko.", "is a taiko tradition originating on the island of Hachijō-jima.", "Two styles of ''Hachijō-daiko'' emerged and have been popularized among residents: an older tradition based on a historical account, and a newer tradition influenced by mainland groups and practiced by the majority of the islanders.The ''Hachijō-daiko'' tradition was documented as early as 1849 based on a journal kept by an exile named Kakuso Kizan.", "He mentioned some of its unique features, such as \"a taiko is suspended from a tree while women and children gathered around\", and observed that a player used either side of the drum while performing.", "Illustrations from Kizan's journal show features of ''Hachijō-daiko''.", "These illustrations also featured women performing, which is unusual as taiko performance elsewhere during this period was typically reserved for men.", "Teachers of the tradition have noted that the majority of its performers were women; one estimate asserts that female performers outnumbered males by three to one.alt=refer to captionThe first style of Hachijō-daiko is thought to descend directly from the style reported by Kizan.", "This style is called ''Kumaoji-daiko'', named after its creator Okuyama Kumaoji, a central performer of the style.", "''Kumaoji-daiko'' has two players on a single drum, one of whom, called the , provides the underlying beat.", "The other player, called the , builds on this rhythmical foundation with unique and typically improvised rhythms.", "While there are specific types of underlying rhythms, the accompanying player is free to express an original musical beat.", "''Kumaoji-daiko'' also features an unusual positioning for taiko: the drums are sometimes suspended from ropes, and historically, sometimes drums were suspended from trees.The contemporary style of ''Hachijō-daiko'' is called , which differs from ''Kumaoji-daiko'' in multiple ways.", "For instance, while the lead and accompanying roles are still present, ''shin-daiko'' performances use larger drums exclusively on stands.", "''Shin-daiko'' emphasizes a more powerful sound, and consequently, performers use larger bachi made out of stronger wood.", "Looser clothing is worn by ''shin-daiko'' performers compared to kimono worn by ''Kumaoji-daiko'' performers; the looser clothing in ''shin-daiko'' allow performers to adopt more open stances and larger movements with the legs and arms.", "Rhythms used for the accompanying ''shita-byōshi'' role can also differ.", "One type of rhythm, called ''yūkichi'', consists of the following: centerThis rhythm is found in both styles, but is always played faster in ''shin-daiko''.", "Another type of rhythm, called ''honbadaki'', is unique to ''shin-daiko'' and also contains a song which is performed in standard Japanese.===Miyake-daiko=== is a style that has spread amongst groups through Kodo, and is formally known as .", "The word ''miyake'' comes from Miyake-jima, part of the Izu Islands, and the word ''Kamitsuki'' refers to the village where the tradition came from.", "Miyake-style taiko came out of performances for — a traditional festival held annually in July on Miyake Island since 1820 honoring the deity Gozu Tennō.", "In this festival, players perform on taiko while portable shrines are carried around town.", "The style itself is characterized in a number of ways.", "A ''nagadō-daiko'' is typically set low to the ground and played by two performers, one on each side; instead of sitting, performers stand and hold a stance that is also very low to the ground, almost to the point of kneeling." ], [ "Outside Japan", "===Australia===Taiko groups in Australia began forming in the 1990s.", "The first group, called Ataru Taru Taiko, was formed in 1995 by Paulene Thomas, Harold Gent, and Kaomori Kamei.", "TaikOz was later formed by percussionist Ian Cleworth and Riley Lee, a former Ondekoza member, and has been performing in Australia since 1997.They are known for their work in generating interest in performing taiko among Australian audiences, such as by developing a complete education program with both formal and informal classes, and have a strong fan base.", "Cleworth and other members of the group have developed several original pieces.===Brazil===alt=Members of Brazilian group Seiryu Daiko performing on stage with a variety of taiko.The introduction of ''kumi-daiko'' performance in Brazil can be traced back to the 1970s and 1980s in São Paulo.", "Tangue Setsuko founded an eponymous taiko dojo and was Brazil's first taiko group; Setsuo Kinoshita later formed the group Wadaiko Sho.", "Brazilian groups have combined native and African drumming techniques with taiko performance.", "One such piece developed by Kinoshita is called ''Taiko de Samba'', which emphasizes both Brazilian and Japanese aesthetics in percussion traditions.", "Taiko was also popularized in Brazil from 2002 through the work of Yukihisa Oda, a Japanese native who visited Brazil several times through the Japan International Cooperation Agency.The Brazilian Association of Taiko (ABT) suggests that there are about 150 taiko groups in Brazil and that about 10–15% of players are non-Japanese; Izumo Honda, coordinator of a large annual festival in São Paulo, estimated that about 60% of all taiko performers in Brazil are women.===North America===New York-based group alt=Performers from the group Soh Daiko perform outdoors on various drums in front of an audience.Taiko emerged in the United States in the late 1960s.", "The first group, San Francisco Taiko Dojo, was formed in 1968 by Seiichi Tanaka, a postwar immigrant who studied taiko in Japan and brought the styles and teachings to the US.", "A year later, a few members of Senshin Buddhist Temple in Los Angeles led by its minister Masao Kodani initiated another group called Kinnara Taiko.", "San Jose Taiko later formed in 1973 in Japantown, San Jose, under Roy and PJ Hirabayashi.", "Taiko started to branch out to the eastern US in the late 1970s.", "This included formation of Denver Taiko in 1976, and Soh Daiko in New York City in 1979.Many of these early groups lacked the resources to equip each member with a drum and resorted to makeshift percussion materials such as rubber tires or creating taiko out of wine barrels.Japanese-Canadian taiko began in 1979 with Katari Taiko, and was inspired by the San Jose Taiko group.", "Its early membership was predominantly female.", "Katari Taiko and future groups were thought to represent an opportunity for younger, third-generation Japanese Canadians to explore their roots, redevelop a sense of ethnic community, and expand taiko into other musical traditions.Taiko Tides, a student group at Stony Brook University, New YorkThere are no official counts or estimates of the number of active taiko groups in the United States or Canada, as there is no governing body for taiko groups in either country.", "Unofficial estimates have been made.", "In 1989, there were as many as 30 groups in the US and Canada, seven of which were in California.", "One estimate suggested that around 120 groups were active in the US and Canada as of 2001, many of which could be traced to the San Francisco Taiko Dojo; later estimates in 2005 and 2006 suggested there were about 200 groups in the United States alone.The Cirque du Soleil shows ''Mystère'' in Las Vegas and ''Dralion'' have featured taiko performance.", "Taiko performance has also been featured in commercial productions such as the 2005 Mitsubishi Eclipse ad campaign, and in events such as the 2009 Academy Awards and 2011 Grammy Awards.From 2005 to 2006, the Japanese American National Museum held an exhibition called ''Big Drum: Taiko in the United States''.", "The exhibition covered several topics related to taiko in the United States, such as the formation of performance groups, their construction using available materials, and social movements.", "Visitors were able to play smaller drums.North America hosts the North American Taiko Conference (NATC) which has been ongoing since its inaugural conference in Los Angeles in 1997.In 2013, the Taiko Community Alliance (TCA) formed as virtual nonprofit 501(c)3 organization with a mission to empower the people and advance the art of taiko.", "The Taiko Community Alliance has been responsible for helping organize the NATC conferences to help further its mission of educating and raising awareness of taiko through the taiko community.===Italy===The first group, called Quelli del Taiko, was formed in 2000 by Pietro Notarnicola.", "They played in World Premiere - 2017 - \"On Western Terror 8\" - Concerto for Taiko Ensemble and Orchestra of the Italian composed Luigi Morleo" ], [ "Related cultural and social movements", "Certain peoples have used taiko to advance social or cultural movements, both within Japan and elsewhere in the world.===Gender conventions===Taiko performance has frequently been viewed as an art form dominated by men.", "Historians of taiko argue that its performance comes from masculine traditions.", "Those who developed ensemble-style taiko in Japan were men, and through the influence of Ondekoza, the ideal taiko player was epitomized in images of the masculine peasant class, particularly through the character Muhōmatsu in the 1958 film ''Rickshaw Man''.", "Masculine roots have also been attributed to perceived capacity for \"spectacular bodily performance\" where women's bodies are sometimes judged as unable to meet the physical demands of playing.alt=A photograph of four women in a kumi-daiko group performing in Paris, France.Before the 1980s, it was uncommon for Japanese women to perform on traditional instruments, including taiko, as their participation had been systematically restricted; an exception was the San Francisco Taiko Dojo under the guidance of Grand master Seiichi Tanaka, who was the first to admit females to the art form.", "In Ondekoza and in the early performances of Kodo, women performed only dance routines either during or between taiko performances.", "Thereafter, female participation in ''kumi-daiko'' started to rise dramatically, and by the 1990s, women equaled and possibly exceeded representation by men.", "While the proportion of women in taiko has become substantial, some have expressed concern that women still do not perform in the same roles as their male counterparts and that taiko performance continues to be a male-dominated profession.", "For instance, a member of Kodo was informed by the director of the group's apprentice program that women were permitted to play, but could only play \"as women\".", "Other women in the apprentice program recognized a gender disparity in performance roles, such as what pieces they were allowed to perform, or in physical terms based on a male standard.Female taiko performance has also served as a response to gendered stereotypes of Japanese women as being quiet, subservient, or a femme fatale.", "Through performance, some groups believe they are helping to redefine not only the role of women in taiko, but how women are perceived more generally.===Burakumin===Those involved in the construction of taiko are usually considered part of the burakumin, a marginalized minority class in Japanese society, particularly those working with leather or animal skins.", "Prejudice against this class dates back to the Tokugawa period in terms of legal discrimination and treatment as social outcasts.", "Although official discrimination ended with the Tokugawa era, the burakumin have continued to face social discrimination, such as scrutiny by employers or in marriage arrangements.", "Drum makers have used their trade and success as a means to advocate for an end to discriminatory practices against their class.The , representing the contributions of burakumin, is found in Naniwa Ward in Osaka, home to a large proportion of burakumin.", "Among other features, the road contains taiko-shaped benches representing their traditions in taiko manufacturing and leatherworking, and their influence on national culture.", "The road ends at the Osaka Human Rights Museum, which exhibits the history of systematic discrimination against the burakumin.", "The road and museum were developed in part due an advocacy campaign led by the Buraku Liberation League and a taiko group of younger performers called .===North American ''sansei''===Taiko performance was an important part of cultural development by third-generation Japanese residents in North America, who are called ''sansei''.", "During World War II, second-generation Japanese residents, called ''nisei'' faced internment in the United States and in Canada on the basis of their race.", "During and after the war, Japanese residents were discouraged from activities such as speaking Japanese or forming ethnic communities.", "Subsequently, sansei could not engage in Japanese culture and instead were raised to assimilate into more normative activities.", "There were also prevailing stereotypes of Japanese people, which sansei sought to escape or subvert.", "During the 1960s in the United States, the civil rights movement influenced sansei to reexamine their heritage by engaging in Japanese culture in their communities; one such approach was through taiko performance.", "Groups such as San Jose Taiko were organized to fulfill a need for solidarity and to have a medium to express their experiences as Japanese-Americans.", "Later generations have adopted taiko in programs or workshops established by sansei; social scientist Hideyo Konagaya remarks that this attraction to taiko among other Japanese art forms may be due to its accessibility and energetic nature.", "Konagaya has also argued that the resurgence of taiko in the United States and Japan are differently motivated: in Japan, performance was meant to represent the need to recapture sacred traditions, while in the United States it was meant to be an explicit representation of masculinity and power in Japanese-American men." ], [ "Notable performers and groups", "alt=Black & white photograph of a solo performance by Eitetsu Hayashi.A number of performers and groups, including several early leaders, have been recognized for their contributions to taiko performance.", "Daihachi Oguchi was best known for developing ''kumi-daiko'' performance.", "Oguchi founded the first ''kumi-daiko'' group called Osuwa Daiko in 1951, and facilitated the popularization of taiko performance groups in Japan.Seidō Kobayashi is the leader of the Tokyo-based taiko group Oedo Sukeroku Taiko as of December 2014.Kobayashi founded the group in 1959 and was the first group to tour professionally.", "Kobayashi is considered a master performer of taiko.", "He is also known for asserting intellectual control of the group's performance style, which has influenced performance for many groups, particularly in North America.In 1968, Seiichi Tanaka founded the San Francisco Taiko Dojo and is regarded as the Grandfather of Taiko and primary developer of taiko performance in the United States.", "He was a recipient of a 2001 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts and since 2013 is the only taiko professional presented with the Order of the Rising Sun 5th Order: Gold and Silver Rays by Emperor Akihito of Japan, in recognition of Grandmaster Seiichi Tanaka's contributions to the fostering of US-Japan relations as well as the promotion of Japanese cultural understanding in the United States.In 1969, founded Ondekoza, a group well known for making taiko performance internationally visible and for its artistic contributions to the tradition.", "Den was also known for developing a communal living and training facility for Ondekoza on Sado Island in Japan, which had a reputation for its intensity and broad education programs in folklore and music.Performers and groups beyond the early practitioners have also been noted.", "Eitetsu Hayashi is best known for his solo performance work.", "When he was 19, Hayashi joined Ondekoza, a group later expanded and re-founded as Kodo, one of the best known and most influential taiko performance groups in the world.", "Hayashi soon left the group to begin a solo career and has performed in venues such as Carnegie Hall in 1984, the first featured taiko performer there.", "He was awarded the 47th Education Minister's Art Encouragement Prize, a national award, in 1997 as well as the 8th Award for the Promotion of Traditional Japanese Culture from the Japan Arts Foundation in 2001." ], [ "Glossary", " Romanized Japanese IPA Pronunciation Kanji Definition''Bachi'' 撥 Various drumsticks used for taiko performance''Byō-uchi-daiko'' Taiko where the skin is tacked onto the head''Gagakki'' 雅楽器Instruments used in the theatrical tradition called gagaku''Kumi-daiko'' 組太鼓 Type of performance involving multiple players and different types of taiko''Nagadō-daiko'' 長胴太鼓 Subcategory of ''byō-uchi-daiko'' that have a longer, barrel-shaped body''Miya-daiko''宮太鼓Same as Nagado but only for sacred use at temples''Okedō-daiko'' 桶胴太鼓 Taiko with bucket-like frames, and tensioned using ropes or bolts''Shime-daiko'' 締め太鼓 Small, high-pitched taiko where the skin is pulled across the head using rope or through bolts''Tsuzumi'' 鼓 Hourglass-shaped drums that are rope-tensioned and played with fingers" ], [ "See also", "* Kuchi shōga, a spoken rhythmic system for taiko and other Japanese instruments.", "* Music of Japan* ''Taiko: Drum Master'' and ''Taiko no Tatsujin'', rhythm video games involving taiko performance." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* The Nippon Taiko Foundation, part of the Agency for Cultural Affairs" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dolly Parton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dolly Rebecca Parton''' (born January 19, 1946) is an American singer-songwriter, actress, and philanthropist, known primarily for her decades-long career in country music.", "After achieving success as a songwriter for others, Parton made her album debut in 1967 with ''Hello, I'm Dolly'', which led to success during the remainder of the 1960s (both as a solo artist and with a series of duet albums with Porter Wagoner), before her sales and chart peak came during the 1970s and continued into the 1980s.", "Some of Parton's albums in the 1990s did not sell as well, but she achieved commercial success again in the new millennium and has released albums on various independent labels since 2000, including her own label, Dolly Records.With a career spanning over fifty years, Parton has been described as a \"country legend\" and has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making her one of the best-selling music artists of all time.", "Parton's music includes Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)-certified gold, platinum and multi-platinum awards.", "She has had 25 singles reach no.1 on the ''Billboard'' country music charts, a record for a female artist (tied with Reba McEntire).", "She has 44 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and she has 110 career-charted singles over the past 40 years.", "She has composed over 3,000 songs, including \"I Will Always Love You\" (a two-time U.S. country chart-topper, and an international hit for Whitney Houston), \"Jolene\", \"Coat of Many Colors\", and \"9to5\".", "As an actress, she has starred in films including ''9to5'' (1980) and ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas'' (1982), for which she earned Golden Globe nominations for Best Actress, and ''Rhinestone'' (1984), ''Steel Magnolias'' (1989), ''Straight Talk'' (1992) and ''Joyful Noise'' (2012).She has received 11 Grammy Awards out of 50 nominations, including the Lifetime Achievement Award; ten Country Music Association Awards, including Entertainer of the Year and is one of only seven female artists to win the Country Music Association's Entertainer of the Year Award; five Academy of Country Music Awards, also including Entertainer of the Year; four People's Choice Awards; and three American Music Awards.", "She is also in a select group to have received at least one nomination from the Academy Awards, Grammy Awards, Tony Awards, and Emmy Awards.", "In 1999, Parton was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame.", "In 2005, she received the National Medal of Arts and in 2022, she was nominated for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, a nomination she had initially declined but ultimately accepted, and was subsequently inducted.Outside of her work in the music industry, she also co-owns The Dollywood Company, which manages a number of entertainment venues including the Dollywood theme park, the Splash Country water park, and a number of dinner theatre venues such as The Dolly Parton Stampede and Pirates Voyage.", "She has founded a number of charitable and philanthropic organizations, chief among them is the Dollywood Foundation, which manages a number of projects to bring education and poverty relief to East Tennessee where she grew up." ], [ "Early life and career", "Dolly Rebecca Parton was born on January 19, 1946, in a one-room cabin on the banks of the Little Pigeon River in Pittman Center, Tennessee.", "She is the fourth of twelve children born to Avie Lee Caroline (née Owens; 1923–2003) and Robert Lee Parton Sr. (1921–2000).", "Parton's middle name comes from her maternal great-great-grandmother Rebecca (Dunn) Whitted.", "Parton's father, known as \"Lee\", worked in the mountains of East Tennessee, first as a sharecropper and later tending his own small tobacco farm and acreage.", "He also worked construction jobs to supplement the farm's small income.", "Despite her father's illiteracy, Parton has often commented that he was one of the smartest people she had ever known with regard to business and making a profit.Parton's mother cared for their large family.", "Her 11 pregnancies (the tenth being twins) in 20 years made her a mother of 12 by age 35.Parton credits her musical abilities to her mother; often in poor health, she still managed to keep house and entertain her children with Smoky Mountain folklore and ancient ballads.", "Having Welsh ancestors, Avie Lee knew many old ballads that immigrants from the British Isles brought to southern Appalachia in the 18th and 19th century.", "Avie Lee's father, Jake Owens, was a Pentecostal preacher, and Parton and her siblings all attended church regularly.", "Parton has long credited her father for her business savvy, and her mother's family for her musical abilities.", "When Parton was a young girl, her family moved from the Pittman Center area to a farm up on nearby Locust Ridge.", "Most of her cherished memories of youth happened there.", "Today, a replica of the Locust Ridge cabin resides at Parton's namesake theme park Dollywood.", "The farm acreage and surrounding woodland inspired her to write the song \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" in the 1970s.", "Years after the farm was sold, Parton bought it back in the late 1980s.", "Her brother Bobby helped with building restoration and new construction.Parton has described her family as being \"dirt poor\".", "Parton's father paid missionary Dr. Robert F. Thomas with a sack of cornmeal for delivering her.", "Parton would write a song about Dr. Thomas when she was grown.", "She also outlined her family's poverty in her early songs \"Coat of Many Colors\" and \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\".", "For six or seven years, Parton and her family lived in their rustic, one-bedroom cabin on their small subsistence farm on Locust Ridge.", "This was a predominantly Pentecostal area located north of the Greenbrier Valley of the Great Smoky Mountains.Music played an important role in her early life.", "She was brought up in the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), in a congregation her grandfather, Jake Robert Owens, pastored.", "Her earliest public performances were in the church, beginning at age six.", "At seven, she started playing a homemade guitar.", "When she was eight, her uncle bought her first real guitar.Parton began performing as a child, singing on local radio and television programs in the East Tennessee area.", "By ten, she was appearing on ''The Cas Walker Show'' on both WIVK Radio and WBIR-TV in Knoxville, Tennessee.", "At 13, she was recording (the single \"Puppy Love\") on a small Louisiana label, Goldband Records, and appeared at the Grand Ole Opry, where she first met Johnny Cash, who encouraged her to follow her own instincts regarding her career.After graduating from Sevier County High School in 1964, Parton moved to Nashville the next day.", "Her initial success came as a songwriter, having signed with Combine Publishing shortly after her arrival; with her frequent songwriting partner, her uncle Bill Owens, she wrote several charting singles during this time, including two Top10 hits for Bill Phillips: \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow,\" and \"The Company You Keep\" (1966), and Skeeter Davis's number 11 hit \"Fuel to the Flame\" (1967).", "Her songs were recorded by many other artists during this period, including Kitty Wells and Hank Williams Jr. She signed with Monument Records in 1965, at age 19; she initially was pitched as a bubblegum pop singer.", "She released a string of singles, but the only one that charted, \"Happy, Happy Birthday Baby\", did not crack the ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Although she expressed a desire to record country material, Monument resisted, thinking her unique, high soprano voice was not suited to the genre.After her composition \"Put It Off Until Tomorrow\", as recorded by Bill Phillips (with Parton, uncredited, on harmony), went to number six on the country chart in 1966, the label relented and allowed her to record country.", "Her first country single, \"Dumb Blonde\" (composed by Curly Putman, one of the few songs during this era that she recorded but did not write), reached number 24 on the country chart in 1967, followed by \"Something Fishy\", which went to number 17.The two songs appeared on her first full-length album, ''Hello, I'm Dolly''." ], [ "Music career", "===1967–1975: Country music success===Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton in 1969In 1967, musician and country music entertainer Porter Wagoner invited Parton to join his organization, offering her a regular spot on his weekly syndicated television program ''The Porter Wagoner Show'', and in his road show.", "As documented in her 1994 autobiography, initially, much of Wagoner's audience was unhappy that Norma Jean, the performer whom Parton had replaced, had left the show, and was reluctant to accept Parton (sometimes chanting loudly for Norma Jean from the audience).", "With Wagoner's assistance, however, Parton was eventually accepted.", "Wagoner convinced his label, RCA Victor, to sign her.", "RCA decided to protect their investment by releasing her first single as a duet with Wagoner.", "That song, a remake of Tom Paxton's \"The Last Thing on My Mind\", released in late 1967, reached the country Top10 in January 1968, launching a six-year streak of virtually uninterrupted Top10 singles for the pair.Parton's first solo single for RCA Victor, \"Just Because I'm a Woman\", was released in the summer of 1968 and was a moderate chart hit, reaching number 17.For the next two years, none of her solo effortseven \"In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)\", which later became a standardwere as successful as her duets with Wagoner.", "The duo was named Vocal Group of the Year in 1968 by the Country Music Association, but Parton's solo records were continually ignored.", "Wagoner had a significant financial stake in her future; as of 1969, he was her co-producer and owned nearly half of Owe-Par, the publishing company Parton had founded with Bill Owens.By 1970, both Parton and Wagoner had grown frustrated by her lack of solo chart success.", "Wagoner persuaded Parton to record Jimmie Rodgers' \"Mule Skinner Blues\", a gimmick that worked.", "The record shot to number three, followed closely, in February 1971, by her first number-one single, \"Joshua\".", "For the next two years, she had numerous solo hitsincluding her signature song \"Coat of Many Colors\" (number four, 1971)in addition to her duets.", "Top20 singles included \"The Right Combination\" and \"Burning the Midnight Oil\" (both duets with Wagoner, 1971); \"Lost Forever in Your Kiss\" (with Wagoner), \"Touch Your Woman\" (1972), \"My Tennessee Mountain Home\" and \"Travelin' Man\" (1973).Although her solo singles and the Wagoner duets were successful, her biggest hit of this period was \"Jolene\".", "Released in late 1973, the song topped the country chart in February 1974 and reached the lower regions of the Hot 100 (it eventually also charted in the U.K., reaching number seven in 1976, representing Parton's first U.K. success).", "Parton, who had always envisioned a solo career, made the decision to leave Wagoner's organization; the pair performed their last duet concert in April 1974, and she stopped appearing on his TV show in mid-1974, although they remained affiliated.", "He helped produce her records through 1975.The pair continued to release duet albums, their final release being 1975's ''Say Forever You'll Be Mine''.In 1974, her song, \"I Will Always Love You\", written about her professional break from Wagoner, went to number one on the country chart.", "Around the same time, Elvis Presley indicated that he wanted to record the song.", "Parton was interested until Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song recorded by Presley.", "Parton refused.", "That decision has been credited with helping to make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years.", "Parton had three solo singles reach number one on the country chart in 1974 (\"Jolene\", \"I Will Always Love You\" and \"Love Is Like a Butterfly\"), as well as the duet with Porter Wagoner, \"Please Don't Stop Loving Me\".", "In a 2019 episode of the Sky Arts music series ''Brian Johnson: A Life on the Road'', Parton described finding old cassette tapes and realizing that she had composed both \"Jolene\" and \"I Will Always Love You\" in the same songwriting session, telling Johnson \"Buddy, that was a good night.\"", "Parton again topped the singles chart in 1975 with \"The Bargain Store\".===1976–1986: Pop transition===Parton in 1977Between 1974 and 1980, Parton had a series of country hits, with eight singles reaching number one.", "Her influence on pop culture is reflected by the many performers covering her songs, including mainstream and crossover artists such as Olivia Newton-John, Emmylou Harris, and Linda Ronstadt.Parton began to embark on a high-profile crossover campaign, attempting to aim her music in a more mainstream direction and increase her visibility outside of the confines of country music.", "In 1976, she began working closely with Sandy Gallin, who served as her personal manager for the next 25 years.", "With her 1976 album ''All I Can Do'', which she co-produced with Porter Wagoner, Parton began taking more of an active role in production, and began specifically aiming her music in a more mainstream, pop direction.", "Her first entirely self-produced effort, ''New Harvest...First Gathering'' (1977), highlighted her pop sensibilities, both in terms of choice of songs – the album contained covers of the pop and R&B classics \"My Girl\" and \"Higher and Higher\" – and production.", "Though the album was well received and topped the U.S. country albums chart, neither it nor its single \"Light of a Clear Blue Morning\" made much of an impression on the pop charts.After ''New Harvest'' disappointing crossover performance, Parton turned to high-profile pop producer Gary Klein for her next album.", "The result, 1977's ''Here You Come Again'', became her first million-seller, topping the country album chart and reaching number 20 on the pop chart.", "The Barry Mann-Cynthia Weil-penned title track topped the country singles chart, and became Parton's first Top10 single on the pop chart (no.3).", "A second single, the double A-sided \"Two Doors Down\"/\"It's All Wrong, But It's All Right\" topped the country chart and crossed over to the pop Top20.For the remainder of the 1970s and into the early 1980s, many of her subsequent singles moved up on both charts simultaneously.", "Her albums during this period were developed specifically for pop-crossover success.With Carol Burnett, 1979In 1978, Parton won a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for her ''Here You Come Again'' album.", "She continued to have hits with \"Heartbreaker\" (1978), \"Baby I'm Burning\" (1979) and \"You're the Only One\" (1979)all of which charted in the pop Top 40 and topped the country chart.", "\"Sweet Summer Lovin'\" (1979) became the first Parton single in two years to not top the country chart (though it did reach the Top10).", "During this period, her visibility continued to increase, with multiple television appearances.", "A highly publicized candid interview on a ''Barbara Walters Special'' in 1977 (timed to coincide with ''Here You Come Again'' release) was followed by appearances in 1978 on Cher's ABC television special, and her own joint special with Carol Burnett on CBS, ''Dolly & Carol in Nashville''.Parton served as one of three co-hosts (along with Roy Clark and Glen Campbell) on the CBS special ''Fifty Years of Country Music''.", "In 1979, Parton hosted the NBC special ''The Seventies: An Explosion of Country Music'', performed live at the Ford Theatre in Washington, D.C., and whose audience included President Jimmy Carter.Her commercial success grew in 1980, with three consecutive country chart number-one hits: the Donna Summer-written \"Starting Over Again\", \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\", and \"9to5\", which topped the country and pop charts in early 1981.She had another Top10 single that year with \"Making Plans\", a single released from a 1980 album with Porter Wagoner, released as part of a lawsuit settlement between the pair.Honolulu, Hawaii, 1983The theme song to the 1980 feature film ''9to5'', in which she starred along with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin, not only reached number one on the country chartin February 1981 it reached number one on the pop and the adult-contemporary charts, giving her a triple number-one hit.", "Parton became one of the few female country singers to have a number-one single on the country and pop charts simultaneously.", "It also received a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.", "Her singles continued to appear consistently in the country Top10.Between 1981 and 1985, she had twelve Top10 hits; half of them hit number one.", "She continued to make inroads on the pop chart as well.", "A re-recorded version of \"I Will Always Love You\", from the feature film ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas'' (1982) scraped the Top50 that year and her duet with Kenny Rogers, \"Islands in the Stream\" (written by the Bee Gees and produced by Barry Gibb), spent two weeks at number one in 1983.In the mid-1980s, her record sales were still relatively strong, with \"Save the Last Dance for Me\", \"Tennessee Homesick Blues\", \"God Won't Get You\" (1984), \"Real Love\" (another duet with Kenny Rogers), \"Don't Call It Love\" (1985) and \"Think About Love\" (1986) all reaching the country Top10 (\"Tennessee Homesick Blues\" and \"Think About Love\" reached number one; \"Real Love\" also reached number one on the country chart and became a modest crossover hit).", "However, RCA Records did not renew her contract after it expired in 1986, and she signed with Columbia Records in 1987.===1987–2005: Country and bluegrass period===Along with Emmylou Harris and Linda Ronstadt, she released ''Trio'' (1987) to critical acclaim.", "The album revitalized Parton's music career, spending five weeks at number one on ''Billboard's'' Country Albums chart, and also reached the Top10 on ''Billboard'' Top200 Albums chart.", "It sold several million copies and produced four Top10 country hits, including Phil Spector's \"To Know Him Is to Love Him\", which went to number one.", "''Trio'' won the Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Album of the Year.", "After a further attempt at pop success with ''Rainbow'' (1987), including the single \"The River Unbroken\", it ended up a commercial let-down, causing Parton to focus on recording country material.", "''White Limozeen'' (1989) produced two number one hits in \"Why'd You Come in Here Lookin' Like That\" and \"Yellow Roses\".", "Although Parton's career appeared to be revived, it was actually just a brief revival before contemporary country music came in the early 1990s and moved most veteran artists off the charts.Dolly Parton at a recording session A duet with Ricky Van Shelton, \"Rockin' Years\" (1991) reached number one, though Parton's greatest commercial fortune of the decade came when Whitney Houston recorded \"I Will Always Love You\" for the soundtrack of the feature film ''The Bodyguard'' (1992).", "Both the single and the album were massively successful.", "Parton's soundtrack album from the 1992 film, ''Straight Talk'', however, was less successful.", "But her 1993 album ''Slow Dancing with the Moon'' won critical acclaim and did well on the charts, reaching number four on the country albums chart, and number 16 on the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart.", "It would also become Platinum certified.", "She recorded \"The Day I Fall in Love\" as a duet with James Ingram for the feature film ''Beethoven's 2nd'' (1993).", "The songwriters (Ingram, Carole Bayer Sager, and Clif Magness) were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and Parton and Ingram performed the song at the awards telecast.", "Similar to her earlier collaborative album with Harris and Ronstadt, Parton released ''Honky Tonk Angels'' in the fall of 1993 with Loretta Lynn and Tammy Wynette.", "It was certified as a gold album by the Recording Industry Association of America and helped revive both Wynette and Lynn's careers.", "Also in 1994, Parton contributed the song \"You Gotta Be My Baby\" to the AIDS benefit album ''Red Hot + Country'' produced by the Red Hot Organization.", "A live acoustic album, ''Heartsongs: Live from Home'', featuring stripped-down versions of some of her hits, as well as some traditional songs, was released in late 1994.Parton's recorded music during the mid-to-late-1990s remained steady and somewhat eclectic.", "Her 1995 re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" (performed as a duet with Vince Gill), from her album ''Something Special'' won the Country Music Association's Vocal Event of the Year Award.", "The following year, ''Treasures'', an album of covers of 1960s/70s hits was released, and featured a diverse collection of material, including songs by Mac Davis, Pete Seeger, Kris Kristofferson, Cat Stevens, and Neil Young.", "Her recording of Stevens' \"Peace Train\" was later re-mixed and released as a dance single, reaching ''Billboard's ''dance singles chart.", "Her 1998 country-rock album ''Hungry Again'' was made up entirely of her own compositions.", "Although neither of the album's two singles, \"(Why Don't More Women Sing) Honky Tonk Songs\" and \"Salt in my Tears\", charted, videos for both songs received significant airplay on CMT.", "A second and more contemporary collaboration with Harris and Ronstadt, ''Trio II'', was released in early 1999.Its cover of Neil Young's song \"After the Gold Rush\" won a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals.", "Parton also was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1999.Parton recorded a series of bluegrass-inspired albums, beginning with ''The Grass Is Blue'' (1999), winning a Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album; and ''Little Sparrow'' (2001), with its cover of Collective Soul's \"Shine\" winning a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance.", "The third, ''Halos & Horns'' (2002) included a bluegrass version of the Led Zeppelin song \"Stairway to Heaven\".", "In 2005, she released ''Those Were The Days'' consisting of her interpretations of hits from the folk-rock era of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including \"Imagine\", \"Where Do the Children Play?", "\", \"Crimson and Clover\", and \"Where Have All the Flowers Gone?", "\"===2005–2020: Touring and holiday album===Coat of Many Colors in 2009Parton earned her second Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song for \"Travelin' Thru\", which she wrote specifically for the feature film ''Transamerica''.", "(2005) Due to the song's (and film's) acceptance of a transgender woman, Parton received death threats.", "She returned to number one on the country chart later in 2005 by lending her distinctive harmonies to the Brad Paisley ballad, \"When I Get Where I'm Going\".", "In September 2007, Parton released her first single from her own record company, Dolly Records, titled, \"Better Get to Livin'\", which eventually peaked at number 48 on ''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs chart.", "It was followed by the studio album ''Backwoods Barbie'', which was released on February 26, 2008, and reached number two on the country chart.", "The album's debut at number 17 on the all-genre ''Billboard'' 200 albums chart was the highest in her career.", "''Backwoods Barbie'' produced four additional singles, including the title track, written as part of her score for ''9to5: The Musical'', an adaptation of her feature film.", "After the death of Michael Jackson, whom Parton knew personally, she released a video in which she somberly told of her feelings on Jackson and his death.Parton at the Grand Ole Opry in 2005On October 27, 2009, Parton released a four-CD box set, ''Dolly'', which featured 99 songs and spanned most of her career.", "She released her second live DVD and album, ''Live From London'' in October 2009, which was filmed during her sold-out 2008 concerts at London's The O2 Arena.", "On August 10, 2010, with longtime friend Billy Ray Cyrus, Parton released the album ''Brother Clyde''.", "Parton is featured on \"The Right Time\", which she co-wrote with Cyrus and Morris Joseph Tancredi.", "On January 6, 2011, Parton announced that her new album would be titled ''Better Day''.", "In February 2011, she announced that she would embark on the Better Day World Tour on July 17, 2011, with shows in northern Europe and the U.S.", "The album's lead-off single, \"Together You and I\", was released on May 23, 2011, and ''Better Day'' was released on June 28, 2011.In 2011, Parton voiced the character Dolly Gnome in the animated film ''Gnomeo & Juliet''.", "On February 11, 2012, after the sudden death of Whitney Houston, Parton stated, \"Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston.", "I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song, and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, 'Whitney, I will always love you.", "You will be missed.In 2013, Parton joined Lulu Roman for a re-recording of \"I Will Always Love You\" for Roman's album, ''At Last''.", "In 2013, Parton and Kenny Rogers reunited for the title song of his album ''You Can't Make Old Friends''.", "For their performance, they were nominated at the 2014 Grammy Awards for Grammy Award for Best Country Duo/Group Performance.", "In 2014, Parton embarked on the Blue Smoke World Tour in support of her 42nd studio album, ''Blue Smoke''.", "The album was first released in Australia and New Zealand on January 31 to coincide with tour dates there in February, and reached the Top10 in both countries.", "It was released in the United States on May 13, and debuted at number six on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, making it her first Top10 album and her highest-charting solo album ever; it also reached the number two on the U.S. country chart.", "The album was released in Europe on June 9, and reached number two on the UK album chart.", "On June 29, 2014, Parton performed for the first time at the UK Glastonbury Festival, singing songs such as \"Jolene\", \"9to5\" and \"Coat of Many Colors\" to a crowd of more than 180,000.On March 6, 2016, Parton announced that she would be embarking on a tour in support of her new album, ''Pure & Simple''.", "The tour was one of Parton's biggest tours within the United States in more than 25 years.", "64 dates were planned in the United States and Canada, visiting the most requested markets missed on previous tours.Parton performing at the Thompson–Boling Arena in Knoxville, Tennessee, 2014In the fall of 2016 she released \"Jolene\" as a single with the ''a cappella'' group Pentatonix and performed on ''The Voice'' with Pentatonix and Miley Cyrus in November 2016.Also in 2016, Parton was one of thirty artists to perform on \"Forever Country\", a mash-up of the songs, \"Take Me Home, Country Roads\", \"On the Road Again\" and her own \"I Will Always Love You\".", "The song celebrates fifty years of the CMA Awards.", "At the ceremony itself, Parton was honored with the Willie Nelson Lifetime Achievement Award, which was presented by Lily Tomlin and preceded by a tribute featuring Jennifer Nettles, Pentatonix, Reba McEntire, Kacey Musgraves, Carrie Underwood and Martina McBride.", "In 2017, Parton appeared on ''Rainbow'', the third studio album by Kesha performing a duet of \"Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You\".", "The track had been co-written by Kesha's mother Pebe Sebert.", "It was previously a hit for Parton and was included on her 1980 album ''Dolly, Dolly, Dolly''.", "She also co-wrote and provided featuring vocals on the song \"Rainbowland\" on ''Younger Now'', the sixth album by her goddaughter Miley Cyrus.In July 2019, Parton made an unannounced appearance at the Newport Folk Festival in Rhode Island, and performed several songs accompanied by the Highwomen and Linda Perry.", "In 2020, Parton received worldwide attention after posting four pictures, in which she showed how she would present herself on social media platforms LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram and Twitter.", "The original post on Instagram went viral after celebrities posted their own versions of the so-called Dolly Parton challenge on social media.", "On April 10, 2020, Parton re-released 93 songs from six of her classic albums: ''Little Sparrow'', ''Halos & Horns'', ''For God and Country'', ''Better Day'', ''Those Were The Days'', and ''Live and Well''.", "On May 27, 2020, Parton released a brand new song called \"When Life Is Good Again\".", "This song was released to help keep the spirits up of those affected by the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic.", "She also released a music video for \"When Life Is Good Again\", which premiered on ''Time'' 100 talks on May 28, 2020.In October 2020, Parton was featured on the single \"Pink\" alongside Monica, Jordin Sparks, Sara Evans and Rita Wilson.", "The single was released in aid of Breast Cancer Research.Parton released ''A Holly Dolly Christmas'' in October 2020.On December 6, CBS aired a Christmas special, \"A Holly Dolly Christmas\", where Parton performed songs from her album.===Since 2022: Rock album===Parton performing \"Peace Like a River\" with Dionne Warwick.In early 2022, Parton was nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "Parton initially declined the nomination believing that the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame was \"for the people in rock music\", but after learning that this was not the case Parton said she would accept her induction if she were chosen for the honor.", "In May her induction was announced, and finally on November 5, 2022, she was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.", "In October 2022 Parton stated in an interview that she would no longer tour, but would continue to play live shows occasionally.", "On December 31, 2022, Parton co-hosted NBC's New Year's special ''Miley's New Year's Eve Party.", "''On January 17, 2023, Parton announced she would release her first rock album, titled ''Rockstar'', later that year, during an interview on ''The View''.", "It was released on November 17, 2023, and features collaborations with Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Elton John, Sheryl Crow, Miley Cyrus, and Lizzo, amongst others." ], [ "Public image", "Parton had turned down several offers to pose nude for ''Playboy'' magazine, but did appear on the cover of the October 1978 issue wearing a Playboy bunny outfit, complete with ears (the issue featured Lawrence Grobel's extensive and candid interview with Parton, representing one of her earliest high-profile interviews with the mainstream press).", "The association of breasts with Parton's public image is illustrated in the naming of Dolly the sheep after her, since the sheep was cloned from a cell taken from an adult ewe's mammary gland.", "In Mobile, Alabama, the General W.K.", "Wilson Jr. Bridge is commonly called \"the Dolly Parton Bridge\" due to its arches resembling her bust.", "The thickened appearance of the turret frontal armor of the T-72A main battle tank led to the unofficial Army nickname \"Dolly Parton\" - and later the T-72BIs got the \"Super Dolly Parton\" nickname.Parton is known for having undergone considerable plastic surgery.", "On a 2003 episode of ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'', Winfrey asked what kind of cosmetic surgery Parton had undergone.", "Parton replied that cosmetic surgery was imperative in keeping with her famous image.Parton has repeatedly joked about her physical image and surgeries, saying, \"It takes a lot of money to look this cheap.\"", "Her breasts have garnered her mentions in several songs, including \"Dolly Parton's Hits\" by Bobby Braddock, \"Marty Feldman Eyes\" by Bruce Baum (a parody of \"Bette Davis Eyes\"), \"No Show Jones\" by George Jones and Merle Haggard, and \"Make Me Proud\" by Drake, featuring Nicki Minaj.", "When asked about future plastic surgeries, she famously said, \"If I see something sagging, bagging or dragging, I'll get it nipped, tucked or sucked.\"", "Parton's feminine escapism is acknowledged in her words, \"Womanhood was a difficult thing to get a grip on in those hills, unless you were a man.\"", "Parton said in 2012 that she had entered a Dolly Parton lookalike contest and lost." ], [ "Artistry", "===Influences===Parton, though influenced by big name stars, often credits much of her inspiration to her family and community.", "On her own mother Parton, in her 2020 book ''Songteller: My Life in Lyrics'', wrote \"So it was just natural for my mom to always be singing.", "My mother had that old-timey voice, and she used to sing all these songs that were brought over from the Old World.", "They were English, Irish, Welsh, folk songs where people tell stories.\"", "Parton calls her mother's voice \"haunting\".", "\"Lord you would feel it\", she wrote.", "Her biggest influence however was her Aunt Dorothy Jo: \"People often ask me who my influences were, they think I'm going to say some big names, and there were a few 'stars' I was impressed with.", "But my hero was my aunt Dorothy Jo.", "Mama's baby sister.", "She was not only an evangelist, she played banjo, she played guitar, and she wrote some great songs.\"", "Of course, fellow singers also had an impact on Parton, describing George Jones as her \"all time favorite singer\", and recognizing her love for other artists such as Kitty Wells, Roy Acuff, and Rose Maddox.===Musicianship===Though unable to read sheet music, Parton can play many instruments, including: the dulcimer, autoharp, banjo, guitar, electric guitar, fiddle, piano, recorder, and the saxophone.", "Reflecting on her multi-instrumental abilities, Parton said, \"I play some of everything.", "I ain't that good at none of it, but I try to sell it.", "I really try to lay into it.\"", "Parton has also used her fingernails as an instrument, most evident on her 1980 song \"9 to 5\", which she derived the beat from clacking her nails together while backstage on the set of the film of the same name." ], [ "Other ventures", "In 1998, ''Nashville Business'' ranked her the wealthiest country music star.", ", her net worth is estimated at $500million.===Songwriting===Parton is a prolific songwriter, having begun by writing country music songs with strong elements of folk music, based on her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings and reflecting her family's Christian background.", "Her songs \"Coat of Many Colors\", \"I Will Always Love You\", and \"Jolene\", among others, have become classics.", "On November 4, 2003, Parton was honored as a BMI Icon at the 2003 BMI Country Awards.Parton has earned over 35 BMI Pop and Country Awards.", "In 2001, she was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.", "In a 2009 interview on CNN's ''Larry King Live'', she said she had written \"at least 3,000\" songs, having written seriously since the age of seven.", "Parton also said she writes something every day, be it a song or an idea.Parton's songwriting has been featured prominently in several films.", "In addition to the title song for ''9to5'', she also recorded a second version of \"I Will Always Love You\" for ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas'' (1982).", "The second version was a number one country hit and also reached number 53 on the pop charts.", "\"I Will Always Love You\" has been covered by many country artists, including Ronstadt on ''Prisoner In Disguise'' (1975), Kenny Rogers on ''Vote for Love'' (1996), and LeAnn Rimes on ''Unchained Melody: The Early Years'' (1997).", "Whitney Houston performed it on ''The Bodyguard'' soundtrack and her version became the best-selling hit both written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of over twelve million copies.", "In addition, the song has been translated into Italian and performed by the Welsh opera singer Katherine Jenkins.As a songwriter, Parton has twice been nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, for \"9 to 5\" and \"Travelin' Thru\" (2005) from the film ''Transamerica''.", "\"Travelin' Thru\" won Best Original Song at the 2005 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards.", "It was also nominated for both the 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the 2005 Broadcast Film Critics Association Award (also known as the Critics' Choice Awards) for Best Song.", "A cover of \"Love Is Like A Butterfly\" by Clare Torry was used as the theme music for the British TV show ''Butterflies''.===''9 to 5: The Musical''===Parton wrote the score (and Patricia Resnick the book) for ''9 to 5: The Musical'', a musical-theater adaptation of Parton's feature film ''9 to 5'' (1980).", "The musical ran at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in late 2008.It opened on Broadway at the Marquis Theatre in New York on April 30, 2009, to mixed reviews.The title track of her 2008 album ''Backwoods Barbie'' was written for the musical's character Doralee.", "Although her score (as well as the musical debut of actress Allison Janney) was praised, the show struggled, closing on September 6, 2009, after 24 previews and 148 performances.", "Parton received nominations for Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music and Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics as well as a nomination for Tony Award for Best Original Score.Developing the musical was not a quick process.", "According to the public-radio program ''Studio 360'' (October 29, 2005), in October 2005 Parton was in the midst of composing songs for a Broadway musical theater adaptation of the film.", "In late June 2007, ''9 to 5: The Musical'' was read for industry presentations.", "The readings starred Megan Hilty, Allison Janney, Stephanie J.", "Block, Bebe Neuwirth, and Marc Kudisch.", "Ambassador Theatre Group announced a 2012 UK tour for ''Dolly Parton's 9to5: The Musical'', commencing at Manchester Opera House, on October 12, 2012.===The Dollywood Company===Entrance to Dollywood in Pigeon ForgeParton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notably Pigeon Forge.", "She is a co-owner of The Dollywood Company, which operates the theme park Dollywood (a former Silver Dollar City), a dinner theater, Dolly Parton's Stampede, the waterpark Dollywood's Splash Country, and the Dream More Resort and Spa, all in Pigeon Forge.", "Dollywood is the 24th-most-popular theme park in the United States, with three million visitors per year.The Dolly Parton's Stampede business has venues in Branson, Missouri, and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.", "A former location in Orlando, Florida, closed in January 2008 after the land and building were sold to a developer.", "Starting in June 2011, the Myrtle Beach location became Pirates Voyage Fun, Feast and Adventure; Parton appeared for the opening, and the South Carolina General Assembly declared June 3, 2011, as Dolly Parton Day.On January 19, 2012, Parton's 66th birthday, Gaylord Opryland and Dollywood announced plans to open a $50million water and snow park, a family-friendly destination in Nashville that is open all year.", "On September 29, 2012, Parton officially withdrew her support for the Nashville park due to the restructuring of Gaylord Entertainment Company after its merger with Marriott International.On June 12, 2015, it was announced that the Dollywood Company had purchased the Lumberjack Feud Dinner Show in Pigeon Forge.", "The show, which opened in June 2011, was owned and operated by Rob Scheer until the close of the 2015 season.", "The new, renovated show by the Dollywood Company opened in 2016.===Production work===Parton was a co-owner of Sandollar Productions, with Sandy Gallin, her former manager.", "A film and television production company, it produced the documentary ''Common Threads: Stories from the Quilt'' (1989), which won an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature; the television series ''Babes'' (1990–91) and ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'' (1997–2003); and the feature films ''Father of the Bride'' (1991), ''Father of the Bride: Part II'' (1995) ''Straight Talk'' (1992) (in which Parton starred), and ''Sabrina'' (1995), among other shows.", "In a 2009 interview, singer Connie Francis revealed that Parton had been contacting her for years in an attempt to film the singer's life story.", "Francis turned down Parton's offers, as she was already in negotiations with singer Gloria Estefan to produce the film, a collaboration now ended.", "After the retirement of her partner, Sandy Gallin, Parton briefly operated Dolly Parton's Southern Light Productions and in 2015 she announced her new production company would be called Dixie Pixie Productions and produce the movies-of-week in development with NBC Television and Magnolia Hill Productions." ], [ "Acting career", "===Acting breakthrough===In addition to her performing appearances on ''The Porter Wagoner Show'' in the 1960s and into the 1970s, her two self-titled television variety shows in the 1970s and 1980s, and on ''American Idol'' in 2008 and other guest appearances, Parton has had television roles.", "In 1979, she received an Emmy award nomination as \"Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Variety Program\" for her guest appearance in a Cher special.", "During the mid-1970s, Parton wanted to expand her audience base.", "Although her first attempt, the television variety show ''Dolly!''", "(1976–77), had high ratings, it lasted only one season, with Parton requesting to be released from her contract because of the stress it was causing on her vocal cords.", "(She later tried a second television variety show, also titled ''Dolly'' (1987–88); it too lasted only one season).In her first feature film, Parton portrayed a secretary in a leading role with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the comedy film ''9to5'' (1980).", "The movie highlights discrimination against women in the workplace and created awareness of the National Association of Working Women (9–5).", "She received nominations for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and a Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actress.", "Parton wrote and recorded the film's title song.", "It received nominations for an Academy Award for Best Song and a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.", "Released as a single, the song won both the Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance and the Grammy Award for Best Country Song.", "It also reached no.1 on the Hot 100 chart and it was no.78 on the \"AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs\" list released by the American Film Institute in 2004.", "''9 to 5'' became a major box office success, grossing over $3.9million its opening weekend, and over $103million worldwide.", "Parton was named Top Female Box Office Star by the ''Motion Picture Herald'' in both 1981 and 1982 due to the film's success.In late 1981, Parton began filming her second film, the musical film ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas'' (1982).", "The film earned her a second nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best ActressMotion Picture Musical or Comedy.", "The film was greeted with positive critical reviews and became a commercial success, earning over $69million worldwide.", "After a two-year hiatus from films, Parton was teamed with Sylvester Stallone for ''Rhinestone'' (1984).", "A comedy film about a country music star's efforts to mould an unknown into a music sensation, the film was a critical and financial failure, making just over $21million on a $28million budget.===Continued roles===In 1989, Parton returned to film acting in ''Steel Magnolias'' (1989), based on the play of the same name by Robert Harling.", "The film was popular with critics and audiences, grossing over $95million in the U.S. Parton starred in the television movies ''A Smoky Mountain Christmas'' (1986), ''Wild Texas Wind'' (1991), ''Unlikely Angel'' (1996), portraying an angel sent back to earth after a deadly car crash, and ''Blue Valley Songbird'' (1999), where her character lives through her music.", "She starred with James Woods in ''Straight Talk'' (1992), which received mixed reviews, and grossed a mild $21million at the box office.Parton's 1987 variety show ''Dolly'' lasted only one season.", "She made a cameo appearance as herself in ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' (1993), an adaptation of the long-running TV sitcom of the same name (1962–1971).", "Parton has done voice work for animation for television series, playing herself in ''Alvin and the Chipmunks'' (episode \"Urban Chipmunk\", 1983) and the character Katrina Eloise \"Murph\" Murphy (Ms. Frizzle's first cousin) in ''The Magic School Bus'' (episode \"The Family Holiday Special\", 1994).", "She also has guest-starred in several sitcoms, including a 1990 episode of ''Designing Women'' (episode \"The First Day of the Last Decade of the Entire Twentieth Century\") as herself, the guardian movie star of Charlene's baby.", "She made a guest appearance on ''Reba'' (episode \"Reba's Rules of Real Estate\") portraying a real-estate agency owner and on ''The Simpsons'' (episode \"Sunday, Cruddy Sunday\", 1999).", "She appeared as herself in 2000 on the Halloween episode of Bette Midler's short-lived sitcom ''Bette'', and on episode 14 of ''Babes'' (produced by Sandollar Productions, Parton and Sandy Gallin's joint production company).", "She made cameo appearances on the Disney Channel as \"Aunt Dolly\", visiting Hannah and her family in fellow Tennessean and real-life goddaughter Miley Cyrus's series ''Hannah Montana'' (episodes \"Good Golly, Miss Dolly\", 2006, \"I Will Always Loathe You\", 2007, and \"Kiss It All Goodbye\", 2010).", "She was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series.Parton appeared as an overprotective mother in the comedy ''Frank McKlusky, C.I.''.", "(2002) She made a cameo appearance in the comedy film ''Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous'', starring Sandra Bullock.", "She was featured in ''The Book Lady'' (2008), a documentary about her campaign for children's literacy.", "Parton expected to reprise her television role as Hannah's godmother in the musical comedy film ''Hannah Montana: The Movie'' (2009), but the character was omitted from the screenplay.===Since 2010===Parton had a voice role in the comedy family film ''Gnomeo & Juliet'' (2011), a computer-animated film with garden gnomes about William Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet''.", "She co-starred with Queen Latifah in the musical film ''Joyful Noise'' (2012), playing a choir director's widow who joins forces with Latifah's character, a mother of two teens, to save a small Georgia town's gospel choir.", "''Dolly Parton's Coat of Many Colors'', a made-for-TV film based on Parton's song of the same name, and featuring narration by Parton, aired on NBC in December 2015, with child actress Alyvia Alyn Lind portraying the young Parton.", "Parton also had a cameo in the sequel, which aired in November 2016.In June 2018, Parton announced an eight-part Netflix series, featuring her music career.", "She is its executive producer and co-star.", "The series, called ''Dolly Parton's Heartstrings'', aired in November 2019.Parton is the subject of the NPR podcast ''Dolly Parton's America''.", "It is hosted by Jad Abumrad, who also hosts Radiolab.In December 2019, the biographical documentary ''Here I Am'' was added to the catalog of the Netflix streaming service.", "The documentary, a co-production of Netflix and the BBC, takes its name from Parton's 1971 song.In November 2020, Parton produced and starred in the Netflix musical film ''Dolly Parton's Christmas on the Square'', which won her a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Television Movie.In November 2021, Parton was confirmed to be appearing in the final season of ''Grace and Frankie'' in a guest-starring role, reuniting with her ''9 to 5'' co-stars Lily Tomlin and Jane Fonda.In July 2022, Parton appeared as a simulation of herself on sci-fi show ''The Orville'' in the episode \"Midnight Blue\".In December 2022, Parton appeared in an NBC special titled ''Dolly Parton's Mountain Magic Christmas''.On Thanksgiving 2023, Parton performed songs during halftime at the Washington Commanders and Dallas Cowboys NFL football game." ], [ "Personal life", "===Family===Parton is the fourth of 12 children.", "Her siblings are Willadeene, David Wilburn, Coy Denver, Robert Lee, Stella Mae, Cassie Nan, Randel Huston (deceased), Larry Gerald (deceased), twins Floyd Estel (deceased) and Frieda Estelle, and Rachel Ann.On May 30, 1966, Parton and Carl Thomas Dean (born July 20, 1942, in Nashville, Tennessee) were married in Ringgold, Georgia.", "Although Parton does not use Dean's surname professionally, she has stated that her passport reads \"Dolly Parton Dean\", and she sometimes uses Dean when signing contracts.Dean, who is retired from running an asphalt road-paving business in Nashville, has always shunned publicity, and rarely accompanies his wife to any events.", "Parton has jokingly said that he has only seen her perform once.", "She also has said in interviews that even though it appears they spend little time together, it is simply that nobody sees him publicly.", "She has commented on Dean's romantic side, saying that he does spontaneous things to surprise her, and sometimes even writes poems for her.", "In 2011, Parton said, \"We're really very proud of our marriage.", "It's the first for both of us.", "And the last.", "\"On May 6, 2016, Parton announced that she and Dean would renew their vows in honor of their 50th wedding anniversary later in the month.While Parton has never had children, she and Dean helped raise several of her younger siblings in Nashville, leading her nieces and nephews to refer to them as \"Uncle Peepaw\" and \"Aunt Granny\"; the latter a moniker that later lent its name to one of Parton's Dollywood restaurants.", "Parton is also the godmother of singer-songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus.===Faith===Parton says that she is a committed Christian, which has influenced many of her musical releases.She talked about her liberal approach to faith in the January issue of New Humanist magazine.", "\"I wouldn't even say I'm religious, though I grew up with that background.", "But I have a lot of faith in myself and I've been so blessed to have been around great people my whole life, my Uncle Bill and my family being supportive, and all the people I met along the way.\"" ], [ "Philanthropy", "Since the mid-1980s, Parton has supported many charitable efforts, particularly in the area of literacy, primarily through her Dollywood Foundation.Her literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library, which is a part of the Dollywood Foundation, was founded in honor of her father, who never learned to read or write.", "It mails one book per month to each enrolled child from the time of their birth until they enter kindergarten.", "Currently, over 1600 local communities provide the Imagination Library to almost 850,000 children each month across the U.S., Canada, the UK, Australia, and the Republic of Ireland.", "In February 2018, she donated her 100 millionth free book, a copy of Parton's children's picture book ''Coat of Many Colors'', to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. and was honored by the Library of Congress on account of the \"charity sending out its 100 millionth book\".For her work in literacy, Parton has received various awards, including Association of American Publishers Honors Award (2000), Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval (2001) (the first time the seal had been awarded to a person), American Association of School AdministratorsGalaxy Award (2002), National State Teachers of the YearChasing Rainbows Award (2002), and Parents as Teachers National CenterChild and Family Advocacy Award (2003).On May 8, 2009, Parton gave the commencement speech at the graduation ceremony for the University of Tennessee, Knoxville's College of Arts and Sciences.", "During the ceremony, she received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the university.", "It was only the second honorary degree given by the university, and in presenting the degree, the university's Chancellor, Jimmy Cheek, said, \"Because of her career not just as a musician and entertainer, but for her role as a cultural ambassador, philanthropist and lifelong advocate for education, it is fitting that she be honored with an honorary degree from the flagship educational institution of her home state.", "\"In 2006, Parton published a cookbook, ''Dolly's Dixie Fixin's: Love, Laughter and Lots of Good Food''.The Dollywood Foundation, funded from Parton's profits, has been noted for bringing jobs and tax revenues to a previously depressed region.", "Parton also has worked to raise money for several other causes, including the American Red Cross and HIV/AIDS-related charities.In December 2006, Parton pledged $500,000 toward a proposed $90million hospital and cancer center to be constructed in Sevierville in the name of Robert F. Thomas, the physician who delivered her.", "She announced a benefit concert to raise additional funds for the project.", "The concert played to about 8,000 people.", "That same year, Parton and Emmylou Harris allowed use of their music in a PETA ad campaign that encouraged pet owners to keep their dogs indoors rather than chained outside.With Tennessee Senator Bob Corker at the rededication ceremony for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in September 2009In 2003, her efforts to preserve the bald eagle through the American Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from the U.S.", "Fish and Wildlife Service.", "Parton received the Woodrow Wilson Award for Public Service from the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars of the Smithsonian Institution at a ceremony in Nashville on November 8, 2007.In response to the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, Parton was one of a number of country music artists who participated in a telethon to raise money for victims of the fires.", "This was held in Nashville on December 9.In addition, Parton hosted her own telethon for the victims on December 13 and reportedly raised around $9million.", "Her fund, the \"My People Fund\", provided $1,000 a month for six months to over 900 families affected by the wildfires, finally culminating with $5,000 to each home in the final month due to increased fundraising, for a total of $10,000 per family.", "In 2018, the FBI honored Parton for her wildfire aid work, awarding her the 2018 Director's Community Leadership Award at a ceremony at FBI Headquarters in Washington.", "The honor was bestowed by Director Christopher Wray and was accepted on the Parton's behalf by David Dotson, the CEO of the Dollywood Foundation.The impact of the fund's financial relief for the 2016 wildfire victims was studied by University of Tennessee College of Social Work professor Stacia West, who examined the impact of cash transfers in poverty alleviation.", "West surveyed 100 recipients of the emergency relief funds in April 2017 on topics including questions on housing, financial impact, physical and emotional health, and sources of support, with a follow-up survey conducted in December 2017.West found that the \"My People Fund\", in tandem with traditional disaster response, gave families the ability to make decisions that were most beneficial to them, and concluded that unconditional cash support may be more beneficial for disaster relief than conditional financial support.", "The report cited the impact of the monthly financial disbursements from the \"My People Fund\" on residents' emergency savings: \"Following the monthly disbursements of unconditional cash assistance, participants were able to return to baseline financial stability reported prior to the wildfire, and improve their ability to set aside savings for hypothetical future emergencies.", "\"Parton has been a generous donor to Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC).", "Among her gifts was a contribution to the Monroe Carell Jr. Children's Hospital at Vanderbilt Pediatric Cancer Program in honor of a friend, Professor Naji Abumrad, and her niece, Hannah Dennison, who was successfully treated for leukemia as a child at Children's Hospital.===LGBTQ+ rights===Though often politically neutral, Parton is known for her long history of openly supporting LGBTQ rights.", "LGBTQ+ magazines ''LGBTQ Nation'' and ''The Advocate'' have described her as an \"LGBTQ+ icon,\" and it was noted that she first publicly showed support for LGBTQ families in her 1991 song Family.", "She also publicly came out in support of same-sex marriage in 2009.===Moderna COVID-19 vaccine===In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Parton donated $1million towards research at Vanderbilt University Medical Center and encouraged those who can afford it to make similar donations.", "She said \"I'm a very proud girl today to know I had anything at all to do with something that's going to help us through this crazy pandemic.\"", "Her donation funded the critical early stages of development of the Moderna vaccine.", "In March 2021, Parton was vaccinated against COVID-19 at Vanderbilt University.", "She labeled social media accounts of the occasion \"Dolly gets a dose of her own medicine.\"", "Parton strongly encouraged everyone to get vaccinated when eligible and performed a song celebrating her vaccination, set to the tune of her song \"Jolene\"." ], [ "Awards and honors", "President George W. Bush and First Lady Laura Bush, with the Kennedy Center honorees in the Blue Room of the White House during a 2006 reception.", "From left: singer-songwriter William \"Smokey\" Robinson; composer Andrew Lloyd Webber; Dolly Parton; film director Steven Spielberg; and conductor Zubin Mehta.Dolly Parton is one of the most-honored female country performers of all time.", "The Record Industry Association of America has certified 25 of her single or album releases as either Gold Record, Platinum Record or Multi-Platinum Record.", "She has had 26 songs reach no.1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist.", "She has 42 career Top10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career-charted singles over the past forty years.", "As of 2012 she had written more than 3,000 songs and sold more than 100 million records, making her one of the best-selling female artists of all time.", "As of 2021, she had appeared on the country music charts in each of seven decades, the most of any artist.Dolly Parton has earned eleven Grammy Awards (including her 2011 Lifetime Achievement Grammy) and a total of fifty Grammy Award nominations, the second-most nominations of any female artist in the history of the prestigious awards.At the American Music Awards, she has won three awards out of 18 nominations.", "At the Country Music Association, she has won ten awards out of 42 nominations.", "At the Academy of Country Music, she has won seven awards and 39 nominations.", "She is one of only six female artists (including Reba McEntire, Barbara Mandrell, Shania Twain, Loretta Lynn, and Taylor Swift), to win the Country Music Association's highest honor, Entertainer of the Year (1978).", "She also has been nominated for two Academy Awards and a Tony Award.", "She was nominated for an Emmy Award for her appearance in a 1978 Cher television special.", "She was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her music in 1984, located at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California; a star on the Nashville StarWalk for Grammy winners; and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville.", "She has called that statue of herself in her hometown \"the greatest honor\", because it came from the people who knew her.", "Parton was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969, and in 1986 was named one of ''Ms.", "Magazine'' Women of the Year.", "In 1986, she was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame.In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, an induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame.", "She received an honorary doctorate degree from Carson-Newman College (Jefferson City, Tennessee) in 1990.This was followed by induction into the National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2001.In 2002, she ranked no.4 in CMT's 40 Greatest Women of Country Music.Parton's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameParton was honored in 2003 with a tribute album called ''Just Because I'm a Woman: Songs of Dolly Parton''.", "The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs included Melissa Etheridge (\"I Will Always Love You\"), Alison Krauss (\"9 to 5\"), Shania Twain (\"Coat of Many Colors\"), Meshell Ndegeocello (\"Two Doors Down\"), Norah Jones (\"The Grass is Blue\"), and Sinéad O'Connor (\"Dagger Through the Heart\").", "Parton herself contributed a re-recording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968.Parton was awarded the Living Legend Medal by the U.S. Library of Congress on April 14, 2004, for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States.", "She is also the focus of a Library of Congress collection exploring the influences of country music on her life and career.", "The collection contains images, articles, sheet music, and more.In 2005, she was honored with the National Medal of Arts, the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts.", "The award is presented by the U.S. President.", "On December 3, 2006, Parton received the Kennedy Center Honors from the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts for her lifetime of contributions to the arts.", "During the show, some of country music's biggest names came to show their admiration.", "Carrie Underwood performed \"Islands in the Stream\" with Rogers, Parton's original duet partner.", "Krauss performed \"Jolene\" and duetted \"Coat of Many Colors\" with Twain.", "McEntire and Reese Witherspoon also came to pay tribute.", "On November 16, 2010, Parton accepted the Liseberg Applause Award, the theme park industry's most prestigious honor, on behalf of Dollywood theme park during a ceremony held at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando, Florida.In 2015, a newly discovered species of lichen found growing in the southern Appalachians was named ''Japewiella dollypartoniana'' in honor of Parton's music and her efforts to bring national and global attention to that region.", "In 2018, Parton received a second star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, inducted alongside Linda Ronstadt and Emmylou Harris in recognition of their work as a trio.", "Parton was also recognized in the Guinness World Records 2018 Edition for holding records for the Most Decades with a Top20 hit on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart and Most Hits on Billboard's Hot Country Songs Chart by a Female Artist.", "In 2020, Parton received a Grammy award for her collaboration with For King & Country on their song, \"God Only Knows\".", "In 2021, she was included on the ''Time'' 100, ''Time''s annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world.", "''The New York Times'' called her among the three of America's Most Beloved Divas (alongside Patti LaBelle and Barbra Streisand).Parton has turned down the Presidential Medal of Freedom twice due to her husband's illness and the ongoing pandemic.", "In response to a 2021 proposal by the Tennessee legislature to erect a statue of Parton, she released a statement asking the legislature to remove the bill from consideration, saying \"Given all that is going on in the world, I don't think putting me on a pedestal is appropriate at this time.", "\"In late 2022, Parton received a $100-million Courage and Civility Award from the founder of Amazon, Jeff Bezos.", "According to Bezos, the award was given to Parton because of her charity work focused on improving children's literacy around the world.In 2023, Parton was awarded American Library Association Honorary Membership.", "She was ranked at No.", "27 on ''Rolling Stone''′s 2023 list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.===Hall of Fame honors===During her career, Parton has gained induction into numerous Halls of Fame.", "Those honors include:* Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame (1986)* Small Town of America Hall of Fame (1988)* East Tennessee Hall of Fame (1988)* Country Music Hall of Fame (1999)* Songwriters Hall of Fame (2001)* Junior Achievement of East Tennessee Business Hall of Fame (2003)* The Americana Highway Hall of Fame (2006)* Grammy Hall of Fame – \"I Will Always Love You – 1974 Recording\" (2007)* Blue Ridge Music Hall of Fame – Songwriter Category (2008)* Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2009)* Music City Walk of Fame (2009)* Country Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2010)* Grammy Hall of Fame – \"Jolene – 1974 Recording\" (2014)* The National Hall of Fame for Mountain Artisans (2014)* The Happiness Hall of Fame (2016)* East Tennessee Writers Hall of Fame (2019)* Grammy Hall of Fame – \"Coat of Many Colors – 1971 Recording\" (2019)* Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (2022)" ], [ "Discography", "'''Solo studio albums'''*''Hello, I'm Dolly'' (1967)*''Just Because I'm a Woman'' (1968)*''In the Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)'' (1969)*''My Blue Ridge Mountain Boy'' (1969)*''The Fairest of Them All'' (1970)*''The Golden Streets of Glory'' (1971)*''Joshua'' (1971)*''Coat of Many Colors'' (1971)*''Touch Your Woman'' (1972)*''My Favorite Songwriter, Porter Wagoner'' (1972)*''My Tennessee Mountain Home'' (1973)*''Bubbling Over'' (1973)*''Jolene'' (1974)*''Love Is Like a Butterfly'' (1974)*''The Bargain Store'' (1975)*''Dolly'' (1975)*''All I Can Do'' (1976)*''New Harvest...First Gathering'' (1977)*''Here You Come Again'' (1977)*''Heartbreaker'' (1978)*''Great Balls of Fire'' (1979)*''Dolly, Dolly, Dolly'' (1980)*''9 to 5 and Odd Jobs'' (1980)*''Heartbreak Express'' (1982)*''Burlap & Satin'' (1983)*''The Great Pretender'' (1984)*''Real Love'' (1985)*''Rainbow'' (1987)*''White Limozeen'' (1989)*''Home for Christmas'' (1990)*''Eagle When She Flies'' (1991)*''Slow Dancing with the Moon'' (1993)*''Something Special'' (1995)*''Treasures'' (1996)*''Hungry Again'' (1998)*''Precious Memories'' (1999)*''The Grass Is Blue'' (1999)*''Little Sparrow'' (2001)*''Halos & Horns'' (2002)*''For God and Country'' (2003)*''Those Were the Days'' (2005)*''Backwoods Barbie'' (2008)*''Better Day'' (2011)*''Blue Smoke'' (2014)*''Pure & Simple'' (2016)*''I Believe in You'' (2017)*''A Holly Dolly Christmas'' (2020)*''Run, Rose, Run'' (2022)*''Rockstar'' (2023)'''Collaborative studio albums'''*''Just Between You and Me'' (1968)*''Just the Two of Us'' (1968)*''Always, Always'' (1969)*''Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca'' (1970)*''Once More'' (1970)*''Two of a Kind'' (1971)*''The Right Combination • Burning the Midnight Oil'' (1972)*''Together Always'' (1972)*''We Found It'' (1973)*''Love and Music'' (1973)*''Porter 'n' Dolly'' (1974)*''Say Forever You'll Be Mine'' (1975)*''Porter & Dolly'' (1980)*''Once Upon a Christmas'' (1984)*''Trio'' (1987)*''Honky Tonk Angels'' (1993)*''Trio II'' (1999)" ], [ "Filmography", "'''Theatrical releases'''*''9 to 5'' (1980)*''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas'' (1982)*''Rhinestone'' (1984)*''Steel Magnolias'' (1989)*''Straight Talk'' (1992)*''Frank McKlusky, C.I.''", "(2002)*''Gnomeo & Juliet'' (2011)*''Joyful Noise'' (2012)" ], [ "Published works", "* * * * * * * * * ''Run, Rose, Run'' (2022)*" ], [ "See also", "*Chasing Rainbows Museum*List of American film actresses*List of American television actresses*List of country music performers*List of composers of musicals*List of people from Tennessee*List of philanthropists*List of singer-songwriters" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Smarsh, Sarah (October 2020).", "''She Come by It Natural: Dolly Parton and the Woman Who Lived Her Songs''.", "Scribner.", "." ], [ "External links", "* * * \"Dolly Parton\" , inductee page at Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diprotodon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Diprotodon''''' (Ancient Greek: \"two protruding front teeth\") is an extinct genus of marsupial from the Pleistocene of Australia containing one species, '''''D.", "optatum'''''.", "The earliest finds date to 1.77 million to 780,000 years ago but most specimens are dated to after 110,000 years ago.", "Its remains were first unearthed in 1830 in Wellington Caves, New South Wales, and contemporaneous paleontologists guessed they belonged to rhinos, elephants, hippos or dugongs.", "''Diprotodon'' was formally described by English naturalist Richard Owen in 1838, and was the first named Australian fossil mammal, and led Owen to become the foremost authority of his time on other marsupials and Australian megafauna, which were enigmatic to European science.", "''Diprotodon'' is the largest-known marsupial to have ever lived, it greatly exceeds the size of its closest living relatives wombats and koalas.", "It is a member of the extinct family Diprotodontidae, which includes other large quadrupedal herbivores.", "It grew as large as at the shoulders, over from head to tail, and possibly weighed almost .", "Females were much smaller than males.", "''Diprotodon'' supported itself on elephant-like legs to travel long distances, and inhabited most of Australia.", "The digits were weak; most of the weight was probably borne on the wrists and ankles.", "The hindpaws angled inward at 130°.", "Its jaws may have produced a strong bite force of at the long and ever-growing incisor teeth, and over at the last molar.", "Such powerful jaws would have allowed it to eat vegetation in bulk, crunching and grinding plant materials such as twigs, buds and leaves of woody plants with its bilophodont teeth.It is the only marsupial and metatherian that is known to have made seasonal migrations.", "Large herds, usually of females, seem to have marched through a wide range of habitats to find food and water, walking at around .", "''Diprotodon'' may have formed polygynous societies, possibly using its powerful incisors to fight for mates or fend off predators, such as the largest-known marsupial carnivore ''Thylacoleo carnifex''.", "Being a marsupial, the mother may have raised her joey in a pouch on her belly, probably with one of these facing backwards, as in wombats.", "''Diprotodon'' went extinct about 40,000 years ago during the Quaternary extinction event, along with every other Australian animal over ; the extinction was possibly caused by extreme drought conditions and predation pressure from the first Aboriginal Australians, who had co-existed with the megafauna for about 10,000–20,000 years.", "There is little direct evidence of interactions between Aboriginal Australians and ''Diprotodon''—or any Pleistocene mammalian megafauna.", "''Diprotodon'' has been conjectured by some authors to have been the origin of some aboriginal mythological figures—most notably the bunyip—and aboriginal rock artworks but these ideas are unconfirmable." ], [ "Research history", "Early reconstruction of ''Diprotodon'' by Alice B. Woodward, 1912In 1830, farmer George Ranken found a diverse fossil assemblage while exploring Wellington Caves, New South Wales, Australia.", "This was the first major site of extinct Australian megafauna.", "Remains of Diprotodon were excavated when Ranken later returned as part of a formal expedition that was headed by explorer Major Thomas Mitchell.At the time these massive fossils were discovered, it was generally thought they were remains of rhinos, elephants, hippos.", "or dugongs.", "They fossils were not formally described until Mitchell took them in 1837 to his former colleague English naturalist Richard Owen while in England publishing his journal.", "In 1838, while studying a piece of a right mandible with an incisor, Owen compared the tooth to those of wombats and hippos; he wrote to Mitchell designating it as a new genus ''Diprotodon''.", "Mitchell published the correspondence in his journal.", "Owen formally described ''Diprotodon'' in Volume 2 without mentioning a species; in Volume 1, however, he listed the name ''Diprotodon optatum'', making that the type species.", "''Diprotodon'' means \"two protruding front teeth\" in Ancient Greek and ''optatum'' is Latin for \"desire\" or \"wish\".", "It was the first-ever Australian fossil mammal to be described.", "In 1844, Owen replaced the name ''D.", "optatum'' with \"''D.", "australis''\".", "Owen only once used the name ''optatum'' and the acceptance of its apparent replacement \"''australis''\" has historically varied widely but ''optatum'' is now standard.In 1843, Mitchell was sent more ''Diprotodon'' fossils from the recently settled Darling Downs and relayed them to Owen.", "Owen, having interpreted the incisors as tusks, as well as comparing the flattening (anteroposterior compression) of the femur to the condition in elephants and rhinos, and the raised ridges of the molar to the grinding surfaces of elephant teeth, believed ''Diprotodon'' was an elephant related to or synonymous with ''Mastodon'' or ''Deinotherium''.", "Later that year, he formally synonymised ''Diprotodon'' with ''Deinotherium'' as ''Dinotherium Australe'', which he recanted in 1844 after German naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt pointed out that the incisors clearly belong to a marsupial.", "Owen still classified the molars from Wellington as ''Mastodon australis'' and continued to describe ''Diprotodon'' as likely elephantine.", "In 1847, a nearly complete skull and skeleton was recovered from the Darling Downs, the latter confirming this characterisation.", "The massive skeleton attracted a large audience while on public display in Sydney.", "Leichhardt believed the animal was aquatic and in 1844, he said it might still be alive in an undiscovered tropical area nearer the interior but as the European land exploration of Australia progressed, he became certain it was extinct.", "Owen later become the foremost authority of Australian palaeontology of his time, mostly working with marsupials.Illustration of a ''Diprotodon'' fossil in the dry lakebed of Lake CallabonnaHuge assemblages of mostly complete ''Diprotodon'' fossils have been unearthed in dry lakes and riverbeds; the largest assemblage came from Lake Callabonna, South Australia.", "Fossils were first noticed here by an aboriginal stockman working on a sheep property to the east.", "The owners, the Ragless brothers, notified the South Australian Museum, which hired Australian geologist Henry Hurst, who reported an enormous wealth of fossil material and was paid £250 in 1893 to excavate the site.", "Hurst found up to 360 ''Diprotodon'' individuals over a few acres; excavation was restarted in the 1970s and more were uncovered.", "American palaeontologist Richard H. Tedford said multiple herds of these animals had at different times become stuck in mud while crossing bodies of water while water levels were low during dry seasons.In addition to ''D.", "optatum'', several other species were erected in the 19th century, often from single specimens, on the basis of subtle anatomical variations.", "Among the variations was size difference: adult ''Diprotodon'' specimens have two distinct size ranges.", "In their 1975 review of Australian fossil mammals, Australian palaeontologists J.", "A. Mahoney and William David Lindsay Ride did not ascribe this to sexual dimorphism because males and females of modern wombat and koala species—its closest living relatives—are skeletally indistinguishable, so they assumed the same would have been true for extinct relatives, including ''Diprotodon''.These other species are:*''D.", "annextans'' was erected in 1861 by Irish palaeontologist Frederick McCoy based on some teeth and a partial mandible found near Colac, Victoria; the name may be a typo of ''annectens'', which means linking or joining, because he characterised the species as combining traits from ''Diprotodon'' and ''Nototherium'';*''D.", "minor''was erected in 1862 by Thomas Huxley based on a partial palate; in 1991, Australian palaeontologist Peter Murray suggested classifying large specimens as ''D.", "optatum'' and smaller ones as \"''D.", "minor''\";*''D.", "longiceps'' was erected in 1865 by McCoy as a replacement for \"''D.", "annextans''\";*''D.", "bennettii'' was erected in 1873 by German naturalist Gerard Krefft based on a nearly complete mandible collected by naturalists George Bennet and Georgina King near Gowrie, New South Wales; and*''D.", "loderi'' was erected in 1873 by Krefft based on a partial palate collected by Andrew Loder near Murrurundi, New South Wales.In 2008, Australian palaeontologist Gilbert Price opted to recognise only one species ''D.", "optatum'' based most-notably on a lack of dental differences among these supposed species, and said it was likely ''Diprotodon'' was indeed sexually dimorphic, with the male probably being the larger form." ], [ "Classification", "===Phylogeny===''Diprotodon'' is a marsupial in the order Diprotodontia, suborder Vombatiformes (wombats and koalas), and infraorder Vombatomorphia (wombats and allies).", "It is unclear how different groups of vombatiformes are related to each other because the most-completely known members—living or extinct—are exceptionally derived (highly specialised forms that are quite different from their last common ancestor).In 1872, American mammalogist Theodore Gill erected the superfamily Diprotodontoidea and family Diprotodontidae to house ''Diprotodon''.", "New species were later added to both groups; by the 1960s, the first diprotodontoids dating to before the Pliocene were discovered, better clarifying their relationship to each other.", "Because of this, in 1967, American palaeontologist Ruben A. Stirton subdivided Diprotodontoidea into one family, Diprotodontidae, with four subfamilies; Diprotodontinae (containing ''Diprotodon'' among others), Nototheriinae, Zygomaturinae, and Palorchestinae.", "In 1977, Australian palaeontologist Michael Archer synonymised Nototheriinae with Diprotodontinae and in 1978, Archer and Australian palaeontologist Alan Bartholomai elevated Palorchestinae to family level as Palorchestidae, leaving Diprotodontoidea with families Diprotodontidae and Palorchestidae; and Diprotodontidae with subfamilies Diprotodontinae and Zygomaturinae.Below is the Diprotodontoidea family tree according to Australian palaeontologists Karen H. Black and Brian Mackness, 1999 (top), and Vombatiformes family tree according to Beck ''et al.''", "2020 (bottom):===Evolution===''Diprotodon'' may have evolved from ''Euryzygoma'' (skull above).Diprotodontidae is the most diverse family in Vombatomorphia; it was better adapted to the spreading dry, open landscapes over the last tens of millions of years than other groups in the infraorder, living or extinct.", "''Diprotodon'' has been found in every Australian state, making it the most-widespread Australian megafauna in the fossil record.", "The oldest vombatomorph (and vombatiform) is ''Mukupirna'', which was identified in 2020 from Oligocene deposits of the South Australian Namba Formation dating to 26–25 million years ago.", "The group probably evolved much earlier; ''Mukupirna'' was already differentiated as a closer relative to wombats than other vombatiformes, and attained a massive size of roughly , whereas the last common ancestor of vombatiformes was probably a small, creature.Both diprotodontines and zygomaturines were both apparently quite diverse over the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene, roughly 23 million years ago, though the familial and subfamilial classifications of diprotodontoids from this period is debated.", "Compared to zygomaturines, diprotodontines were rare during the Miocene, the only identified genus being ''Pyramios''.", "By the Late Miocene, diprotodontians became the commonest marsupial order in fossil sites, a dominance that endures to the present day; at this point, the most-prolific diprotodontians were diprotodontids and kangaroos.", "Diprotodontidae also began a gigantism trend, along with several other marsupials, probably in response to the lower-quality plant foods available in a drying climate, requiring them to consume much more.", "Gigantism appears to have evolved independently six times among the vombatiform lineages.", "Diprotodontine diversity returned in the Pliocene; Diprotodontidae reached peak diversity with seven genera, coinciding with the spread of open forests.", "In 1977, Archer said ''Diprotodon'' directly evolved from the smaller ''Euryzygoma'', which has been discovered in Pliocene deposits of eastern Australia predating 2.5 million years ago.In general, there is poor resolution on the ages of Australian fossil sites.", "While the geochronology of ''Diprotodon'' is one of best for Australian megafauna, it is still incomplete and the majority of remains are undated.", "Price and Australian palaeontologist Katarzyna Piper reported the earliest, indirectly dated ''Diprotodon'' fossils from the Nelson Bay Formation at Nelson Bay, New South Wales, which dates to 1.77 million to 780,000 years ago during the Early Pleistocene.", "These remains are 8–17% smaller than those of Late Pleistocene ''Diprotodon'' but are otherwise indistinguishable.", "The oldest directly dated ''Diprotodon'' fossils come from the Boney Bite site at Floraville, New South Wales; they were deposited approximately 340,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene based on U-series dating and luminescence dating of quartz and orthoclase.", "Floraville is the only-identified Middle Pleistocene site in tropical northern Australia.", "Beyond these, almost all dated ''Diprotodon'' material comes from Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS5) or younger—after 110,000 years ago during the Late Pleistocene." ], [ "Description", "===Skull===''Diprotodon'' has a long, narrow skull.", "Like other marsupials, the top of the skull of ''Diprotodon'' is flat or depressed over the small braincase and the sinuses of the frontal bone.", "Like many other giant vombatiformes, the frontal sinuses are extensive; in a specimen from Bacchus Marsh, they take up —roughly 25% of skull volume—whereas the brain occupies —only 4% of the skull volume.", "Marsupials tend to have smaller brain-to-body mass ratios than placental mammals, becoming more disparate the bigger the animal, which could be a response to a need to conserve energy because the brain is a calorically expensive organ, or is proportional to the maternal metabolic rate, which is much less in marsupials due to the shorter gestation period.", "The expanded sinuses increase the surface area available for the temporalis muscle to attach, which is important for biting and chewing, to compensate for a deflated braincase as a result of a proportionally smaller brain.", "They may also have helped dissipate stresses produced by biting more efficiently across the skull.The occipital bone, the back of the skull, slopes forward at 45 degrees unlike most modern marsupials, where it is vertical.", "The base of the occipital is significantly thickened.", "The occipital condyles, a pair of bones that connect the skull with the vertebral column, are semi-circular and the bottom half is narrower than the top.", "The inner border, which forms the foramen magnum where the spinal cord feeds through, is thin and well-defined.", "The top margin of the foramen magnum is somewhat flattened rather than arched.", "The foramen expands backwards towards the inlet, especially vertically, and is more-reminiscent of a short neural canal—the tube running through a vertebral centrum where the spinal cord passes through—than a foramen magnum.A sagittal crest extends across the midline of the skull from the supraoccipital—the top of the occipital bone—to the region between the eyes on the top of the head.", "The orbit (eye socket) is small and vertically oval-shaped.", "The nasal bones slightly curve upwards until near their endpoint, where they begin to curve down, giving the bones a somewhat S-shaped profile.", "Like many marsupials, most of the nasal septum is made of bone rather than cartilage.", "The nose would have been quite mobile.", "The height of the skull from the peak of the occipital bone to the end of the nasals is strikingly almost uniform; the end of the nasals is the tallest point.", "The zygomatic arch (cheek bone) is strong and deep as in kangaroos but unlike those of koalas and wombats, and extends all the way from the supraoccipital.====Jaws====''Diprotodon'' skull at the Natural History Museum, LondonAs in kangaroos and wombats, there is a gap between the jointing of the palate (roof of the mouth) and the maxilla (upper jaw) behind the last molar, which is filled by the medial pterygoid plate.", "This would have been the insertion for the medial pterygoid muscle that was involved in closing the jaw.", "Like many grazers, the masseter muscle, which is also responsible for closing the jaw, seems to have been the dominant jaw muscle.", "A probable large temporal muscle compared to the lateral pterygoid muscle may indicate, unlike in wombats, a limited range of side-to-side jaw motion means ''Diprotodon'' would have been better at crushing rather than grinding food.", "The insertion of the masseter is placed forwards, in front of the orbits, which could have allowed better control over the incisors.", "''Diprotodon'' chewing strategy appears to align more with kangaroos than wombats: a powerful vertical crunch was followed by a transverse grinding motion.As in other marsupials, the ramus of the mandible, the portion that goes up to connect with the skull, angles inward.", "The condyloid process, which connects the jaw to the skull, is similar to that of a koala.", "The ramus is straight and extends almost vertically, thickening as it approaches the body of the mandible where the teeth are.", "The depth of the body of the mandible increases from the last molar to the first.", "The strong mandibular symphysis, which fuses the two halves of the mandible, begins at the front-most end of the third molar; this would prevent either half of the mandible from moving independently of the other, unlike in kangaroos which use this ability to better control their incisors.====Teeth====molarsThe dental formula of ''Diprotodon'' is .", "In each half of either jaw are three incisors in the upper jaw and one in the lower jaw; there are one premolar and four molars in both jaws but no canines.", "A long diastema (gap) separates the incisors from the molars.The incisors are scalpriform (chisel-like).", "Like those of wombats and rodents, the first incisors in both jaws continuously grew throughout the animal's life but the other two upper incisors did not.", "This combination is not seen in any living marsupial.", "The cross-section of the upper incisors is circular.", "In one old male specimen, the first upper incisor measures of which is within the tooth socket; the second is and is in the socket; and the exposed part of the third is .", "The first incisor is convex and curves outwards but the other two are concave.", "The lower incisor has a faint upward curve but is otherwise straight and has an oval cross-section.", "In the same old male specimen, the lower incisor measures , of which is inside the socket.The premolars and molars are bilophodont, each having two distinct lophs (ridges).", "The premolar is triangular and about half the size of the molars.", "As in kangaroos, the necks of the lophs are coated in cementum.", "Unlike in kangaroos, there is no connecting ridge between the lophs.", "The peaks of these lophs have a thick enamel coating that thins towards the base; this could wear away with use and expose the dentine layer, and beneath that osteodentine.", "Like the first premolar of other marsupials, the first molar of ''Diprotodon'' and wombats is the only tooth that is replaced.===Vertebrae===''Diprotodon'' had five cervical (neck) vertebrae.", "The atlas, the first cervical (C1), has a pair of deep cavities for insertion of the occipital condyles.", "The diaphophyses of the atlas, an upward-angled projection on either the side of the vertebra, are relatively short and thick, and resemble those of wombats and koalas.", "The articular surface of the axis (C2), the part that joints to another vertebra, is slightly concave on the front side and flat on the back side.", "As in kangaroos, the axis has a low subtriangular hypophysis projecting vertically from the underside of the vertebra and a proportionally long odontoid—a projection from the axis which fits into the atlas—but the neural spine, which projects vertically the topside of the vertebra, is more forwards.", "The remaining cervicals lack a hypophysis.", "As in kangaroos, C3 and C4 have a shorter and more-compressed neural spine, which is supported by a low ridge along its midline in the front and the back.", "The neural spine of C5 is narrower but thicker, and is supported by stronger-but-shorter ridges.Mounted skeleton, Museums Victoria''Diprotodon'' probably had 13 dorsal vertebrae and 14 pairs of closely spaced ribs.", "Like many other mammals, the dorsals initially decrease in breadth and then expand before connecting to the lumbar vertebrae.", "Unusually, the front dorsals match the short proportions of the cervicals, and the articular surface is flat.", "At the beginning of the series, the neural spine is broad and angled forward, and is also supported by a low ridge along its midline in the front and the back.", "In later examples, the neural spine is angled backwards and bifurcates (splits into two).", "Among mammals, bifurcation of the neural spine is only seen in elephants and humans, and only in a few of the cervicals and not in the dorsals.", "Compared to those of wombats and kangaroos, the neural arch is proportionally taller.", "As in elephants, the epiphysial plates (growth plates) and the neural arch, to which the neural spine is attached, are anchylosed—very rigid in regard to the vertebral centrum—which served to support the animal's immense weight.Like most marsupials, ''Diprotodon'' likely had six lumbar vertebrae.", "They retain a proportionally tall neural arch but not the diapophyses, though L1 can retain a small protuberance on one side where a diapophysis would be in a dorsal vertebra; this has been documented in kangaroos and other mammals.", "The length of each vertebra increases along the series so the lumbar series may have bent downward.Like other marsupials, ''Diprotodon'' had two sacral vertebrae.", "The base of the neural spines of these two were ossified (fused) together.===Limbs=======Girdles====The general proportions of the scapula (shoulder blade) align more closely with more-basal vertebrates such as monotremes, birds, reptiles, and fish rather than marsupials and placental mammals.", "It is triangular and proportionally narrow but unlike most mammals with a triangular scapula, the arm attaches to top of the scapula and the subspinous fossa (the fossa, a depression below the spine of the scapula) becomes bigger towards the arm joint rather than decreasing.", "The glenoid cavity where the arm connects is oval shaped as in most mammals.Unlike other marsupials, the ilia, the large wings of the pelvis, are lamelliform (short and broad, with a flat surface instead of an iliac fossa).", "Lamelliform ilia have only been recorded in elephants, sloths, and apes, though these groups all have a much-longer sacral vertebra series whereas marsupials are restricted to two sacral vertebrae.", "The ilia provided strong muscle attachments that were probably oriented and used much the same as those in an elephant.", "The sacroiliac joint where the pelvis connects to the spine is at 35 degrees in reference to the long axis of the ilium.", "The ischia, which form part of the hip socket, are thick and rounded tailwards but taper and diverge towards the socket, unlike those in kangaroos, where the ischia proceed almost parallel to each other.", "They were not connected to the vertebra.", "The hip socket itself is well-rounded and almost hemispherical.====Long bones====Unlike those of most marsupials, the humerus of ''Diprotodon'' is almost straight rather than S-shaped, and the trochlea of the humerus at the elbow joint is not perforated.", "The ridges for muscle attachments are poorly developed, which seems to have been compensated for by the powerful forearms.", "Similarly, the condyles where the radius and ulna (the forearm bones) connect maintain their rounded shape and are quite-similarly sized, and unusually reminiscent of the condyles between the femur and the tibia and fibula in the leg of a kangaroo.Like elephants, the femur of ''Diprotodon'' is straight and compressed anteroposteriorly (from headside to tailside).", "The walls of the femur are prodigiously thickened, strongly constricting the medullary cavity where the bone marrow is located.", "The proximal end (part closest to the hip joint) is notably long, broad, and deep.", "The femoral head projects up far from the greater trochanter.", "As in kangaroos, the greater trochanter is split into two lobes.", "The femoral neck is roughly the same diameter as the femoral head.", "Also as in kangaroos, the condyle for the fibula is excavated out but the condyle for the tibia is well-rounded and hemispherical.", "Like those of many other marsupials, the tibia is twisted and the tibial malleolus (on the ankle) is reduced.====Paws====''Diprotodon'' has five digits on either paw.", "Like other plantigrade walkers, where the paws were flat on the ground, the wrist and ankle would have been largely rigid and inflexible.", "The digits are proportionally weak so the paws probably had a lot of padding.", "Similarly, the digits do not seem to have been much engaged in weight bearing.The forepaw was strong and the shape of the wrist bones is quite similar to those of kangaroos.", "Like other vombatiformes, the metacarpals, which connect the fingers to the wrist, are broadly similar to those of kangaroos and allies.", "The enlarged pisiform bone takes up half the jointing surface of the ulna.", "The fifth digit on the forepaw is the largest.The digits of the hindpaws turn inwards from the ankle at 130 degrees.", "The second and third metatarsals (the metatarsals connect the toes to the ankle) are significantly reduced, which may mean these digits were syndactylous (fused) like those of all modern diprotodontians.", "The first, fourth, and fifth digits are enlarged.", "The toes are each about the same length, except the fifth which is much stouter.===Size===1896 illustration of a ''Diprotodon'' and human skull''Diprotodon'' is the largest-known marsupial to ever have lived.", "In life, adult ''Diprotodon'' could have reached at the shoulders and from head to tail.", "Accounting for cartilaginous intervertebral discs, ''Diprotodon'' may have been 20% longer than reconstructed skeletons, exceeding .As researchers were formulating predictive body-mass equations for fossil species, efforts were largely constrained to eutherian mammals rather than marsupials.", "The first person to attempt to estimate the living weight of ''Diprotodon'' was Peter Murray in his 1991 review of the megafauna of Pleistocene Australia; Murray made an estimate of using cranial and dental measurements, which he said was probably not a very precise figure.", "This made ''Diprotodon'' the largest herbivore in Australia.", "In 2001, Canadian biologist Gary Burness and colleagues did a linear regression between the largest herbivores and carnivores—living or extinct—from every continent (for Australia: ''Diprotodon'', ''Varanus priscus'', and ''Thylacoleo carnifex'') against the landmass area of their continent, and another regression between the daily food intake of living creatures against the landmass of their continents.", "He calculated the food requirement of ''Diprotodon'' was 50–60% smaller than expected for Australia's landmass, which he believed was a result of a generally lower metabolism in marsupials compared to placentals—up to 20% lower—and sparser nutritious vegetation than other continents.", "The maximum-attainable body size is capped much lower than those for other continents.In 2003, Australian palaeontologist Stephen Wroe and colleagues took a more-sophisticated approach to body mass than Murray's estimate.", "They made a regression between the minimum circumference of the femora and humeri of 18 quadrupedal marsupials and 32 placentals against body mass, and then inputted 17 ''Diprotodon'' long bones into their predictive model.", "The results ranged from , for a mean of , though Wroe said reconstructing the weight of extinct creatures that far outweighed living counterparts is problematic.", "For comparison, an American bison they used in their study weighed and a hippo weighed ." ], [ "Paleobiology", "===Diet===''Diprotodon'' sculpture at the Australian MuseumLike modern megaherbivores, most evidently the African elephant, Pleistocene Australian megafauna likely had a profound effect on the vegetation, limiting the spread of forest cover and woody plants.", "Carbon isotope analysis suggests ''Diprotodon'' fed on a broad range of foods and, like kangaroos, was consuming both C3—well-watered trees, shrubs, and grasses—and C4 plants—arid grasses.", "Carbon isotope analyses on ''Diprotodon'' excavated from the Cuddie Springs site in units SU6 (possibly 45,000 years old) and SU9 (350,000 to 570,000 years old) indicate ''Diprotodon'' adopted a somewhat-more-varied seasonal diet as Australia's climate dried but any change was subtle.", "In contrast, contemporary kangaroos and wombats underwent major dietary shifts or specialisations towards, respectively, C3 and C4 plants.", "The fossilised, incompletely digested gut contents of one 53,000-year-old individual from Lake Callabonna show its last meal consisted of young leaves, stalks, and twigs.The molars of ''Diprotodon'' are a simple bilophodont shape.", "Kangaroos use their bilophodont teeth to grind tender, low-fibre plants as a browser as well as grass as a grazer.", "Kangaroos that predominantly graze have specialised molars to resist the abrasiveness of grass but such adaptations are not exhibited in ''Diprotodon'', which may have had a mixed diet similar to that of a browsing wallaby.", "It may also have chewed like wallabies, beginning with a vertical crunch before grinding transversely, as opposed to wombats, which only grind transversely.", "Similarly to many large ungulates (hoofed mammals), the jaws of ''Diprotodon'' were better suited for crushing rather than grinding, which would have permitted it to process vegetation in bulk.In 2016, Australian biologists Alana Sharpe and Thomas Rich estimated the maximum-possible bite force of ''Diprotodon'' using finite element analysis.", "They calculated at the incisors and across the molar series.", "For reference, the American alligator can produce forces upwards of .", "Though these are likely overestimates, the jaws of ''Diprotodon'' were exceptionally strong, which would have allowed it to consume a broad range of plants, including tough, fibrous grasses.===Migration and sociality===One ''Diprotodon'' herd was making seasonal migrations along the Condamine River (above).In 2017, by measuring the strontium isotope ratio (87Sr/86Sr) at various points along the ''Diprotodon'' incisor QMF3452 from the Darling Downs, and matching those ratios to the ratios of sites across that region, Price and colleagues determined ''Diprotodon'' made seasonal migrations, probably in search of food or watering holes.", "This individual appears to have been following the Condamine River and, while apparently keeping to the Darling Downs during the three years this tooth had been growing, it would have been annually making a northwest-southeast round trip.", "This trek parallels the mammalian mass migrations of modern-day East Africa.", "''Diprotodon'' is the only identified metatherian that seasonally migrated between two places.", "A few modern marsupials, such as the red kangaroo, have been documented making migrations when necessary but it is not a seasonal occurrence.", "Because ''Diprotodon'' could do it, it is likely other Pleistocene Australian megafauna also had seasonal migrations.", "''Diprotodon'' apparently moved in large herds.", "Possible fossilised herds, which are most-commonly unearthed in south-eastern Australia, seem to be mostly or entirely female, and sometimes travelled with juveniles.", "Such sexual segregation is normally seen in polygynous species; it is a common social organisation among modern megaherbivores involving an entirely female herd save for their young and the dominant male, with which the herd exclusinvely breeds.", "Similarly, the skull is adapted to handling much-higher stresses than that which resulted from bite alone so ''Diprotodon'' may have subjected its teeth or jaws to more-strenuous activities than chewing, such as fighting other ''Diprotodon'' for mates or fending off predators, using the incisors.", "Like modern red and grey kangaroos, which also sexually segregate, bachelor herds of ''Diprotodon'' seem to have been less tolerant to drought conditions than female herds due to their larger size and nutritional requirements.===Gait===Victorian Volcanic Plain site: a) ''Protemnodon'', b) ''Diprotodon'' pes, c) ''Diprotodon'' overlain by a vombatid, d) ''Thylacoleo''The locomotion of an extinct animal can be inferred using fossil trackways, which seldom preserve in Australia over the Cenozoic.", "Only the trackways of humans, kangaroos, vombatids, ''Diprotodon'', and the diprotodontid ''Euowenia'' have been identified.", "''Diprotodon'' trackways have been found at Lake Callabonna and the Victorian Volcanic Plain grasslands.", "The diprotodontid manus (forepaw) print is semi-circular and the pes (hindpaw) is reniform (kidney-shaped).", "Owing to proportionally small digits, most of the weight was borne on the carpus and tarsus—the bones connecting to respectively the wrist and the ankle.", "Diprotodontines seem to have had a much-more-erect gait, an adaptation to long-distance travel that is similar to that of elephants, rather than the more-sprawling posture of wombats and zygomaturines, though there are no fossil trackways of the latter to verify their reconstructed standing posture.At Lake Callabonna, the single ''Diprotodon'' responsible for the impressions had an average stride length of , trackway width of , and track dimensions in length x width.", "The gleno-acetabular length—the distance between the shoulders and pelvis—could have been about ; assuming a hip height of , the maker of these tracks was probably moving at around .The single ''Diprotodon'' responsible for the impressions at the volcanic plain had an average stride length of , trackway width of , and pes length of .", "The gleno-acetabular length may have been about and assuming a hip height of , the maker of the tracks was probably moving at around .", "Its posture was much-more-sprawled than the example from Callabonna, aligning more with what might be expected of ''Zygomaturus''.", "The animal may have been a female carrying a large joey in her pouch, the added weight on the stomach altering the gait.", "The first trackway continues for in a south-easterly direction towards a palaeo-lake.", "The animal seems to have hesitated while stepping down from the first sand bar on its path with the right pes making three overlapping prints here while shuffling around.", "The trackway vanishes for a stretch and reappears while the animal seemingly is stepping on wet sediment.", "Another diprotodontid trackway appears away, moving southerly, which may have been left by the same individual.===Life history===The marsupial metabolic rate is about 30% lower than that of placentals due to a lower body temperature of .", "Marsupials give birth at an earlier point in foetal development, relying on lactation to facilitate most of the joey's development; because pregnancy is much-more-energetically expensive, investing in lactation rather than longer gestation can be advantageous in a highly seasonal and unpredictable climate to minimise maternal nutritional requirements.", "Consequently, marsupials cannot support as large a litter size or as short a generation time.Based on the relationship between female body size and life history in kangaroos, a ''Diprotodon'' female would have gestated for six-to-eight weeks, and given birth to a single joey.", "Given its massive size, ''Diprotodon'' may not have sat down to give birth as do smaller marsupials, possibly standing instead.", "Like koalas and wombats, the pouch may have faced backwards so the joey could crawl down across its mother's abdomen to enter and attach itself to a teat until it could see—perhaps 260 days—and thermoregulate.", "It would have permanently left the pouch after 860 days and suckled until reaching after four or five years.In large kangaroos, females usually reach sexual maturity and enter oestrus soon after weaning, and males need double the time to reach sexual maturity.", "A similar pattern could have been exhibited in ''Diprotodon''.", "Assuming a lifespan of up to 50 years, a female ''Diprotodon'' could have given birth eight times." ], [ "Palaeoecology", "''Diprotodon'' was present across the entire Australian continent by the Late Pleistocene, especially following MIS5 approximately 110,000 years ago.", "The onset of the Quaternary glaciation, with the continuous advance and retreat of glaciers at the poles, created extreme climatic variability elsewhere.", "In Australia, the warmer, wetter interglacial periods were received by forests and woodlands; colder, dryer glacial periods were more conducive to grasslands and deserts.", "The continent progressively became dryer as the Asian monsoons became less influential over Australia: the vast interior had become arid and sandy by 500,000 years ago; the mega-lakes that were once prominent, especially during interglacials in north-western Australia, dried up; and the rainforests of eastern Australia gradually retreated.", "Aridity has hastened over the last 100,000 years, especially after 60,000 years ago with surging El Niño–Southern Oscillations.The continent-wide distribution of ''Diprotodon'' indicates herds trekked across almost any habitat, much like modern African elephants south of the Sahara.", "''Diprotodon'' was a member of a diverse assemblage of megafauna that were endemic to Pleistocene Australia; these also included the thylacine, modern kangaroos, sthenurines (giant short-faced kangaroos), a diversity of modern and giant koala and wombat species, the tapir-like ''Palorchestes'', the giant turtle ''Meiolania'', and the giant bird ''Genyornis''.", "''Diprotodon'' coexisted with the diprotodontid ''Zygomaturus trilobus'', which appears to have remained in the forests, whereas ''Diprotodon'' foraged the expanding grasslands and woodlands.", "Other contemporaneous dipotodontids (''Hulitherium'', ''Z.", "nimborensia'', and ''Maokopia'') were insular forms that were restricted to the forests of New Guinea.===Predation===Due to its massive size, ''Diprotodon'' would have been a tough adversary for native carnivores.", "It contended with the largest-known marsupial predator ''Thylacoleo carnifex''; while ''Diprotodon'' remains that were gnawed or bitten by ''T.", "carnifex'' have been identified, it is unclear if the marsupial predator was powerful enough to kill an animal surpassing .", "The modern jaguar, at half the size of ''T.", "carnifex'', can kill a bull so it is possible ''T.", "carnifex'' could have killed small ''Diprotodon''.", "Similar to recent kangaroos with thylacines or quolls, juvenile ''Diprotodon'' may have been at high risk of predation by ''T.", "carnifex''; it and fossils of juvenile ''Diprotodon'' have been recovered from the same caves.The largest predators of Australia were reptiles, most notably the saltwater crocodile, the now-extinct crocodiles ''Paludirex'' and ''Quinkana'', and the giant lizard megalania (''Varanus priscus'').", "At in length, megalania was the largest carnivore of Pleistocene Australia.===Extinction===As part of the Quaternary extinction event, ''Diprotodon'' and every other Australian land animal heavier than became extinct.", "The timing and the exact cause are unclear because there is poor resolution on the ages of Australian fossil sites.", "Since their discovery, the extinction of the Australian megafauna has usually been blamed on the changing climate or overhunting by the first Aboriginal Australians.", "In 2001, Australian palaeontologist Richard Roberts and colleagues dated 28 major fossil sites across the continent, and were able to provide a precise date for megafaunal extinction.", "They found most disappear from the fossil record by 80,000 years ago but ''Diprotodon''; the giant wombat ''Phascolonus''; ''Thylacoleo''; and the short-faced kangaroos ''Procoptodon'', ''Protemnodon'', and ''Simosthenurus'' was identified at Ned's Gully, Queensland, and Kudjal Yolgah Cave, Western Australia, which they dated to respectively 47,000 and 46,000 years ago.", "Thus, all of the Australian megafauna died out probably between about 50,000 and 41,000 years ago.", "There also seems to have been a diverse assemblage of megafauna just before their extinction, and all populations across at least western and eastern Australia died out at about the same time.", "As of 2021, there is still no solid evidence of megafauna surviving past approximately 40,000 years ago; their latest occurrence, including ''Diprotodon'', is recorded at South Walker Creek mine in the north-east at about 40,100 ± 1,700 years ago.At the time Roberts ''et al.''", "published their paper, the earliest evidence of human activity in Australia was 56±4 thousand years old, which is close to their calculated date for the megafauna extinction; they hypothesised human hunting had eradicated the last megafauna within about 10,000 years of coexistence.", "Human hunting had earlier been blamed for the extinction of North American and New Zealand megafauna.", "Human activity was then generally regarded as the main driver of Australian megafaunal extinction, especially because the megafauna had survived multiple extreme drought periods during glacial periods.", "At the time, there did not seem to be any evidence of unusually extreme climate during this period.", "Due to the slowness of marsupial reproduction, even limited megafaunal hunting may have severely weakened the population.The Aboriginal Australian practice of fire-stick farming (above depicts a kangaroo hunt) may be implicated in megafaunal extinction.In 2005, American geologist Gifford Miller noticed fire abruptly becomes more common about 45,000 years ago; he ascribed this increase to aboriginal fire-stick farmers, who would have regularly started controlled burns to clear highly productive forests and grasslands.", "Miller said this radically altered the vegetational landscape and promulgated the expanse of the modern-day fire-resilient scrub at the expense of the megafauna.", "Subsequent studies had difficulty firmly linking controlled burns with major ecological collapse.", "The frequency of fire could have also increased as a consequence of megafaunal extinction because total plant consumption rapidly fell, leading to faster fuel buildup.In 2017, the human-occupied Madjedbebe rock shelter on the northern Australian coast was dated to about 65,000 years ago, which if correct would mean humans and megafauna had coexisted for over 20,000 years.", "Other authors have considered this dating questionable.", "In the 2010s, several ecological studies were published in support of major drought conditions coinciding with the final megafaunal extinctions.", "Their demise may have been the result of a combination of climatic change, human hunting, and human-driven landscape changes." ], [ "Cultural significance", "===Fossil evidence===Despite the role the first Aboriginal Australians are speculated to have had in the extinction of ''Diprotodon'' and other mammalian megafauna in Australia, there is little evidence humans used them at all in the 20,000 years of coexistence.", "No fossils of mammalian megafauna suggestive of human butchery or cooking have been found.In 1984, Gail Paton discovered an upper-right ''Diprotodon'' incisor (2I) bearing 28 visible cut marks in Spring Creek, south-western Victoria; Ron Vanderwald and Richard Fullager studied the incisor, which was split in half longitudinally, seemingly while the bone was still fresh but it was glued together before Vanderwald and Fullager could inspect it.", "Each piece measures in length.", "The marks are aligned in a straight line, and measure in length, in width, and in depth.", "They determined it was inconsistent with bite marks from scavenging ''Thylacoleo'' or mice, and concluded it was incised by humans with flint as a counting system or a random doodle.", "This specimen became one of the most-cited pieces of evidence humans and megafauna directly interacted until a 2020 re-analysis by Australian palaeoanthropologist Michelle Langley identified the engraver as most-likely a tiger quoll.In 2016, Australian archaeologist Giles Hamm and colleagues unearthed a partial right radius belonging to a young ''Diprotodon'' in the Warratyi rock shelter.", "Because it lacks carnivore damage and the rock shelter is up a sheer face ''Diprotodon'' is unlikely to have climbed, they said humans were responsible for taking the bone to the site.===Mythology===''Diprotodon'', soon after discovery, was associated with the bunyip (above drawn by J. Mcfarlane, 1890).When the first massive fossils in Australia were dug up, it was not clear what animals they might have represented because there were no serious scientists on the continent.", "Local residents guessed some may have been the remains of rhinos or elephants.", "European settlers, the most-vocal of whom was Reverend John Dunmore Lang, forwarded these fossils as evidence of the Genesis flood narrative.", "Aboriginal Australians also attempted to fit the finds into their own religious ideas, quickly associating ''Diprotodon'' with the bunyip, a large, carnivorous, lake monster.", "Many ethnologists and palaeontologists of the time believed the bunyip to be a tribal memory of the lumbering giant creature that probably frequented marshlands, though at the time it was uncertain whether ''Diprotodon'' and other megafauna were still extant because the Australian continent had not yet been fully explored by Europeans.", "Scientific investigation into the bunyip was stigmatised after a purported bunyip skull was sensationalised in 1846, and was put on display at the Australian Museum.", "The following year, however, Owen recognised it as the skull of a foal, and was surprised the burgeoning Australian scientific community could have erred so egregiously.In 1892, Canadian geologist Henry Yorke Lyell Brown reported Aboriginal Australians identified ''Diprotodon'' fossils from Lake Eyre as those of the Rainbow Serpent, which he thought was a giant, bottom-dwelling fish.", "This notion became somewhat popularised after English geologist John Walter Gregory, who believed the god was a horned, scaly creature, conjectured it was a chimaera of ''Diprotodon''—which he believed had a horn—and a crocodile.", "Later workers continued to report some link between the Rainbow Serpent and either ''Diprotodon'' or crocodiles.These kinds of suppositions are not testable and require stories to survive in oral tradition for tens of thousands of years.", "If Pleistocene megafauna are the basis of some aboriginal mythology, it is unclear if the stories were based on the creatures when they were alive or their fossils being discovered long after their extinction.===Rock art representations===Aboriginal Australians decorated caves with paintings and drawings of several creatures but the identities of the subjects are often unclear.", "In 1907, Australian anthropologist Herbert Basedow found footprint petroglyphs in Yunta Springs and Wilkindinna, South Australia, which he believed were those of ''Diprotodon''.", "In 1988, Australian historian Percy Trezise presented what he thought was a Quinkan depiction of ''Diprotodon'' to the First Congress of the Australian Rock Art Research Association.", "Both of these claims have their faults because the depictions bear several features that are inconsistent with what is known about ''Diprotodon''.", "Unlike the more-naturalistic artwork of Early European modern humans, which are more easily identifiable as various animals, aboriginal artwork is much more stylistic and is mostly uninterpretable by an outsider.", "The subjects of aboriginal paintings can be mythological beings from the Dreaming rather than a corporeal subject." ], [ "See also", "* Australian megafauna" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ***" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dirk Benedict" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dirk Benedict''' (born '''Dirk Niewoehner'''; March 1, 1945) is an American film, television and stage actor, and author.", "He is best known for playing the characters Lieutenant Starbuck in the original ''Battlestar Galactica'' film and television series and Templeton \"Faceman\" Peck in ''The A-Team'' television series.", "He is the author of ''Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy'' and ''And Then We Went Fishing''." ], [ "Early life", "Benedict was born Dirk Niewoehner in Helena, Montana, the son of George Edward Niewoehner, a lawyer, and his wife Priscilla Mella (née Metzger), an accountant.", "He grew up in White Sulphur Springs, Montana.", "He graduated from Whitman College in 1967.Benedict allegedly chose his stage name from a serving of Eggs Benedict he had prior to his acting career.", "He is of German extraction." ], [ "Career", "Photo of the cast of the short-lived television program ''Chopper One''.", "From left: Dirk Benedict, Ted Hartley, Jim McMullan.Benedict's film debut was in the 1972 film ''Georgia, Georgia''.", "When the New York run for ''Butterflies Are Free'' ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in Hawaii, opposite Barbara Rush.", "While there, he appeared as a guest lead on ''Hawaii Five-O''.", "The producers of a horror film called ''Sssssss'' (1973) saw Benedict's performance in ''Hawaii Five-O'' and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie.", "He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of Twiggy in her American film debut, ''W'' (1974).", "Benedict starred in the television series ''Chopper One'', which aired for one season in 1974.He made two appearances in ''Charlie's Angels''.", "He also appeared on the ''Donny & Marie'' variety show.Benedict's career break came in 1978 when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series ''Battlestar Galactica''.", "The same year Benedict starred in the TV film ''Cruise into Terror'', and appeared in the ensemble movie ''Scavenger Hunt'' the following year.===1980s and 1990s===In 1980, Benedict starred alongside Linda Blair in an action-comedy movie called ''Ruckus''.", "In 1983, Dirk gained further popularity as con man Templeton \"Faceman\" Peck in 1980s action television series ''The A-Team''.", "He played \"Face\" from to , although the series didn't air until January 1983, and the final episode wasn't shown until 1987 rebroadcasts.", "The second season episode \"Steel\" includes a scene at Universal Studios where Face is seen looking bemused as a Cylon walks by him as an in-joke to his previous role in ''Battlestar Galactica''.", "The clip is incorporated into the series' opening credit sequence from season 3 onward.In 1986, Benedict starred as low-life band manager Harry Smilac in the movie ''Body Slam'' along with Lou Albano, Roddy Piper, and cameo appearances by Freddie Blassie, Ric Flair, and Bruno Sammartino.", "His character Smilac ends up managing the pro-wrestler \"Quick Rick\" Roberts (Piper) and faces opposition by Captain Lou and his wrestling tag-team \"the Cannibals\".In 1987, Benedict took the title role of Shakespeare's ''Hamlet'' at the Abbey Theatre in Manhattan.", "Both his performance and the entire production were lambasted by critics.", "Benedict starred in the 1989 TV film ''Trenchcoat in Paradise''.In 1991, Benedict starred in ''Blue Tornado,'' playing Alex, call sign Fireball, an Italian Air Force fighter pilot.", "Benedict published an autobiography, ''Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy: A True Story of Discovery, Acting, Health, Illness, Recovery, and Life'' (Avery Publishing ).", "In 1993, Benedict starred in ''Shadow Force''.Benedict also appeared as Jake Barnes in the 1996 action-adventure film ''Alaska''.===2000s and 2010s===In 2000, Benedict wrote and directed his first screenplay, ''Cahoots''.", "Benedict appeared in the 2006 German film ''Goldene Zeiten'' (\"Golden Times\") in a dual role, playing an American former TV star as well as a German lookalike who impersonates him.In 2006, he wrote an online essay criticizing the then-airing ''Battlestar Galactica'' re-imagined series and, especially, its casting of a woman as his character, Starbuck, writing that \"the war against masculinity has been won\" and that \"a television show based on hope, spiritual faith, and family is unimagined and regurgitated as a show of despair, sexual violence and family dysfunction\".He appeared as a contestant on the 2007 UK series of ''Celebrity Big Brother 5'', which he placed 3rd.", "He arrived on launch night in a replica of the ''A-Team'' van, smoking a cigar and accompanied by the ''A-Team'' theme tune.In 2010, Benedict starred in a stage production of ''Prescription: Murder'' playing Lieutenant Columbo for the Middle Ground Theatre Company in the UK.", "Benedict also made a cameo appearance in the 2010 film adaptation of ''The A-Team'' as Pensacola Prisoner Milt.In 2019, Benedict took on the role of Jack Strange in the B movie ''Space Ninjas'', written and directed by Scott McQuaid.", "Dirk plays an eccentric TV host of a show called ''Stranger Than Fiction'', which is like a hybrid of ''The Twilight Zone'' and ''The X-Files''.", "The movie is a sci-fi comedy horror that follows a bunch of high school students trying to survive the night of a Space Ninja invasion." ], [ "Personal life", "===Cancer===In the 1970s, Benedict survived a prostate tumor, which he refused to have tested for malignancy.", "Having rejected conventional medical treatment, he credited his survival to the adoption of a macrobiotic diet recommended to him by actress Gloria Swanson.===Marriage and family===In 1986, he married Toni Hudson, an actress with whom he has two sons, George and Roland.", "Hudson had previously appeared as Dana in the fourth season ''A-Team'' episode titled \"Blood, Sweat and Cheers\".", "They divorced in 1995.In 1998, Benedict learned that he also has another son from an earlier relationship, who was placed for adoption.." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1972 ''Georgia, Georgia'' Michael Winters 1973 ''Sssssss'' David Blake 1974 ''W'' William Caulder a.k.a.", "''I Want Her Dead'' 1978 ''Battlestar Galactica'' Lieutenant Starbuck 1979 ''Scavenger Hunt'' Jeff Stevens 1980 ''Ruckus'' Kyle Hanson a.k.a.", "''Ruckus in Madoc County'' 1981 ''Underground Aces'' Pete Huffman 1986 ''Body Slam'' M. Harry Smilac 1991 ''Blue Tornado'' Alex Long 1992 ''Shadow Force'' Detective Rick Kelly 1994 ''Demon Keeper'' Alexander Harris 1995 ''The Feminine Touch'' John Mackie Direct-to-video; a.k.a.", "''The November Conspiracy'' 1996 ''Alaska'' Jake Barnes 1998 ''The Adventures of Young Brave'' Tyler a.k.a.", "''Waking Up Horton'' 2001 ''Cahoots'' — Director and writer 2006 ''Goldene Zeiten'' Douglas Burnett / John Striker / Horst Müller 2007 ''Recon 7 Down'' Tom Myers 2009 ''Inglorious Bumblers'' Tom Mayers Direct-to-video 2010 ''The A-Team'' Milt, Pensacola Prisoner2019 ''Space Ninjas'' Jack Strange 2020 ''Charlie's Christmas Wish'' Stanley=== Television === Year Title Role Notes 1972 ''Hawaii Five-O'' Walter Clyman Episode: \"Chain of Events\" 1974 ''Chopper One'' Officer Gil Foley 13 episodes; Main cast 1975 ''Journey from Darkness'' Bill TV film 1977 ''Charlie's Angels'' Cadet John Barton Episode: \"The Blue Angels\" ''The Cabot Connection'' Brom Loomis Pilot episode 1978 ''Cruise Into Terror'' Simon McLane TV film ''Charlie's Angels'' Denny Railsback Episode: \"The Jade Trap\" 1978–1979 ''Battlestar Galactica'' Lieutenant Starbuck 24 episodes; Main cast 1980 ''Galactica 1980'' Lieutenant Starbuck Episode: \"The Return of Starbuck\" ''The Georgia Peaches'' \"Dusty\" Tyree TV film; a.k.a.", "''Follow That Car'' 1980 ''The Love Boat'' Jeff Dalton Episode: \"That's My Dad\" 1982 ''Family in Blue'' Matt Malone TV pilot episode 1983 ''The Love Boat'' Gary Wells Episode: \"The Dog Show: Whose Dog Is It Anyway?\"", "1983–1987 ''The A-Team'' Lieutenant Templeton \"Faceman\" Peck 96 episodes; Main cast 1984 ''Hammer House of Mystery and Suspense'' Frank Rowlett Episode: \"Mark of the Devil\" 1985 ''Amazing Stories'' \"Face\" Episode: \"Remote Control Man\" 1987 ''Hotel'' Trevor Harris Episode: \"Prized Possessions\" 1989 ''Murder, She Wrote'' Dr. David Latimer Episode: \"Smooth Operators\" ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' Dr.", "Rush Episode: \"In the Name of Science\" ''Trenchcoat in Paradise'' Eddie Mazda TV film 1991 ''Bejewelled'' Gordon TV film 1992 ''Baywatch'' Aaron Brody Episode: \"Rookie of the Year\" 1993 ''Official Denial'' Lieutenant Colonel Dan Lerner TV film ''The Commish'' Gil Higgins Episode: \"All That Glitters\" 1995 ''Walker, Texas Ranger'' Blair Episode: \"Case Closed\" ''Murder, She Wrote'' Gary Harling Episode: \"Frozen Stiff\" 1996 ''Abduction of Innocence'' Robert Steves TV film 1997 ''Zork: Grand Inquisitor'' Antharia Jack (voice) Video game 2003 ''Battlestar Galactica'' Lieutenant Starbuck (voice) Video game 2006 ''Earthstorm'' Victor Stevens TV film" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Doppler effect" ], [ "Introduction", "Change of wavelength caused by motion of the source.", "An animation illustrating how the Doppler effect causes a car engine or siren to sound higher in pitch when it is approaching than when it is receding.", "The red circles represent sound waves.The '''Doppler effect''' (also '''Doppler shift''') is the change in the frequency of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave.", "The ''Doppler effect'' is named after the physicist Christian Doppler, who described the phenomenon in 1842.A common example of Doppler shift is the change of pitch heard when a vehicle sounding a horn approaches and recedes from an observer.", "Compared to the emitted frequency, the received frequency is higher during the approach, identical at the instant of passing by, and lower during the recession.When the source of the sound wave is moving towards the observer, each successive cycle of the wave is emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous cycle.", "Hence, from the observer's perspective, the time between cycles is reduced, meaning the frequency is increased.", "Conversely, if the source of the sound wave is moving away from the observer, each cycle of the wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the previous cycle, so the arrival time between successive cycles is increased, thus reducing the frequency.For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted.", "The total Doppler effect in such cases may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of the observer, motion of the medium, or any combination thereof.", "For waves propagating in vacuum, as is possible for electromagnetic waves or gravitational waves, only the difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered." ], [ "History", "Experiment by Buys Ballot (1845) depicted on a wall in Utrecht (2019)Doppler first proposed this effect in 1842 in his treatise \"''Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels''\" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens).", "The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by Buys Ballot in 1845.He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher than the emitted frequency when the sound source approached him, and lower than the emitted frequency when the sound source receded from him.", "Hippolyte Fizeau discovered independently the same phenomenon on electromagnetic waves in 1848 (in France, the effect is sometimes called \"effet Doppler-Fizeau\" but that name was not adopted by the rest of the world as Fizeau's discovery was six years after Doppler's proposal).", "In Britain, John Scott Russell made an experimental study of the Doppler effect (1848)." ], [ "General", "In classical physics, where the speeds of source and the receiver relative to the medium are lower than the speed of waves in the medium, the relationship between observed frequency and emitted frequency is given by:where* is the propagation speed of waves in the medium;* is the speed of the receiver relative to the medium, added to if the receiver is moving towards the source, subtracted if the receiver is moving away from the source;* is the speed of the source relative to the medium, added to if the source is moving away from the receiver, subtracted if the source is moving towards the receiver.Note this relationship predicts that the frequency will decrease if either source or receiver is moving away from the other.Equivalently, under the assumption that the source is either directly approaching or receding from the observer:where * is the wave's speed relative to the receiver;* is the wave's speed relative to the source;* is the wavelength.If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a constant speed), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than the object's emitted frequency.", "Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through equality when it is coming from a direction perpendicular to the relative motion (and was emitted at the point of closest approach; but when the wave is received, the source and observer will no longer be at their closest), and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the observer.", "When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt.", "When the observer is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low frequency is gradual.If the speeds and are small compared to the speed of the wave, the relationship between observed frequency and emitted frequency is approximatelyObserved frequencyChange in frequencywhere** is the opposite of the relative speed of the receiver with respect to the source: it is positive when the source and the receiver are moving towards each other.File:Dopplereffectstationary.gif|Stationary sound source produces sound waves at a constant frequency , and the wave-fronts propagate symmetrically away from the source at a constant speed c. The distance between wave-fronts is the wavelength.", "All observers will hear the same frequency, which will be equal to the actual frequency of the source where .File:Dopplereffectsourcemovingrightatmach0.7.gif|The same sound source is radiating sound waves at a constant frequency in the same medium.", "However, now the sound source is moving with a speed .", "Since the source is moving, the centre of each new wavefront is now slightly displaced to the right.", "As a result, the wave-fronts begin to bunch up on the right side (in front of) and spread further apart on the left side (behind) of the source.", "An observer in front of the source will hear a higher frequency and an observer behind the source will hear a lower frequency .File:Dopplereffectsourcemovingrightatmach1.0.gif|Now the source is moving at the speed of sound in the medium ().", "The wave fronts in front of the source are now all bunched up at the same point.", "As a result, an observer in front of the source will detect nothing until the source arrives and an observer behind the source will hear a lower frequency .File:Dopplereffectsourcemovingrightatmach1.4.gif|The sound source has now surpassed the speed of sound in the medium, and is traveling at 1.4 ''c''.", "Since the source is moving faster than the sound waves it creates, it actually leads the advancing wavefront.", "The sound source will pass by a stationary observer before the observer hears the sound.", "As a result, an observer in front of the source will detect nothing and an observer behind the source will hear a lower frequency ." ], [ "Consequences", "With an observer stationary relative to the medium, if a moving source is emitting waves with an actual frequency (in this case, the wavelength is changed, the transmission velocity of the wave keeps constant; note that the ''transmission velocity'' of the wave does not depend on the ''velocity of the source''), then the observer detects waves with a frequency given byA similar analysis for a moving ''observer'' and a stationary source (in this case, the wavelength keeps constant, but due to the motion, the rate at which the observer receives waves and hence the ''transmission velocity'' of the wave with respect to the observer is changed) yields the observed frequency:Assuming a stationary observer and a wave source moving towards the observer at (or exceeding) the speed of the wave, the Doppler equation predicts an infinite (or negative) frequency as from the observer's perspective.", "Thus, the Doppler equation is inapplicable for such cases.", "If the wave is a sound wave and the sound source is moving faster than the speed of sound, the resulting shock wave creates a sonic boom.Lord Rayleigh predicted the following effect in his classic book on sound: if the observer were moving from the (stationary) source at twice the speed of sound, a musical piece ''previously'' emitted by that source would be heard in correct tempo and pitch, but as if played ''backwards''." ], [ "Applications", "===Acoustic Doppler current profiler===An acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) is a hydroacoustic current meter similar to a sonar, used to measure water current velocities over a depth range using the Doppler effect of sound waves scattered back from particles within the water column.", "The term ADCP is a generic term for all acoustic current profilers, although the abbreviation originates from an instrument series introduced by RD Instruments in the 1980s.", "The working frequencies range of ADCPs range from 38 kHz to several Megahertz.", "The device used in the air for wind speed profiling using sound is known as SODAR and works with the same underlying principles.===Robotics===Dynamic real-time path planning in robotics to aid the movement of robots in a sophisticated environment with moving obstacles often take help of Doppler effect.", "Such applications are specially used for competitive robotics where the environment is constantly changing, such as robosoccer.===Sirens===Sirens on passing emergency vehicles.A siren on a passing emergency vehicle will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer.", "Astronomer John Dobson explained the effect thus:In other words, if the siren approached the observer directly, the pitch would remain constant, at a higher than stationary pitch, until the vehicle hit him, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch.", "Because the vehicle passes by the observer, the radial speed does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between his line of sight and the siren's velocity:where is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer.===Astronomy===Redshift of spectral lines in the optical spectrum of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to that of the Sun (left)The Doppler effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of widespread use in astronomy to measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us, resulting in so called blueshift or redshift, respectively.", "This may be used to detect if an apparently single star is, in reality, a close binary, to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies, or to detect exoplanets.", "This effect typically happens on a very small scale; there would not be a noticeable difference in visible light to the unaided eye.The use of the Doppler effect in astronomy depends on knowledge of precise frequencies of discrete lines in the spectra of stars.Among the nearby stars, the largest radial velocities with respect to the Sun are +308 km/s (BD-15°4041, also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and −260 km/s (Woolley 9722, also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away).", "Positive radial speed means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching.Redshift is also used to measure the expansion of the universe.", "It is sometimes claimed that this is not truly a Doppler effect but instead arises from the expansion of space.", "However, this picture can be misleading because the expansion of space is only a mathematical convention, corresponding to a choice of coordinates.", "The most natural interpretation of the cosmological redshift is that it is indeed a Doppler shift.Distant galaxies also exhibit peculiar motion distinct from their cosmological recession speeds.", "If redshifts are used to determine distances in accordance with Hubble's law, then these peculiar motions give rise to redshift-space distortions.===Radar===U.S.", "Army soldier using a radar gun, an application of Doppler radar, to catch speeding violators.The Doppler effect is used in some types of radar, to measure the velocity of detected objects.", "A radar beam is fired at a moving target — e.g.", "a motor car, as police use radar to detect speeding motorists — as it approaches or recedes from the radar source.", "Each successive radar wave has to travel farther to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source.", "As each wave has to move farther, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength.", "In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength.", "In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's speed.", "Moreover, the proximity fuze, developed during World War II, relies upon Doppler radar to detonate explosives at the correct time, height, distance, etc.Because the Doppler shift affects the wave incident upon the target as well as the wave reflected back to the radar, the change in frequency observed by a radar due to a target moving at relative speed is twice that from the same target emitting a wave:===Medical===Colour flow ultrasonography (Doppler) of a carotid artery – scanner and screenAn echocardiogram can, within certain limits, produce an accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the Doppler effect.", "One of the limitations is that the ultrasound beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible.", "Velocity measurements allow assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the cardiac output.", "Contrast-enhanced ultrasound using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements.Although \"Doppler\" has become synonymous with \"velocity measurement\" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (''when'' the received signal arrives).Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical ultrasonography, such as obstetric ultrasonography and neurology.", "Velocity measurement of blood flow in arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like stenosis.===Flow measurement===Instruments such as the laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV), and acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure velocities in a fluid flow.", "The LDV emits a light beam and the ADV emits an ultrasonic acoustic burst, and measure the Doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow.", "The actual flow is computed as a function of the water velocity and phase.", "This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency.===Velocity profile measurement===Developed originally for velocity measurements in medical applications (blood flow), Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimetry (UDV) can measure in real time complete velocity profile in almost any liquids containing particles in suspension such as dust, gas bubbles, emulsions.", "Flows can be pulsating, oscillating, laminar or turbulent, stationary or transient.", "This technique is fully non-invasive.===Satellites=== LEO: orbit altitude = 750 km).", "Fixed ground station.", "Geometry for Doppler effects.", "Variables: is the velocity of the mobile station, is the velocity of the satellite, is the relative velocity of the satellite, is the elevation angle of the satellite and is the driving direction with respect to the satellite.", "Doppler Spread) and is the additional Doppler shift due to the satellite moving.", "====Satellite navigation====The Doppler shift can be exploited for satellite navigation such as in Transit and DORIS.", "====Satellite communication====Doppler also needs to be compensated in satellite communication.", "Fast moving satellites can have a Doppler shift of dozens of kilohertz relative to a ground station.", "The speed, thus magnitude of Doppler effect, changes due to earth curvature.", "Dynamic Doppler compensation, where the frequency of a signal is changed progressively during transmission, is used so the satellite receives a constant frequency signal.", "After realizing that the Doppler shift had not been considered before launch of the Huygens probe of the 2005 Cassini–Huygens mission, the probe trajectory was altered to approach Titan in such a way that its transmissions traveled perpendicular to its direction of motion relative to Cassini, greatly reducing the Doppler shift.Doppler shift of the direct path can be estimated by the following formula:where is the speed of the mobile station, is the wavelength of the carrier, is the elevation angle of the satellite and is the driving direction with respect to the satellite.The additional Doppler shift due to the satellite moving can be described as:where is the relative speed of the satellite.===Audio===The Leslie speaker, most commonly associated with and predominantly used with the famous Hammond organ, takes advantage of the Doppler effect by using an electric motor to rotate an acoustic horn around a loudspeaker, sending its sound in a circle.", "This results at the listener's ear in rapidly fluctuating frequencies of a keyboard note.===Vibration measurement===A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) is a non-contact instrument for measuring vibration.", "The laser beam from the LDV is directed at the surface of interest, and the vibration amplitude and frequency are extracted from the Doppler shift of the laser beam frequency due to the motion of the surface.===Developmental biology===During the segmentation of vertebrate embryos, waves of gene expression sweep across the presomitic mesoderm, the tissue from which the precursors of the vertebrae (somites) are formed.", "A new somite is formed upon arrival of a wave at the anterior end of the presomitic mesoderm.", "In zebrafish, it has been shown that the shortening of the presomitic mesoderm during segmentation leads to a Doppler-like effect as the anterior end of the tissue moves into the waves.", "This effect contributes to the period of segmentation." ], [ "Inverse Doppler effect", "Since 1968 scientists such as Victor Veselago have speculated about the possibility of an inverse Doppler effect.", "The size of the Doppler shift depends on the refractive index of the medium a wave is traveling through.", "Some materials are capable of negative refraction, which should lead to a Doppler shift that works in a direction opposite that of a conventional Doppler shift.", "The first experiment that detected this effect was conducted by Nigel Seddon and Trevor Bearpark in Bristol, United Kingdom in 2003.Later, the inverse Doppler effect was observed in some inhomogeneous materials, and predicted inside a Vavilov–Cherenkov cone." ], [ "See also", "* Bistatic Doppler shift* Differential Doppler effect* Doppler cooling* Dopplergraph* Fading* Fizeau experiment* Photoacoustic Doppler effect* Range rate* Rayleigh fading* Redshift* Laser Doppler imaging* Relativistic Doppler effect" ], [ "Primary sources" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Doppler, C. (1842).", "''Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels (About the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens)''.", "Publisher: Abhandlungen der Königl.", "Böhm.", "Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (V. Folge, Bd.", "2, S. 465–482) Proceedings of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences (Part V, Vol 2); Prague: 1842 (Reissued 1903).", "Some sources mention 1843 as year of publication because in that year the article was published in the Proceedings of the Bohemian Society of Sciences.", "Doppler himself referred to the publication as \"Prag 1842 bei Borrosch und André\", because in 1842 he had a preliminary edition printed that he distributed independently.", "* \"Doppler and the Doppler effect\", E. N. da C. Andrade, ''Endeavour'' Vol.", "XVIII No.", "69, January 1959 (published by ICI London).", "Historical account of Doppler's original paper and subsequent developments.", "* David Nolte (2020).", "''The fall and rise of the Doppler effect.''", "Physics Today, v. 73, pgs.", "31 - 35.DOI: 10.1063/PT.3.4429*" ], [ "External links", "* * Doppler Effect, ScienceWorld" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "ΔT (timekeeping)" ], [ "Introduction", "TT-UT1 2000+Δ''T'' vs. time from 1657 to 2022 In precise timekeeping, '''Δ''T''''' ('''Delta ''T''''', '''delta-''T''''', '''delta''T''''', or '''D''T''''') is a measure of the cumulative effect of the departure of the Earth's rotation period from the fixed-length day of International Atomic Time (86,400 seconds).", "Formally, Δ''T'' is the time difference between Universal Time (UT, defined by Earth's rotation) and Terrestrial Time (TT, independent of Earth's rotation).", "The value of ΔT for the start of 1902 was approximately zero; for 2002 it was about 64 seconds.", "So Earth's rotations over that century took about 64 seconds longer than would be required for days of atomic time.", "As well as this long-term drift in the length of the day there are short-term fluctuations in the length of day () which are dealt with separately.Since early 2017, the length of the day has happened to be very close to the conventional value, and ΔT has remained within half a second of 69 seconds." ], [ "Calculation", "Earth's rotational speed is , and a day corresponds to one period .", "A rotational acceleration gives a rate of change of the period of , which is usually expressed as .", "This has units of 1/time, and is commonly quoted as milliseconds-per-day per century (written as ms/day/cy, understood as (ms/day)/cy).", "Integrating gives an expression for Δ''T'' against time.===Universal time===Universal Time is a time scale based on the Earth's rotation, which is somewhat irregular over short periods (days up to a century), thus any time based on it cannot have an accuracy better than 1 in 108.However, a larger, more consistent effect has been observed over many centuries: Earth's rate of rotation is inexorably slowing down.", "This observed change in the rate of rotation is attributable to two primary forces, one decreasing and one increasing the Earth's rate of rotation.", "Over the long term, the dominating force is tidal friction, which is slowing the rate of rotation, contributing about ms/day/cy or ms/cy, which is equal to the very small fractional change day/day.", "The most important force acting in the opposite direction, to speed up the rate, is believed to be a result of the melting of continental ice sheets at the end of the last glacial period.", "This removed their tremendous weight, allowing the land under them to begin to rebound upward in the polar regions, an effect that is still occurring today and will continue until isostatic equilibrium is reached.", "This \"post-glacial rebound\" brings mass closer to the rotational axis of the Earth, which makes the Earth spin faster, according to the law of conservation of angular momentum, similar to an ice skater pulling their arms in to spin faster.", "Models estimate this effect to contribute about −0.6 ms/day/cy.", "Combining these two effects, the net acceleration (actually a deceleration) of the rotation of the Earth, or the change in the length of the mean solar day (LOD), is +1.7 ms/day/cy or +62 s/cy2 or +46.5 ns/day2.This matches the average rate derived from astronomical records over the past 27 centuries.===Terrestrial time===Terrestrial Time is a theoretical uniform time scale, defined to provide continuity with the former Ephemeris Time (ET).", "ET was an independent time-variable, proposed (and its adoption agreed) in the period 1948–1952 with the intent of forming a gravitationally uniform time scale as far as was feasible at that time, and depending for its definition on Simon Newcomb's ''Tables of the Sun'' (1895), interpreted in a new way to accommodate certain observed discrepancies.", "Newcomb's tables formed the basis of all astronomical ephemerides of the Sun from 1900 through 1983: they were originally expressed (and published) in terms of Greenwich Mean Time and the mean solar day, but later, in respect of the period 1960–1983, they were treated as expressed in terms of ET, in accordance with the adopted ET proposal of 1948–52.ET, in turn, can now be seen (in light of modern results) as close to the average mean solar time between 1750 and 1890 (centered on 1820), because that was the period during which the observations on which Newcomb's tables were based were performed.", "While TT is strictly uniform (being based on the SI second, every second is the same as every other second), it is in practice realised by International Atomic Time (TAI) with an accuracy of about 1 part in 1014." ], [ "Earth's rate of rotation", "Earth's rate of rotation must be integrated to obtain time, which is Earth's angular position (specifically, the orientation of the meridian of Greenwich relative to the fictitious mean sun).", "Integrating +1.7 ms/d/cy and centering the resulting parabola on the year 1820 yields (to a first approximation) seconds for Δ''T''.", "Smoothed historical measurements of Δ''T'' using total solar eclipses are about +17190 s in the year −500 (501 BC), +10580 s in 0 (1 BC), +5710 s in 500, +1570 s in 1000, and +200 s in 1500.After the invention of the telescope, measurements were made by observing occultations of stars by the Moon, which allowed the derivation of more closely spaced and more accurate values for Δ''T''.", "Δ''T'' continued to decrease until it reached a plateau of +11 ± 6 s between 1680 and 1866.For about three decades immediately before 1902 it was negative, reaching −6.64 s. Then it increased to +63.83 s in January 2000 and +68.97 s in January 2018 and +69.361 s in January 2020, after even a slight decrease from 69.358 s in July 2019 to 69.338 s in September and October 2019 and a new increase in November and December 2019.This will require the addition of an ever-greater number of leap seconds to UTC as long as UTC tracks UT1 with one-second adjustments.", "(The SI second as now used for UTC, when adopted, was already a little shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.)", "Physically, the meridian of Greenwich in Universal Time is almost always to the east of the meridian in Terrestrial Time, both in the past and in the future.", "+17190 s or about  h corresponds to 71.625°E.", "This means that in the year −500 (501 BC), Earth's faster rotation would cause a total solar eclipse to occur 71.625° to the east of the location calculated using the uniform TT." ], [ "Values prior to 1955", "All values of Δ''T'' before 1955 depend on observations of the Moon, either via eclipses or occultations.", "The angular momentum lost by the Earth due to friction induced by the Moon's tidal effect is transferred to the Moon, increasing its angular momentum, which means that its moment arm (approximately its distance from the Earth, i.e.", "precisely the semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit) is increased (for the time being about +3.8 cm/year), which via Kepler's laws of planetary motion causes the Moon to revolve around the Earth at a slower rate.", "The cited values of Δ''T'' assume that the lunar acceleration (actually a deceleration, that is a negative acceleration) due to this effect is = −26″/cy2, where is the mean sidereal angular motion of the Moon.", "This is close to the best estimate for as of 2002 of −25.858 ± 0.003″/cy2, so Δ''T'' need not be recalculated given the uncertainties and smoothing applied to its current values.", "Nowadays, UT is the observed orientation of the Earth relative to an inertial reference frame formed by extra-galactic radio sources, modified by an adopted ratio between sidereal time and solar time.", "Its measurement by several observatories is coordinated by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)." ], [ "Geological evidence", "Tidal deceleration rates have varied over the history of the Earth-Moon system.", "Analysis of layering in fossil mollusc shells from 70 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, shows that there were 372 days a year, and thus that the day was about 23.5 hours long then.", "Based on geological studies of tidal rhythmites, the day was 21.9±0.4 hours long 620 million years ago and there were 13.1±0.1 synodic months/year and 400±7 solar days/year.", "The average recession rate of the Moon between then and now has been 2.17±0.31 cm/year, which is about half the present rate.", "The present high rate may be due to near resonance between natural ocean frequencies and tidal frequencies." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*McCarthy, D.D.", "& Seidelmann, P.K.", "''TIME: From Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics.''", "Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.", "(2009).", "* Morrison, L.V.", "& Stephenson, F. R. \" Historical values of the Earth's clock error Δ''T'' and the calculation of eclipses\" (pdf, 862 KB), ''Journal for the History of Astronomy'' '''35''' (2004) 327–336.", "* Stephenson, F.R.", "''Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation''.", "Cambridge University Press, 1997.", "* Stephenson, F. R. & Morrison, L.V.", "\"Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990\".", "''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', Series A '''351''' (1995) 165–202.JSTOR link.", "Includes evidence that the 'growth' in Delta-T is being modified by an oscillation with a wavelength around 1500 years; if that is true, then during the next few centuries Delta-T values will increase more slowly than is envisaged." ], [ "External links", "* IERS Rapid Service-Prediction Center Values for Delta T.* Delta T webpage by Robert van Gent* Delta T webpage by Felix Verbelen (archived from the original dead URL)* Eclipse Predictions and Earth's Rotation by Fred Espenak (archived from the original dead URL)* Polynomial expressions for Delta T (Δ''T'') Espenak and Meeus* Delta-T Charts and data software (archived from the original dead URL)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 22" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*AD 69 – Vespasian is proclaimed Emperor of Rome; his predecessor, Vitellius, attempts to abdicate but is captured and killed at the Gemonian stairs.", "* 401 – Pope Innocent I is elected, the only pope to succeed his father in the office.", "* 856 – Damghan earthquake: An earthquake near the Persian city of Damghan kills an estimated 200,000 people, the sixth deadliest earthquake in recorded history.", "* 880 – Luoyang, eastern capital of the Tang dynasty, is captured by rebel leader Huang Chao during the reign of Emperor Xizong.", "*1135 – Three weeks after the death of King Henry I of England, Stephen of Blois claims the throne and is privately crowned King of England, beginning the English Anarchy.", "*1216 – Pope Honorius III approves the Dominican Order through the papal bull of confirmation Religiosam vitam.", "*1489 – The forces of the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, take control of Almería from the Nasrid ruler of Granada, Muhammad XIII.===1601–1900===*1769 – Sino-Burmese War: The war ends with the Qing dynasty withdrawing from Burma forever.", "*1788 – Nguyễn Huệ proclaims himself Emperor Quang Trung, in effect abolishing on his own the Lê dynasty.", "*1790 – The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Alexander Suvorov and his Russian armies.", "*1807 – The Embargo Act, forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the U.S. Congress at the urging of President Thomas Jefferson.", "*1808 – Ludwig van Beethoven conducts and performs in concert at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna, with the premiere of his Fifth Symphony, Sixth Symphony, Fourth Piano Concerto and ''Choral Fantasy''.", "*1851 – India's first freight train is operated in Roorkee, to transport material for the construction of the Ganges Canal.", "* 1851 – The Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., burns.", "*1864 – American Civil War: Savannah, Georgia, falls to the Union's Army of the Tennessee, and General Sherman tells President Abraham Lincoln: \"I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah\".", "*1885 – Itō Hirobumi, a samurai, becomes the first Prime Minister of Japan.", "*1888 – The Christmas Meeting of 1888, considered to be the official start of the Faroese independence movement.", "*1890 – Cornwallis Valley Railway begins operation between Kentville and Kingsport, Nova Scotia.", "*1891 – Asteroid 323 Brucia becomes the first asteroid discovered using photography.", "*1894 – The Dreyfus affair begins in France, when Alfred Dreyfus is wrongly convicted of treason.===1901–present===*1906 – An 7.9 earthquake strikes Xinjiang, China, killing at least 280.", "*1920 – The GOELRO economic development plan is adopted by the 8th Congress of Soviets of the Russian SFSR.", "*1921 – Opening of Visva-Bharati College, also known as Santiniketan College, now Visva Bharati University, India.", "*1937 – The Lincoln Tunnel opens to traffic in New York City.", "*1939 – Indian Muslims observe a \"Day of Deliverance\" to celebrate the resignations of members of the Indian National Congress over their not having been consulted over the decision to enter World War II with the United Kingdom.", "*1940 – World War II: Himara is captured by the Greek army.", "*1942 – World War II: Adolf Hitler signs the order to develop the V-2 rocket as a weapon.", "*1944 – World War II: Battle of the Bulge: German troops demand the surrender of United States troops at Bastogne, Belgium, prompting the famous one word reply by General Anthony McAuliffe: \"Nuts!", "\"* 1944 – World War II: The People's Army of Vietnam is formed to resist Japanese occupation of Indochina, now Vietnam.", "*1945 – U.S. President Harry S. Truman issues an executive order giving World War II refugees precedence in visa applications under U.S. immigration quotas.", "*1948 – Sjafruddin Prawiranegara established the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (''Pemerintah Darurat Republik Indonesia'', PDRI) in West Sumatra.", "*1963 – The cruise ship ''Lakonia'' burns north of Madeira, Portugal with the loss of 128 lives.", "*1964 – The first test flight of the SR-71 (Blackbird) takes place at Air Force Plant 42 in Palmdale, California, United States.", "*1965 – In the United Kingdom, a speed limit is applied to all rural roads including motorways for the first time.", "*1968 – Cultural Revolution: ''People's Daily'' posted the instructions of Mao Zedong that \"The intellectual youth must go to the country, and will be educated from living in rural poverty.", "\"*1971 – The international aid organization Doctors Without Borders is founded by Bernard Kouchner and a group of journalists in Paris, France.", "*1973 – A Royal Air Maroc Sud Aviation Caravelle crashes near Tangier-Boukhalef Airport in Tangier, Morocco, killing 106.", "*1974 – Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli vote to become the independent nation of Comoros.", "Mayotte remains under French administration.", "* 1974 – The house of former British Prime Minister Edward Heath is attacked by members of the Provisional IRA.", "*1975 – U.S. President Gerald Ford creates the Strategic Petroleum Reserve in response to the 1970s energy crisis.", "*1978 – The pivotal Third Plenum of the 11th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party is held in Beijing, with Deng Xiaoping reversing Mao-era policies to pursue a program for Chinese economic reform.", "*1984 – \"Subway vigilante\" Bernhard Goetz shoots four would-be muggers on a 2 express train in Manhattan section of New York, United States.", "*1987 – In Zimbabwe, the political parties ZANU and ZAPU reach an agreement that ends the violence in the Matabeleland region known as the Gukurahundi.", "*1989 – Romanian Revolution: Communist President of Romania Nicolae Ceaușescu is overthrown by Ion Iliescu after days of bloody confrontations.", "The deposed dictator and his wife Elena flee Bucharest in a helicopter as protesters erupt in cheers.", "* 1989 – German reunification: Berlin's Brandenburg Gate re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of East and West Germany.", "*1990 – Lech Wałęsa is elected President of Poland.", "* 1990 – Final independence of Marshall Islands and Federated States of Micronesia after termination of trusteeship.", "*1992 – During approach to Tripoli International Airport, a Boeing 727 operating as Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 1103 collides in mid-air with a Libyan Air Force Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23, killing 157 people.", "*1996 – Airborne Express Flight 827 crashes in Narrows, Virginia, killing all six people on board.", "*1997 – Acteal massacre: Attendees at a prayer meeting of Roman Catholic activists for indigenous causes in the small village of Acteal in the Mexican state of Chiapas are massacred by paramilitary forces.", "* 1997 – Somali Civil War: Hussein Farrah Aidid relinquishes the disputed title of President of Somalia by signing the Cairo Declaration, in Cairo, Egypt.", "It is the first major step towards reconciliation in Somalia since 1991.", "*1999 – Just after taking off from London Stansted Airport, Korean Air Cargo Flight 8509 crashes into Hatfield Forest near Great Hallingbury, killing all four people on board.", "*2001 – Burhanuddin Rabbani, political leader of the Northern Alliance, hands over power in Islamic State of Afghanistan to the interim government headed by President Hamid Karzai.", "* 2001 – Richard Reid attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard American Airlines Flight 63.", "* 2008 – An ash dike ruptured at a solid waste containment area for a Tennessee Valley Authority coal-fired power plant in Roane County, Tennessee, releasing of coal fly ash slurry in the largest industrial spill in U.S.", "history.", "*2010 – The repeal of the Don't ask, don't tell policy, the 17-year-old policy banning homosexuals serving openly in the United States military, is signed into law by President Barack Obama.", "*2012 – Bashir Ahmad Bilour of Awami National Party and eight others are killed in a Pakistan Taliban bomber suicide attack in Dhaki Nalbandi area near Qissa Khwani Bazaar.", "*2016 – A study finds the VSV-EBOV vaccine against the Ebola virus between 70 and 100% effective, thus making it the first proven vaccine against the disease.", "*2017 – United Nations Security Council Resolution 2397 against North Korea is unanimously approved.", "* 2017 – President Donald Trump signs the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.", "*2018 – A tsunami caused by an eruption of Anak Krakatau in Indonesia kills at least 430 people and injures almost a thousand more.", "* 2018 – The 2018–2019 United States federal government shutdown, the longest shutdown of the U.S. federal government in history, begins." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 244 – Diocletian, Roman emperor (d. 311)* 948 – Gang Gam-chan, Korean official and general (d. 1031)*1095 – Roger II of Sicily (d. 1154)*1178 – Emperor Antoku of Japan (d. 1185)*1183 – Chagatai Khan, Mongol ruler (d. 1242)*1300 – Khutughtu Khan Kusala, Mongolian emperor (d. 1329)*1459 – Sultan Cem, Ottoman politician (d. 1495)*1546 – Kuroda Yoshitaka, Japanese daimyō (d. 1604)*1550 – Cesare Cremonini, Italian philosopher and author (d. 1631)*1569 – Étienne Martellange, French architect (d. 1641)*1591 – Tommaso Dingli, Maltese architect and sculptor (d. 1666)===1601–1900===*1639 – Jean Racine, French poet and playwright (d. 1699)*1666 – Guru Gobind Singh, Indian guru and poet (d. 1708)*1694 – Hermann Samuel Reimarus, German philosopher and academic (d. 1768)*1696 – James Oglethorpe, English general and politician, 1st Colonial Governor of Georgia (d. 1785)*1723 – Carl Friedrich Abel, German viol player and composer (d. 1787)*1765 – Johann Friedrich Pfaff, German mathematician and academic (d. 1825)*1799 – Nicholas Callan, Irish priest and physicist (d. 1864)*1805 – John Obadiah Westwood, English entomologist and archaeologist (d. 1893)*1807 – Johan Sebastian Welhaven, Norwegian author, poet, and critic (d. 1873)*1819 – Franz Abt, German composer and conductor (d. 1870)* 1819 – Pierre Ossian Bonnet, French mathematician and academic (d. 1892)*1839 – John Nevil Maskelyne, English magician (d. 1917)*1850 – Victoriano Huerta, Mexican general and politician, 35th President of Mexico (d. 1916)*1853 – Teresa Carreño, Venezuelan-American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1917)* 1853 – Evgraf Fedorov, Russian mathematician, crystallographer, and mineralogist (d. 1919)* 1853 – Sarada Devi, Indian mystic and philosopher (d. 1920)*1856 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and politician, 45th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)*1858 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer and educator (d. 1924)*1862 – Connie Mack, American baseball player and manager (d. 1956)*1865 – Charles Sands, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1945)*1868 – Jaan Tõnisson, Estonian journalist, lawyer, and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Estonia (d.", "1941?", ")*1869 – Dmitri Egorov, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 1931)* 1869 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (d. 1935)*1872 – Camille Guérin, French veterinarian and bacteriologist (d. 1961)*1874 – Franz Schmidt, Austrian cellist, pianist, and composer (d. 1939)*1876 – Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Egyptian-Italian poet and composer (d. 1944)*1878 – Myer Prinstein, Polish-American jumper (d. 1925)*1880 – Fred Woolley, Australian rugby league player (d. 1955)*1883 – Marcus Hurley, American cyclist (d. 1941)* 1883 – Edgard Varèse, French-American composer (d. 1965)*1884 – St. Elmo Brady, African American chemist and educator (d. 1966)*1885 – Deems Taylor, American conductor and critic (d. 1966)*1887 – Srinivasa Ramanujan, Indian mathematician and theorist (d. 1920)*1888 – J. Arthur Rank, 1st Baron Rank, English businessman, founded Rank Organisation (d. 1972)*1889 – George Hutson, English runner and soldier (d. 1914)*1892 – Herman Potočnik, Slovenian-Austrian engineer (d. 1929)*1894 – Edwin Linkomies, Finnish academic, professor and the Prime Minister of Finland (d. 1963)*1898 – Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist and mathematician (d. 1974)*1899 – Gustaf Gründgens, German actor and director (d. 1963)*1900 – Marc Allégret, French director and screenwriter (d. 1973)===1901–present===*1901 – Andre Kostelanetz, Russian-American conductor and composer (d. 1980)*1903 – Haldan Keffer Hartline, American physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1983)*1905 – Pierre Brasseur, French-Italian actor and screenwriter (d. 1972)* 1905 – Pierre Levegh, French ice hockey player and racing driver (d. 1955)* 1905 – Kenneth Rexroth, American poet, translator, and academic (d. 1982)*1907 – Peggy Ashcroft, English actress (d. 1991)*1908 – Giacomo Manzù, Italian sculptor and academic (d. 1991)*1909 – Patricia Hayes, English actress (d. 1998)*1911 – Danny O'Dea, English actor (d. 2003)*1912 – Elias Degiannis, Greek commander (d. 1943)* 1912 – Lady Bird Johnson, American beautification activist; 38th First Lady of the United States (d. 2007)*1913 – Giorgio Oberweger, Italian discus thrower and hurdler (d. 1998)*1915 – Barbara Billingsley, American actress (d. 2010)* 1915 – Phillip Glasier, English author and academic (d. 2000)*1917 – Gene Rayburn, American game show host and actor (d. 1999)*1921 – Dimitri Fampas, Greek guitarist and composer (d. 1996)* 1921 – Hawkshaw Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1963)*1922 – Ruth Roman, American actress (d. 1999)* 1922 – Jim Wright, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 56th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 2015)*1923 – Peregrine Worsthorne, English journalist and author (d. 2020)*1924 – Frank Corsaro, American actor and director (d. 2017)*1925 – Lewis Glucksman, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2006)* 1925 – Lefter Küçükandonyadis, Turkish footballer and manager (d. 2012)*1926 – Alcides Ghiggia, Italian-Uruguayan footballer and manager (d. 2015)* 1926 – Roberta Leigh, English writer, artist and TV producer (d. 2014)*1928 – Fredrik Barth, German-Norwegian anthropologist and academic (d. 2016)*1929 – Wazir Mohammad, Indian-Pakistani cricketer*1930 – Ardalion Ignatyev, Russian sprinter and educator (d. 1998)*1931 – Gisela Birkemeyer, German hurdler and coach* 1931 – Carlos Graça, São Toméan lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe (d. 2013)*1932 – Phil Woosnam, Welsh soccer player and manager (d. 2013)*1933 – John Hartle, English motorcycle racer (d. 1968)*1934 – David Pearson, American race car driver (d. 2018)*1935 – Paulo Rocha, Portuguese director and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1936 – James Burke, Irish historian and author* 1936 – Héctor Elizondo, American actor and director*1937 – Charlotte Lamb, English author (d. 2000)* 1937 – Eduard Uspensky, Russian author, poet, and playwright (d. 2018)* 1937 – Ken Whitmore, English author and playwright*1938 – Matty Alou, Dominican-American baseball player and scout (d. 2011)* 1938 – Lucien Bouchard, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of Quebec* 1938 – Red Steagall, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, actor, and poet*1940 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian rancher and politician (d. 2009)* 1940 – Mike Molloy, English journalist, author, and illustrator*1942 – Jerry Koosman, American baseball player* 1942 – Dick Parry, English saxophonist*1943 – Stefan Janos, Slovak-Swiss physicist and academic* 1943 – Paul Wolfowitz, American banker and politician, 25th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense*1944 – Mary Archer, English chemist and academic* 1944 – Steve Carlton, American baseball player* 1944 – Barry Jenkins, English drummer*1945 – Frances Lannon, English historian and academic* 1945 – Sam Newman, Australian footballer and sportscaster* 1945 – Diane Sawyer, American journalist*1946 – Roger Carr, English businessman* 1946 – C. Eugene Steuerle, American economist and author*1947 – Brian Daley, American author and screenwriter (d. 1996)* 1947 – Dilip Doshi, Indian cricketer*1948 – Steve Garvey, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1948 – Don Kardong, American runner, journalist, and author* 1948 – Rick Nielsen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1948 – Chris Old, English cricketer and coach* 1948 – Lynne Thigpen, American actress and singer (d. 2003)*1949 – Maurice Gibb, Manx-English singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2003)* 1949 – Robin Gibb, Manx-English singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2012)* 1949 – Ray Guy, American football player (d. 2022)*1950 – Manfred Moore, American football player and rugby league player (d. 2020)*1951 – Lasse Bengtsson, Swedish journalist* 1951 – Charles de Lint, Dutch-Canadian author and critic* 1951 – Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, British landowner, businessman and philanthropist (d. 2016)* 1951 – Tony Isabella, American comic book writer, editor, actor, artist and critic* 1951 – Jan Stephenson, Australian golfer*1952 – Sandra Kalniete, Latvian politician and diplomat, former Latvian Minister of Foreign Affairs*1953 – Ian Turnbull, Canadian ice hockey player* 1953 – Tom Underwood, American baseball player (d. 2010)*1954 – Hideshi Matsuda, Japanese racing driver* 1954 – Derick Parry, Nevisian cricketer*1955 – Galina Murašova, Lithuanian discus thrower* 1955 – Lonnie Smith, American baseball player* 1955 – Thomas C. Südhof, German-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate*1956 – Jane Lighting, English businesswoman*1957 – Stephen Conway, English bishop* 1957 – Carole James, English-Canadian educator and politician* 1957 – Peter Mortimer, Australian rugby league player*1958 – Frank Gambale, Australian guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1958 – David Heavener, American singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and director*1959 – Bernd Schuster, German footballer and manager*1960 – Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter and poet (d. 1988)* 1960 – Luther Campbell, American rapper and actor*1961 – Yuri Malenchenko, Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut*1962 – Ralph Fiennes, English actor*1963 – Giuseppe Bergomi, Italian footballer and coach* 1963 – Brian McMillan, South African cricketer and educator* 1963 – Luna H. Mitani, Japanese-American painter and illustrator*1964 – Mike Jackson, American baseball player* 1964 – Simon Kirby, English businessman and politician*1965 – David S. Goyer, American screenwriter* 1965 – Urszula Włodarczyk, Polish heptathlete and triple jumper*1966 – Dmitry Bilozerchev, Russian gymnast and coach* 1966 – Marcel Schirmer, German singer-songwriter and bass player* 1966 – David Wright, English lawyer and politician*1967 – Richey Edwards, Welsh singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)* 1967 – Stéphane Gendron, Canadian lawyer and politician* 1967 – Rebecca Harris, English businesswoman and politician* 1967 – Dan Petrescu, Romanian footballer and manager*1968 – Emre Aracı, Turkish composer, conductor, and historian* 1968 – Luis Hernández, Mexican footballer* 1968 – Lori McKenna, American singer-songwriter* 1968 – Dina Meyer, American actress*1969 – Myriam Bédard, Canadian biathlete* 1969 – Mark Robins, English footballer and manager*1970 – Gary Anderson, Scottish darts player* 1970 – Ted Cruz, Canadian-American lawyer and politician*1971 – Ajeenkya Patil, Indian economist and academic*1972 – Mark Hill, English musician, producer and songwriter* 1972 – Kirk Maltby, Canadian ice hockey player and scout* 1972 – Vanessa Paradis, French singer-songwriter and actress*1974 – Rei Hance, American actress*1975 – Sergei Aschwanden, Swiss martial artist* 1975 – Dmitri Khokhlov, Russian footballer and manager* 1975 – Marcin Mięciel, Polish footballer* 1975 – Stanislav Neckář, Czech ice hockey player* 1975 – Takuya Onishi, Japanese astronaut*1976 – Katleen De Caluwé, Belgian sprinter* 1976 – Jason Lane, American baseball player and coach* 1976 – Aya Takano, Japanese author and illustrator*1977 – Steve Kariya, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1978 – Danny Ahn, South Korean singer* 1978 – Joy Ali, Fijian boxer (d. 2015)* 1978 – Emmanuel Olisadebe, Nigerian-Polish footballer*1979 – Jamie Langfield, Scottish footballer and coach*1980 – Chris Carmack, American actor, singer, and model* 1980 – Marcus Haislip, American basketball player*1981 – Marina Kuptsova, Russian high jumper*1982 – Britta Heidemann, German fencer* 1982 – Alinne Moraes, Brazilian actress and model*1983 – José Fonte, Portuguese footballer* 1983 – Doc Gallows, American wrestler* 1983 – Viola Kibiwot, Kenyan runner*1984 – Basshunter, Swedish singer, record producer and DJ* 1984 – Greg Finley, American actor*1986 – Dennis Armfield, Australian footballer* 1986 – Fatih Öztürk, Turkish footballer*1987 – Zack Britton, American baseball player* 1987 – Éder, Bissau-Portuguese footballer*1988 – Scott Darling, American ice hockey player* 1988 – Mohamed El Shenawy, Egyptian footballer* 1988 – Leigh Halfpenny, Welsh rugby player*1989 – Jordin Sparks, American singer-songwriter and actress*1990 – Jean-Baptiste Maunier, French actor and singer*1991 – DaBaby, American rapper*1992 – Michaela Hončová, Slovak tennis player* 1992 – Nick Johnson, American basketball player* 1992 – Moonbyul, South Korean rapper, vocalist and songwriter*1993 – Raphaël Guerreiro, Portuguese footballer* 1993 – Meghan Trainor, American singer-songwriter and producer*1994 – Rúben Lameiras, Portuguese footballer*1998 – G Hannelius, American actress and singer* 1998 – Casper Ruud, Norwegian tennis player*2000 – Joshua Bassett, American actor and singer*2001 – Camila Osorio, Colombian tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*AD 69 – Vitellius, Roman emperor (b.", "15)* 731 – Yuan Qianyao, official of the Chinese Tang dynasty*1012 – Baha' al-Dawla, Buyid amir of Iraq*1060 – Cynesige, Archbishop of York*1100 – Bretislav II of Bohemia (b.", "1060)*1115 – Olaf Magnusson, King of Norway (b.", "1099)*1419 – Antipope John XXIII*1530 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German lawyer and author (b.", "1470)*1554 – Alessandro Bonvicino, Italian painter (b.", "1498)*1572 – François Clouet, French miniaturist (b. c. 1510)===1601–1900===*1603 – Mehmed III, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1566)*1641 – Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, 2nd Prime Minister of France (b.", "1560)*1646 – Petro Mohyla, Ruthenian metropolitan and saint (b.", "1596)*1660 – André Tacquet, Flemish priest and mathematician (b.", "1612)*1666 – Guercino, Italian painter (b.", "1591)*1681 – Richard Alleine, English minister and author (b.", "1611)*1767 – John Newbery, English publisher (b.", "1713)*1788 – Percivall Pott, English physician and surgeon (b.", "1714)*1806 – William Vernon, English-American merchant (b.", "1719)*1828 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (b.", "1766)*1853 – Manuel María Lombardini, Mexican general and politician.", "President (1853) (b.", "1802)*1867 – Jean-Victor Poncelet, French mathematician and engineer (b.", "1788)*1870 – Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Spanish journalist, poet, and playwright (b.", "1836)*1880 – George Eliot, English novelist and poet (b.", "1819)*1891 – Paul de Lagarde, German biblical scholar and orientalist (b.", "1827)*1899 – Dwight L. Moody, American evangelist and publisher, founded Moody Publishers (b.", "1837)===1901–present===*1902 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German-Austrian psychiatrist and author (b.", "1840)*1915 – Rose Talbot Bullard, American medical doctor and professor (b.", "1864)*1917 – Frances Xavier Cabrini, Italian-American nun and saint (b.", "1850)*1918 – Aristeidis Moraitinis, Greek lieutenant and pilot (b.", "1891)*1919 – Hermann Weingärtner, German gymnast (b.", "1864)*1924 – Karl Denke, German serial killer and cannibal (b.", "1860)*1925 – Amelie Beese, German pilot and engineer (b.", "1886)*1939 – Ma Rainey, American singer (b.", "1886)*1940 – Nathanael West, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1903)*1941 – Karel Hašler, Czech actor, director, composer, and screenwriter (b.", "1879)*1942 – Franz Boas, German-American anthropologist and linguist (b.", "1858)*1943 – Beatrix Potter, English children's book writer and illustrator (b.", "1866)*1944 – Harry Langdon, American actor, comedian, and vaudevillian (b.", "1884)*1950 – Frederick Freake, English polo player (b.", "1876)*1957 – Frank George Woollard, English engineer (b.", "1883)*1959 – Gilda Gray, Polish-American actress and dancer (b.", "1901)*1960 – Ninian Comper, Scottish-English architect (b.", "1864)*1962 – Ross McLarty, Australian politician, 17th Premier of Western Australia (b.", "1891)*1965 – Richard Dimbleby, English journalist (b.", "1913)*1968 – Raymond Gram Swing, American journalist (b.", "1887)*1969 – Enrique Peñaranda, 45th President of Bolivia (b.", "1892)*1971 – Godfried Bomans, Dutch journalist and author (b.", "1913)*1974 – Sterling North, American author and critic (b.", "1906)*1979 – Darryl F. Zanuck, American director and producer (b.", "1902)*1985 – D. Boon, American singer and musician (b.", "1958)*1986 – Mary Burchell, English author and activist (b.", "1904)* 1986 – David Penhaligon, Cornish Liberal Politician (b.", "1944), Member of Parliament (MP) for Truro (1974-1986)*1987 – Luca Prodan, Italian-Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1953)*1988 – Chico Mendes, Brazilian trade union leader and activist (b.", "1944)*1989 – Samuel Beckett, Irish author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1906)*1992 – Harry Bluestone, English violinist and composer (b.", "1907)* 1992 – Frederick William Franz, American religious leader (b.", "1893)*1993 – Don DeFore, American actor (b.", "1913)*1995 – Butterfly McQueen, American actress and dancer (b.", "1911)* 1995 – James Meade, English economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1907)*1996 – Jack Hamm, American cartoonist and television host (b.", "1916)*1997 – Sebastian Arcos Bergnes, Cuban-American dentist and activist (b.", "1931)*2001 – Ovidiu Iacov, Romanian footballer (b.", "1981)* 2001 – Walter Newton Read, American lawyer and second chairman of the New Jersey Casino Control Commission (b.", "1918)*2002 – Desmond Hoyte, Guyanese lawyer, politician and President of Guyana (b.", "1929)* 2002 – Joe Strummer, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1952)*2004 – Doug Ault, American baseball player and manager (b.", "1950)*2006 – Elena Mukhina, Russian gymnast (b.", "1960)* 2006 – Galina Ustvolskaya, Russian composer (b.", "1919)*2007 – Charles Court, Australian politician, 21st Premier of Western Australia (b.", "1911)* 2007 – Adrian Cristobal, Filipino journalist and playwright (b.", "1932)*2009 – Luis Francisco Cuéllar, Colombian rancher and politician (b.", "1940)* 2009 – Albert Scanlon, English footballer (b.", "1935)*2010 – Fred Foy, American soldier and announcer (b.", "1921)*2012 – Chuck Cherundolo, American football player and coach (b.", "1916)* 2012 – Ryan Freel, American baseball player (b.", "1976)* 2012 – Cliff Osmond, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1937)* 2012 – Lim Keng Yaik, Malaysian physician and politician (b.", "1939)*2013 – Diomedes Díaz, Colombian singer-songwriter (b.", "1956)* 2013 – Hans Hækkerup, Danish lawyer and politician (b.", "1945)* 2013 – Oscar Peer, Swiss author, playwright, and philologist (b.", "1928)*2014 – John Robert Beyster, American physicist and academic (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Christine Cavanaugh, American actress (b.", "1963)* 2014 – Joe Cocker, English singer-songwriter (b.", "1944)* 2014 – Bernard Stone, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1927)*2015 – Peter Lundblad, Swedish singer-songwriter (b.", "1950)* 2015 – Freda Meissner-Blau, Australian activist and politician (b.", "1927)*2016 – Chad Robinson, Australian rugby league player (b.", "1980)*2017 – Gonzalo Morales Sáurez, Costa Rican painter (b.", "1945)*2018 – Paddy Ashdown, British politician (b.", "1941)* 2018 – Simcha Rotem, last survivor of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (b.", "1924)* 2018 – Herman Sikumbang, Indonesian guitarist (b.", "1982); casualty during 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami*2019 – Ram Dass, American spiritual teacher and author (b.", "1931)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Dongzhi Festival*Armed Forces Day (Vietnam)*Christian feast day:**Anastasia of Sirmium (Orthodox Church)**Eimhin**Ernan, Son of Eogan**Frances Xavier Cabrini (outside US)**Hunger**O Rex**Henry Budd (Episcopal Church (USA))**Lottie Moon (Episcopal Church (USA))**December 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Mother's Day (Indonesia)*National Mathematics Day (India)*Teachers' Day (Cuba)*Unity Day (Zimbabwe)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day** Historical Events on December 22" ] ]
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[ [ "David Deutsch" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Elieser Deutsch''' ( ; born 18 May 1953) is a British physicist at the University of Oxford.", "He is a visiting professor in the Department of Atomic and Laser Physics at the Centre for Quantum Computation (CQC) in the Clarendon Laboratory of the University of Oxford.", "He pioneered the field of quantum computation by formulating a description for a quantum Turing machine, as well as specifying an algorithm designed to run on a quantum computer.", "He has also proposed the use of entangled states and Bell's theorem for quantum key distribution and is a proponent of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics." ], [ "Early life and education", "Deutsch was born into a Jewish family in Haifa, Israel on 18 May 1953, the son of Oskar and Tikva Deutsch.", "In London, David attended Geneva House school in Cricklewood (his parents owned and ran the Alma restaurant on Cricklewood Broadway), followed by William Ellis School in Highgate (then a voluntary aided school in north London) before reading Natural Sciences at Clare College, Cambridge and taking Part III of the Mathematical Tripos.", "He went on to Wolfson College, Oxford for his doctorate in theoretical physics and wrote his thesis on quantum field theory in curved space-time supervised by Dennis Sciama and Philip Candelas." ], [ "Career and research", "His work on quantum algorithms began with a 1985 paper, later expanded in 1992 along with Richard Jozsa to produce the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, one of the first examples of a quantum algorithm that is exponentially faster than any possible deterministic classical algorithm.", "In his 1985 paper, he also suggests the use of entangled states and Bell's theorem for quantum key distribution.", "In his nomination for election as a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008, his contributions were described as:Since 2012, he has been working on constructor theory, an attempt at generalizing the quantum theory of computation to cover not just computation but all physical processes.", "Together with Chiara Marletto, he published a paper in December 2014 entitled ''Constructor theory of information'', that conjectures that information can be expressed solely in terms of which transformations of physical systems are possible and which are impossible.===''The Fabric of Reality''===In his 1997 book ''The Fabric of Reality'', Deutsch details his \"Theory of Everything\".", "It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiversal, computational, epistemological, and evolutionary principles.", "His theory of everything is somewhat (weakly) emergentist rather than reductive.", "There are four strands to his theory:# Hugh Everett's many-worlds interpretation of quantum physics, \"the first and most important of the four strands.", "\"# Karl Popper's epistemology, especially its anti-inductivism and requiring a realist (non-instrumental) interpretation of scientific theories, as well as its emphasis on taking seriously those bold conjectures that resist falsification.# Alan Turing's theory of computation, especially as developed in Deutsch's Turing principle, in which the Universal Turing machine is replaced by Deutsch's universal quantum computer.", "(\"''The'' theory of computation is now the quantum theory of computation.", "\")# Richard Dawkins' refinement of Darwinian evolutionary theory and the modern evolutionary synthesis, especially the ideas of replicator and meme as they integrate with Popperian problem-solving (the epistemological strand).=== Invariants ===In a 2009 TED talk, Deutsch expounded a criterion for scientific explanation, which is to formulate invariants: \"State an explanation publicly, so that it can be dated and verified by others later that remains invariant in the face of apparent change, new information, or unexpected conditions\".", ": \"A bad explanation is easy to vary.", "\": \"The search for hard-to-vary explanations is the origin of all progress\": \"That is the most important fact about the physical world.", "\"Invariance as a fundamental aspect of a scientific account of reality had long been part of philosophy of science: for example, Friedel Weinert's book ''The Scientist as Philosopher'' (2004) noted the presence of the theme in many writings from around 1900 onward, such as works by Henri Poincaré (1902), Ernst Cassirer (1920), Max Born (1949 and 1953), Paul Dirac (1958), Olivier Costa de Beauregard (1966), Eugene Wigner (1967), Lawrence Sklar (1974), Michael Friedman (1983), John D. Norton (1992), Nicholas Maxwell (1993), Alan Cook (1994), Alistair Cameron Crombie (1994), Margaret Morrison (1995), Richard Feynman (1997), Robert Nozick (2001), and Tim Maudlin (2002).===''The Beginning of Infinity''===Deutsch's second book, ''The Beginning of Infinity: Explanations that Transform the World'', was published on 31 March 2011.In this book, he views the European Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries as near the beginning of a potentially unending sequence of purposeful knowledge creation.", "He examines the nature of knowledge, memes, and how and why creativity evolved in humans.===Awards and honours===''The Fabric of Reality'' was shortlisted for the Rhone-Poulenc science book award in 1998.Deutsch was awarded the Dirac Prize of the Institute of Physics in 1998, and the Edge of Computation Science Prize in 2005.In 2017, he received the Dirac Medal of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP).", "Deutsch is linked to Paul Dirac through his doctoral advisor Dennis Sciama, whose doctoral advisor was Dirac.", "Deutsch was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2008.In 2020 he was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of the Cybernetics Society.", "In 2018, he received the Micius Quantum Prize.", "In 2021, he was awarded the Isaac Newton Medal and Prize.On 22 September 2022, he was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics (sharing it with 3 others)." ], [ "Personal life", "Deutsch is a founding member of the parenting and educational method Taking Children Seriously.", "Deutsch supported Brexit, with his advocacy regularly being quoted by the then government adviser, Dominic Cummings." ], [ "See also", "* Deutsch gate* Wigner's friend* Quantum cellular automaton* Quantum mechanics of time travel" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Volkssturm" ], [ "Introduction", "The (; \"people's storm\") was a ''levée en masse'' national militia established by Nazi Germany during the last months of World War II.", "It was set up by the Nazi Party on the orders of Adolf Hitler and established on 25 September 1944.It was staffed by conscripting males between the ages of 16 and 60 years, who were not already serving in some military unit.", "The ''Volkssturm'' comprised one of the final components of the total war promulgated by Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, part of a Nazi endeavor to overcome their enemies' military strength through force of will.", "''Volkssturm'' units fought unsuccessful battles against Allied forces at the end of the war and on several occasions, its members participated in atrocities accompanied by German civilians and the Hitler Youth, which were overseen by members of the SS or ''Gaue'' leaders." ], [ "Origins and organisation", "An SS Propaganda Company photograph of ''Volkssturm'', 21 October 1944; only the men on the far left and far right end of the line appear to be uniformed members, with the far right being an ''Ordnungspolizei'' officer.", "This photo depicts the disparity in age between the members, on the left a man of 50 or more with a boy of about 15 or 16.", "''Volkssturm'' members defending the Oder River, February 1945Bocholt, 28 March 1945The ''Volkssturm'' drew inspiration from the Prussian ''Landsturm'' of 1813–1815, that fought in the liberation wars against Napoleon, mainly as guerrilla forces.", "Plans to form a ''Landsturm'' national militia in eastern Germany as a last resort to boost fighting strength were first proposed in 1944 by General Heinz Guderian, chief of the German General Staff.", "The army did not have enough men to resist the Soviet onslaught.", "So, additional categories of men were called into service, including those in non-essential jobs, those previously deemed unfit, over-age, or under-age, and those recovering from wounds.", "The ''Volkssturm'' had existed, on paper, since around 1925, but it was only after Hitler ordered Martin Bormann to recruit six million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality.", "While the regime formally established the ''Volkssturm'' on 25 September, it was not announced to the public until 16 October 1944.The official launch date was two days later, 18 October 1944 and was chosen by Heinrich Himmler to evoke parallels with the popular uprising which, according to popular legend, ended French rule over Germany and culminated in the Battle of Leipzig on the same date in 1813.Despite the appeal for this last-ditch effort, the intended strength of \"six million\" members was never attained.Joseph Goebbels and other propagandists depicted the ''Volkssturm'' as an outburst of enthusiasm and the will to resist.", "Historian Daniel Blatman writes that the ''Volkssturm'' was portrayed as the \"incarnation\" of the greater ''Volksgemeinschaft'', whereby \"all differences in social status, origin, or age vanish and unite all people on the basis of race.", "It was the service framework for members of the local community, who had been raised together and lived side by side, and now bore arms together in order to defend the community.\"", "In some regards, the ''Volkssturm'' was the culmination of Goebbels' \"total war\" speech of February 1943 and its formation was \"given a big build-up\" in the November 1944 newsreel episode of ''Die Deutsche Wochenschau''.", "Consistent messages of final victory from various Nazi media outlets accompanying the ''Volkssturm's'' creation provided a psychological rallying point for the civilian population.", "While it had some marginal effect on morale, it was undermined by the recruits' visible lack of uniforms and weaponry.", "Nazi themes of death, transcendence, and commemoration were given full play to encourage the fight.", "Many German civilians realised that this was a desperate attempt to turn the course of the war.", "Sardonic old men would remark, \"We old monkeys are the ''Führer''’s newest weapon\" (in German this rhymes: ''\"Wir alten Affen sind des Führers neue Waffen\"'').", "A popular joke about the ''Volkssturm'' went \"Why is the ''Volkssturm'' Germany's most precious resource?", "Because its members have silver in their hair, gold in their mouths, and lead in their bones.", "\"For these militia units to be effective, they needed not only strength in numbers, but also fanaticism.", "During the early stages of ''Volkssturm'' planning, it became apparent that units lacking morale would lack combat effectiveness.", "To generate fanaticism, ''Volkssturm'' units were placed under the direct command of local Nazi Party officials, the ''Gauleiter'' and ''Kreisleiter''.", "The new ''Volkssturm'' was also to become a nationwide organisation, with Heinrich Himmler as Replacement Army commander, responsible for armaments and training.", "Though nominally under party control, ''Volkssturm'' units were placed under ''Heer'' command when engaged in action.", "At the Reich level, the SS and the Party Chancellery agreed to share responsibility between them.", "Himmler retained responsibility for military equipment and training while Bormann, head of the Party Chancellery, was charged with oversight of administration and political indoctrination.", "Aware that a \"people's army\" would not be able to withstand the onslaught of the modern army wielded by the Allies, Hitler issued the following order towards the end of 1944: Experience in the East has shown that ''Volkssturm'', emergency and reserve units have little fighting value when left to themselves, and can be quickly destroyed.", "The fighting value of these units, which are for the most part strong in numbers, but weak in the armaments required for modern battle, is immeasurably higher when they go into action with troops of the regular army in the field.", "I, therefore, order: where ''Volkssturm'', emergency, and reserve units are available, together with regular units, in any battle sector, mixed battle-groups (brigades) will be formed under unified command, so as to give the ''Volkssturm'', emergency, and reserve units stiffening and support.With the Nazi Party in charge of organising the ''Volkssturm'', each ''Gauleiter'', or Nazi Party District Leader, was charged with the leadership, enrollment, and organisation of the ''Volkssturm'' in their district.", "The largest ''Volkssturm'' unit seems to have corresponded to the next smaller territorial subdivision of the Nazi Party organisation—the ''Kreis''.", "The basic unit was a battalion of 642 men.", "Units were mostly composed of members of the Hitler Youth, invalids, the elderly, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service.", "On 12 February 1945, the Nazis conscripted German women and girls into the auxiliaries of the ''Volkssturm''.", "Correspondingly, girls as young as 14 years were trained in the use of small arms, ''Panzerfausts'', machine guns, and hand grenades from December 1944 through May 1945.Municipal organisation:* A ''Bataillon '' (battalion) in every ''Kreis'' (roughly equivalent to a U.S. county; there were 920 ''Kreise'' in Greater Germany)* A ''Kompanie'' (company) in every ''Ortsgruppe'' (the \"local chapter\" of the Nazi Party).", "* A ''Zug'' (platoon) in every ''Zelle'' (literally a \"cell\" of Party members; roughly equivalent to a U.S. precinct) \t \t* A ''Gruppe'' (squad) in every ''Block'' (city block) \t\tEach ''Gauleiter'' and ''Kreisleiter'' had a ''Volkssturm'' Chief of Staff.From the militia's inception until the spring of 1945, Himmler and Bormann engaged in a power-struggle over the jurisdictional control over the ''Volkssturm'' regarding security and police powers in Germany and the occupied territories; a contest which Himmler and the SS more or less won on one level (police and security), but lost to Bormann on another (mobilising reserve forces).", "Historian David Yelton described the situation as two ranking officers at the helm of a sinking ship fighting over command.Benito Mussolini suggested, through his son Vittorio, then general secretary of the Republican Fascist Party's German branch, that 30,000 Italians should be added to the ''Volkssturm'' in the defence of Germany.", "However, no evidence exists that this offer was implemented.==Uniforms and insignia==''Volkssturm'' armbandThe ''Volkssturm'' \"uniform\" was only a black armband with the German words ''Deutscher Volkssturm Wehrmacht'' (\"German People's Storm Armed Forces\").", "The German government tried to issue as many of its members as possible with military uniforms of all sorts, ranging from ''Feldgrau'' to camouflage types.", "An example of the ''Volkssturm'''s piecemeal outfitting occurred in the Rhineland, where one unit was provided with \"pre-war black SS uniforms, brown Organization Todt coats, blue Air Force auxiliary caps, and French steel helmets.\"", "Most members of the ''Volkssturm'', especially elderly members, had no uniforms and were not supplied, so they generally wore either work uniforms (including railway workers, policemen, and firemen), Hitler Youth uniforms, old uniforms or their parts from the time of the First World War, or their civilian clothing and usually carried with them their own personal rucksacks, blankets, cooking-equipment, etc." ], [ "Ranks", "The simple paramilitary insignia of the ''Volkssturm'' were as follows: Volkssturm Rank Translation Comparative military rank Insignia ''Bataillonsführer'' Battalion leader Major 50px ''Bataillonsarzt'' Battalion physician Captain 50px ''Kompanieführer'' Company leader Captain 50px ''Zugführer'' Platoon leader Lieutenant 50px ''Sanitätsdienstgrad'' PlatoonMedical orderly Corporal 50px ''Gruppenführer'' Squad leader Corporal 50px ''Volkssturmmann'' People's storm man Private 50px" ], [ "Training and impact", "''Volkssturm'' members being trained to use the ''Panzerfaust'' anti-tank weapon, February or March 1945''Volkssturm'' trooper explaining the handling of a ''Panzerfaust'' to a female civilian, March 1945Typically, members of the ''Volkssturm'' received only very basic military training.", "It included a brief indoctrination and training on the use of basic weapons such as the Karabiner 98k rifle and ''Panzerfaust''.", "Because of continuous fighting and weapon shortages, weapon training was often minimal.", "There was also a lack of instructors, meaning that weapons training was sometimes done by World War I veterans drafted into service themselves.", "Often ''Volkssturm'' members were only able to familiarise themselves with their weapons when in actual combat.There was no standardisation of any kind and units were issued only what equipment was available.", "This was true of every form of equipment—''Volkssturm'' members were required to bring their own uniforms and culinary equipment etc.", "This resulted in the units looking very ragged and, instead of boosting civilian morale, it often reminded people of Germany's desperate state.", "Armament was equally haphazard: though some Karabiner 98ks were on hand, members were also issued older Gewehr 98s, Steyr-Mannlicher M1895s, 19th-century Gewehr 71s, and Steyr-Mannlicher M1888s, as well as Dreyse M1907 pistols.", "In addition there was a plethora of Soviet, British, Belgian, French, Italian, and other weapons that had been captured by German forces during the war.", "The Germans had also developed cheap ''Volkssturm'' weapons, such as MP 3008 machine pistols and ''Volkssturmgewehr'' rifles.", "These were completely stamped and machine-pressed constructions (in the 1940s, industrial processes were much cruder than today, so a firearm needed great amounts of semi-artisanal work to be actually reliable).", "The ''Volkssturm'' troops were nominally supplied when and where possible by both the ''Wehrmacht'' and the SS.", "By the end of January 1945, the ''Volkssturm'' had only accumulated 40,500 rifles and 2,900 machine guns amid this mish-mash of foreign and outdated assemblage of weapons.When units had completed their training and received armament, members took a customary oath to Hitler and were then dispatched into combat.", "Teenagers and middle-aged men were sent to separate training camps, some of whom received as little as ten to fourteen days of training before being sent to fight.", "Unlike most English-speaking countries, Germany had universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members would have had at least basic military training from when they served in the German Army and many would have been veterans of the First World War.", "''Volkssturm'' units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines.", "Ultimately, it was their charge to confront the overwhelming power of the British, Canadian, Soviet, American, and French armies alongside ''Wehrmacht'' forces to either turn the tide of the war or set a shining example for future generations of Germans and expunge the defeat of 1918 by fighting to the last, dying before surrendering.", "It was an apocalyptic goal which some of those assigned to the ''Volkssturm'' took to heart.", "Unremittingly fanatical members of the ''Volkssturm'' refused to abandon the Nazi ethos unto the dying days of Nazi Germany, and in a number of instances took brutal \"police actions\" against German civilians deemed defeatists or cowards.Losses were high among the ''Volkssturm'' – Battalion 25/235 for instance, started out with 400 men but fought on until there were only 10 men remaining.", "Fighting at Küstrin between 30 January to 29 March 1945, militia units made up mostly of the ''Volkssturm'' resisted for nearly two months.", "Losses were upwards of 60 percent for the ''Volkssturm'' at Kolberg, roughly 1,900 of them died at Breslau, and during the Battle of Königsberg, another 2,400 members of the ''Volkssturm'' were killed.", "At other times along the western front particularly, ''Volkssturm'' troops would cast their arms aside and disappear into the chaos.Many units lost their enthusiasm for the fight when it became clear that the Allies had won, prompting them to lay down their weapons and surrender – they also feared being captured by Allied forces and tortured or executed as partisans.", "Duty to their communities also played a part in their capitulation, as did self-preservation." ], [ "Battle for Berlin", "Their most extensive use was during the Battle of Berlin, where ''Volkssturm'' units fought in many parts of the city.", "This battle was particularly devastating to its formations; however, many members fought to the death out of fear of being captured by the Soviets.", "The ''Volkssturm'' had a strength of about 60,000 in the Berlin area, formed into 92 battalions, of which about 30 battalions of ''Volkssturm I'' (those with some weapons) were sent to forward positions, while those of ''Volkssturm II'' (those without weapons) remained in the inner city.", "One of the few substantive fighting units left to defend Berlin was the LVI Panzer Corps, which occupied the southeastern sector of the town, whereas the remaining parts of the city were being defended by what remained of the SS, the ''Volkssturm'', and the Hitler Youth formations.", "Nonetheless, a force of over 2.5 million Soviet troops, equipped with 6,250 tanks and over 40,000 artillery pieces were assigned to capture the city, and the diminished remnants of the ''Wehrmacht'' were no match for them.", "Meanwhile, Hitler denounced every perceived \"betrayal\" to the inhabitants of the ''Führerbunker''.", "Not eager to die what was thought to be a pointless death, many older members of the ''Volkssturm'' looked for places to hide from the approaching Soviet Army.", "One notable and unusual ''Volkssturm'' unit in the Battle for Berlin was the 3/115 Siemensstadt Battalion.", "It comprised 770 men, mostly World War I veterans in their 50s who were reasonably fit factory workers, with experienced officers.", "Unlike most ''Volkssturm'' units it was quite well equipped and trained.", "It was formed into three rifle companies, a support company (with two infantry support guns, four infantry mortars, and heavy machine guns), and a heavy weapons company (with four Soviet M-20 howitzers and a French De Bange 220mm mortar).", "The battalion first engaged Soviet troops at Friedrichsfelde on 21 April and saw the heaviest fighting over the following two days.", "It held out until 2 May, by which time it was down to just 50 rifles and two light machine guns.", "The survivors fell back to join other ''Volkssturm'' units.", "26 men from the battalion were awarded the Iron Cross.", "Allied bombing and Soviet artillery had reduced Berlin to rubble; meanwhile the final stand in Berlin dwindled to fighting against highly trained, battle-hardened Soviet troops on the brink of final victory, who viewed resistance fighters like the ''Volkssturm'' as terrorists in much the same way the ''Wehrmacht'' once had viewed potential partisans during Operation Barbarossa.", "Red Army soldiers called the Hitler Youth formations and members of the ''Volkssturm'' still fighting to the end in Berlin \"totals\" for being part of Germany's total mobilisation effort." ], [ "Role in atrocities", "On several occasions, members of the ''Volkssturm'' participated in atrocities.", "During January 1945, thousands of prisoners were evacuated and force-marched from several smaller concentrations camps—which included Jesau, Seerappen, Schippenbeil, Gerdauen, and Helgenbeil—near Königsberg, many dying along the way.", "Upon reaching Palmnicken, some 2,500 to 3,000 prisoners of the 5,000 that originally began the journey were lodged in a factory.", "Mayor and local Nazi party chief, Kurt Friedrichs wanted the SS to send these prisoners on their way since the Red Army was not far away.", "When local ''Volkssturm'' leader Hans Feyerabend was ordered to transport the suffering prisoners out of the town, he refused to carry out the order and was heard exclaiming that he would not permit a massacre like the one at Katyn forest.", "Feyerabend even assigned ''Volkssturm'' guards to keep watch on the local Nazi party members, but this proved fruitless when Friedrich armed a group of Hitler Youth and likewise summoned the local SD elements, whose leaders then commanded the ''Volkssturm'' to help evacuate the prisoners.", "On 30 January 1945, after the ''Volkssturm'' left with Friedrich in charge, Feyerabend committed suicide; then between 30 January and 1 February the prisoners were murdered by the remaining assemblage of SS guards, Hitler Youth, and the local ''Volkssturm'' unit.", "When prisoners fell sick with typhus in the Styria Gau during February–March 1945, SS men, Hitler Youth, and ''Volkssturm'' units systematically murdered them.", "Under the orders of Loeben-district Kreisleiter, Otto Christandl, ''Volkssturm'' units in nearby Graz and Eisenerz assisted the Gestapo and Ukrainian ''Waffen-SS'' troops in evacuating between 6,000 and 8,000 prisoners—being marched towards Mauthausen—from their region, many of whom were murdered during the journey when they collapsed from exhaustion.", "Sometime in early April 1945 as Allied forces approached the Mittelwerk facilities—where V2 rockets were being produced—the slave labourers from the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp were force-marched from the western Harz by a collection of guards drawn from the military, the Hitler Youth, and the ''Volkssturm''.", "Approximately 40 kilometers north of Magdeburg in the village of Mieste, this motley assemblage of guards locked a thousand of these prisoners in a barn and burned them alive at the instruction of a local Nazi Party leader; this event came to be known as the Gardelegen massacre.", "At the town of Celle in Lower Saxony around the same time, members of the SS, SA, local police, Hitler Youth, and ''Volkssturm'' were aided by locals to \"hunt down and shoot\" prisoners who had fled into the local woodland after their transport train was bombed.Interrogated members of the ''Volkssturm''—when questioned as to where the regular forces had gone—revealed that German soldiers surrendered to the Americans and British instead of the Red Army for fear of reprisals related to the atrocities they had committed in the Soviet Union." ], [ "Final phase", "Famous photograph of ''Volkssturm-Bataillonsführer'' Walter Dönicke, who committed suicide after the defeat of Nazi Germany; note the four pips on his gorget patchWhile Iron Crosses were being handed out in places like Berlin, other cities and towns like Parchim and Mecklenburg witnessed old elites, acting as military commandants over the Hitler Youth and ''Volkssturm'', asserting themselves and demanding that the defensive fighting stop so as to spare lives and property.", "Despite their efforts, the last four months of the war were an exercise in futility for the ''Volkssturm'', and the Nazi leadership's insistence to continue the fight to the bitter end contributed to an additional 1.23 million (approximated) deaths, half of them German military personnel and the other half from the ''Volkssturm''.In many small towns, when leading members of the ''Volkssturm'' refused to fight on against the superior forces of the Allies—part of an attempt to circumvent the \"total destruction\" of their home regions—they were tried and \"summarily hanged\" by party activists.", "Thousands were killed like this in Franken during the spring of 1945." ], [ "Notable members", "* Otto Dix, German painter* Gerhart Drabsch, German writer, killed on the Eastern Front in 1945* Martin Heidegger, German philosopher* Otto Herzog, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross* Hans Modrow, penultimate Prime Minister of East Germany* Ernst Tiburzy, received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.", "* Gustav Anton von Wietersheim, WWI veteran and WWII general dismissed for apparent failures early in the Battle of Stalingrad, who served in the ''Volkssturm'' as a private" ], [ "In fiction", "* Gregor Dorfmeister, under the pseudonym of ''Manfred Gregor'', in 1958 published the novel ''Die Brücke'', based on his experiences in a ''Volkssturm'' unit.", "The novel was adapted to film the following year and to a made-for-television movie in 2008.", "* ''Volkssturm'' units composed of teenagers are depicted in battle scenes in the 2004 film ''Downfall''.", "* ''Volkssturm'' units composed of teenagers are depicted in scenes in the sixth episode of the 2019 ''Das Erste'' series ''Charité at War'', which streams on Netflix.", "* ''Volkssturm'' units are seen in battle scenes in the 2019 film ''Jojo Rabbit'' by Taika Waititi.", "* ''Volkssturm'' units composed of teenagers are depicted in battle scenes in the 2014 film ''Fury''." ], [ "See also", "* ''Einstossflammenwerfer'' 46* ''Landwehr''* ''Volksgrenadier''* ''Volkspistole''* ''Wachdienst''* ''Werwolf'''''Other nations:'''* Black Brigades (Italy)* Home Guard (United Kingdom)* Volunteer Fighting Corps (Japan)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Massaquoi, Hans J.", "(1990).", "''Destined to Witness: Growing Up Black in Nazi Germany''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.", "* ** * * * * * * * * ===Further reading===*" ], [ "External links", "* U.S. Wartime Intelligence Report on German Volkssturm" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Director's cut" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''director's cut''' is an edited version of a film (or video game, television episode, music video, or commercial) that is supposed to represent the director's own approved edit in contrast to the theatrical release.", "\"Cut\" explicitly refers to the process of film and game editing; in preparing a film for release, the director's cut is preceded by the assembly and rough editor's cut and usually followed by the final cut meant for the public film release and video game release.Director's cuts of film are not generally released to the public because on most films the director does not have the final cut privilege.", "Those with money invested in the film, such as the production companies, distributors, or studios, may make changes intended to make the film more profitable at the box office.", "This sometimes means a happier ending or less ambiguity, or excluding scenes that would earn a more audience-restricting rating, but more often means that the film is simply shortened to provide more screenings per day.With the rise of home video, the phrase became more generically used as a marketing term (including media such as comic books and music albums, neither of which actually have directors), and the most commonly seen form of director's cut is a cut where extra scenes and characters are added in, often making the director's cut considerably longer than the final cut." ], [ "Origin of the phrase", "Traditionally, the \"director's cut\" is not, by definition, the director's ideal or preferred cut.", "The editing process of a film is broken into stages: First is the assembly/rough cut, where all selected takes are put together in the order in which they should appear in the film.", "Next, the editor's cut is reduced from the rough cut; the editor may be guided by their own choices or following notes from the director or producers.", "Eventually is the final cut, which actually gets released or broadcast.", "In between the editor's cut and the final cut can come any number of fine cuts, including the director's cut.", "The director's cut may include unsatisfactory takes, a preliminary soundtrack, a lack of desired pick-up shots etc., which the director would not like to be shown but uses as a placeholder until satisfactory replacements can be inserted.", "This is still how the term is used within the film industry, as well as commercials, television, and music videos." ], [ "Inception", "The trend of releasing alternate cuts of films for artistic reasons became prominent in the 1970s; in 1974, the \"director's cut\" of ''The Wild Bunch'' was shown theatrically in Los Angeles to sold-out audiences.", "The theatrical release of the film had cut 10 minutes to get an R rating, but this cut was hailed as superior and has now become the definitive one.", "Other early examples include George Lucas's first two films being re-released following the success of ''Star Wars'', in cuts which more closely resembled his vision, or Peter Bogdanovich re-cutting ''The Last Picture Show'' several times.", "Charlie Chaplin also re-released all of his films in the 1970s, several of which were re-cut (Chaplin's re-release of ''The Gold Rush'' in the 1940s is almost certainly the earliest prominent example of a director's re-cut film being released to the public).", "A theatrical re-release of ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind'' used the phrase \"Special Edition\" to describe a cut which was closer to Spielberg's intent but had a compromised ending demanded by the studio.As the home video industry rose in the early 1980s, video releases of director's cuts were sometimes created for the small but dedicated cult fan market.", "Los Angeles cable station Z Channel is also cited as significant in the popularization of alternate cuts.", "Early examples of films released in this manner include Michael Cimino's ''Heaven's Gate'', where a longer cut was recalled from theatres but subsequently shown on cable and eventually released to home video; James Cameron's ''Aliens'', where a video release restored 20 minutes the studio had insisted on cutting; James Cameron's ''The Abyss'', where Cameron voluntarily made cuts to the theatrical version for pacing but restored them for a video release, and most famously, Ridley Scott's ''Blade Runner'', where an alternate workprint version was released to fan acclaim, ultimately resulting in the 1992 recut.", "Scott later recut the film once more, releasing a version dubbed \"The Final Cut\" in 2007.This was the final re-cut and the first in which Scott maintained creative control over the final product, leading to The Final Cut being considered the definitive version of the film." ], [ "Criticism", "Once distributors discovered that consumers would buy alternate versions of films, it became common for films to receive multiple releases.", "There is no standardization for labelling, leading to so-called \"director's cuts\" of films despite where the director prefers the theatrically released version, or when the director had actual final cut privilege.", "These were often assembled by simply restoring deleted scenes, sometimes adding as much as a half-hour to the length of the film without regard to pacing and storytelling.As a result, the \"director's cut\" is often considered a mixed bag, with an equal share of supporters and detractors (including Peter Jackson and James Cameron for the latter; each preferring the phrases \"special\" and \"extended\" edition).", "Roger Ebert approved of the use of the label in unsuccessful films that had been tampered with by studio executives, such as Sergio Leone's original cut of ''Once Upon a Time in America'', and the moderately successful theatrical version of ''Daredevil'', which were altered by studio interference for their theatrical release.", "Other well-received director's cuts include Ridley Scott's ''Kingdom of Heaven'' (with ''Empire'' magazine stating: \"The added 45 minutes in the Director’s Cut are like pieces missing from a beautiful but incomplete puzzle\"), or Sam Peckinpah's ''Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid'', where the restored 115-minute cut is closer to the director's intent than the theatrical 105-minute cut (the actual director's cut was 122 minutes; it was never completed to Peckinpah's satisfaction, but was used as a guide for the restoration that was done after his death).Sometimes the term is used a marketing ploy.", "For example, Ridley Scott states on the director's commentary track of ''Alien'' that the original theatrical release was his \"director's cut\", and that the new version was released as a marketing ploy.", "Director Peter Bogdanovich, no stranger to director's cuts himself, cites ''Red River'' as an example where In some instances, such as Peter Weir's ''Picnic at Hanging Rock'', Robert Wise's ''Star Trek: The Motion Picture'', John Cassavetes's ''The Killing of a Chinese Bookie'', Blake Edwards's ''Darling Lili'' and Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Godfather Coda'', changes made to a director's cut resulted in a very similar runtime or a shorter, more compact cut.", "This generally happens when a distributor insists that a film be completed to meet a release date, but sometimes it is the result of removing scenes that the distributor insisted on inserting, as opposed to restoring scenes they insisted on cutting.Another way that released director's cuts can be compromised is when directors were never allowed to even shoot their vision, and thus when the film is re-cut, they must make do with the footage that exists.", "Examples of this include Terry Zwigoff's ''Bad Santa'', Brian Helgeland's ''Payback'', and most notably the Richard Donner re-cut of ''Superman II''.", "Donner completed about 75 per cent of the shooting of the sequel during the shooting of the first one but was fired from the project.", "His director's cut of the film includes, among other things, screen test footage of stars Christopher Reeve and Margot Kidder, footage used in the first film, and entire scenes that were shot by replacement director Richard Lester which Donner dislikes but were required for story purposes." ], [ "Extended cuts and special editions", "(''See'' Changes in ''Star Wars'' re-releases and ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial: The 20th Anniversary'')Separate to director's cuts are alternate cuts released as \"special editions\" or \"extended cuts\".", "These versions are often put together for home video for fans, and should not be confused with 'director's cuts'.", "For example, despite releasing extended versions of his ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy, Peter Jackson told IGN in 2019 that “the theatrical versions are the definitive versions, I regard the extended cuts as being a novelty for the fans that really want to see the extra material.”James Cameron has shared similar sentiments regarding the special editions of his films, \"What I put into theaters is the Director's Cut.", "Nothing was cut that I didn't want cut.", "All the extra scenes we've added back in are just a bonus for the fans.\"", "Similar statements were made by Ridley Scott for the 2003 'director's cut' of ''Alien''.Such alternate versions sometimes include changes to the special effects in addition to different editing, such as George Lucas's ''Star Wars'' films, and Steven Spielberg's ''E.T.", "the Extra-Terrestrial''.Extended or special editions can also apply to films that have been extended for television or cut out to fill time slots and long advertisement breaks, against the explicit wishes of the director, such as the TV versions of ''Dune'' (1984), ''The Warriors'' (1979), ''Superman'' (1978) and the ''Harry Potter'' films.=== Examples of alternate cuts ===''The Lord of the Rings'' film series directed by Peter Jackson saw an \"Extended Edition\" release for each of the three films ''The Fellowship of the Ring'' (2001), ''The Two Towers'' (2002), and ''The Return of the King'' (2003) featuring an additional 30 minutes, 47 minutes and 51 minutes respectively of new scenes, special effects and music alongside fan-club credits.", "''Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice'' directed by Zack Snyder had an \"Ultimate Edition,\" which added back 31 minutes of footage cut for the theatrical release and received an R rating, released digitally on 28 June 2016, and on Blu-ray on 19 July 2016.The extended director's cut received more positive critical reviews than the theatrically released film.The film ''Justice League'' which suffered a very troubled production, was begun by Snyder, who completed a pre-postproduction director's cut but had to step down before completing the project due to his daughter's death.", "Joss Whedon was hired by the films' distributor Warner Bros to complete the film, which was however heavily re-shot, re-edited and released in 2017 with Snyder retaining the directorial credit, to negative reception from general audience, fans and critics alike and a box office failure.", "Following a global fan campaign to which the director and members of the cast and crew showed support, Snyder was allowed to return and complete the project the way he intended it and a 4-hour version of the film dubbed ''Zack Snyder's Justice League'' with some additionally shot scenes at the end was released on March 18, 2021, on HBO Max to much favorable reviews and acclaim.", "Snyder originally teased a 214-minute cut of the film that was supposed to be the theatrical version released in 2017 if he did not step down from the project.The film ''Caligula'' exists in at least 10 different officially released versions, ranging from a sub-90-minute television edit version of TV-14 (later TV-MA) for cable television to an unrated full pornographic version exceeding 3.5 hours.", "This is believed to be the largest amount of distinct versions of a single film.", "Among major studio films, the record is believed to be held by ''Blade Runner''; the magazine ''Video Watchdog'' counted no less than seven distinct versions in a 1993 issue, before director Ridley Scott later released a \"Final Cut\" in 2007 to acclaim from critics including Roger Ebert who included it on his great movies list, The release of ''Blade Runner: The Final Cut'' brings the supposed grand total to eight differing versions of ''Blade Runner''.Upon its release on DVD and Blu-ray in 2019, ''Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald'' featured an extended cut with seven minutes of additional footage.", "This is the first time since ''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets'' that a Wizarding World film has had one.An animated example of an extended cut without the approval of the director was 1983's ''Twice Upon a Time'', which was extended to have more profanity (supervised by co-writer and producer Bill Couturié) as opposed to co-director John Korty's original.The Coen Brothers' ''Blood Simple'' is one of few examples that demonstrate director's cuts are not necessarily longer." ], [ "Music videos", "The music video for the 2006 Academy Award-nominated song \"Listen\", performed by Beyoncé, received a director's cut by Diane Martel.", "This version of the video was later included on Knowles' ''B'Day Anthology Video Album'' (2007).", "Linkin Park has a director's cut version for their music video \"Faint\" (directed by Mark Romanek) in which one of the band members spray paints the words \"En Proceso\" on a wall, as well as Hoobastank also having one for 2004's \"The Reason\" which omits the woman getting hit by the car.", "Britney Spears' music video for 2007's \"Gimme More\" was first released as a director's cut on iTunes, with the official video released 3 days later.", "Many other director's cut music videos contain sexual content that can't be shown on TV thus creating alternative scenes, such as Thirty Seconds to Mars's \"Hurricane\", and in some cases, alternative videos, such as in the case of Spears' 2008 video for \"Womanizer\"." ], [ "Expanded usage in pop culture", "As the trend became more widely recognized, the term ''director's cut'' became increasingly used as a colloquialism to refer to an expanded version of other things, including video games, music, and comic books.", "This confusing usage only served to further reduce the artistic value of a director's cut, and it is currently rarely used in those ways.=== Video games ===For video games, these expanded versions, also referred as \"complete editions\", will have additions to the gameplay or additional game modes and features outside the main portion of the game.As is the case with certain high-profile Japanese-produced games, the game designers may take the liberty to revise their product for the overseas market with additional features during the localization process.", "These features are later added back to the native market in a re-release of a game in what is often referred as the international version of the game.", "This was the case with the overseas versions of ''Final Fantasy VII'', ''Metal Gear Solid'' and ''Rogue Galaxy'', which contained additional features (such as new difficulty settings for ''Metal Gear Solid''), resulting in re-released versions of those respective games in Japan (''Final Fantasy VII International'', ''Metal Gear Solid: Integral'' and ''Rogue Galaxy: Director's Cut'').In the case of ''Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty'' and ''Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater'', the American versions were released first, followed by the Japanese versions and then the European versions, with each regional release offering new content not found in the previous one.", "All of the added content from the Japanese and European versions of those games were included in the expanded editions titled ''Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance'' and ''Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence''.They also, similar to movies, will occasionally include extra, uncensored or alternate versions of cutscenes, as was the case with ''Resident Evil: Code Veronica X''.", "In markets with strict censorship, a later relaxing of those laws occasional will result in the game being rereleased with the \"Special/Uncut Edition\" tag added to differentiate between the originally released censored version and the current uncensored edition.Several of the ''Pokémon'' games have also received director's cuts and have used the term \"extension\", though \"remake\" and \"third version\" are also often used by many fans.", "These include ''Pocket Monsters: Blue'' (Japan only), ''Pokémon Yellow'' (for ''Pokémon Red'' and ''Green''/''Blue''), ''Pokémon Crystal'' (for ''Pokémon Gold'' and ''Silver''), ''Pokémon Emerald'' (for ''Pokémon Ruby'' and ''Sapphire''), ''Pokémon Platinum'' (for ''''Pokémon Diamond'' and ''Pearl'''') and ''Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon''.For their PlayStation 5 \"Director's Cut\" releases, PlayStation 4-first games Ghost of Tsushima and Death Stranding both received expanded features on both games.=== Music ===\"Director's cuts\" in music are rarely released.", "A few exceptions include Guided by Voices' 1994 album ''Bee Thousand'', which was re-released as a three disc vinyl LP director's cut in 2004, and Fall Out Boy's 2003 album ''Take This to Your Grave'', which was re-released as a Director's cut in 2005 with two extra tracks.In 2011 British singer Kate Bush released the album titled ''Director's Cut''.", "It is made up of songs from her earlier albums ''The Sensual World'' and ''The Red Shoes'' which have been remixed and restructured, three of which were re-recorded completely." ], [ "See also", "* Artistic integrity* Cinephilia* The Criterion Collection* Fan edit* Film modification" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Movie-Censorship – detailed cuts comparisons* Director's Cuts: Do They Make the Cut?", "– Anthony Leong* If Movie Seems too Long, Blame It on the Director – Chris Hicks* The Rise and Falling Rise of the Director’s Cut – Gary D. Rhodes" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Digital video" ], [ "Introduction", "Sony digital video camera used for recording content.", "'''Digital video''' is an electronic representation of moving visual images (video) in the form of encoded digital data.", "This is in contrast to analog video, which represents moving visual images in the form of analog signals.", "Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession, usually at 24, 30, or 60 frames per second.", "Digital video has many advantages such as easy copying, multicasting, sharing and storage.Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard-definition component video signal in digital form.", "In addition to uncompressed formats, popular compressed digital video formats today include MPEG-2, H.264 and AV1.Modern interconnect standards used for playback of digital video include HDMI, DisplayPort, Digital Visual Interface (DVI) and serial digital interface (SDI).Digital video can be copied and reproduced with no degradation in quality.", "In contrast, when analog sources are copied, they experience generation loss.", "Digital video can be stored on digital media such as Blu-ray Disc, on computer data storage, or streamed over the Internet to end users who watch content on a personal computer or mobile device screen or a digital smart TV.", "Today, digital video content such as TV shows and movies also includes a digital audio soundtrack." ], [ "History", "===Digital video cameras===The basis for digital video cameras is metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) image sensors.", "The first practical semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented in 1969 by Willard S. Boyle, who won a Nobel Prize for his work in physics.", "Following the commercialization of CCD sensors during the late 1970s to early 1980s, the entertainment industry slowly began transitioning to digital imaging and digital video from analog video over the next two decades.", "The CCD was followed by the CMOS active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor), developed in the 1990s.", "Major films shot on digital video overtook those shot on film in 2013.Since 2016 over 90% of major films were shot on digital video.", ", 92% of films are shot on digital.", "Only 24 major films released in 2018 were shot on 35mm.", "Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC and Canon offer a variety of choices for shooting high-definition video.", "At the high end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market.", "These cameras from Sony, Vision Research, Arri, Silicon Imaging, Panavision, Grass Valley and Red offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited needs of broadcast television.A Betacam SP camera, originally developed in 1986 by Sony.===Digital video coding===In the 1970s, pulse-code modulation (PCM) induced the birth of digital video coding, demanding high bit rates of 45-140 Mbps for standard-definition (SD) content.", "By the 1980s, the discrete cosine transform (DCT) became the standard for digital video compression.The first digital video coding standard was H.120, created by the (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) or CCITT (now ITU-T) in 1984.H.120 was not practical due to weak performance.", "H.120 was based on differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM), a compression algorithm that was inefficient for video coding.", "During the late 1980s, a number of companies began experimenting with DCT, a much more efficient form of compression for video coding.", "The CCITT received 14 proposals for DCT-based video compression formats, in contrast to a single proposal based on vector quantization (VQ) compression.", "The H.261 standard was developed based on DCT compression, becoming first practical video coding standard.", "Since H.261, DCT compression has been adopted by all the major video coding standards that followed.MPEG-1, developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG), followed in 1991, and it was designed to compress VHS-quality video.", "It was succeeded in 1994 by MPEG-2/H.262, which became the standard video format for DVD and SD digital television.", "It was followed by MPEG-4 in 1999, and then in 2003 it was followed by H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, which has become the most widely used video coding standard.The current-generation video coding format is HEVC (H.265), introduced in 2013.While AVC uses the integer DCT with 4x4 and 8x8 block sizes, HEVC uses integer DCT and DST transforms with varied block sizes between 4x4 and 32x32.HEVC is heavily patented, with the majority of patents belonging to Samsung Electronics, GE, NTT and JVC Kenwood.", "It is currently being challenged by the aiming-to-be-freely-licensed AV1 format.", ", AVC is by far the most commonly used format for the recording, compression and distribution of video content, used by 91% of video developers, followed by HEVC which is used by 43% of developers.===Digital video production===Starting in the late 1970s to the early 1980s, video production equipment that was digital in its internal workings was introduced.", "These included time base correctors (TBC) and digital video effects (DVE) units.", "They operated by taking a standard analog composite video input and digitizing it internally.", "This made it easier to either correct or enhance the video signal, as in the case of a TBC, or to manipulate and add effects to the video, in the case of a DVE unit.", "The digitized and processed video information was then converted back to standard analog video for output.Later on in the 1970s, manufacturers of professional video broadcast equipment, such as Bosch (through their Fernseh division) and Ampex developed prototype digital videotape recorders (VTR) in their research and development labs.", "Bosch's machine used a modified 1-inch type B videotape transport and recorded an early form of CCIR 601 digital video.", "Ampex's prototype digital video recorder used a modified 2-inch quadruplex videotape VTR (an Ampex AVR-3) fitted with custom digital video electronics and a special ''octaplex'' 8-head headwheel (regular analog 2\" quad machines only used 4 heads).", "Like standard 2\" quad, the audio on the Ampex prototype digital machine, nicknamed ''Annie'' by its developers, still recorded the audio in analog as linear tracks on the tape.", "None of these machines from these manufacturers were ever marketed commercially.Digital video was first introduced commercially in 1986 with the Sony D1 format, which recorded an uncompressed standard definition component video signal in digital form.", "Component video connections required 3 cables, but most television facilities were wired for composite NTSC or PAL video using one cable.", "Due to this incompatibility the cost of the recorder, D1 was used primarily by large television networks and other component-video capable video studios.A professional television studio set in Chile.In 1988, Sony and Ampex co-developed and released the D2 digital videocassette format, which recorded video digitally without compression in ITU-601 format, much like D1.In comparison, D2 had the major difference of encoding the video in composite form to the NTSC standard, thereby only requiring single-cable composite video connections to and from a D2 VCR.", "This made it a perfect fit for the majority of television facilities at the time.", "D2 was a successful format in the television broadcast industry throughout the late '80s and the '90s.", "D2 was also widely used in that era as the master tape format for mastering laserdiscs.D1 & D2 would eventually be replaced by cheaper systems using video compression, most notably Sony's Digital Betacam, that were introduced into the network's television studios.", "Other examples of digital video formats utilizing compression were Ampex's DCT (the first to employ such when introduced in 1992), the industry-standard DV and MiniDV and its professional variations, Sony's DVCAM and Panasonic's DVCPRO, and Betacam SX, a lower-cost variant of Digital Betacam using MPEG-2 compression.The Sony logo, creator of the Betacam.One of the first digital video products to run on personal computers was ''PACo: The PICS Animation Compiler'' from The Company of Science & Art in Providence, RI.", "It was developed starting in 1990 and first shipped in May 1991.PACo could stream unlimited-length video with synchronized sound from a single file (with the ''.CAV'' file extension) on CD-ROM.", "Creation required a Mac, and playback was possible on Macs, PCs, and Sun SPARCstations.QuickTime, Apple Computer's multimedia framework, was released in June 1991.Audio Video Interleave from Microsoft followed in 1992.Initial consumer-level content creation tools were crude, requiring an analog video source to be digitized to a computer-readable format.", "While low-quality at first, consumer digital video increased rapidly in quality, first with the introduction of playback standards such as MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 (adopted for use in television transmission and DVD media), and the introduction of the DV tape format allowing recordings in the format to be transferred directly to digital video files using a FireWire port on an editing computer.", "This simplified the process, allowing non-linear editing systems (NLE) to be deployed cheaply and widely on desktop computers with no external playback or recording equipment needed.The widespread adoption of digital video and accompanying compression formats has reduced the bandwidth needed for a high-definition video signal (with HDV and AVCHD, as well as several commercial variants such as DVCPRO-HD, all using less bandwidth than a standard definition analog signal).", "These savings have increased the number of channels available on cable television and direct broadcast satellite systems, created opportunities for spectrum reallocation of terrestrial television broadcast frequencies, and made tapeless camcorders based on flash memory possible, among other innovations and efficiencies.=== Digital video and culture ===Culturally, digital video has allowed video and film to become widely available and popular, beneficial to entertainment, education, and research.", "Digital video is increasingly common in schools, with students and teachers taking an interest in learning how to use it in relevant ways.", "Digital video also has healthcare applications, allowing doctors to track infant heart rates and oxygen levels.In addition, the switch from analog to digital video impacted media in various ways, such as in how businesses use cameras for surveillance.", "Closed circuit television (CCTV) switched to using digital video recorders (DVR), presenting the issue of how to store recordings for evidence collection.", "Today, digital video is able to be compressed in order to save storage space.=== Digital television ===Digital television (DTV) is the production and transmission of digital video from networks to consumers.", "This technique uses digital encoding instead of analog signals used prior to the 1950s.", "As compared to analog methods, DTV is faster and provides more capabilities and options for data to be transmitted and shared.Digital television's roots are tied to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers.", "It was not until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.", "Digital television was previously not practically feasible due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed video, requiring around 200Mbit/s for a standard-definition television (SDTV) signal, and over 1Gbit/s for high-definition television (HDTV)." ], [ "Overview", "Digital video comprises a series of digital images displayed in rapid succession.", "In the context of video, these images are called frames.", "The rate at which frames are displayed is known as the frame rate and is measured in frames per second.", "Every frame is a digital image and so comprises a formation of pixels.", "The color of a pixel is represented by a fixed number of bits of that color where the information of the color is stored within the image.", "For example, 8-bit captures 256 levels per channel, and 10-bit captures 1,024 levels per channel.''''''", "The more bits, the more subtle variations of colors can be reproduced.", "This is called the color depth, or bit depth, of the video.===Interlacing===In interlaced video each ''frame'' is composed of two halves of an image.", "The first half contains only the odd-numbered lines of a full frame.", "The second half contains only the even-numbered lines.", "These halves are referred to individually as ''fields''.", "Two consecutive fields compose a full frame.", "If an interlaced video has a frame rate of 30 frames per second the field rate is 60 fields per second, though both part of interlaced video, frames per second and fields per second are separate numbers.A broadcast television camera at the Pavek Museum in Minnesota.===Bit rate and BPP===By definition, bit rate is a measurement of the rate of information content from the digital video stream.", "In the case of uncompressed video, bit rate corresponds directly to the quality of the video because bit rate is proportional to every property that affects the video quality.", "Bit rate is an important property when transmitting video because the transmission link must be capable of supporting that bit rate.", "Bit rate is also important when dealing with the storage of video because, as shown above, the video size is proportional to the bit rate and the duration.", "Video compression is used to greatly reduce the bit rate while having little effect on quality.Bits per pixel (BPP) is a measure of the efficiency of compression.", "A true-color video with no compression at all may have a BPP of 24 bits/pixel.", "Chroma subsampling can reduce the BPP to 16 or 12 bits/pixel.", "Applying JPEG compression on every frame can reduce the BPP to 8 or even 1 bits/pixel.", "Applying video compression algorithms like MPEG1, MPEG2 or MPEG4 allows for fractional BPP values to exist.====Constant bit rate versus variable bit rate====BPP represents the ''average'' bits per pixel.", "There are compression algorithms that keep the BPP almost constant throughout the entire duration of the video.", "In this case, we also get video output with a constant bitrate (CBR).", "This CBR video is suitable for real-time, non-buffered, fixed bandwidth video streaming (e.g.", "in videoconferencing).", "Since not all frames can be compressed at the same level, because quality is more severely impacted for scenes of high complexity, some algorithms try to constantly adjust the BPP.", "They keep the BPP high while compressing complex scenes and low for less demanding scenes.", "This way, it provides the best quality at the smallest average bit rate (and the smallest file size, accordingly).", "This method produces a variable bitrate because it tracks the variations of the BPP." ], [ "Technical overview", "Standard film stocks typically record at 24 frames per second.", "For video, there are two frame rate standards: NTSC, at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second (about 59.94 fields per second), and PAL, 25 frames per second (50 fields per second).", "Digital video cameras come in two different image capture formats: interlaced and progressive scan.", "Interlaced cameras record the image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on.One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a ''field'', and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a ''frame''.", "Progressive scan cameras record all lines in each frame as a single unit.", "Thus, interlaced video captures the scene motion twice as often as progressive video does for the same frame rate.", "Progressive scan generally produces a slightly sharper image, however, motion may not be as smooth as interlaced video.Digital video can be copied with no generation loss; which degrades quality in analog systems.", "However, a change in parameters like frame size, or a change of the digital format can decrease the quality of the video due to image scaling and transcoding losses.", "Digital video can be manipulated and edited on non-linear editing systems.Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film.", "In comparison to the high cost of film stock, the digital media used for digital video recording, such as flash memory or hard disk drive is very inexpensive.", "Digital video also allows footage to be viewed on location without the expensive and time-consuming chemical processing required by film.", "Network transfer of digital video makes physical deliveries of tapes and film reels unnecessary.", "A short video sequence in native 16K.A diagram of 35 mm film as used in Cinemscope cameras.Digital television (including higher quality HDTV) was introduced in most developed countries in early 2000s.", "Today, digital video is used in modern mobile phones and video conferencing systems.", "Digital video is used for Internet distribution of media, including streaming video and peer-to-peer movie distribution.Many types of video compression exist for serving digital video over the internet and on optical disks.", "The file sizes of digital video used for professional editing are generally not practical for these purposes, and the video requires further compression with codecs to be used for recreational purposes., the highest image resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 132.7 megapixels (15360 x 8640 pixels).", "The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific high-speed cameras that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second for brief periods of recording." ], [ "Technical properties", "Live digital video consumes bandwidth.", "Recorded digital video consumes data storage.", "The amount of bandwidth or storage required is determined by the frame size, color depth and frame rate.", "Each pixel consumes a number of bits determined by the color depth.", "The data required to represent a frame of data is determined by multiplying by the number of pixels in the image.", "The bandwidth is determined by multiplying the storage requirement for a frame by the frame rate.", "The overall storage requirements for a program can then be determined by multiplying bandwidth by the duration of the program.These calculations are accurate for uncompressed video, but due to the relatively high bit rate of uncompressed video, video compression is extensively used.", "In the case of compressed video, each frame requires only a small percentage of the original bits.", "This reduces the data or bandwidth consumption by a factor of 5 to 12 times when using lossless compression, but more commonly, lossy compression is used due to its reduction of data consumption by factors of 20 to 200.Note that it is not necessary that all frames are equally compressed by the same percentage.", "Instead, consider the ''average'' factor of compression for ''all'' the frames taken together." ], [ "Interfaces and cables", "Purpose-built digital video interfaces*Digital component video*Digital Visual Interface (DVI)*DisplayPort*HDBaseT*High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)*Unified Display InterfaceGeneral-purpose interfaces use to carry digital video*FireWire (IEEE 1394)*Universal Serial Bus (USB)The following interface has been designed for carrying MPEG-Transport compressed video:* DVB-ASICompressed video is also carried using UDP-IP over Ethernet.", "Two approaches exist for this:* Using RTP as a wrapper for video packets as with SMPTE 2022* 1–7 MPEG Transport Packets are placed directly in the UDP packetOther methods of carrying video over IP* Network Device Interface* SMPTE 2110" ], [ "Storage formats", "===Encoding===*CCIR 601 used for broadcast stations*VC-2 also known as ''Dirac Pro''*MPEG-4 good for online distribution of large videos and video recorded to flash memory*MPEG-2 used for DVDs, Super-VCDs, and many broadcast television formats*MPEG-1 used for video CDs*H.261*H.263*H.264 also known as ''MPEG-4 Part 10'', or as ''AVC'', used for Blu-ray Discs and some broadcast television formats*H.265 also known as ''MPEG-H Part 2'', or as ''HEVC''*MOV used for QuickTime framework*Theora used for video on Wikipedia===Tapes===* Betacam SX, Betacam IMX, Digital Betacam, or DigiBeta — commercial video systems by Sony, based on original Betamax technology* D-VHS — MPEG-2 format data recorded on a tape similar to S-VHSAn archived B-format video tape used in Danish broadcasting.", "* D1, D2, D3, D5, D9 (also known as Digital-S) — various SMPTE commercial digital video standards* Digital8 — DV-format data recorded on Hi8-compatible cassettes; largely a consumer format* DV, MiniDV — used in most of today's videotape-based consumer camcorders; designed for high quality and easy editing; can also record high-definition data (HDV) in MPEG-2 format* DVCAM, DVCPRO — used in professional broadcast operations; similar to DV but generally considered more robust; though DV-compatible, these formats have better audio handling.", "* DVCPRO50 and DVCPROHD support higher bandwidths as compared to Panasonic's DVCPRO.", "* HDCAM was introduced by Sony as a high-definition alternative to DigiBeta.", "* MicroMV — MPEG-2-format data recorded on a very small, matchbook-sized cassette; obsolete* ProHD — name used by JVC for its MPEG-2-based professional camcorders=== Discs ===The Blu-ray disc, a type of optical disc used for media storage.", "* Blu-ray Disc* DVD* VCD" ], [ "See also", "*Digital audio*Digital cinematography*Display aspect ratio*Display resolution*Index of video-related articles*Internet video*Online video platform*Video coding format*Video editing software*Webcam" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", " **" ], [ "External links", "* The DV, DVCAM, & DVCPRO Formats – tech details, FAQ, and links* Standard digital TV and video formats." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "BIND" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BIND''' () is a suite of software for interacting with the Domain Name System (DNS).", "Its most prominent component, '''named''' (pronounced ''name-dee'': , short for ''name daemon''), performs both of the main DNS server roles, acting as an authoritative name server for DNS zones and as a recursive resolver in the network.", "As of 2015, it is the most widely used domain name server software, and is the ''de facto'' standard on Unix-like operating systems.", "Also contained in the suite are various administration tools such as nsupdate and dig, and a DNS resolver interface library.The software was originally designed at the University of California, Berkeley (UCB) in the early 1980s.", "The name originates as an acronym of ''Berkeley Internet Name Domain'', reflecting the application's use within UCB.", "The current version is BIND 9, first released in 2000 and still actively maintained by the Internet Systems Consortium (ISC) with new releases issued several times a year." ], [ "Key features", "BIND 9 is intended to be fully compliant with the IETF DNS standards and draft standards.", "Important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, nsupdate, IPv6, RNDC (remote name daemon control), views, multiprocessor support, Response Rate Limiting (RRL), DNSSEC, and broad portability.", "RNDC enables remote configuration updates, using a shared secret to provide encryption for local and remote terminals during each session." ], [ "Database support", "While earlier versions of BIND offered no mechanism to store and retrieve zone data in anything other than flat text files, in 2007 BIND 9.4 DLZ provided a compile-time option for zone storage in a variety of database formats including LDAP, Berkeley DB, PostgreSQL, MySQL, and ODBC.BIND 10 planned to make the data store modular, so that a variety of databases may be connected.In 2016 ISC added support for the 'dyndb' interface, contributed by RedHat, with BIND version 9.11.0." ], [ "Security", "Security issues that are discovered in BIND 9 are patched and publicly disclosed in keeping with common principles of open source software.", "A complete list of security defects that have been discovered and disclosed in BIND9 is maintained by Internet Systems Consortium, the current authors of the software.The BIND 4 and BIND 8 releases both had serious security vulnerabilities.", "Use of these ancient versions, or any un-maintained, non-supported version is strongly discouraged.", "BIND 9 was a complete rewrite, in part to mitigate these ongoing security issues.", "The downloads page on the ISC web site clearly shows which versions are currently maintained and which are end of life." ], [ "History", "BIND was originally written by four graduate students at the Computer Systems Research Group (CSRG) at the University of California, Berkeley, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle and Songnian Zhou, in the early 1980s as a result of a DARPA grant.", "The acronym ''BIND'' is for ''Berkeley Internet Name Domain'', from a technical paper published in 1984.It was first released with Berkeley Software Distribution 4.3BSD.Versions of BIND through 4.8.3 were maintained by the CSRG.Paul Vixie of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) took over BIND development in 1988, releasing versions 4.9 and 4.9.1.Vixie continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC. BIND Version 4.9.2 was sponsored by Vixie Enterprises.", "Vixie eventually founded the Internet Software Consortium (ISC), which became the entity responsible for BIND versions starting with 4.9.3.BIND 8 was released by ISC in May 1997.Version 9 was developed by Nominum, Inc. under an ISC outsourcing contract, and the first version was released 9 October 2000.It was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support DNSSEC (DNS Security Extensions).", "The development of BIND 9 took place under a combination of commercial and military contracts.", "Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the DNSSEC features were funded by the US military, which regarded DNS security as important.", "BIND 9 was released in September 2000.In 2009, ISC started an effort to develop a new version of the software suite, initially called BIND10.In addition to DNS service, the BIND10 suite also included IPv4 and IPv6 DHCP server components.", "In April 2014, with BIND10 release 1.2.0 the ISC concluded its involvement in the project and renamed it to ''Bundy'', moving the source code repository to GitHub for further development by outside public efforts.", "ISC discontinued its involvement in the project due to cost-cutting measures.", "The development of DHCP components was split off to become a new Kea project." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of DNS server software* DNS management software* Zone file" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* The official BIND site at Internet Systems Consortium (ISC.org)* The BIND Gitlab repo and issue tracker* History of BIND* BIND Release Strategy* * Bundy Project* Create new BIND zonefile * Geo-IP Info graphic" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Djbdns" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''djbdns''' software package is a DNS implementation.", "It was created by Daniel J. Bernstein in response to his frustrations with repeated security holes in the widely used BIND DNS software.", "As a challenge, Bernstein offered a $1000 prize for the first person to find a security hole in djbdns, which was awarded in March 2009 to Matthew Dempsky., djbdns's tinydns component was the second most popular DNS server in terms of the number of domains for which it was the authoritative server, and third most popular in terms of the number of DNS hosts running it.djbdns has never been vulnerable to the widespread cache poisoning vulnerability reported in July 2008, but it has been discovered that it is vulnerable to a related attack.The source code has not been centrally managed since its release in 2001, and was released into the public domain in 2007.As of March 2009, there are a number of forks, one of which is dbndns (part of the Debian Project), and more than a dozen patches to modify the released version.While djbdns does not directly support DNSSEC, there are third party patches to add DNSSEC support to djbdns' authoritative-only tinydns component." ], [ "Components", "The djbdns software consists of servers, clients, and miscellaneous configuration tools.===Servers===* dnscache — the DNS resolver and cache.", "* tinydns — a database-driven DNS server.", "* walldns — a \"reverse DNS wall\", providing IP address-to-domain name lookup only.", "* rbldns — a server designed for DNS blacklisting service.", "* pickdns — a database-driven server that chooses from matching records depending on the requestor's location.", "(This feature is now a standard part of tinydns.", ")* axfrdns — a zone transfer server.===Client tools===* axfr-get — a zone-transfer client.", "* dnsip — simple address from name lookup.", "* dnsipq — address from name lookup with rewriting rules.", "* dnsname — simple name from address lookup.", "* dnstxt — simple text record from name lookup.", "* dnsmx — mail exchanger lookup.", "* dnsfilter — looks up names for addresses read from stdin, in parallel.", "* dnsqr — recursive general record lookup.", "* dnsq — non-recursive general record lookup, useful for debugging.", "* dnstrace (and dnstracesort) — comprehensive testing of the chains of authority over DNS servers and their names." ], [ "Design", "In djbdns, different features and services are split off into separate programs.", "For example, zone transfers, zone file parsing, caching, and recursive resolving are implemented as separate programs.", "The result of these design decisions is a reduction in code size and complexity of the daemon program that provides the core function of answering lookup requests.", "Bernstein asserts that this is true to the spirit of the Unix operating system, and makes security verification much simpler." ], [ "Copyright status", "On December 28, 2007, Bernstein released djbdns into the public domain.", "Previously the package was distributed free of charge as license-free software.", "However this did not permit the distribution of modified versions of djbdns, which was one of the core principles of open-source software.", "Consequently, it was not included in those Linux distributions which required all components to be open-source." ], [ "See also", "* Comparison of DNS server software* dbndns* DNS management software" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* djbdns official homepage* N-DJBDNS* A guide to djbdns* The djbdns section of FAQTS* A djbdns guide and tutorial with addon* — Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's debunking of several myths relating to djbdns* — Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's list of the several known problems in djbdns* Supporting newer record formats through generic records.", "* LWN (Linux weekly news) looks at djbdns" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dylan (programming language)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dylan''' is a multi-paradigm programming language that includes support for functional and object-oriented programming (OOP), and is dynamic and reflective while providing a programming model designed to support generating efficient machine code, including fine-grained control over dynamic and static behaviors.", "It was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer.Dylan derives from Scheme and Common Lisp and adds an integrated object system derived from the Common Lisp Object System (CLOS).", "In Dylan, all values (including numbers, characters, functions, and classes) are first-class objects.", "Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, pattern-based syntax extension macros, and many other advanced features.", "Programs can express fine-grained control over dynamism, admitting programs that occupy a continuum between dynamic and static programming and supporting evolutionary development (allowing for rapid prototyping followed by incremental refinement and optimization).Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software.", "Dylan attempts to address potential performance issues by introducing \"natural\" limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units, such as libraries.Dylan derives much of its semantics from Scheme and other Lisps; some Dylan implementations were initially built within extant Lisp systems.", "However, Dylan has an ALGOL-like syntax instead of a Lisp-like prefix syntax." ], [ "History", "Dylan was created in the early 1990s by a group led by Apple Computer.", "At one time in its development, it was intended for use with the Apple Newton computer, but the Dylan implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and Newton instead used a mix of C and the NewtonScript developed by Walter Smith.", "Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a \"technology release\" version available (Apple Dylan TR1) that included an advanced integrated development environment (IDE).Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: Harlequin released a commercial IDE for Microsoft Windows and Carnegie Mellon University released an open source compiler for Unix systems called Gwydion Dylan.", "Both of these implementations are now open source.", "The Harlequin implementation is now named Open Dylan and is maintained by a group of volunteers, the Dylan Hackers.The Dylan language was code-named Ralph.", "James Joaquin chose the name Dylan for \"DYnamic LANguage.\"" ], [ "Syntax", "Many of Dylan's syntax features come from its Lisp heritage.", "Originally, Dylan used a Lisp-like prefix syntax, which was based on s-expressions.", "By the time the language design was completed, the syntax was changed to an ALGOL-like syntax, with the expectation that it would be more familiar to a wider audience of programmers.", "The syntax was designed by Michael Kahl.", "It is described in great detail in the Dylan Reference Manual.===Lexical syntax===Dylan is not case sensitive.", "Dylan's lexical syntax allows the use of a naming convention where hyphen (minus) signs are used to connect the parts of multiple-word identifiers (sometimes called \"lisp-case\" or \"kebab case\").", "This convention is common in Lisp languages.Besides alphanumeric characters and hyphen-minus signs, Dylan allows a variety of non-alphanumeric characters as part of identifiers.", "Identifiers may not consist of these non-alphanumeric characters alone.", "If there is any ambiguity, whitespace is used.===Example code===A simple class with several slots:define class () slot point-x :: , required-init-keyword: x:; slot point-y :: , required-init-keyword: y:;end class ;By convention, classes are named with less-than and greater-than signs used as angle brackets, e.g.", "the class named in the code example.In end class both class and are optional.", "This is true for all end clauses.", "For example, you may write end if or just end to terminate an if statement.To make an instance of :make(, x: 100, y: 200)The same class, rewritten in the most minimal way possible:define class () slot point-x; slot point-y;end;The slots are now both typed as .", "The slots must be initialized manually:let p = make();point-x(p) := 100; // or p.point-x := 100;point-y(p) := 200; // or p.point-y := 200;By convention, constant names begin with \"$\":define constant $pi :: = 3.1415927d0;A factorial function:define function factorial (n :: ) => (n!", ":: ) case n error(\"Can't take factorial of negative integer: %d\\n\", n); n = 0 => 1; otherwise => n * factorial(n - 1); endend;Here, n!", "and are just normal identifiers.There is no explicit return statement.", "The result of a method or function is the last expression evaluated.", "It is a common style to leave off the semicolon after an expression in return position." ], [ "Modules vs. namespace", "In many object-oriented languages, classes are the main means of encapsulation and modularity; each class defines a namespace and controls which definitions are externally visible.", "Further, classes in many languages define an indivisible unit that must be used as a whole.", "For example, using a String concatenation function requires importing and compiling against all of String.Some languages, including Dylan, also include a separate, explicit namespace or module system that performs encapsulation in a more general way.In Dylan, the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either.", "A ''library'' defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while a ''module'' defines a namespace.", "Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes.", "Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together.", "Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need.For example, consider an add-on library for regex support on String.", "In some languages, for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality must be added to the String namespace.", "As soon as this occurs, the String class becomes larger, and functions that don't need to use regex still must \"pay\" for it in increased library size.", "For this reason, these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects.", "The downside to this approach is that the new functions are no longer a ''part of'' String; instead, it is isolated in its own set of functions that must be called separately.", "Instead of myString.parseWith(myPattern), which would be the natural organization from an OO viewpoint, something like myPattern.parseString(myString) is used, which effectively reverses the ordering.Under Dylan, many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String concatenation method could be placed in both the String interface, and the \"concat\" interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes.", "This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types.A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a ''bolt on'' feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax.", "Under Dylan, every function call can be simply placed in the \"Private\" or \"Development\" interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in Public.", "Under Java or C++ the visibility of an object is defined in the code, meaning that to support a similar change, a programmer would be forced to rewrite the definitions fully, and could not have two versions at the same time." ], [ "Classes", "Classes in Dylan describe slots (data members, fields, ivars, etc.)", "of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages.", "All access to slots is via methods, as in Smalltalk.", "Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names.", "In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only.", "For instance:define class () slot title :: = \"untitled\", init-keyword: title:; slot position :: , required-init-keyword: position:;end class;In this example, the class \"\" is defined.", "The syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name.", "In contrast, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the class name or to prefix the name with a ''C'' or ''T'' (for example).", "inherits from a single class, , and contains two slots, title holding a string for the window title, and position holding an X-Y point for a corner of the window.", "In this example, the title has been given a default value, while the position has not.", "The optional ''init-keyword'' syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class.In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface.", "In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered protected, meaning they can be used only by subclasses.", "To allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they must be declared public.In Dylan, these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code, but of the module/interface system.", "This adds considerable flexibility.", "For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this.", "With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code, so people won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a fully unrelated concept.Although this example does not use it, Dylan also supports multiple inheritance." ], [ "Methods and generic functions", "In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any specific class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes.", "Like CLOS, Dylan is based on multiple dispatch (multimethods), where the specific method to be called is chosen based on the types of all its arguments.", "The method need not be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required function may be available, or not, based on a user's preferences.Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a specific class.", "To use that functionality the programmer is forced to ''import'' that class and refer to it explicitly to call the method.", "If that class is unavailable, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile.In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in ''functions''.", "Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages.", "However code may also be located in ''generic functions'', meaning they are not attached to a specific class, and can be called natively by anyone.", "Linking a specific generic function to a method in a class is accomplished thusly:define method turn-blue (w :: ) w.color := $blue;end method;This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the class.", "Note the := setter call, which is syntactic sugar for color-setter($blue, w).The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more \"generic\" examples.", "For instance, one common function in most languages is the to-string, which returns some human-readable form for the object.", "For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself.", "In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called \"to-string\", thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself.", "If a specific object did not support a to-string, it could be easily added in the to-string module." ], [ "Extensibility", "This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd.", "The code to handle to-string for a window isn't defined in ?", "This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call of the to-string.", "In most languages when the program is compiled the to-string for is looked up and replaced with a pointer (more or less) to the method.", "In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run; the runtime builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table.", "That means that a function for a specific method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit.", "In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not.The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file.", "For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all s, which in C++ or Java would require access to the source code of the string class—and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form.", "In Dylan (and other \"extensible languages\") the spell checking method could be added in the spell-check module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the define method construct.", "In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors.", "When the spell-check module is compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality." ], [ "Apple Dylan", "Apple Dylan is the implementation of Dylan produced by Apple Computer.", "It was originally developed for the Apple Newton product." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*, Open Dylan – hosts open source, optimizing Dylan compiler targeting Unix/Linux, macOS, Microsoft Windows* Overview of the language* An Introduction to Dylan* Apple Dylan TR1* The Marlais Dylan Interpreter – An implementation of a subset of Dylan, suitable for bootstrapping a compiler*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dublin Core" ], [ "Introduction", "Logo image of DCMI, which formulates Dublin CoreThe '''Dublin Core''', also known as the '''Dublin Core Metadata Element Set''' ('''DCMES'''), is a set of fifteen main metadata items for describing digital or physical resources.", "The '''Dublin Core Metadata Initiative''' ('''DCMI''') is responsible for formulating the Dublin Core; DCMI is a project of the Association for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T), a non-profit organization.", "Dublin Core has been formally standardized internationally as '''ISO 15836''' by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and as '''IETF RFC 5013''' by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), as well as in the U.S. as '''ANSI/NISO Z39.85''' by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO).", "The core properties are part of a larger set of '''DCMI Metadata Terms'''.", "\"Dublin Core\" is also used as an adjective for Dublin Core metadata, a style of metadata that draws on multiple Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabularies, packaged and constrained in Dublin Core application profiles.The resources described using the Dublin Core may be digital resources (video, images, web pages, etc.)", "as well as physical resources such as books or works of art.", "Dublin Core metadata may be used for multiple purposes, from simple resource description to combining metadata vocabularies of different metadata standards, to providing interoperability for metadata vocabularies in the linked data cloud and Semantic Web implementations." ], [ "Background", "\"Dublin\" refers to Dublin, Ohio, USA where the schema originated during the 1995 invitational OCLC/NCSA Metadata Workshop, hosted by the OCLC (known at that time as Online Computer Library Center), a library consortium based in Dublin, and the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA).", "\"Core\" refers to the metadata terms as \"broad and generic being usable for describing a wide range of resources\".", "The semantics of Dublin Core were established and are maintained by an international, cross-disciplinary group of professionals from librarianship, computer science, text encoding, museums, and other related fields of scholarship and practice.In 1999, the first Dublin Core encoding standard was expressed in terms of HTML 'meta' tagging.", "Starting in 2000, the Dublin Core community focused on \"application profiles\" – the idea that metadata records would use Dublin Core together with other specialized vocabularies to meet particular implementation requirements.", "During that time, the World Wide Web Consortium's work on a generic data model for metadata, the Resource Description Framework (RDF), was maturing.", "As part of an extended set of DCMI metadata terms, Dublin Core became one of the most popular vocabularies for use with RDF, more recently in the context of the linked data movement.The '''Dublin Core Metadata Initiative''' (DCMI) provides an open forum for the development of interoperable online metadata standards for a broad range of purposes and of business models.", "DCMI's activities include consensus-driven working groups, global conferences and workshops, standards liaison, and educational efforts to promote widespread acceptance of metadata standards and practices.", "In 2008, DCMI separated from OCLC and incorporated as an independent entity.Currently, any and all changes that are made to the Dublin Core standard, are reviewed by a DCMI Usage Board within the context of a DCMI Namespace Policy (DCMI-NAMESPACE).", "This policy describes how terms are assigned and also sets limits on the amount of editorial changes allowed to the labels, definitions, and usage comments." ], [ "Levels of the standard", "The Dublin Core standard originally included two levels: Simple and Qualified.", "''Simple Dublin Core'' comprised 15 elements; ''Qualified Dublin Core'' included three additional elements (Audience, Provenance and RightsHolder), as well as a group of element refinements (also called qualifiers) that could refine the semantics of the elements in ways that may be useful in resource discovery.Since 2012, the two have been incorporated into the ''DCMI Metadata Terms'' as a single set of terms using the RDF data model.", "The full set of elements is found under the namespace http://purl.org/dc/terms/.", "Because the definition of the terms often contains domains and ranges, which may not be compatible with the pre-RDF definitions used for the original 15 Dublin Core elements, there is a separate namespace for the original 15 elements as previously defined: http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/.===Dublin Core Metadata Element Set===The original DCMES Version 1.1 consists of 15 metadata elements, defined this way in the original specification:# Contributor – \"An entity responsible for making contributions to the resource\".# Coverage – \"The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant\".# Creator – \"An entity primarily responsible for making the resource\".# Date – \"A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource\".# Description – \"An account of the resource\".# Format – \"The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource\".# Identifier – \"An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context\".# Language – \"A language of the resource\".# Publisher – \"An entity responsible for making the resource available\".# Relation – \"A related resource\".# Rights – \"Information about rights held in and over the resource\".# Source – \"A related resource from which the described resource is derived\".# Subject – \"The topic of the resource\".# Title – \"A name given to the resource\".# Type – \"The nature or genre of the resource\".Each Dublin Core element is optional and may be repeated.", "The DCMI has established standard ways to refine elements and encourage the use of encoding and vocabulary schemes.", "There is no prescribed order in Dublin Core for presenting or using the elements.", "The Dublin Core became a NISO standards, Z39.85, and IETF RFC 5013 in 2007, ISO 15836 standard in 2009 and is used as a base-level data element set for the description of learning resources in the ISO/IEC 19788-2 Metadata for learning resources (MLR) – Part 2: Dublin Core elements, prepared by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 36.Full information on element definitions and term relationships can be found in the Dublin Core Metadata Registry.====Encoding examples====: : : : ====Example of use and mention by WebCite====On the \"archive form\" web page for WebCite it says, in part: \"Metadata (optional): These are Dublin Core elements.", "...\".===Qualified Dublin Core===(Superseded in 2008 by the DCMI Metadata Terms.)", "Subsequent to the specification of the original 15 elements, an ongoing process to develop exemplary terms extending or refining the DCMES was begun.", "The additional terms were identified, generally in working groups of the DCMI, and judged by the DCMI Usage Board to be in conformance with principles of good practice for the qualification of Dublin Core metadata elements.Element refinements make the meaning of an element narrower or more specific.", "A refined element shares the meaning of the unqualified element, but with a more restricted scope.", "The guiding principle for the qualification of Dublin Core elements, colloquially known as the ''Dumb-Down Principle'', states that an application that does not understand a specific element refinement term should be able to ignore the qualifier and treat the metadata value as if it were an unqualified (broader) element.", "While this may result in some loss of specificity, the remaining element value (without the qualifier) should continue to be generally correct and useful for discovery.In addition to element refinements, Qualified Dublin Core includes a set of recommended encoding schemes, designed to aid in the interpretation of an element value.", "These schemes include controlled vocabularies and formal notations or parsing rules.", "A value expressed using an encoding scheme may thus be a token selected from a controlled vocabulary (for example, a term from a classification system or set of subject headings) or a string formatted in accordance with a formal notation, for example, \"2000-12-31\" as the ISO standard expression of a date.", "If an encoding scheme is not understood by an application, the value may still be useful to a ''human reader''.Audience, Provenance and RightsHolder are elements, but not part of the Simple Dublin Core 15 elements.", "Use Audience, Provenance and RightsHolder only when using Qualified Dublin Core.", "DCMI also maintains a small, general vocabulary recommended for use within the element Type.", "This vocabulary currently consists of 12 terms.===DCMI Metadata Terms===The DCMI Metadata Terms lists the current set of the Dublin Core vocabulary.", "This set includes the fifteen terms of the DCMES (in ''italic''), as well as the qualified terms.", "Each term has a unique URI in the namespace http://purl.org/dc/terms, and all are defined as RDF properties." ], [ "Syntax", "Syntax choices for metadata expressed with the Dublin Core elements depend on context.", "Dublin Core concepts and semantics are designed to be syntax independent and apply to a variety of contexts, as long as the metadata is in a form suitable for interpretation by both machines and people.The Dublin Core Abstract Model provides a reference model against which particular Dublin Core encoding guidelines can be compared, independent of any particular encoding syntax.", "Such a reference model helps implementers get a better understanding of the kinds of descriptions they are trying to encode and facilitates the development of better mappings and translations between different syntaxes." ], [ "Notable applications", "One Document Type Definition based on Dublin Core is the Open Source Metadata Framework (OMF) specification.", "OMF is in turn used by Rarian (superseding ScrollKeeper), which is used by the GNOME desktop and KDE help browsers and the ScrollServer documentation server.PBCore is also based on Dublin Core.", "The Zope CMF's Metadata products, used by the Plone, ERP5, the Nuxeo CPS Content management systems, SimpleDL, and Fedora Commons also implement Dublin Core.", "The EPUB e-book format uses Dublin Core metadata in the OPF file.The Australian Government Locator Service (AGLS) metadata standard is an application profile of Dublin Core." ], [ "See also", "* Metadata registry* Metadata Object Description Schema* Ontology (information science)* Open Archives Initiative (OAI)* Controlled vocabulary* Interoperability* Asset Description Metadata Schema ( ADMS), a metadata standard maintained by the W3C for describing semantic standards.", "Implemented on Joinup.", "* Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS), maintained by the Library of Congress for the Digital Library Federation* Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies (PREMIS)*Darwin Core, a Dublin Core extension for biodiversity informatics===Related software===* Fedora, a digital asset management (DAM) architecture capable of implementing OAI-PMH (thus, also Dublin Core).", "* Omeka, a free and open source content management system using an unqualified Dublin Core metadata standard." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Dublin Core presentation, by Luca Dini, lecturer at the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano" ], [ "External links", "* * Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Publishes DCMI Abstract Model (''Cover Pages'', March 2005)* Dublin Core Generator A JavaScript/JQuery tool for working with Dublin core metadata code * Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Document Object Model" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''Document Object Model''' ('''DOM''') is a cross-platform and language-independent interface that treats an HTML or XML document as a tree structure wherein each node is an object representing a part of the document.", "The DOM represents a document with a logical tree.", "Each branch of the tree ends in a node, and each node contains objects.", "DOM methods allow programmatic access to the tree; with them one can change the structure, style or content of a document.", "Nodes can have event handlers (also known as event listeners) attached to them.", "Once an event is triggered, the event handlers get executed.The principal standardization of the DOM was handled by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which last developed a recommendation in 2004.WHATWG took over the development of the standard, publishing it as a living document.", "The W3C now publishes stable snapshots of the WHATWG standard.In HTML DOM (Document Object Model), every element is a node:* A document is a document node.", "* All HTML elements are element nodes.", "* All HTML attributes are attribute nodes.", "* Text inserted into HTML elements are text nodes.", "* Comments are comment nodes." ], [ "History", "The history of the Document Object Model is intertwined with the history of the \"browser wars\" of the late 1990s between Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer, as well as with that of JavaScript and JScript, the first scripting languages to be widely implemented in the JavaScript engines of web browsers.JavaScript was released by Netscape Communications in 1995 within Netscape Navigator 2.0.Netscape's competitor, Microsoft, released Internet Explorer 3.0 the following year with a reimplementation of JavaScript called JScript.", "JavaScript and JScript let web developers create web pages with client-side interactivity.", "The limited facilities for detecting user-generated events and modifying the HTML document in the first generation of these languages eventually became known as \"DOM Level 0\" or \"Legacy DOM.\"", "No independent standard was developed for DOM Level 0, but it was partly described in the specifications for HTML 4.Legacy DOM was limited in the kinds of elements that could be accessed.", "Form, link and image elements could be referenced with a hierarchical name that began with the root document object.", "A hierarchical name could make use of either the names or the sequential index of the traversed elements.", "For example, a form input element could be accessed as either document.myForm.myInput or document.forms0.elements0.The Legacy DOM enabled client-side form validation and simple interface interactivity like creating tooltips.In 1997, Netscape and Microsoft released version 4.0 of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer respectively, adding support for Dynamic HTML (DHTML) functionality enabling changes to a loaded HTML document.", "DHTML required extensions to the rudimentary document object that was available in the Legacy DOM implementations.", "Although the Legacy DOM implementations were largely compatible since JScript was based on JavaScript, the DHTML DOM extensions were developed in parallel by each browser maker and remained incompatible.", "These versions of the DOM became known as the \"Intermediate DOM\".After the standardization of ECMAScript, the W3C DOM Working Group began drafting a standard DOM specification.", "The completed specification, known as \"DOM Level 1\", became a W3C Recommendation in late 1998.By 2005, large parts of W3C DOM were well-supported by common ECMAScript-enabled browsers, including Internet Explorer 6 (from 2001), Opera, Safari and Gecko-based browsers (like Mozilla, Firefox, SeaMonkey and Camino)." ], [ "Standards", "WHATWG DOMThe W3C DOM Working Group published its final recommendation and subsequently disbanded in 2004.Development efforts migrated to the WHATWG, which continues to maintain a living standard.", "In 2009, the Web Applications group reorganized DOM activities at the W3C.", "In 2013, due to a lack of progress and the impending release of HTML5, the DOM Level 4 specification was reassigned to the HTML Working Group to expedite its completion.", "Meanwhile, in 2015, the Web Applications group was disbanded and DOM stewardship passed to the Web Platform group.", "Beginning with the publication of DOM Level 4 in 2015, the W3C creates new recommendations based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard.", "* DOM Level 1 provided a complete model for an entire HTML or XML document, including the means to change any portion of the document.", "* DOM Level 2 was published in late 2000.It introduced the getElementById function as well as an event model and support for XML namespaces and CSS.", "* DOM Level 3, published in April 2004, added support for XPath and keyboard event handling, as well as an interface for serializing documents as XML.", "* HTML5 was published in October 2014.Part of HTML5 had replaced DOM Level 2 HTML module.", "* DOM Level 4 was published in 2015.It is a snapshot of the WHATWG living standard." ], [ "Applications", "===Web browsers===To render a document such as a HTML page, most web browsers use an internal model similar to the DOM.", "The nodes of every document are organized in a tree structure, called the ''DOM tree'', with the topmost node named as \"Document object\".", "When an HTML page is rendered in browsers, the browser downloads the HTML into local memory and automatically parses it to display the page on screen.", "However, the DOM does not necessarily need to be represented as a tree, and some browsers have used other internal models.===JavaScript===When a web page is loaded, the browser creates a Document Object Model of the page, which is an object oriented representation of an HTML document that acts as an interface between JavaScript and the document itself.", "This allows the creation of dynamic web pages, because within a page JavaScript can:* add, change, and remove any of the HTML elements and attributes* change any of the CSS styles* react to all the existing events* create new events" ], [ "DOM tree structure", "A Document Object Model (DOM) tree is a hierarchical representation of an HTML or XML document.", "It consists of a root node, which is the document itself, and a series of child nodes that represent the elements, attributes, and text content of the document.", "Each node in the tree has a parent node, except for the root node, and can have multiple child nodes.=== Elements as nodes ===Elements in an HTML or XML document are represented as nodes in the DOM tree.", "Each element node has a tag name, attributes, and can contain other element nodes or text nodes as children.", "For example, an HTML document with the following structure: My Website Welcome This is my website.", "will be represented in the DOM tree as:- Document (root) - html - head - title - \"My Website\" - body - h1 - \"Welcome\" - p - \"This is my website.", "\"=== Text nodes ===Text content within an element is represented as a text node in the DOM tree.", "Text nodes do not have attributes or child nodes, and are always leaf nodes in the tree.", "For example, the text content \"My Website\" in the title element and \"Welcome\" in the h1 element in the above example are both represented as text nodes.=== Attributes as properties ===Attributes of an element are represented as properties of the element node in the DOM tree.", "For example, an element with the following HTML:Linkwill be represented in the DOM tree as:- a - href: \"https://example.com\" - \"Link\"" ], [ "Manipulating the DOM tree", "The DOM tree can be manipulated using JavaScript or other programming languages.", "Common tasks include navigating the tree, adding, removing, and modifying nodes, and getting and setting the properties of nodes.", "The DOM API provides a set of methods and properties to perform these operations, such as getElementById, createElement, appendChild, and innerHTML.// Create the root elementvar root = document.createElement(\"root\");// Create a child elementvar child = document.createElement(\"child\");// Add the child element to the root elementroot.appendChild(child);Another way to create a DOM structure is using the innerHTML property to insert HTML code as a string, creating the elements and children in the process.", "For example:document.getElementById(\"root\").innerHTML = \"\";Another method is to use a JavaScript library or framework such as jQuery, AngularJS, React, Vue.js, etc.", "These libraries provide a more convenient and efficient way to create, manipulate and interact with the DOM.It is also possible to create a DOM structure from an XML or JSON data, using JavaScript methods to parse the data and create the nodes accordingly.Creating a DOM structure does not necessarily mean that it will be displayed in the web page, it only exists in memory and should be appended to the document body or a specific container to be rendered.In summary, creating a DOM structure involves creating individual nodes and organizing them in a hierarchical structure using JavaScript or other programming languages, and it can be done using several methods depending on the use case and the developer's preference." ], [ "Implementations", "Because the DOM supports navigation in any direction (e.g., parent and previous sibling) and allows for arbitrary modifications, an implementation must at least buffer the document that has been read so far (or some parsed form of it).===Layout engines===Web browsers rely on layout engines to parse HTML into a DOM.", "Some layout engines, such as Trident/MSHTML, are associated primarily or exclusively with a particular browser, such as Internet Explorer.", "Others, including Blink, WebKit, and Gecko, are shared by a number of browsers, such as Google Chrome, Opera, Safari, and Firefox.", "The different layout engines implement the DOM standards to varying degrees of compliance.===Libraries===DOM implementations:* libxml2* MSXML* Xerces is a collection of DOM implementations written in C++, Java and Perl* xml.dom for Python * XML for is a JavaScript-based DOM implementation* PHP.Gt DOM is a server-side DOM implementation based on libxml2 and brings DOM level 4 compatibility to the PHP programming language* Domino is a Server-side (Node.js) DOM implementation based on Mozilla's dom.js.", "Domino is used in the MediaWiki stack with Visual Editor.", "* SimpleHtmlDom is a simple HTML document object model in C#, which can generate HTML string programmatically.APIs that expose DOM implementations:* JAXP (Java API for XML Processing) is an API for accessing DOM providers* Lazarus (Free Pascal IDE) contains two variants of the DOM - with UTF-8 and ANSI formatInspection tools:* DOM Inspector is a web developer tool" ], [ "See also", "* Shadow DOM* Virtual DOM" ], [ "References", "===General references===****" ], [ "External links", "* DOM Living Standard by the WHATWG* Original W3C DOM hub by the W3C DOM Working Group (outdated)* Latest snapshots of the WHATWG living standard published by the W3C HTML Working Group* Web Platform Working Group (current steward of W3C DOM)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Design pattern" ], [ "Introduction", " A '''design pattern''' is the re-usable form of a solution to a design problem.", "The idea was introduced by the architect Christopher Alexander and has been adapted for various other disciplines, particularly software engineering.", "Design patterns are commonly used to improve the flexibility of object-oriented systems." ], [ "Details", "An organized collection of design patterns that relate to a particular field is called a pattern language.", "This language gives a common terminology for discussing the situations designers are faced with.Documenting a pattern requires explaining why a particular situation causes problems, and how the components of the pattern relate to each other to give the solution.", "Christopher Alexander describes common design problems as arising from \"conflicting forces\"—such as the conflict between wanting a room to be sunny and wanting it not to overheat on summer afternoons.", "A pattern would not tell the designer how many windows to put in the room; instead, it would propose a set of values to guide the designer toward a decision that is best for their particular application.", "Alexander, for example, suggests that enough windows should be included to direct light all around the room.", "He considers this a good solution because he believes it increases the enjoyment of the room by its occupants.", "Other authors might come to different conclusions, if they place higher value on heating costs, or material costs.", "These values, used by the pattern's author to determine which solution is \"best\", must also be documented within the pattern.Pattern documentation should also explain when it is applicable.", "Since two houses may be very different from one another, a design pattern for houses must be broad enough to apply to both of them, but not so vague that it doesn't help the designer make decisions.", "The range of situations in which a pattern can be used is called its context.", "Some examples might be \"all houses\", \"all two-story houses\", or \"all places where people spend time\".For instance, in Christopher Alexander's work, bus stops and waiting rooms in a surgery center are both within the context for the pattern \"A PLACE TO WAIT\"." ], [ "Examples", "* Software design pattern, in software design* Architectural pattern, for software architecture* Interaction design pattern, used in interaction design / human–computer interaction* Pedagogical patterns, in teaching* Pattern gardening, in gardeningBusiness models also have design patterns.", "See ." ], [ "See also", "* Style guide* Design paradigm* Anti-pattern* Dark pattern" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "N,N-Dimethyltryptamine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''N'',''N''-Dimethyltryptamine''' ('''DMT''' or '''''N'',''N''-DMT''') is a substituted tryptamine that occurs in many plants and animals, including humans, and which is both a derivative and a structural analog of tryptamine.", "DMT is used as a psychedelic drug and prepared by various cultures for ritual purposes as an entheogen.", "DMT has a rapid onset, intense effects, and a relatively short duration of action.", "For those reasons, DMT was known as the \"businessman's trip\" during the 1960s in the United States, as a user could access the full depth of a psychedelic experience in considerably less time than with other substances such as LSD or psilocybin mushrooms.", "DMT can be inhaled, ingested, or injected and its effects depend on the dose, as well as the mode of administration.", "When inhaled or injected, the effects last a short period of time: about five to 15 minutes.", "Effects can last three hours or more when orally ingested along with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), such as the ayahuasca brew of many native Amazonian tribes.", "DMT can produce vivid \"projections\" of mystical experiences involving euphoria and dynamic pseudohallucinations of geometric forms.DMT is a functional analog and structural analog of other psychedelic tryptamines such as ''O''-acetylpsilocin (4-AcO-DMT), psilocybin (4-PO-DMT), psilocin (4-HO-DMT), ''O''-methylbufotenin (5-MeO-DMT), and bufotenin (5-HO-DMT).", "Parts of the structure of DMT occur within some important biomolecules like serotonin and melatonin, making them structural analogs of DMT." ], [ "Human consumption", "DMT is produced in many species of plants often in conjunction with its close chemical relatives 5-methoxy-''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and bufotenin (5-OH-DMT).", "DMT-containing plants are commonly used in indigenous Amazonian shamanic practices.", "It is usually one of the main active constituents of the drink ayahuasca; however, ayahuasca is sometimes brewed with plants that do not produce DMT.", "It occurs as the primary psychoactive alkaloid in several plants including ''Mimosa tenuiflora'', ''Diplopterys cabrerana'', and ''Psychotria viridis''.", "DMT is found as a minor alkaloid in snuff made from Virola bark resin in which 5-MeO-DMT is the main active alkaloid.", "DMT is also found as a minor alkaloid in bark, pods, and beans of ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' and ''Anadenanthera colubrina'' used to make Yopo and Vilca snuff, in which bufotenin is the main active alkaloid.", "Psilocin and psilocybin, the main psychoactive compounds in psilocybin mushrooms, are structurally similar to DMT.The psychotropic effects of DMT were first studied scientifically by the Hungarian chemist and psychologist Stephen Szára, who performed research with volunteers in the mid-1950s.", "Szára, who later worked for the United States National Institutes of Health, had turned his attention to DMT after his order for LSD from the Swiss company Sandoz Laboratories was rejected on the grounds that the powerful psychotropic could be dangerous in the hands of a communist country.DMT is generally not active orally unless it is combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor such as a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMA), for example, harmaline.", "Without a MAOI, the body quickly metabolizes orally administered DMT, and it therefore has no hallucinogenic effect unless the dose exceeds the body's monoamine oxidase's metabolic capacity.", "Other means of consumption such as vaporizing, injecting, or insufflating the drug can produce powerful hallucinations for a short time (usually less than half an hour), as the DMT reaches the brain before it can be metabolized by the body's natural monoamine oxidase.", "Taking an MAOI prior to vaporizing or injecting DMT prolongs and enhances the effects.===Clinical use research===Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an endogenous ligand of sigma-1 receptors (Sig-1Rs), acts against systemic hypoxia.", "Research demonstrates DMT reduces the number of apoptotic and ferroptotic cells in mammalian forebrain and supports astrocyte survival in an ischemic environment.", "According to these data, DMT may be considered as adjuvant pharmacological therapy in the management of acute cerebral ischemia.DMT is studied as a potential treatment for Parkinson’s disease in a Phase 1/2 clinical trial.SPL026 (DMT fumarate) is currently undergoing phase II clinical trials investigating its use alongside supportive psychotherapy as a potential treatment for major depressive disorder.", "Additionally, a safety study is underway to investigate the effects of combining SSRIs with SPL026.===Neuropharmacology===Recently, researchers discovered that ''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine is a potent psychoplastogen, a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neuroplasticity that may have wide-ranging therapeutic benefit.", "Quantities of dimethyltryptamine and ''O''-methylbufotenin were found present in the cerebrospinal fluid of humans in a psychiatric study." ], [ "Effects", "===Subjective psychedelic experiences===Subjective experiences of DMT includes profound time-dilatory, visual, auditory, tactile, and proprioceptive distortions and hallucinations, and other experiences that, by most firsthand accounts, defy verbal or visual description.", "Examples include perceiving hyperbolic geometry or seeing Escher-like impossible objects.Several scientific experimental studies have tried to measure subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness induced by drugs under highly controlled and safe conditions.Rick Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five-year-long DMT study at the University of New Mexico in the 1990s.", "The results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences.", "In this study participants received the DMT dosage via intravenous injection and the findings suggested that different psychedelic experiences can occur, depending on the level of dosage.", "Lower doses (0.01 and 0.05 mg/kg) produced some aesthetic and emotional responses, but not hallucinogenic experiences (e.g., 0.05 mg/kg had mild mood elevating and calming properties).", "In contrast, responses produced by higher doses (0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg) researchers labeled as \"hallucinogenic\" that elicited \"intensely colored, rapidly moving display of visual images, formed, abstract or both\".", "Comparing to other sensory modalities the most affected was the visual.", "Participants reported visual hallucinations, fewer auditory hallucinations and specific physical sensations progressing to a sense of bodily dissociation, as well as to experiences of euphoria, calm, fear, and anxiety.", "These dose-dependent effects match well with anonymously posted \"trip reports\" online, where users report \"breakthroughs\" above certain doses.Strassman also stressed the importance of the context where the drug has been taken.", "He claimed that DMT has no beneficial effects of itself, rather the context when and where people take it plays an important role.It appears that DMT can induce a state or feeling where the person believes to \"communicate with other intelligent lifeforms\" (see \"machine elves\").", "High doses of DMT produce a state that involves a sense of \"another intelligence\" that people sometimes describe as \"super-intelligent\", but \"emotionally detached\".A 1995 study by Adolf Dittrich and Daniel Lamparter found that the DMT-induced altered state of consciousness (ASC) is strongly influenced by habitual rather than situative factors.", "In the study, researchers used three dimensions of the APZ questionnaire to examine ASC.", "The first dimension, oceanic boundlessness (OB), refers to dissolution of ego boundaries and is mostly associated with positive emotions.", "The second dimension, anxious ego-dissolution (AED), represents a disordering of thoughts and decreases in autonomy and self-control.", "Last, visionary restructuralization (VR) refers to auditory/visual illusions and hallucinations.", "Results showed strong effects within the first and third dimensions for all conditions, especially with DMT, and suggested strong intrastability of elicited reactions independently of the condition for the OB and VR scales.====Reported encounters with external entities====Entities perceived during DMT inebriation have been represented in diverse forms of psychedelic art.", "The term ''machine elf'' was coined by ethnobotanist Terence McKenna for the entities he encountered in DMT \"hyperspace\", also using terms like ''fractal elves'', or ''self-transforming machine elves''.", "McKenna first encountered the \"machine elves\" after smoking DMT in Berkeley in 1965.His subsequent speculations regarding the hyperdimensional space in which they were encountered have inspired a great many artists and musicians, and the meaning of DMT entities has been a subject of considerable debate among participants in a networked cultural underground, enthused by McKenna's effusive accounts of DMT hyperspace.", "Cliff Pickover has also written about the \"machine elf\" experience, in the book ''Sex, Drugs, Einstein, & Elves''.", "Strassman noted similarities between self-reports of his DMT study participants' encounters with these \"entities\", and mythological descriptions of figures such as Ḥayyot haq-Qodesh in ancient religions, including both angels and demons.", "Strassman also argues for a similarity in his study participants' descriptions of mechanized wheels, gears and machinery in these encounters, with those described in visions of encounters with the Living Creatures and Ophanim of the Hebrew Bible, noting they may stem from a common neuropsychopharmacological experience.Strassman argues that the more positive of the \"external entities\" encountered in DMT experiences should be understood as analogous to certain forms of angels: Strassman's experimental participants also note that some other entities can subjectively resemble creatures more like insects and aliens.", "As a result, Strassman writes these experiences among his experimental participants \"also left me feeling confused and concerned about where the spirit molecule was leading us.", "It was at this point that I began to wonder if I was getting in over my head with this research.", "\"Hallucinations of strange creatures had been reported by Stephen Szara in a 1958 study in psychotic patients, in which he described how one of his subjects under the influence of DMT had experienced \"strange creatures, dwarves or something\" at the beginning of a DMT trip.Other researchers of the entities seemingly encountered by DMT users describe them as \"entities\" or \"beings\" in humanoid as well as animal form, with descriptions of \"little people\" being common (non-human gnomes, elves, imps, etc.).", "Strassman and others have speculated that this form of hallucination may be the cause of alien abduction and extraterrestrial encounter experiences, which may occur through endogenously-occurring DMT.Likening them to descriptions of rattling and chattering auditory phenomena described in encounters with the Hayyoth in the Book of Ezekiel, Rick Strassman notes that participants in his studies, when reporting encounters with the alleged entities, have also described loud auditory hallucinations, such as one subject reporting typically \"the elves laughing or talking at high volume, chattering, twittering\".====Near-death experience====A 2018 study found significant relationships between a DMT experience and a near-death experience.", "A 2019 large-scale study pointed that ketamine, ''Salvia divinorum'', and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) may be linked to near-death experiences due to the semantic similarity of reports associated with the use of psychoactive compounds and NDE narratives, but the study concluded that with the current data it is neither possible to corroborate nor refute the hypothesis that the release of an endogenous ketamine-like neuroprotective agent underlies NDE phenomenology.===Physiological response===According to a dose-response study in human subjects, dimethyltryptamine administered intravenously slightly elevated blood pressure, heart rate, pupil diameter, and rectal temperature, in addition to elevating blood concentrations of ''beta''-endorphin, corticotropin, cortisol, and prolactin; growth hormone blood levels rise equally in response to all doses of DMT, and melatonin levels were unaffected.", "\"===Conjecture regarding endogenous effects===In the 1950s, the endogenous production of psychoactive agents was considered to be a potential explanation for the hallucinatory symptoms of some psychiatric diseases; this is known as the transmethylation hypothesis.", "Several speculative and yet untested hypotheses suggest that endogenous DMT is produced in the human brain and is involved in certain psychological and neurological states.", "DMT is naturally occurring in small amounts in rat brain, human cerebrospinal fluid, and other tissues of humans and other mammals.", "Further, mRNA for the enzyme necessary for the production of DMT, INMT, are expressed in the human cerebral cortex, choroid plexus, and pineal gland, suggesting an endogenous role in the human brain.", "In 2011, Nicholas V. Cozzi, of the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, concluded that INMT, an enzyme that is associated with the biosynthesis of DMT and endogenous hallucinogens, is present in the primate (rhesus macaque) pineal gland, retinal ganglion neurons, and spinal cord.", "Neurobiologist Andrew Gallimore (2013) suggested that while DMT might not have a modern neural function, it may have been an ancestral neuromodulator once secreted in psychedelic concentrations during REM sleep, a function now lost." ], [ "Adverse effects", "===Mental disorders===DMT may trigger psychological reactions, known colloquially as a \"bad trip\", such as intense fear, paranoia, anxiety, panic attacks, and substance-induced psychosis, particularly in predisposed individuals.===Addiction and dependence liability===DMT, like other serotonergic psychedelics, is considered to be non-addictive with low abuse potential.", "A study examining substance use disorder for DSM-IV reported that almost no hallucinogens produced dependence, unlike psychoactive drugs of other classes such as stimulants and depressants.", "At present, there have been no studies that report drug withdrawal syndrome with termination of DMT, and dependence potential of DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance may be minimal when used infrequently; however, the physiological dependence potential of DMT and ayahuasca has not yet been documented convincingly.===Tolerance===Unlike other classical psychedelics, studies report that DMT did not exhibit tolerance upon repeated administration of twice a day sessions, separated by 5 hours, for 5 consecutive days; field reports suggests a refractory period of only 15 to 30 minutes, while the plasma levels of DMT was nearly undetectable 30 minutes after intravenous administration.", "Another study of four closely spaced DMT infusion sessions with 30 minute intervals also suggests no tolerance buildup to the psychological effects of the compound, while heart rate responses and neuroendocrine effects were diminished with repeated administration.", "A fully hallucinogenic dose of DMT did not demonstrate cross-tolerance to human subjects who are highly tolerant to LSD; researches suggest that DMT exhibits unique pharmacological properties compared to other classical psychedelics.===Long-term use===There have been no serious adverse effects reported on long-term use of DMT, apart from acute cardiovascular events.", "Repeated and one-time administration of DMT produces marked changes in the cardiovascular system, with an increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure; although the changes were not statistically significant, a robust trend towards significance was observed for systolic blood pressure at high doses.===Drug-interactions===DMT is inactive when ingested orally due to metabolism by MAO, and DMT-containing drinks such as ayahuasca have been found to contain MAOIs, in particular, harmine and harmaline.", "Life-threatening lethalities such as serotonin syndrome (SS) may occur when MAOIs are combined with certain serotonergic medications such as SSRI antidepressants.", "Serotonin syndrome has also been reported with tricyclic antidepressants, opiates, analgesic, and antimigraine drugs; it is advised to exercise caution when an individual had used dextromethorphan (DXM), MDMA, ginseng, or ''St.", "John’s wort'' recently.Chronic use of SSRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs diminish subjective effects of psychedelics due to presumed SSRI-induced 5-HT2A receptors downregulation and MAOI-induced 5-HT2A receptor desensitization.", "The interaction between psychedelics and antipsychotics and anticonvulsant are not well documented, however reports reveal that co-use of psychedelics with mood stabilizers such as lithium may provoke seizure and dissociative effects in individuals with bipolar disorder." ], [ "Routes of administration", "===Inhalation===Free base DMT extracted from ''Mimosa hostilis'' root bark (left); vape cartridge made with freebase DMT extract (right)A standard dose for vaporized DMT is 20–60 milligrams, depending highly on the efficiency of vaporization as well as body weight and personal variation.", "In general, this is inhaled in a few successive breaths, but lower doses can be used if the user can inhale it in fewer breaths (ideally one).", "The effects last for a short period of time, usually 5 to 15 minutes, dependent on the dose.", "The onset after inhalation is very fast (less than 45 seconds) and peak effects are reached within a minute.", "In the 1960s, DMT was known as a \"businessman's trip\" in the US because of the relatively short duration (and rapid onset) of action when inhaled.", "DMT can be inhaled using a bong, typically when sandwiched between layers of plant matter, using a specially designed pipe, or by using an e-cigarette once it has been dissolved in propylene glycol and/or vegetable glycerin.", "Some users have also started using vaporizers meant for cannabis extracts (\"wax pens\") for ease of temperature control when vaporizing crystals.", "A DMT-infused smoking blend is called Changa, and is typically used in pipes or other utensils meant for smoking dried plant matter.===Intravenous injection===In a study conducted from 1990 through 1995, University of New Mexico psychiatrist Rick Strassman found that some volunteers injected with high doses of DMT reported experiences with perceived alien entities.", "Usually, the reported entities were experienced as the inhabitants of a perceived independent reality that the subjects reported visiting while under the influence of DMT.===Oral===Ayahuasca preparationDMT is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase through a process called deamination, and is quickly inactivated orally unless combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI).", "The traditional South American beverage ayahuasca is derived by boiling ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' with leaves of one or more plants containing DMT, such as ''Psychotria viridis'', ''Psychotria carthagenensis'', or ''Diplopterys cabrerana''.", "The ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' contains harmala alkaloids, a highly active reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A (RIMAs), rendering the DMT orally active by protecting it from deamination.", "A variety of different recipes are used to make the brew depending on the purpose of the ayahuasca session, or local availability of ingredients.", "Two common sources of DMT in the western US are reed canary grass (''Phalaris arundinacea'') and Harding grass (''Phalaris aquatica'').", "These invasive grasses contain low levels of DMT and other alkaloids but also contain gramine, which is toxic and difficult to separate.", "In addition, Jurema (''Mimosa tenuiflora'') shows evidence of DMT content: the pink layer in the inner rootbark of this small tree contains a high concentration of ''N'',''N''-DMT.Taken orally with an RIMA, DMT produces a long-lasting (over three hours), slow, deep metaphysical experience similar to that of psilocybin mushrooms, but more intense.The intensity of orally administered DMT depends on the type and dose of MAOI administered alongside it.", "When ingested with 120mg of harmine (a RIMA and member of the harmala alkaloids), 20mg of DMT was reported to have psychoactive effects by author and ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott.", "Ott reported that to produce a visionary state, the threshold oral dose was 30mg DMT alongside 120mg harmine.", "This is not necessarily indicative of a standard dose, as dose-dependent effects may vary due to individual variations in drug metabolism." ], [ "History", "Naturally occurring substances (of both vegetable and animal origin) containing DMT have been used in South America since pre-Columbian times.DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by Canadian chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske.", "In general, its discovery as a natural product is credited to Brazilian chemist and microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima, who isolated an alkaloid he named ''nigerina'' (nigerine) from the root bark of ''Mimosa tenuiflora'' in 1946.However, in a careful review of the case Jonathan Ott shows that the empirical formula for nigerine determined by Gonçalves de Lima, which notably contains an atom of oxygen, can match only a partial, \"impure\" or \"contaminated\" form of DMT.", "It was only in 1959, when Gonçalves de Lima provided American chemists a sample of ''Mimosa tenuiflora'' roots, that DMT was unequivocally identified in this plant material.", "Less ambiguous is the case of isolation and formal identification of DMT in 1955 in seeds and pods of ''Anadenanthera peregrina'' by a team of American chemists led by Evan Horning (1916–1993).", "Since 1955, DMT has been found in a host of organisms: in at least fifty plant species belonging to ten families, and in at least four animal species, including one gorgonian and three mammalian species (including humans).In terms of a scientific understanding, the hallucinogenic properties of DMT were not uncovered until 1956 by Hungarian chemist and psychiatrist Stephen Szara.", "In his paper “Dimethyltryptamin: Its Metabolism in Man;the Relation of its Psychotic Effect to theSerotonin Metabolism”, Szara employed synthetic DMT, synthesized by the method of Speeter and Anthony, which was then administered to 20 volunteers by intramuscular injection.", "Urine samples were collected from these volunteers for the identification of DMT metabolites.", "This is considered to be the converging link between the chemical structure DMT to its cultural consumption as a psychoactive and religious sacrament.Another historical milestone is the discovery of DMT in plants frequently used by Amazonian natives as additive to the vine ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' to make ayahuasca decoctions.", "In 1957, American chemists Francis Hochstein and Anita Paradies identified DMT in an \"aqueous extract\" of leaves of a plant they named ''Prestonia amazonicum'' ''sic'' and described as \"commonly mixed\" with ''B.", "caapi''.", "The lack of a proper botanical identification of ''Prestonia amazonica'' in this study led American ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes (1915–2001) and other scientists to raise serious doubts about the claimed plant identity.", "The mistake likely led the writer William Burroughs to regard the DMT he experimented with in Tangier in 1961 as \"Prestonia\".", "Better evidence was produced in 1965 by French pharmacologist Jacques Poisson, who isolated DMT as a sole alkaloid from leaves, provided and used by Aguaruna Indians, identified as having come from the vine ''Diplopterys cabrerana'' (then known as ''Banisteriopsis rusbyana'').", "Published in 1970, the first identification of DMT in the plant ''Psychotria viridis'', another common additive of ayahuasca, was made by a team of American researchers led by pharmacologist Ara der Marderosian.", "Not only did they detect DMT in leaves of ''P.", "viridis'' obtained from Kaxinawá indigenous people, but they also were the first to identify it in a sample of an ayahuasca decoction, prepared by the same indigenous people." ], [ "Legal status", "===International law===Internationally DMT is illegal, but ayahuasca and DMT brews and preparations are lawful.", "DMT is controlled by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances at the international level.", "The Convention makes it illegal to possess, buy, purchase, sell, to retail and to dispense without a licence.===By country and continent===In some countries ayahuasca is a forbidden or controlled or regulated substance while in other countries it is not a controlled substance or its production, consumption, and sale, is allowed to various degrees.====Asia====* Israel – DMT is an illegal substance; production, trade and possession are prosecuted as crimes.", "* India – DMT is illegal to produce, transport, trade in or possess with a minimum prison or jail punishment of ten years.====Europe====* France – DMT, along with most of its plant sources, is classified as a ''stupéfiant'' (narcotic).", "* Germany – DMT is prohibited as a class I drug.", "*Republic of Ireland – DMT is an illegal Schedule 1 drug under the Misuse of Drugs Acts.", "An attempt in 2014 by a member of the Santo Daime church to gain a religious exemption to import the drug failed.", "* Latvia — DMT is prohibited as a Schedule I drug.", "* Netherlands – The drug is banned as it is classified as a List 1 Drug per the Opium Law.", "Production, trade and possession of DMT are prohibited.", "* Russia – Classified as a Schedule I narcotic, including its derivatives (see sumatriptan and zolmitriptan).", "* Serbia – DMT, along with stereoisomers and salts is classified as List 4 (Psychotropic substances) substance according to Act on Control of Psychoactive Substances.", "* Sweden – DMT is considered a Schedule 1 drug.", "The Swedish supreme court concluded in 2018 that possession of processed plant material containing a significant amount of DMT is illegal.", "However, possession of unprocessed such plant material was ruled legal.", "* United Kingdom – DMT is classified as a Class A drug.", "* Belgium – DMT cannot be possessed, sold, purchased or imported.", "Usage is not specifically prohibited, but since usage implies possession one could be prosecuted that way.====North America====* Canada – DMT is classified as a Schedule III drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, but is legal for religious groups to use.", "In 2017 the Santo Daime Church Céu do Montréal received religious exemption to use Ayahuasca as a sacrament in their rituals.", "*United States – DMT is classified in the United States as a Schedule I drug under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.In December 2004, the Supreme Court lifted a stay, thereby allowing the Brazil-based União do Vegetal (UDV) church to use a decoction containing DMT in their Christmas services that year.", "This decoction is a tea made from boiled leaves and vines, known as hoasca within the UDV, and ayahuasca in different cultures.", "In ''Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal'', the Supreme Court heard arguments on 1 November 2005, and unanimously ruled in February 2006 that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 Religious Freedom Restoration Act.In September 2008, the three Santo Daime churches filed suit in federal court to gain legal status to import DMT-containing ayahuasca tea.", "The case, ''Church of the Holy Light of the Queen v. Mukasey'', presided over by U.S. District Judge Owen M. Panner, was ruled in favor of the Santo Daime church.", "As of 21 March 2009, a federal judge says members of the church in Ashland can import, distribute and brew ayahuasca.", "Panner issued a permanent injunction barring the government from prohibiting or penalizing the sacramental use of \"Daime tea\".", "Panner's order said activities of The Church of the Holy Light of the Queen are legal and protected under freedom of religion.", "His order prohibits the federal government from interfering with and prosecuting church members who follow a list of regulations set out in his order.====Oceania====* New Zealand – DMT is classified as a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975.", "* Australia – DMT is listed as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).", "A Schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as \"Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO.\"", "Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian federal government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as \"controlled plants\".", "DMT itself was already controlled under current laws.", "The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing mescaline or ephedrine.", "The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), illegal.", "The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native and/or religious people).", "Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 6.0 g (3/16 oz) of DMT is considered enough to determine a court of trial and 2.0 g (1/16 oz) is considered intent to sell and supply." ], [ "Chemistry", "DMT crystalsDMT is commonly handled and stored as a hemifumarate, as other DMT acid salts are extremely hygroscopic and will not readily crystallize.", "Its freebase form, although less stable than DMT hemifumarate, is favored by recreational users choosing to vaporize the chemical as it has a lower boiling point.===Biosynthesis===Biosynthetic pathway for ''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamineDimethyltryptamine is an indole alkaloid derived from the shikimate pathway.", "Its biosynthesis is relatively simple and summarized in the adjacent picture.", "In plants, the parent amino acid -tryptophan is produced endogenously where in animals -tryptophan is an essential amino acid coming from diet.", "No matter the source of -tryptophan, the biosynthesis begins with its decarboxylation by an aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme (step 1).", "The resulting decarboxylated tryptophan analog is tryptamine.", "Tryptamine then undergoes a transmethylation (step 2): the enzyme indolethylamine-''N''-methyltransferase (INMT) catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group from cofactor ''S''-adenosylmethionine (SAM), via nucleophilic attack, to tryptamine.", "This reaction transforms SAM into ''S''-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), and gives the intermediate product ''N''-methyltryptamine (NMT).", "NMT is in turn transmethylated by the same process (step 3) to form the end product ''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine.", "Tryptamine transmethylation is regulated by two products of the reaction: SAH, and DMT were shown ''ex vivo'' to be among the most potent inhibitors of rabbit INMT activity.This transmethylation mechanism has been repeatedly and consistently proven by radiolabeling of SAM methyl group with carbon-14 ((14C-CH3)SAM).===Laboratory synthesis===DMT can be synthesized through several possible pathways from different starting materials.", "The two most commonly encountered synthetic routes are through the reaction of indole with oxalyl chloride followed by reaction with dimethylamine and reduction of the carbonyl functionalities with lithium aluminium hydride to form DMT.", "The second commonly encountered route is through the ''N'',''N''-dimethylation of tryptamine using formaldehyde followed by reduction with sodium cyanoborohydride or sodium triacetoxyborohydride.", "Sodium borohydride can be used but requires a larger excess of reagents and lower temperatures due to it having a higher selectivity for carbonyl groups as opposed to imines.", "Procedures using sodium cyanoborohydride and sodium triacetoxyborohydride (presumably created ''in situ'' from cyanoborohydride though this may not be the case due to the presence of water or methanol) also result in the creation of cyanated tryptamine and ''beta''-carboline byproducts of unknown toxicity while using sodium borohydride in absence of acid does not.", "Bufotenine, a plant extract, can also be synthesized into DMT.", "Alternatively, an excess of methyl iodide or methyl ''p''-toluenesulfonate and sodium carbonate can be used to over-methylate tryptamine, resulting in the creation of a quaternary ammonium salt, which is then dequaternized (demethylated) in ethanolamine to yield DMT.", "The same two-step procedure is used to synthesize other ''N'',''N''-dimethylated compounds, such as 5-MeO-DMT.===Clandestine manufacture===DMT during various stages of purificationIn a clandestine setting, DMT is not typically synthesized due to the lack of availability of the starting materials, namely tryptamine and oxalyl chloride.", "Instead, it is more often extracted from plant sources using a nonpolar hydrocarbon solvent such as naphtha or heptane, and a base such as sodium hydroxide.Alternatively, an acid-base extraction is sometimes used instead.A variety of plants contain DMT at sufficient levels for being viable sources, but specific plants such as ''Mimosa tenuiflora, Acacia acuminata'' and ''Acacia confusa'' are most often used.The chemicals involved in the extraction are commonly available.", "The plant material may be illegal to procure in some countries.", "The end product (DMT) is illegal in most countries.===Evidence in mammals===Published in ''Science'' in 1961, Julius Axelrod found an ''N''-methyltransferase enzyme capable of mediating biotransformation of tryptamine into DMT in a rabbit's lung.", "This finding initiated a still ongoing scientific interest in endogenous DMT production in humans and other mammals.", "From then on, two major complementary lines of evidence have been investigated: localization and further characterization of the ''N''-methyltransferase enzyme, and analytical studies looking for endogenously produced DMT in body fluids and tissues.In 2013, researchers reported DMT in the pineal gland microdialysate of rodents.A study published in 2014 reported the biosynthesis of ''N'',''N''-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in the human melanoma cell line SK-Mel-147 including details on its metabolism by peroxidases.It is assumed that more than half of the amount of DMT produced by the acidophilic cells of the pineal gland is secreted before and during death, the amount being 2.5–3.4 mg/kg.", "However, this claim by Strassman has been criticized by David Nichols who notes that DMT does not appear to be produced in any meaningful amount by the pineal gland.", "Removal or calcification of the pineal gland does not induce any of the symptoms caused by removal of DMT.", "The symptoms presented are consistent solely with reduction in melatonin, which is the pineal gland's known function.", "Nichols instead suggests that dynorphin and other endorphins are responsible for the reported euphoria experienced by patients during a near-death experience.In 2014, researchers demonstrated the immunomodulatory potential of DMT and 5-MeO-DMT through the Sigma-1 receptor of human immune cells.", "This immunomodulatory activity may contribute to significant anti-inflammatory effects and tissue regeneration.====Endogenous DMT====''N'',''N''-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic compound identified endogenously in mammals, is biosynthesized by aromatic -amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) and indolethylamine-''N''-methyltransferase (INMT).", "Studies have investigated brain expression of INMT transcript in rats and humans, coexpression of INMT and AADC mRNA in rat brain and periphery, and brain concentrations of DMT in rats.", "INMT transcripts were identified in the cerebral cortex, pineal gland, and choroid plexus of both rats and humans via ''in situ'' hybridization.", "Notably, INMT mRNA was colocalized with AADC transcript in rat brain tissues, in contrast to rat peripheral tissues where there existed little overlapping expression of INMT with AADC transcripts.", "Additionally, extracellular concentrations of DMT in the cerebral cortex of normal behaving rats, with or without the pineal gland, were similar to those of canonical monoamine neurotransmitters including serotonin.", "A significant increase of DMT levels in the rat visual cortex was observed following induction of experimental cardiac arrest, a finding independent of an intact pineal gland.", "These results show for the first time that the rat brain is capable of synthesizing and releasing DMT at concentrations comparable to known monoamine neurotransmitters and raise the possibility that this phenomenon may occur similarly in human brains.The first claimed detection of mammalian endogenous DMT was published in June 1965: German researchers F. Franzen and H. Gross report to have evidenced and quantified DMT, along with its structural analog bufotenin (5-HO-DMT), in human blood and urine.", "In an article published four months later, the method used in their study was strongly criticized, and the credibility of their results challenged.Few of the analytical methods used prior to 2001 to measure levels of endogenously formed DMT had enough sensitivity and selectivity to produce reliable results.", "Gas chromatography, preferably coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), is considered a minimum requirement.", "A study published in 2005 implements the most sensitive and selective method ever used to measure endogenous DMT: liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (LC-ESI-MS/MS) allows for reaching limits of detection (LODs) 12 to 200 fold lower than those attained by the best methods employed in the 1970s.", "The data summarized in the table below are from studies conforming to the abovementioned requirements (abbreviations used: CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; LOD = limit of detection; ''n'' = number of samples; ng/L and ng/kg = nanograms (10−9 g) per litre, and nanograms per kilogram, respectively): '''DMT''' in body fluids and tissues ''(NB: units have been harmonized)'' Species Sample Results Human Blood serum 14C-CH3)SAM to which known amounts of unlabeled substrates like tryptamine are added or with addition of a radiolabeled substrate like (14C)NMT to demonstrate in vivo formation.", "As qualitative determination of the radioactively tagged product of the enzymatic reaction is sufficient to characterize INMT existence and activity (or lack of), analytical methods used in INMT assays are not required to be as sensitive as those needed to directly detect and quantify the minute amounts of endogenously formed DMT.", "The essentially qualitative method thin layer chromatography (TLC) was thus used in a vast majority of studies.", "Also, robust evidence that INMT can catalyze transmethylation of tryptamine into NMT and DMT could be provided with reverse isotope dilution analysis coupled to mass spectrometry for rabbit and human lung during the early 1970s.Selectivity rather than sensitivity proved to be a challenge for some TLC methods with the discovery in 1974–1975 that incubating rat blood cells or brain tissue with (14C-CH3)SAM and NMT as substrate mostly yields tetrahydro-β-carboline derivatives, and negligible amounts of DMT in brain tissue.", "It is indeed simultaneously realized that the TLC methods used thus far in almost all published studies on INMT and DMT biosynthesis are incapable to resolve DMT from those tetrahydro-β-carbolines.", "These findings are a blow for all previous claims of evidence of INMT activity and DMT biosynthesis in avian and mammalian brain, including in vivo, as they all relied upon use of the problematic TLC methods: their validity is doubted in replication studies that make use of improved TLC methods, and fail to evidence DMT-producing INMT activity in rat and human brain tissues.", "Published in 1978, the last study attempting to evidence in vivo INMT activity and DMT production in brain (rat) with TLC methods finds biotransformation of radiolabeled tryptamine into DMT to be real but \"insignificant\".", "Capability of the method used in this latter study to resolve DMT from tetrahydro-β-carbolines is questioned later.To localize INMT, a qualitative leap is accomplished with use of modern techniques of molecular biology, and of immunohistochemistry.", "In humans, a gene encoding INMT is determined to be located on chromosome 7.Northern blot analyses reveal INMT messenger RNA (mRNA) to be highly expressed in rabbit lung, and in human thyroid, adrenal gland, and lung.", "Intermediate levels of expression are found in human heart, skeletal muscle, trachea, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, testis, prostate, placenta, lymph node, and spinal cord.", "Low to very low levels of expression are noted in rabbit brain, and human thymus, liver, spleen, kidney, colon, ovary, and bone marrow.", "INMT mRNA expression is absent in human peripheral blood leukocytes, whole brain, and in tissue from 7 specific brain regions (thalamus, subthalamic nucleus, caudate nucleus, hippocampus, amygdala, substantia nigra, and corpus callosum).", "Immunohistochemistry showed INMT to be present in large amounts in glandular epithelial cells of small and large intestines.", "In 2011, immunohistochemistry revealed the presence of INMT in primate nervous tissue including retina, spinal cord motor neurons, and pineal gland.", "A 2020 study using in-situ hybridization, a far more accurate tool than the northern blot analysis, found mRNA coding for INMT expressed in the human cerebral cortex, choroid plexus, and pineal gland." ], [ "Pharmacology", "===Pharmacokinetics===DMT peak level concentrations (''C''max) measured in whole blood after intramuscular (IM) injection (0.7 mg/kg, ''n'' = 11) and in plasma following intravenous (IV) administration (0.4 mg/kg, ''n'' = 10) of fully psychedelic doses are in the range of around 14 to 154 μg/L and 32 to 204 μg/L, respectively.The corresponding molar concentrations of DMT are therefore in the range of 0.074–0.818 μmol/L in whole blood and 0.170–1.08 μmol in plasma.", "However, several studies have described active transport and accumulation of DMT into rat and dog brains following peripheral administration.Similar active transport, and accumulation processes likely occur in human brains and may concentrate DMT in brain by several-fold or more (relatively to blood), resulting in local concentrations in the micromolar or higher range.", "Such concentrations would be commensurate with serotonin brain tissue concentrations, which have been consistently determined to be in the 1.5–4 μmol/L range.Closely coextending with peak psychedelic effects, mean time to reach peak concentrations (''T''max) was determined to be 10–15 minutes in whole blood after IM injection, and 2 minutes in plasma after IV administration.", "When taken orally mixed in an ayahuasca decoction, and in freeze-dried ayahuasca gel caps, DMT ''T''max is considerably delayed: 107.59 ± 32.5 minutes, and 90–120 minutes, respectively.The pharmacokinetics for vaporizing DMT have not been studied or reported.====Neurogenesis====In September 2020, an ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'' study showed that DMT present in the ayahuasca infusion promotes neurogenesis.===Pharmacodynamics===DMT binds non-selectively with affinities below 0.6 μmol/L to the following serotonin receptors: 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, 5-HT2C, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7.An agonist action has been determined at 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C.", "Its efficacies at other serotonin receptors remain to be determined.", "Of special interest will be the determination of its efficacy at human 5-HT2B receptor as two ''in vitro'' assays evidenced DMT's high affinity for this receptor: 0.108 µmol/L and 0.184 µmol/L.", "This may be of importance because chronic or frequent uses of serotonergic drugs showing preferential high affinity and clear agonism at 5-HT2B receptor have been causally linked to valvular heart disease.It has also been shown to possess affinity for the dopamine D1, α1-adrenergic, α2-adrenergic, imidazoline-1, and σ1 receptors.", "Converging lines of evidence established activation of the σ1 receptor at concentrations of 50–100 μmol/L.", "Its efficacies at the other receptor binding sites are unclear.", "It has also been shown ''in vitro'' to be a substrate for the cell-surface serotonin transporter (SERT) expressed in human platelets, and the rat vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2), which was transiently expressed in fall armyworm Sf9 cells.", "DMT inhibited SERT-mediated serotonin uptake into platelets at an average concentration of 4.00 ± 0.70 µmol/L and VMAT2-mediated serotonin uptake at an average concentration of 93 ± 6.8 µmol/L.As with other so-called \"classical hallucinogens\", a large part of DMT psychedelic effects can be attributed to a functionally selective activation of the 5-HT2A receptor.", "DMT concentrations eliciting 50% of its maximal effect (half maximal effective concentration = EC50) at the human 5-HT2A receptor ''in vitro'' are in the 0.118–0.983 µmol/L range.", "This range of values coincides well with the range of concentrations measured in blood and plasma after administration of a fully psychedelic dose (see Pharmacokinetics).As DMT has been shown to have slightly better efficacy (EC50) at human serotonin 2C receptor than at the 2A receptor, 5-HT2C is also likely implicated in DMT's overall effects.", "Other receptors such as 5-HT1A and σ1 may also play a role.In 2009, it was hypothesized that DMT may be an endogenous ligand for the σ1 receptor.", "The concentration of DMT needed for σ1 activation ''in vitro'' (50–100 µmol/L) is similar to the behaviorally active concentration measured in mouse brain of approximately 106 µmol/L This is minimally 4 orders of magnitude higher than the average concentrations measured in rat brain tissue or human plasma under basal conditions (see Endogenous DMT), so σ1 receptors are likely to be activated only under conditions of high local DMT concentrations.", "If DMT is stored in synaptic vesicles, such concentrations might occur during vesicular release.", "To illustrate, while the ''average'' concentration of serotonin in brain tissue is in the 1.5–4 µmol/L range, the concentration of serotonin in synaptic vesicles was measured at 270 mM.", "Following vesicular release, the resulting concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, to which serotonin receptors are exposed, is estimated to be about 300 µmol/L.", "Thus, while ''in vitro'' receptor binding affinities, efficacies, and average concentrations in tissue or plasma are useful, they are not likely to predict DMT concentrations in the vesicles or at synaptic or intracellular receptors.", "Under these conditions, notions of receptor selectivity are moot, and it seems probable that most of the receptors identified as targets for DMT (see above) participate in producing its psychedelic effects.", "Binding sites Binding affinity ''Ki'' (μM) 5-HT1A 0.075 5-HT2A 0.237 5-HT2C 0.424 D1 6 D2 3 D3 6.3 α1A 1.3 α2A 2.1 TAAR1 2.2 H1 0.22 SERT 6 DAT 22 NET 6.5" ], [ "Society and culture", "===Black market===Electronic cigarette cartridges filled with DMT started to be sold on the black market in 2018." ], [ "See also", "* Dimethyltryptamine-''N''-oxide* Psychedelic drug* List of psychoactive plants* MPMI* Serotonergic psychedelic* Psychoplastogen* Alexander Shulgin* SN-22* Rick Strassman" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* DMT chapter from ''TiHKAL''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Da capo" ], [ "Introduction", "340x340px'''Da capo''' ( , , ; often abbreviated as '''D.C.''')", "is an Italian musical term that means \"from the beginning\" (literally, \"from the head\").", "The term is a directive to repeat the previous part of music, often used to save space, and thus is an easier way of saying to repeat the music from the beginning.In small pieces, this might be the same thing as a repeat.", "But in larger works, D.C. might occur after one or more repeats of small sections, indicating a return to the very beginning.", "The resulting structure of the piece is generally in ternary form.", "Sometimes, the composer describes the part to be repeated, for example: ''Menuet da capo''.", "In opera, where an aria of this structure is called a ''da capo aria'', the repeated section is often adorned with grace notes.The word ''Fine'' (Ital.", "'end') is generally placed above the stave at the point where the movement ceases after a 'Da capo' repetition.", "Its place is occasionally taken by a pause (see fermata).\"" ], [ "Variations", "* '''Da Capo al Fine''' (often abbreviated as '''D.C.", "al Fine'''): Repeat from beginning to the end, or up to the word ''Fine'' (should that appear at the end of the passage)—the word ''Fine'' itself signifying the end.340x340px* '''Da Capo al Coda''' (often abbreviated as '''D.C.", "al Coda'''): Repeat from beginning to an indicated place and then play the tail part (the \"Coda\").", "It directs the musician to go back and repeat the music from the beginning (\"Capo\"), and to continue playing until one reaches the first coda symbol.", "Upon reaching the first coda symbol, skip to the second coda symbol and continue playing until the end.", "The portion of the piece from the second coda to the end is often referred to as the \"coda\" of the piece, or quite literally as \"the tail\".", "This may also be instructed by simply using the words ''al Coda'' after which the musician is to skip to the written word ''Coda''.", "* '''Da Capo al Segno''' (often abbreviated as '''D.C.", "al Segno'''): It means \"From the beginning to the sign (𝄋)\"." ], [ "See also", "* Coda (music)* Repeat sign* Dal segno (DS al coda)" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dominatrix" ], [ "Introduction", "Phyllis and Aristotle, a fictional tale written in the 13th century, as depicted by artist Giovanni Buonconsiglio in the early 1500sA '''dominatrix''' (; or '''dominatrices''' ), or '''domme''', is a woman who takes the dominant role in BDSM activities.", "A dominatrix can be of any sexual orientation, but this does not necessarily limit the genders of her submissive partners.", "Dominatrices are popularly known for inflicting physical pain on their submissive subjects, but this is not done in every case.", "In some instances erotic humiliation is used, such as verbal humiliation or the assignment of humiliating tasks.", "Dominatrices also make use of other forms of servitude.", "Practices of domination common to many BDSM and other various sexual relationships are also prevalent.", "A dominatrix is typically a paid professional (''pro-domme'') as the term ''dominatrix'' is little-used within the non-professional BDSM scene." ], [ "Terminology and etymology", "''Dominatrix'' is the feminine form of the Latin ''dominator'', a ruler or lord, and was originally used in a non-sexual sense.", "Its use in English dates back to at least 1561.Its earliest recorded use in the prevalent modern sense, as a female dominant in sadomasochism, dates to 1961.It was initially coined to describe a woman who provides punishment-for-pay as one of the case studies within Bruce Roger's pulp paperback ''The Bizarre Lovemakers''.", "The term was taken up shortly after by the Myron Kosloff title ''Dominatrix'' (with art by Eric Stanton) in 1968, and entered more popular mainstream knowledge following the 1976 film ''Dominatrix Without Mercy''.The term ''domme'' is likely a coined pseudo-French feminine inflection of the slang ''dom'' (short for ''dominant'').", "The use of ''domme'', ''dominatrix'', ''dom'', or ''dominant'' by any woman in a dominant role is chosen mostly by personal preference and the conventions of the local BDSM scene.", "The term '''mistress''' or '''dominant mistress''' is sometimes also used.", "'''Female dominance''' (also known as '''female domination''' or '''femdom''') is a BDSM activity in which the dominant partner is female.", "However, while the term ''mistress'' is often used in the media, members of the BDSM community often avoid it, as it can be confused with ''mistress'' in the sense of a woman who has an illicit relationship with a married man, a term which has the negative implication of cheating on a partner.", "Since there is a large overlap between the BDSM and polyamory communities, where ethical conduct is a prime concern, any such relationship is a source of disapproval.Although the term ''dominatrix'' was not used, the classic example in literature of the female dominant-male submissive relationship is portrayed in the 1870 novella ''Venus in Furs'' by Austrian writer Leopold von Sacher-Masoch.", "The term ''masochism'' was later derived from the author's name by Richard von Krafft-Ebing in the latter's 1886 forensic study ''Psychopathia Sexualis''." ], [ "History", "Erotic photograph, , showing a dominant female music teacher caning the buttocks of a submissive female student with a violin bowThe history of the dominatrix is argued to date back to rituals of the Goddess Inanna (or Ishtar as she was known in Akkadian), in ancient Mesopotamia.", "Ancient cuneiform texts consisting of \"Hymns to Inanna\" have been cited as examples of the archetype of powerful, sexual female displaying dominating behaviors and forcing gods and men into submission to her.", "The pseudonymous archaeologist and BDSM historian Anne O. Nomis notes that Inanna's rituals included cross-dressing of cult personnel, and rituals \"imbued with pain and ecstasy, bringing about initiation and journeys of altered consciousness; punishment, moaning, ecstasy, lament and song, participants exhausting themselves with weeping and grief.", "\"The fictional tale of Phyllis and Aristotle, which became popular and gained numerous versions from the 12th century onwards, tells the story of a dominant woman who seduced and dominated the male intellect of the greatest philosopher.", "In the story, Phyllis forces Aristotle to kneel on the ground so that she rides on his back while whipping and verbally humiliating him.The profession appears to have originated as a specialization within brothels, before becoming its own unique craft.", "As far back as the 1590s, flagellation within an erotic setting is recorded.", "The profession features in erotic prints of the era, such as the British Museum mezzotint \"The Cully Flaug'd\" (c. 1674–1702), and in accounts of forbidden books which record the flogging schools and the activities practised.Within the 18th century, female \"Birch Disciplinarians\" advertised their services in a book masked as a collection of lectures or theatrical plays, entitled \"Fashionable Lectures\" (c. 1761).", "This included the names of 57 women, some actresses and courtesans, who catered to birch discipline fantasies, keeping a room with rods and cat o' nine tails, and charging their clients a Guinea for a \"lecture\".The 19th century is characterised by what Nomis characterises as the \"Golden Age of the Governess\".", "No fewer than twenty establishments were documented as having existed by the 1840s, supported entirely by flagellation practices and known as \"Houses of Discipline\" distinct from brothels.", "Amongst the well-known \"dominatrix governesses\" were Mrs Chalmers, Mrs Noyeau, the late Mrs Jones of Hertford Street and London Street, the late Mrs Theresa Berkley, Bessy Burgess of York Square and Mrs Pyree of Burton Crescent.", "The most famous of these Governess \"female flagellants\" was Theresa Berkley, who operated her establishment on Charlotte Street in the central London district of Marylebone.", "She is recorded to have used implements such as whips, canes and birches, to chastise and punish her male clients, as well as the Berkley Horse, a specially designed flogging machine, and a pulley suspension system for lifting them off the floor.", "Such historical use of corporal punishment and suspension, in a setting of domination roleplay, connects very closely to the practices of modern-day professional dominatrices.The \"bizarre style\" (as it came to be called) of leather catsuits, claws, tail whips, and latex rubber only came about in the 20th century, initially within commercial fetish photography, and taken up by dominatrices.", "Within the mid-20th century, dominatrices operated in a very discreet and underground manner, which has made them difficult to trace within the historical record.", "A few photographs still exist of the women who ran their domination businesses in London, New York, The Hague and Hamburg's Herbertstraße, predominantly in sepia and black-and-white photographs, and scans from magazine articles, copied and re-copied.", "Amongst these were Miss Doreen of London who was acquainted with John Sutcliffe of ''AtomAge'' fame, whose clients reportedly included Britain's top politicians and businessmen.", "In New York, the dominatrix Anne Laurence was known within the underground circle of acquaintances during the 1950s, with Monique Von Cleef arriving in the early 1960s, and hitting national headlines when her home was raided by police detectives on 22 December 1965.Von Cleef went on to set up her \"House of Pain\" in The Hague in the 1970s, which became one of the world capitals for dominatrices, reportedly with visiting lawyers, ambassadors, diplomats and politicians.", "Domenica Niehoff worked as a dominatrix in Hamburg and appeared on talk shows on German television from the 1970s onwards, campaigning for sex workers' rights.", "Mistress Raven, founder and manager of Pandora's Box, one of New York's best known BDSM studios, was featured in Nick Broomfield's 1996 documentary film ''Fetishes''." ], [ "Professional dominatrices", "A professional dominatrix and a submissive male perform for the audience at a sex show in Austria.The term ''dominatrix'' is mostly used to describe a female professional dominant (or \"pro-domme\") who is paid to engage in BDSM play with a submissive.", "Professional dominatrices are not prostitutes, despite the sensual and erotic interactions they have.", "An appointment or roleplay is referred to as a \"session\", and is often conducted in a dedicated professional play space which has been set up with specialist equipment, known as a \"dungeon\".", "Sessions may also be conducted remotely by letter or telephone, or in the contemporary era of technological connectivity by email, online chat or platforms such as OnlyFans.", "Most, but not all, clients of female professional dominants are men.", "Male professional dominants also exist, catering predominantly to the gay male market.Women who engage in female domination typically promote and title themselves under the terms \"dominatrix\", \"mistress\", \"lady\", \"madame\", \"\" (German for \"mistress\") or \"goddess\".", "In a study of German dominatrices, Andrew Wilson said that the trend for dominatrices choosing names aimed at creating and maintaining an atmosphere in which class, femininity and mystery are key elements of their self-constructed identity.Some professional dominatrices set minimum age limits for their clients.", "Popular requests from clients are for dungeon play including bondage, spanking and cock and ball torture, or for medical play using hoods, gas masks and urethral sounding.", "Verbal erotic humiliation, such as small penis humiliation, is also popular.", "There are some professional dominatrices that engage in sexual contact activities such as facesitting, handjobs or fellatio but others disapprove of this.", "Other BDSM activities can include various forms of body worship, such as foot worship, ass worship, breast worship and pussy worship; tease and denial; corporal punishment including breast torture, caning, whipping; orgasm denial; and as well as face slapping, hair pulling, dripping hot wax on the genitals, spitting, golden showers, \"forced\" chastity, cock and ball torture, and pussy torture.It is not unusual for a dominatrix to consider her profession different from that of an escort and not perform tie and tease or \"happy endings\".", "Typically professional dominatrices do not have sexual intercourse with their clients, do not become naked with their clients and do not allow their clients to touch them.", "The Canadian dominatrix Terri-Jean Bedford, who was one of three women who initiated an application in the Ontario Superior Court seeking invalidation of Canada's laws regarding brothels, sought to differentiate for clarity her occupation as a dominatrix rather than a prostitute to the media, due to frequent misunderstanding and conflation by the public of the two terms.That being said, it is now generally accepted that a professional dominatrix is a sex worker, and many of the acts conducted during a session may be interpreted as equally sexual to the participants.While dominatrices come from many different backgrounds, it has been shown that a considerable number are well-educated.", "Research into US dominatrices published in 2012 indicated that 39% of the sample studied had received some sort of graduate training.A 1985 study suggested that about 30 percent of participants in BDSM subculture were female.", "A 1994 report indicated that around a quarter of the women who took part in BDSM subculture did so professionally.", "In a 1995 study of Internet discussion group messages, the preference for the dominant-initiator role was expressed by 11% of messages by heterosexual women, compared to 71% of messages by heterosexual men.Professional dominatrices can be seen advertising their services online and in print publications which carry erotic services advertising, such as contact magazines and fetish magazines that specialise in female domination.", "The precise number of women actively offering professional domination services is unknown.", "Most professional dominatrices practice in large metropolitan cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and London, with as many as 200 women working as dominatrices in Los Angeles.Professional dominatrices may take pride or differentiation in their psychological insight into their clients' fetishes and desires, as well as their technical ability to perform complex BDSM practices, such as Japanese shibari, head-scissoring, and other forms of bondage, suspension, torture roleplay, and corporal punishment, and other such practices which require a high degree of knowledge and competency to safely oversee.", "From a sociological point of view, Danielle Lindemann has stated the \"embattled purity regime\" in which many pro-dommes emphasise their specialist knowledge and professional skills, while distancing themselves from economic criteria for success, in a way which is comparable to avant-garde artists.Some dominatrices practice financial domination, or findom, a fetish in which a submissive is aroused by sending money or gifts to a dominatrix at her instruction.", "In some cases the dominatrix is given control of the submissive's finances or a \"blackmail\" scenario is acted out.", "In the majority of cases the dominatrix and the submissive do not physically meet.", "The interactions are typically performed using the Internet, which is also where such services are advertised.", "Findom was originally a niche service that a traditional dominatrix would offer, but it has become popular with less-experienced online practitioners.To differentiate women who identify as a dominatrix but do not offer paid services, non-professional dominants are occasionally referred to as a \"lifestyle\" dominatrix or Mistress.", "The term \"lifestyle\" to signify BDSM is occasionally a contention topic in the BDSM community and that some dominatrices may dislike the term.", "Some professional dominatrices are also \"lifestyle\" dominatrices—i.e., in addition to paid sessions with submissive clients they engage in unpaid recreational sessions or may incorporate power exchange within their own private lives and relationships.", "However, the term has fallen out of general usage with respect to women who are dominant in their private relationships, and has taken on more and more the connotation of \"professional\".", "Nathalie Lugand in her 2023 book \"A Psychodynamic Approach to Female Domination in BDSM Relationships\" describes this strict separation as artificial." ], [ "Notable dominatrices", "Catherine Robbe-Grillet is a lifestyle dominatrix.", "Born in Paris on September 24, 1930, she then became France's most famous lifestyle dominatrix.", "She is also a writer and actress, the widow of nouveau roman pioneer and sadist Alain Robbe-Grillet.", "She currently lives with Beverly Charpentier, a 51-year-old South African woman who is her submissive companion.", "Although being such a famous dominatrix, she has never accepted payment for her \"ceremonies\".", "She's quoted as saying \"If someone pays, then they are in charge.", "I need to remain free.", "It is important that everyone involved knows that I do it solely for my pleasure.\"", "\"Catherine is my secret garden,\" Charpentier says.", "\"I have given myself to her, body and soul.", "She does whatever she wants, whenever she wants, with either or both, according to her pleasure—and her pleasure is also my pleasure.\"", "Robbe-Grillet has been criticised for writing about S/M stories.", "She identifies as a \"pro-sex feminist\" and \"the kind of feminist who supports the right of any man or woman to work as a prostitute, if it is their free choice.\"" ], [ "Imagery", "A dominatrix wearing typical fetish fashion themed latex dress, fishnet stockings and stiletto heels.", "She is holding a spanking paddle.The dominatrix is a symbolic female archetype.", "In popular culture, the conception of the dominatrix is generally associated with specialized clothing and props used to signify her role as a strong, dominant, sexualised woman.", "This role is linked to but distinct from images of sexual fetish.", "During the twentieth century, dominatrix imagery was developed by the work of a number of artists including the costume designer and photographer Charles Guyette, the publisher and film director Irving Klaw, and the illustrators Eric Stanton and Gene Bilbrew who drew for the fetish magazine ''Exotique''.One of the garments associated with the dominatrix is the catsuit.", "The black leather female catsuit entered dominant fetish culture in the 1950s with the ''AtomAge'' magazine and its connections to fetish fashion designer John Sutcliffe.", "Its appearance in mainstream culture began when catsuits were worn by strong female protagonists in popular 1960s TV programs like ''The Avengers'' and by comic super-heroines such as Catwoman.", "The catsuit represented the independence of a woman capable of \"kick-ass\" moves and action, giving complete freedom of movement.", "At the same time, the one-piece catsuit accentuated and exaggerated the sexualized female form, providing visual access to a woman's body, while simultaneously obstructing physical penetrative access.", "\"You can look but you can't touch\" is the message, which plays upon the BDSM practice known as \"tease and denial\".Another common image is that of a dominatrix wearing thigh-high boots in leather or shiny PVC, which have long held a fetishistic status and are sometimes called kinky boots, along with very high stiletto heels.", "Fishnet stockings, seamed hosiery, stockings and garter belts (suspenders) are also used in the representation and attire of dominatrices, to emphasize the form and length of the legs with erotic connotation.Tight leather corsets are another popular dominatrix garment.", "Gloves, whether long opera gloves or fingerless gloves, are often a further accessory to emphasize the feminine role.", "Neck corsets are also sometimes worn.Dominatrices frequently wear clothing made from fetish fashion materials.", "Examples include PVC clothing, latex clothing and garments drawn from the leather subculture.", "In some cases elements of dominatrix attire, such as leather boots and peaked cap, are drawn from Nazi chic, particularly the black SS officer's uniform which has been widely adopted and fetishized by underground gay and BDSM lifestyle groups to satisfy a uniform fetish.A dominatrix often uses strong, dominant body language which is comparable to dominant posturing in the animal world.", "The props she brandishes signify her role as dominatrix, such as a flogger, whip or riding crop as illustrated in the artwork of Bruno Zach in the early 20th century.Another often-depicted characteristic of the dominatrix character is of smoking, either of tobacco cigarettes or cannabis products.", "While smoking tobacco has been in rapid decline worldwide, depiction of it in BDSM literature and media is increasing, as the negative image of smoking reinforces the \"bad girl\" stereotype associated with a dominatrix.A dominatrix wearing face mask and pasties at Venus Berlin, 2019Practicing professional dominatrices may draw their attire from the conventional imagery associated with the role, or adapt it to create their own individual style.", "There is a potential conflict between meeting conventional expectations and a desire for dominant independent self-expression.", "Some contemporary dominatrices draw upon an eclectic range of strong female archetypes, including the goddess, the female superheroine, the femme fatale, the priestess, the empress, the queen, the governess and the KGB secret agent." ], [ "In literature", "Themes associated with the dominatrix character have appeared in literature since the 10th century.", "Canoness Hroswitha, in her manuscript ''Maria,'' uses the word ''Dominatrix'' for the main character.", "She is portrayed as an unattainable woman who is too good for any of the men who are in love with her.", "The theme of \"the unattainable woman\" has been used thoroughly in medieval literature as well, although it differs from a dominatrix.", "Medieval themes surrounding the unattainable woman concerned issues of social classes and structure, with chivalry being a prime part of a relationship between a man and woman.", "There are some exceptions to this trend during medieval times.", "In Cervantes’ ''Don Quixote'' (1605), Celadon is imprisoned by Galatea.", "Celadon complains that his \"mistress .", ".", ".", "Galatea keeps me on such a short leash\".", "In Robert Herrick's ''Hesperides'', a book of poems published in 1648, there were three revealing poems ''An Hymne to Love'', ''The Dream'', and ''To Love'' which showcase masculine longing for domination, restraint, discipline.", "In ''Ulysses'' by James Joyce, the character Leopold Bloom has many fantasies of submission to a lady and to receive whippings by her." ], [ "In popular culture", "There have been a number of depictions of dominatrices in film and television, almost always featuring a professional dominatrix.", "Depictions of dominatrices in popular culture include:* ''Euphoria'' is a TV series in which Kat Hernandez, portrayed by Barbie Ferreira, moonlights as a dominatrix.", "She has to hide this part of her life from her friends and family due to societal shame.", "* ''Bonding'' is a TV series in which Tiffany \"Tiff\" Chester, portrayed by Zoe Levin, is a psychology student by day, and dominatrix \"Mistress May\" by night.", "Many viewers have not liked the depictions of a dominatrix in the first season, often citing it as \"inaccurate\".", "However, they hired a consultant who worked as dominatrix for 15 years to assist them in the script for the second season and fix the inaccuracies.", "* ''Exit to Eden'' is a film based on a novel of the same name with a dominatrix-based plot." ], [ "See also", "* BDSM in culture and media* Body worship* Chastity belt (BDSM)* Domination and submission* Female bodybuilding* Feminization (activity)* Fisting* Latex and PVC fetishism* Male dominance (BDSM)* Pegging (sexual practice)* Sadism and masochism in fiction* Session wrestler" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Tomi Ungerer: ''Schutzengel der Hölle'', Diogenes 1986, * Annick Foucault, ''Françoise maîtresse'', Gallimard 1994, * Shawna Kenney, ''I Was a Teenage Dominatrix: a Memoir'', Last Gasp 2002, * Melissa Febos, ''Whip Smart'', St. Martin's Press 2010, * Susan Winemaker ''Concertina: the Life and Loves of a Dominatrix'', Pocket Books 2007, * Evangelline Dubois: ''How To Be A Domme: the Practical Guide to Becoming a Professional Dominatrix'', 2011* Anne O. Nomis: ''The History & Arts of the Dominatrix'' Mary Egan Publishing & Anna Nomis Ltd 2013, * * Marisa Rudder, ''Femdom: The Erotic Guide to Female Dominance and Domination'' (Female Led Relationship) Paperback – April 5, 2022, * Nathalie lugand, ''A Psychodynamic Approach to Female Domination in BDSM Relationships Sexuality Between Pleasure and Work'', Taylor & Francis Ltd," ], [ "External links", "here for the full transcript.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Flag of Denmark" ], [ "Introduction", "The national flag of Denmark (, ) is red with a white Nordic cross, which means that the cross extends to the edges of the flag and the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side.A banner with a white-on-red cross is attested as having been used by the kings of Denmark since the 14th century.", "An origin legend with considerable impact on Danish national historiography connects the introduction of the flag to the Battle of Lindanise of 1219.The elongated Nordic cross, which represents Christianity, reflects its use as a maritime flag in the 18th century.", "The flag became popular as a national flag in the early 16th century.", "Its private use was outlawed in 1834 but again permitted by a regulation of 1854.The flag holds the world record of being the oldest continuously used national flag, that is since 1625." ], [ "Description", "men's team pursuit at the 2008 Summer Olympics in BeijingIn 1748, a regulation defined the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag as .In May 1893 a new regulation to all chiefs of police stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than as long as these did not exceed , and provided that this was the only rule violated.This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag today are 3:1:3 in width and anywhere between 3:1:4.5 and 3:1:5.25 in length.No official definition of \"Dannebrog rød\" exists.", "The private company ''Dansk Standard'', regulation number 359 (2005), defines the red colour of the flag as Pantone 186c.=== Construction sheet ===" ], [ "History", "=== 1219 origin legend ===Battle of Lindanise, 15 June 1219.Painted by Christian August Lorentzen in 1809.Original located at , Denmark.Information sign at Guinness World Records CopenhagenA tradition recorded in the 16th century traces the origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202–1241).", "The oldest of them is in Christiern Pedersen's \"''Danske Krønike''\", which is a sequel to Saxo's , written 1520–23.Here, the flag falls from the sky during one of Valdemar's military campaigns overseas.", "Pedersen also states that the very same flag was taken into exile by Eric of Pomerania in 1440.The second source is the writing of the Franciscan friar Petrus Olai (Peder Olsen) of Roskilde (died ).", "This record describes a battle in 1208 near Fellin during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II.", "The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross fell from the sky and miraculously led to a Danish victory.", "In a third account, also by Petrus Olai, in ''Danmarks Tolv Herligheder'' (\"Twelve Splendours of Denmark\"), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost verbatim, with a paragraph inserted correcting the year to 1219.Now, the flag is falling from the sky in the Battle of Lindanise, also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: ''Volmerslaget''), near Lindanise (Tallinn) in Estonia, of 15 June 1219.It is this third account that has been the most influential, and some historians have treated it as the primary account taken from a (lost) source dating to the first half of the 15th century.In Olai's account, the battle was going badly, and defeat seemed imminent.", "However the Danish Bishop Anders Sunesen, on top of a hill overlooking the battle, prayed to God with his arms raised, and the Danes moved closer to victory the more he prayed.", "When he raised his arms the Danes surged forward but when his arms grew tired and he let them fall, the Estonians turned the Danes back.", "Attendants rushed forward to raise his arms once again and the Danes again surged forward.", "But for a second time he grew so tired that he dropped his arms and the Danes again lost the advantage and were moving closer to defeat.", "He needed two soldiers to keep his hands up.", "When the Danes were about to lose, 'Dannebrog' miraculously fell from the sky and the King took it, showed it to the troops, their hearts were filled with courage, and the Danes won the battle.The possible historical nucleus behind this origin legend was extensively discussed by Danish historians in the 19th to 20th centuries.", "One such example is Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen, who argued that Bishop Theoderich was the original instigator of the 1218 inquiry from Bishop Albert of Buxhoeveden to King Valdemar II which led to the Danish participation in the Baltic crusades.", "Jørgensen speculates that Bishop Theoderich might have carried the Knight Hospitaller's banner in the 1219 battle and that \"the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theoderich tent.", "He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle.", "\"The Danish church-historian L. P. Fabricius (1934) ascribes the origin to the 1208 Battle of Fellin, not the Battle of Lindanise in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story.", "Fabricius speculated that it might have been Archbishop Andreas Sunesøn's personal ecclesiastical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop Absalon, under whose initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia.", "The banner would then already be known in Estonia.", "Fabricius repeats Jørgensen's idea about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent, which the enemy mistakenly attacked believing it to be the tent of the King.A different theory is briefly discussed by Fabricius and elaborated more by Helge Bruhn (1949).", "Bruhn interprets the story in the context of the widespread tradition of the miraculous appearance of crosses in the sky in Christian legend, specifically comparing such an event attributed to a battle of 10 September 1217 near Alcazar, where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians.In Swedish national historiography of the 18th century, there is a tale paralleling the Danish legend, in which a golden cross appears in the blue sky during a Swedish battle in Finland in 1157.=== Middle Ages ===Gelre Armorial (fol.", "55v), the entry for the king of Denmark showing the white-on-red cross bannerThe white-on-red cross emblem originates in the age of the Crusades.", "In the 12th century, it was also used as war flag by the Holy Roman Empire.In the ''Gelre Armorial'', dated 1340–1370, such a banner is shown alongside the coat of arms of the king of Denmark.", "This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog.", "At about the same time, Valdemar IV of Denmark displays a cross in his coat of arms on his ''Danælog'' seal (''Rettertingsseglet'', dated 1356).", "The image from the Armorial Gelre is nearly identical to an image found in a 15th-century coat of arms book now located in the National Archives of Sweden (''Riksarkivet'').", "The seal of Eric of Pomerania (1398) as king of the Kalmar union displays the arms of Denmark's chief dexter, three lions.", "In this version, the lions are holding a Dannebrog banner.File:War flag of the Holy Roman Empire (1200-1350).svg|Reichssturmfahne of the Holy Roman EmpireFile:Royal Banner of Denmark (14th Century).svg|23pxThe royal banner of the kings of Denmark based on the royal coat of armsFile:Erikafpommernsdanskeunionssegl.jpg|Seal of Eric of Pomerania as king of the Kalmar union, 1398.A small Dannebrog banner is depicted as held by the three Danish lions in the top-left corner.The reason why the kings of Denmark in the 14th century began displaying the cross banner in their coats of arms is unknown.", "Caspar Paludan-Müller (1873) suggested that it may reflect a banner sent by the pope to support the Danish king during the Livonian Crusade.", "Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen (1875) identifies the banner as that of the Knights Hospitaller, which order had a presence in Denmark from the later 12th century.Several coins, seals, and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing heraldic designs similar to Dannebrog, alongside the royal coat of arms (three blue lions on a golden shield.", ")The Danish flag from the front page of Christiern Pedersen's version of Saxo's , 1514 (see here for a larger version)There is a record suggesting that the Danish army had a \"chief banner\" (''hoffuitbanner'') in the early 16th century.", "Such a banner is mentioned in 1570 by Niels Hemmingsøn in the context of a 1520 battle between Danes and Swedes near Uppsala as nearly captured by the Swedes but saved by the heroic actions of the banner-carrier Mogens Gyldenstierne and Peder Skram.", "The legend attributing the miraculous origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202–1241) was recorded by Christiern Pedersen and Petrus Olai in the 1520s.Hans Svaning's ''History of King Hans'' from 1558 to 1559 and Johan Rantzau's ''History about the Last Dithmarschen War'', from 1569, record the further fate of the Danish ''hoffuitbanner'': According to this tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lindanise was used in the small campaign of 1500 when King Hans tried to conquer Dithmarschen (in western Holstein in the north Germany).", "The flag was lost in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Hemmingstedt on 17 February 1500.In 1559, King Frederik II recaptured it during his own Dithmarschen campaign.In 1576, the son of ''Johan Rantzau'', Henrik Rantzau, also writes about the war and the fate of the flag, noting that the flag was in a poor condition when returned.", "He records that the flag after its return to Denmark was placed in the cathedral in Slesvig.", "Slesvig historian Ulrik Petersen (1656–1735) confirms the presence of such a banner in the cathedral in the early 17th century and records that it had crumbled away by about 1660.Contemporary records describing the battle of Hemmingstedt make no reference to the loss of the original Dannebrog, although the capitulation state that all Danish banners lost in 1500 was to be returned.", "In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to Oluf Stigsøn, King John describes the battle but does not mention the loss of an important flag.", "In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was of limited importance.", "In 1598, Neocorus wrote that the banner captured in 1500 was brought to the church in Wöhrden and hung there for the next 59 years until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in 1559.===Modern period ===Danish soldiers return to Copenhagen after the Battle of Fredericia (1849), a Danish victory against German insurgents in Holstein and Schleswig in the First Schleswig War (1894 painting by Otto Bache)Cigarette card of 1890, depicting the royal standard of the Danish West IndiesUsed as a maritime flag since the 16th century, the Dannebrog was introduced as a regimental flag in the Danish army in 1785, and for the militia (landeværn) in 1801.From 1842, it was used as the flag of the entire army.During the first half of the 19th century, in parallel to the development of Romantic nationalism in other European countries, the military flag increasingly came to be seen as representing the nation itself.", "Poems of this period invoking the ''Dannebrog'' were written by B.S.", "Ingemann, N.F.S.", "Grundtvig, Oehlenschläger, Chr.", "Winther and H.C. Andersen.", "By the 1830s, the military flag had become popular as an unofficial national flag, and its use by private citizens was outlawed in a circular enacted on 7 January 1834.In the national enthusiasm sparked by the First Schleswig War during 1848–1850, the flag was still very widely displayed, and the prohibition of private use was repealed in a regulation of 7 July 1854, for the first time allowing Danish citizens to display the Dannebrog (but not the swallow-tailed ''Splitflag'' variant).", "Special permission to use the ''Splitflag'' was given to individual institutions and private companies, especially after 1870.In 1886, the war ministry introduced a regulation indicating that the flag should be flown from military buildings on thirteen specified days, including royal birthdays, the date of the signing of the Constitution of 5 June 1849 and on days of remembrance for military battles.", "In 1913, the naval ministry issued its own list of flag days.", "On 10 April 1915, the hoisting of any ''other'' flag on Danish soil was prohibited.", "This prohibition has been lifted on 24 June 2023, after a Supreme Court ruling.", "From 1939 until 2012, the yearbook ''Hvem-Hvad-Hvor'' included a list of flag days.", "As of 2019 flag days can be viewed at the \"Ministry of Justice (Justitsministeriet)\" as well as \"The Denmark Society (Danmarks-Samfundet)\"." ], [ "Variants", "=== Maritime flag and corresponding Kingdom flag ===The Rigets flag/Splitflag raised at the opening of the DSR rowing clubThe size and shape of the civil ensign (\"''Koffardiflaget''\") for merchant ships is given in the regulation of 11 June 1748, which says: ''A red flag with a white cross with no split end.", "The white cross must be of the flag's height.", "The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields must be lengths of those''.", "The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 vertically and 3:1:4.5 horizontally.", "This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag (\"''Stutflaget''\"), as well as the merchant flag (\"''Handelsflaget''\").", "The civil flag and the merchant flag are identical in colour and design.A regulation passed in 1758 required Danish ships sailing in the Mediterranean to carry the royal cypher in the center of the flag in order to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.According to the regulation of 11 June 1748 the colour was simply red, which is common known today as \"Dannebrog rød\" (\"''Dannebrog red''\").", "The only available red fabric dye in 1748 was made of madder root, which can be processed to produce a brilliant red dye (used historically for British soldiers' jackets).", "A regulation of 4 May 1927 once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of 1748.The first regulation regarding the ''Splitflag'' dates from 27 March 1630, in which King Christian IV orders that Norwegian ''Defensionskibe'' (armed merchants ships) may only use the ''Splitflag'' if they are in Danish war service.", "In 1685 an order, distributed to a number of cities in Slesvig, states that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in 1690 all merchant ships are forbidden to use the ''Splitflag'', with the exception of ships sailing in the East Indies, West Indies and along the coast of Africa.", "In 1741 it is confirmed that the regulation of 1690 is still very much in effect; that merchant ships may not use the ''Splitflag''.", "At the same time the Danish East India Company is allowed to fly the ''Splitflag'' when past the equator.Some confusion must have existed regarding the ''Splitflag''.", "In 1696 the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the ''Splitflag''.", "In the same year a royal resolution defines the proportions of the ''Splitflag'', which in this resolution is called ''Kongeflaget'' (the King's flag), as follows: ''The cross must be of the flags height.", "The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width.", "The two outer fields are rectangular and the length of the square fields.", "The tails are the length of the flag''.These numbers are the basic for the ''Splitflag'', or ''Orlogsflag'', today, though the numbers have been slightly altered.", "The term ''Orlogsflag'' dates from 1806 and denotes use in the Danish Navy.From about 1750 to the early 19th century, a number of ships and companies which the government has interests in, received approval to use the ''Splitflag''.In the royal resolution of 25 October 1939 for the Danish Navy, it is stated that the ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deep red (\"''dybrød''\") or madder red (\"''kraprød''\") colour.", "Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U.", "Furthermore, the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: \"The cross must be of the flag's height.", "The two first fields must be square in form with the height of of the flag's height.", "The two outer fields are rectangular and the length of the square fields.", "The tails are the length of the rectangular fields\".", "Thus, if compared to the standard of 1696, both the rectangular fields and the tails have decreased in size.The ''Splitflag'' and ''Orlogsflag'' have similar shapes but different sizes and shades of red.", "Legally, they are two different flags.", "The ''Splitflag'' is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is ''Dannebrog red'', and is used on land.", "The ''Orlogsflag'' is an elongated ''Splitflag'' with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea.The ''Orlogsflag'' with no markings, may only be used by the Royal Danish Navy.", "There are though a few exceptions to this.", "A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean ''Orlogsflag''.", "The same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years.Furthermore, the ''Orlogsflag'' is only described as such if it has no additional markings.", "Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the colour, is called a ''Splitflag'' provided it bears additional markings.=== Royal standards ===;MonarchThe current version of the royal standard was introduced on 16 November 1972 when the Queen Margrethe II adopted a new version of her personal coat of arms.", "The royal standard is the flag of Denmark with a swallow-tail and charged with the monarch's coat of arms set in a white square.", "The centre square is 32 parts in a flag with the ratio 56:107.;Other members of the royal familyFile:Standard of the Crown Prince of Denmark.svg| Standard of Christian, the Crown Prince of DenmarkFile:Standard of the Regent of Denmark.svg| Standard of the Regent of DenmarkFile:Standard of the Royal House of Denmark.svg| Standard of the royal house-used by other members of the royal familyFile:Standard of Frederik the Crown Prince of Denmark at Amalienborg.jpg| Standard of Frederik, the then-Crown Prince of Denmark (now King Frederik X) flying at Amalienborg" ], [ "Other flags in the Kingdom of Denmark", "Greenland and the Faroe Islands are autonomous territories within the Kingdom of Denmark.", "They have their own official flags.File:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|8:11 Flag of the Faroe IslandsFile:Flag of Greenland.svg|2:3 Flag of GreenlandSome areas in Denmark have unofficial flags.", "While they have no legal recognition or regulation, they can be used freely.The regional flags of Bornholm and Ærø are occasionally used by locals of those islands and in tourist-related businesses.The proposal for a flag of Jutland has hardly found any actual use, maybe in part due to its peculiar design.The flag of Vendsyssel (Vendelbrog) is seen infrequently, but many locals recognise it.", "According to an article in the newspaper Nordjyske, the flag had been used in the former insignia of Flight Eskadrille 723 of Aalborg Air Base, in the 1980s.FlagDate introducedUseDescription border 1633 Unofficial flag of Ærø Nearly square banner of horizontal yellow, green, and red stripes repeated three times.", "A historically incorrect version similar to the flag of Lithuania was used until 2015 border 1970s Unofficial flag of Bornholm Nordic Cross Flag in red and green.", "Also known in a version with a white fimbriation of the green cross in a style similar to design of the Norwegian flag 100px 1975 Proposed flag of Jutland Nordic Cross Flag in blue, green and red.", "Designed by Per Kramer in 1975 Rarely seen in use.", "border 1976 Unofficial flag of Vendsyssel Nordic Cross Flag in blue, orange and green Designed by Mogens Bohøj." ], [ "See also", "*Flag of Greenland*Flag of the Faroe Islands*List of Danish flags*Nordic Cross flag*Raven banner*Flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta*Flag of Savoy*Danish Protest Pig, a breed of pig bred to look like the Danish flag." ], [ "References", "===General references===* Danmarks-Samfundet – several rules and customs about the use of Dannebrog* ''Dannebrog'', Helga Bruhn, Forlaget Jespersen og Pios, Copenhagen 1949* ''Danebrog – Danmarks Palladium'', E. D. Lund, Forlaget H. Hagerups, Copenhagen 1919* ''Dannebrog – Vort Flag'', Lieutenant Colonel Thaulow, Forlaget Codan, Copenhagen 1943* ''DS 359:2005 'Flagdug''', Dansk Standard, 2005" ], [ "External links", "* * Danish flag legendary birthplace in Estonia" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dharma" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dharma''' (; , ) is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism), among others.", "Although no single-word translation exists for ''dharma'' in English (or other European languages), the term is commonly understood as referring to behaviours that are in harmony with the \"order and custom\" that sustain life; \"virtue\", or \"religious and moral duties\".In Hinduism, dharma denotes behaviours that are considered to be in accord with ''Ṛta''—the \"order and custom\" that makes life and universe possible.", "This includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and \"right way of living\".", "The concept is believed to have a transtemporal validity, and is one of the four ''Puruṣārthas''.", "In Buddhism, dharma () refers to \"cosmic law and order\", as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha.", "In Buddhist philosophy, ''dhamma/dharma'' is also the term for \"phenomena\".", "Dharma in Jainism refers to the teachings of ''Tirthankara'' (''Jina'') and the body of doctrine pertaining to the purification and moral transformation of humans.", "In Sikhism, dharma indicates the path of righteousness, proper religious practices, and performing one's own moral duties.The concept of dharma was in use in the historical Vedic religion, and its meaning and conceptual scope has evolved over several millennia.", "The ancient Tamil text ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on dharma (''aram''), artha (''porul''), and kama (''inpam''), is completely and exclusively based on ''aṟam'', the Tamil term for dharma.", "As with the other components of the ''Puruṣārtha'', the concept of dharma is pan-Indian.", "The antonym of dharma is ''adharma''." ], [ "Etymology", "The Prakrit word \"''dha-ṃ-ma''\"/𑀥𑀁𑀫 (Sanskrit: Dharma धर्म) in the Brahmi script, as inscribed by Emperor Ashoka in his Edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BCE)The word ''dharma'' has roots in the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', which means ''to hold'' or ''to support'', and is related to Latin ''firmus'' (firm, stable).", "From this, it takes the meaning of \"what is established or firm\", and hence \"law\".", "It is derived from an older Vedic Sanskrit ''n''-stem ''dharman-'', with a literal meaning of \"bearer, supporter\", in a religious sense conceived as an aspect of Rta.In the Rigveda, the word appears as an ''n''-stem, '''', with a range of meanings encompassing \"something established or firm\" (in the literal sense of prods or poles).", "Figuratively, it means \"sustainer\" and \"supporter\" (of deities).", "It is semantically similar to the Greek ''themis'' (\"fixed decree, statute, law\").", "In Classical Sanskrit, and in the Vedic Sanskrit of the Atharvaveda, the stem is thematic: '''' (Devanagari: धर्म).", "In Prakrit and Pali, it is rendered ''dhamma''.", "In some contemporary Indian languages and dialects it alternatively occurs as ''dharm''.In the 3rd century BCE the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka translated ''dharma'' into Greek and Aramaic and he used the Greek word ''eusebeia'' (εὐσέβεια, piety, spiritual maturity, or godliness) in the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription and the Kandahar Greek Edicts.", "In the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription he used the Aramaic word (''''; truth, rectitude)." ], [ "Definition", "Dharma is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion.", "It has multiple meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism.", "It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for ''dharma'', as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.", "There is no equivalent single-word synonym for ''dharma'' in western languages.There have been numerous, conflicting attempts to translate ancient Sanskrit literature with the word ''dharma'' into German, English and French.", "The concept, claims Paul Horsch, has caused exceptional difficulties for modern commentators and translators.", "For example, while Grassmann's translation of Rig-Veda identifies seven different meanings of dharma, Karl Friedrich Geldner in his translation of the Rig-Veda employs 20 different translations for dharma, including meanings such as \"law\", \"order\", \"duty\", \"custom\", \"quality\", and \"model\", among others.", "However, the word ''dharma'' has become a widely accepted loanword in English, and is included in all modern unabridged English dictionaries.The root of the word ''dharma'' is \"dhr̥\", which means \"to support, hold, or bear\".", "It is the thing that regulates the course of change by not participating in change, but that principle which remains constant.", "Monier-Williams, the widely cited resource for definitions and explanation of Sanskrit words and concepts of Hinduism, offers numerous definitions of the word ''dharma'', such as that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, law, practice, custom, duty, right, justice, virtue, morality, ethics, religion, religious merit, good works, nature, character, quality, property.", "Yet, each of these definitions is incomplete, while the combination of these translations does not convey the total sense of the word.", "In common parlance, ''dharma'' means \"right way of living\" and \"path of rightness\".", "Dharma also has connotations of order, and when combined with the word ''sanatana'', it can also be described as eternal truth.The meaning of the word ''dharma'' depends on the context, and its meaning has evolved as ideas of Hinduism have developed through history.", "In the earliest texts and ancient myths of Hinduism, ''dharma'' meant cosmic law, the rules that created the universe from chaos, as well as rituals; in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Epics, the meaning became refined, richer, and more complex, and the word was applied to diverse contexts.In certain contexts, ''dharma'' designates human behaviours considered necessary for order of things in the universe, principles that prevent chaos, behaviours and action necessary to all life in nature, society, family as well as at the individual level.", "''Dharma'' encompasses ideas such as duty, rights, character, vocation, religion, customs and all behaviour considered appropriate, correct or morally upright.", "For further context, the word ''varnasramdharma'' is often used in its place, defined as dharma specifically related to the stage of life one is in.The antonym of ''dharma'' is ''adharma'' (Sanskrit: अधर्म), meaning that which is \"not dharma\".", "As with ''dharma'', the word ''adharma'' includes and implies many ideas; in common parlance, adharma means that which is against nature, immoral, unethical, wrong or unlawful.In Buddhism, ''dharma'' incorporates the teachings and doctrines of the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha." ], [ "History", "According to Pandurang Vaman Kane, author of the authoritative book ''History of Dharmaśāstra'', the word ''dharma'' appears at least fifty-six times in the hymns of the Rigveda, as an adjective or noun.", "According to Paul Horsch, the word ''dharma'' has its origin in Vedic Hinduism.", "The hymns of the Rig Veda claim Brahman created the universe from chaos, they hold (dhar-) the earth and sun and stars apart, they support (dhar-) the sky away and distinct from earth, and they stabilise (dhar-) the quaking mountains and plains.", "The gods, mainly Indra, then deliver and hold order from disorder, harmony from chaos, stability from instability – actions recited in the Veda with the root of word dharma.", "In hymns composed after the mythological verses, the word dharma takes expanded meaning as a cosmic principle and appears in verses independent of gods.", "It evolves into a concept, claims Paul Horsch, that has a dynamic functional sense in Atharvaveda for example, where it becomes the cosmic law that links cause and effect through a subject.", "Dharma, in these ancient texts, also takes a ritual meaning.", "The ritual is connected to the cosmic, and \"dharmani\" is equated to ceremonial devotion to the principles that gods used to create order from disorder, the world from chaos.", "Past the ritual and cosmic sense of dharma that link the current world to mythical universe, the concept extends to an ethical-social sense that links human beings to each other and to other life forms.", "It is here that dharma as a concept of law emerges in Hinduism.Dharma and related words are found in the oldest Vedic literature of Hinduism, in later Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and the Epics; the word dharma also plays a central role in the literature of other Indian religions founded later, such as Buddhism and Jainism.", "According to Brereton, ''Dharman'' occurs 63 times in Rig-veda; in addition, words related to Dharman also appear in Rig-veda, for example once as dharmakrt, 6 times as ''satyadharman'', and once as ''dharmavant'', 4 times as ''dharman'' and twice as ''dhariman''.Indo-European parallels for \"dharma\" are known, but the only Iranian equivalent is Old Persian ''darmān'' \"remedy\", the meaning of which is rather removed from Indo-Aryan ''dhárman'', suggesting that the word \"dharma\" did not have a major role in the Indo-Iranian period, and was principally developed more recently under the Vedic tradition.", "However, it is thought that the ''Daena'' of Zoroastrianism, also meaning the \"eternal Law\" or \"religion\", is related to Sanskrit \"dharma\".", "Ideas in parts overlapping to ''Dharma'' are found in other ancient cultures: such as Chinese Tao, Egyptian Maat, Sumerian Me.===Eusebeia and dharma===The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is from Indian Emperor Asoka in 258 BCE, and found in Afghanistan.", "The inscription renders the word ''dharma'' in Sanskrit as ''eusebeia'' in Greek, suggesting ''dharma'' in ancient India meant spiritual maturity, devotion, piety, duty towards and reverence for human community.In the mid-20th century, an inscription of the Indian Emperor Asoka from the year 258 BCE was discovered in Afghanistan, the Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription.", "This rock inscription contains Greek and Aramaic text.", "According to Paul Hacker, on the rock appears a Greek rendering for the Sanskrit word dharma: the word eusebeia.", "Scholars of Hellenistic Greece explain eusebeia as a complex concept.", "Eusebia means not only to venerate gods, but also spiritual maturity, a reverential attitude toward life, and includes the right conduct toward one's parents, siblings and children, the right conduct between husband and wife, and the conduct between biologically unrelated people.", "This rock inscription, concludes Paul Hacker, suggests dharma in India, about 2300 years ago, was a central concept and meant not only religious ideas, but ideas of right, of good, of one's duty toward the human community.===Rta, maya and dharma===The evolving literature of Hinduism linked ''dharma'' to two other important concepts: ''Ṛta'' and ''Māyā''.", "Ṛta in Vedas is the truth and cosmic principle which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.", "Māyā in Rig-veda and later literature means illusion, fraud, deception, magic that misleads and creates disorder, thus is contrary to reality, laws and rules that establish order, predictability and harmony.", "Paul Horsch suggests Ṛta and ''dharma'' are parallel concepts, the former being a cosmic principle, the latter being of moral social sphere; while Māyā and ''dharma'' are also correlative concepts, the former being that which corrupts law and moral life, the later being that which strengthens law and moral life.Day proposes ''dharma'' is a manifestation of Ṛta, but suggests Ṛta may have been subsumed into a more complex concept of ''dharma'', as the idea developed in ancient India over time in a nonlinear manner.", "The following verse from the Rigveda is an example where ''rta'' and ''dharma'' are linked:" ], [ "Hinduism", "''Dharma'' is an organising principle in Hinduism that applies to human beings in solitude, in their interaction with human beings and nature, as well as between inanimate objects, to all of cosmos and its parts.", "It refers to the order and customs which make life and universe possible, and includes behaviours, rituals, rules that govern society, and ethics.", "Hindu ''dharma'' includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviours that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous.", "''Dharma'', according to Van Buitenen, is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world.", "It is neither the act nor the result, but the natural laws that guide the act and create the result to prevent chaos in the world.", "It is innate characteristic, that makes the being what it is.", "It is, claims Van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.", "In Hinduism, it is the ''dharma'' of the bee to make honey, of cow to give milk, of sun to radiate sunshine, of river to flow.", "In terms of humanity, ''dharma'' is the need for, the effect of and essence of service and interconnectedness of all life.In its true essence, ''dharma'' means for a Hindu to \"expand the mind\".", "Furthermore, it represents the direct connection between the individual and the societal phenomena that bind the society together.", "In the way societal phenomena affect the conscience of the individual, similarly may the actions of an individual alter the course of the society, for better or for worse.", "This has been subtly echoed by the credo धर्मो धारयति प्रजा: meaning ''dharma'' is that which holds and provides support to the social construct.In Hinduism, ''dharma'' generally includes various aspects:* Sanātana Dharma, the eternal and unchanging principals of ''dharma''.", "* Varṇ āśramā dharma, one's duty at specific stages of life or inherent duties.", "* Sva dharma, one's own individual or personal duty.", "* Āpad dharma, ''dharma'' prescribed at the time of adversities.", "* Sadharana dharma, moral duties irrespective of the stages of life.", "* Yuga dharma, ''dharma'' which is valid for a yuga, an epoch or age as established by Hindu tradition and thus may change at the conclusion of its time.===In Vedas and Upanishads===The history section of this article discusses the development of ''dharma'' concept in Vedas.", "This development continued in the Upanishads and later ancient scripts of Hinduism.", "In Upanishads, the concept of ''dharma'' continues as universal principle of law, order, harmony, and truth.", "It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe.", "It is explained as law of righteousness and equated to ''satya'' (, truth), in hymn 1.4.14 of Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, as follows:===In the Epics===The Hindu religion and philosophy, claims Daniel Ingalls, places major emphasis on individual practical morality.", "In the Sanskrit epics, this concern is omnipresent.In the Second Book of the Ramayana, for example, when a peasant asks the King to do what ''dharma'' morally requires of him, the King agrees and does accordingly even though his compliance with the law of ''dharma'' costs him dearly.", "In Hindu Epics, the good, morally upright, law-abiding king is referred to as \"dharmaraja\".", "Similarly, ''dharma'' is at the centre of all major events in the life of Rama, Sita, and Lakshman in Ramayana.", "Each episode of Ramayana presents life situations and ethical questions in symbolic terms.", "The issue is debated by the characters, and finally the right prevails over wrong, the good over evil.", "In the Mahabharata, another major Indian epic, similarly, ''dharma'' is central, and it is presented with symbolism and metaphors.", "Near the end of the epic, the god Yama, referred to as ''dharma'' in the text, is portrayed as taking the form of a dog to test the compassion of Yudhishthira, who is told he may not enter paradise with such an animal.", "Yudhishthira refuses to abandon his companion, for which he is then praised by ''dharma''.", "The value and appeal of the Mahabharata is not as much in its complex and rushed presentation of metaphysics in the 12th book, claims Ingalls.", "Indian metaphysics is more eloquently presented in other Sanskrit scriptures; the appeal of Mahabharata, like Ramayana, is in its presentation of a series of moral problems and life situations, to which there are usually three answers: one answer is of Bhima, which is the answer of brute force, an individual angle representing materialism, egoism, and self; the second answer is of Yudhishthira, which is always an appeal to piety and gods, of social virtue and of tradition; the third answer is of introspective Arjuna, which falls between the two extremes, and who, claims Ingalls, symbolically reveals the finest moral qualities of man.", "The Epics of Hinduism are a symbolic treatise about life, virtues, customs, morals, ethics, law, and other aspects of ''dharma''.", "There is extensive discussion of ''dharma'' at the individual level in the Epics of Hinduism; for example, on free will versus destiny, when and why human beings believe in either, the strong and prosperous naturally uphold free will, while those facing grief or frustration naturally lean towards destiny.", "The Epics of Hinduism illustrate various aspects of ''dharma'' with metaphors.===According to 4th-century Vatsyayana===According to Klaus Klostermaier, 4th-century CE Hindu scholar Vātsyāyana explained ''dharma'' by contrasting it with adharma.", "Vātsyāyana suggested that ''dharma'' is not merely in one's actions, but also in words one speaks or writes, and in thought.", "According to Vātsyāyana:# Adharma of body: hinsa (violence), steya (steal, theft), pratisiddha maithuna (sexual indulgence with someone other than one's partner)# Dharma of body: dana (charity), paritrana (succor of the distressed) and paricarana (rendering service to others)# Adharma from words one speaks or writes: mithya (falsehood), parusa (caustic talk), sucana (calumny) and asambaddha (absurd talk)# Dharma from words one speaks or writes: satya (truth and facts), hitavacana (talking with good intention), priyavacana (gentle, kind talk), svadhyaya (self-study)# Adharma of mind: paradroha (ill will to anyone), paradravyabhipsa (covetousness), nastikya (denial of the existence of morals and religiosity)# Dharma of mind: daya (compassion), asprha (disinterestedness), and sraddha (faith in others)===According to Patanjali Yoga===In the ''Yoga Sutras'' of Patanjali the ''dharma'' is real; in the Vedanta it is unreal.", "''Dharma'' is part of yoga, suggests Patanjali; the elements of Hindu dharma are the attributes, qualities and aspects of yoga.", "Patanjali explained ''dharma'' in two categories: ''yamas'' (restraints) and ''niyamas'' (observances).The five yamas, according to Patanjali, are: abstain from injury to all living creatures, abstain from falsehood (satya), abstain from unauthorised appropriation of things-of-value from another (acastrapurvaka), abstain from coveting or sexually cheating on your partner, and abstain from expecting or accepting gifts from others.", "The five yama apply in action, speech and mind.", "In explaining yama, Patanjali clarifies that certain professions and situations may require qualification in conduct.", "For example, a fisherman must injure a fish, but he must attempt to do this with least trauma to fish and the fisherman must try to injure no other creature as he fishes.The five niyamas (observances) are cleanliness by eating pure food and removing impure thoughts (such as arrogance or jealousy or pride), contentment in one's means, meditation and silent reflection regardless of circumstances one faces, study and pursuit of historic knowledge, and devotion of all actions to the Supreme Teacher to achieve perfection of concentration.===Sources===''Dharma'' is an empirical and experiential inquiry for every man and woman, according to some texts of Hinduism.", "For example, Apastamba Dharmasutra states:In other texts, three sources and means to discover ''dharma'' in Hinduism are described.", "These, according to Paul Hacker, are: First, learning historical knowledge such as Vedas, Upanishads, the Epics and other Sanskrit literature with the help of one's teacher.", "Second, observing the behaviour and example of good people.", "The third source applies when neither one's education nor example exemplary conduct is known.", "In this case, \"atmatusti\" is the source of ''dharma'' in Hinduism, that is the good person reflects and follows what satisfies his heart, his own inner feeling, what he feels driven to.===Dharma, life stages and social stratification===Some texts of Hinduism outline ''dharma'' for society and at the individual level.", "Of these, the most cited one is ''Manusmriti'', which describes the four ''Varnas'', their rights and duties.", "Most texts of Hinduism, however, discuss ''dharma'' with no mention of ''Varna'' (caste).", "Other ''dharma'' texts and Smritis differ from Manusmriti on the nature and structure of Varnas.", "Yet, other texts question the very existence of varna.", "Bhrigu, in the Epics, for example, presents the theory that ''dharma'' does not require any varnas.", "In practice, medieval India is widely believed to be a socially stratified society, with each social strata inheriting a profession and being endogamous.", "Varna was not absolute in Hindu dharma; individuals had the right to renounce and leave their Varna, as well as their asramas of life, in search of moksa.", "While neither Manusmriti nor succeeding Smritis of Hinduism ever use the word varnadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas), or varnasramadharma (that is, the ''dharma'' of varnas and asramas), the scholarly commentary on Manusmriti use these words, and thus associate ''dharma'' with varna system of India.", "In 6th century India, even Buddhist kings called themselves \"protectors of varnasramadharma\" – that is, ''dharma'' of varna and asramas of life.At the individual level, some texts of Hinduism outline four āśramas, or stages of life as individual's ''dharma''.", "These are: (1) brahmacārya, the life of preparation as a student, (2) gṛhastha, the life of the householder with family and other social roles, (3) vānprastha or aranyaka, the life of the forest-dweller, transitioning from worldly occupations to reflection and renunciation, and (4) sannyāsa, the life of giving away all property, becoming a recluse and devotion to moksa, spiritual matters.The four stages of life complete the four human strivings in life, according to Hinduism.", "''Dharma'' enables the individual to satisfy the striving for stability and order, a life that is lawful and harmonious, the striving to do the right thing, be good, be virtuous, earn religious merit, be helpful to others, interact successfully with society.", "The other three strivings are Artha – the striving for means of life such as food, shelter, power, security, material wealth, and so forth; Kama – the striving for sex, desire, pleasure, love, emotional fulfilment, and so forth; and Moksa – the striving for spiritual meaning, liberation from life-rebirth cycle, self-realisation in this life, and so forth.", "The four stages are neither independent nor exclusionary in Hindu ''dharma''.===Dharma and poverty===''Dharma'' being necessary for individual and society, is dependent on poverty and prosperity in a society, according to Hindu dharma scriptures.", "For example, according to Adam Bowles, Shatapatha Brahmana 11.1.6.24 links social prosperity and ''dharma'' through water.", "Waters come from rains, it claims; when rains are abundant there is prosperity on the earth, and this prosperity enables people to follow ''Dharma'' – moral and lawful life.", "In times of distress, of drought, of poverty, everything suffers including relations between human beings and the human ability to live according to ''dharma''.In Rajadharmaparvan 91.34-8, the relationship between poverty and ''dharma'' reaches a full circle.", "A land with less moral and lawful life suffers distress, and as distress rises it causes more immoral and unlawful life, which further increases distress.", "Those in power must follow the raja dharma (that is, dharma of rulers), because this enables the society and the individual to follow dharma and achieve prosperity.===Dharma and law===The notion of ''dharma'' as duty or propriety is found in India's ancient legal and religious texts.", "Common examples of such use are pitri dharma (meaning a person's duty as a father), putra dharma (a person's duty as a son), raj dharma (a person's duty as a king) and so forth.", "In Hindu philosophy, justice, social harmony, and happiness requires that people live per ''dharma''.", "The Dharmashastra is a record of these guidelines and rules.", "The available evidence suggest India once had a large collection of ''dharma'' related literature (sutras, shastras); four of the sutras survive and these are now referred to as Dharmasutras.", "Along with laws of Manu in Dharmasutras, exist parallel and different compendium of laws, such as the laws of Narada and other ancient scholars.", "These different and conflicting law books are neither exclusive, nor do they supersede other sources of ''dharma'' in Hinduism.", "These Dharmasutras include instructions on education of the young, their rites of passage, customs, religious rites and rituals, marital rights and obligations, death and ancestral rites, laws and administration of justice, crimes, punishments, rules and types of evidence, duties of a king, as well as morality." ], [ "Buddhism", "In Buddhism ''dharma'' means cosmic law and order, but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha.", "In Buddhist philosophy, ''dhamma/dharma'' is also the term for \"phenomena\".===Buddha's teachings===For practising Buddhists, references to ''dharma'' (''dhamma'' in Pali) particularly as \"the dharma\", generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddhadharma.", "It includes especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems.", "The Buddha's teachings explain that in order to end suffering, ''dharma'', or the right thoughts, understanding, actions and livelihood, should be cultivated.The status of ''dharma'' is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions.", "Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the fount of all things which lie beyond the \"three realms\" (Sanskrit: ''tridhatu'') and the \"wheel of becoming\" (Sanskrit: ''bhavachakra'').", "Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the ''dharma'' as the essence of the \"84,000 different aspects of the teaching\" (Tibetan: ''chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong'') that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities.Dharma refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expand upon the Buddha's teachings.", "For others still, they see the ''dharma'' as referring to the \"truth\", or the ultimate reality of \"the way that things really are\" (Tibetan: ''Chö'').The ''dharma'' is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness.", "The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the ''dharma'', meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and the Sangha, meaning the community of practitioners who provide one another through guidance and support.===Chan Buddhism===Dharma is employed in Chan Buddhism in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognised in dharma transmission.===Theravada Buddhism===In Theravada Buddhism obtaining ultimate realisation of the dhamma is achieved in three phases; learning, practising and realising.In Pali #Pariyatti – the learning of the theory of ''dharma'' as contained within the suttas of the Pali canon#Patipatti – putting the theory into practice and #Pativedha – when one penetrates the ''dharma'' or through experience realises the truth of it." ], [ "Jainism", "The word ''dharma'' in Jainism is found in all its key texts.", "It has a contextual meaning and refers to a number of ideas.", "In the broadest sense, it means the teachings of the Jinas, or teachings of any competing spiritual school, a supreme path, socio-religious duty, and that which is the highest (holy).The ''Tattvartha Sutra'', a major Jain text, mentions () with referring to ten righteous virtues: forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and celibacy.", ", author of the Jain text, writes:===''Dharmāstikāya''===The term () also has a specific ontological and soteriological meaning in Jainism, as a part of its theory of six (substance or a reality).", "In the Jain tradition, existence consists of (soul, ) and (non-soul, ), the latter consisting of five categories: inert non-sentient atomic matter (), space (), time (), principle of motion (), and principle of rest ().", "The use of the term to mean motion and to refer to an ontological sub-category is peculiar to Jainism, and not found in the metaphysics of Buddhism and various schools of Hinduism." ], [ "Sikhism", "SikhismFor Sikhs, the word ''dharam'' () means the path of righteousness and proper religious practice.", "Guru Granth Sahib connotes ''dharma'' as duty and moral values.", "The 3HO movement in Western culture, which has incorporated certain Sikh beliefs, defines Sikh Dharma broadly as all that constitutes religion, moral duty and way of life." ], [ "In Sangam literature", "Several works of the Sangam and post-Sangam period, many of which are of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes on ''dharma''.", "Most of these texts are based on ''aṟam'', the Tamil term for ''dharma''.", "The ancient Tamil moral text of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' or ''Kural'', a text probably of Jain or Hindu origin, despite being a collection of aphoristic teachings on ''dharma'' (''aram''), artha (''porul''), and kama (''inpam''), is completely and exclusively based on ''aṟam''.", "The Naladiyar, a Jain text of the post-Sangam period, follows a similar pattern as that of the Kural in emphasizing ''aṟam'' or ''dharma''." ], [ "Dharma in symbols", "The wheel in the centre of India's flag symbolises Ashoka's dhamma.The importance of ''dharma'' to Indian civilization is illustrated by India's decision in 1947 to include the Ashoka Chakra, a depiction of the ''dharmachakra'' (the \"wheel of ''dharma''\"), as the central motif on its flag." ], [ "See also", "* Ayyavazhi* Dhammapada* Karma* List of Hindu empires and dynasties" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * Murthy, K. Krishna.", "\"Dharma – Its Etymology.\"", "''The Tibet Journal'', Vol.", "XXI, No.", "1, Spring 1966, pp. 84–87.", "* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* India Glossary – Dharma (archived 28 February 2010)* Buddhism A–Z: \"D\" Entries* Rajiv Malhotra, Dharma Is Not The Same As Religion (huffingtonpost.com)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Daniel Dennett" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Daniel Clement Dennett III''' (born March 28, 1942) is an American philosopher, writer, and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science., he is the co-director of the Center for Cognitive Studies and the Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy at Tufts University in Massachusetts.", "Dennett is a member of the editorial board for ''The Rutherford Journal'' and a co-founder of The Clergy Project.A vocal atheist and secularist, Dennett is referred to as one of the \"Four Horsemen of New Atheism\", along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens." ], [ "Biography", "Daniel Clement Dennett III was born on March 28, 1942, in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Ruth Marjorie (née Leck; 1903–1971) and Daniel Clement Dennett Jr. (1910–1947).", "Dennett spent part of his childhood in Lebanon, where, during World War II, his father, who had a PhD in Islamic Studies from Harvard University, was a covert counter-intelligence agent with the Office of Strategic Services posing as a cultural attaché to the American Embassy in Beirut.", "His mother, an English major at Carleton College, went for a master's degree at the University of Minnesota before becoming an English teacher at the American Community School in Beirut.", "In 1947, his father was killed in a plane crash in Ethiopia.", "Shortly after, his mother took him back to Massachusetts.", "Dennett's sister is the investigative journalist Charlotte Dennett.", "Dennett says that he was first introduced to the notion of philosophy while attending summer camp at age 11, when a camp counselor said to him, \"You know what you are, Daniel?", "You're a philosopher.", "\"Dennett graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1959, and spent one year at Wesleyan University before receiving his Bachelor of Arts in philosophy at Harvard University in 1963.There, he was a student of W. V. Quine.", "In 1965, he received his Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy at the University of Oxford, where he studied under Gilbert Ryle and was a member of Hertford College.", "His dissertation was entitled ''The Mind and the Brain: Introspective Description in the Light of Neurological Findings; Intentionality''.Dennett taught at the University of California, Irvine, from 1965 to 1971, before moving to Tufts University, where he settled in for many decades, aside from periods visiting at Harvard University and several other schools.Dennett describes himself as \"an autodidact—or, more properly, the beneficiary of hundreds of hours of informal tutorials on all the fields that interest me, from some of the world's leading scientists\".He is the recipient of a Fulbright Fellowship, two Guggenheim Fellowships, and a Fellowship at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.", "He is a Fellow of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and a Humanist Laureate of the International Academy of Humanism.", "He was named 2004 Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.", "In 2006, Dennett received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.In February 2010, he was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers.In 2012, he was awarded the Erasmus Prize, an annual award for a person who has made an exceptional contribution to European culture, society or social science, \"for his ability to translate the cultural significance of science and technology to a broad audience.", "\"In 2018, he was awarded an honorary degree by Radboud University, located in Nijmegen, Netherlands, for his contributions to and influence on cross-disciplinary science." ], [ "Philosophical views", "===Free will===While he is a confirmed compatibilist on free will, in \"On Giving Libertarians What They Say They Want\"—chapter 15 of his 1978 book ''Brainstorms''—Dennett articulated the case for a two-stage model of decision making in contrast to libertarian views.While other philosophers have developed two-stage models, including William James, Henri Poincaré, Arthur Compton, and Henry Margenau, Dennett defends this model for the following reasons:Leading libertarian philosophers such as Robert Kane have rejected Dennett's model, specifically that random chance is directly involved in a decision, on the basis that they believe this eliminates the agent's motives and reasons, character and values, and feelings and desires.", "They claim that, if chance is the primary cause of decisions, then agents cannot be liable for resultant actions.", "Kane says:===Mind===Dennett in 2008Dennett has remarked in several places (such as \"Self-portrait\", in ''Brainchildren'') that his overall philosophical project has remained largely the same since his time at Oxford.", "He is primarily concerned with providing a philosophy of mind that is grounded in empirical research.", "In his original dissertation, ''Content and Consciousness'', he broke up the problem of explaining the mind into the need for a theory of content and for a theory of consciousness.", "His approach to this project has also stayed true to this distinction.", "Just as ''Content and Consciousness'' has a bipartite structure, he similarly divided ''Brainstorms'' into two sections.", "He would later collect several essays on content in ''The Intentional Stance'' and synthesize his views on consciousness into a unified theory in ''Consciousness Explained''.", "These volumes respectively form the most extensive development of his views.In chapter 5 of ''Consciousness Explained'' Dennett describes his multiple drafts model of consciousness.", "He states that, \"all varieties of perception—indeed all varieties of thought or mental activity—are accomplished in the brain by parallel, multitrack processes of interpretation and elaboration of sensory inputs.", "Information entering the nervous system is under continuous 'editorial revision.'\"", "(p. 111).", "Later he asserts, \"These yield, over the course of time, something ''rather like'' a narrative stream or sequence, which can be thought of as subject to continual editing by many processes distributed around the brain, ...\" (p. 135, emphasis in the original).In this work, Dennett's interest in the ability of evolution to explain some of the content-producing features of consciousness is already apparent, and this has since become an integral part of his program.", "He states his view is materialist and scientific, and he presents an argument against qualia; he argues that the concept of qualia is so confused that it cannot be put to any use or understood in any non-contradictory way, and therefore does not constitute a valid refutation of physicalism.This view is rejected by neuroscientists Gerald Edelman, Antonio Damasio, Vilayanur Ramachandran, Giulio Tononi, and Rodolfo Llinás, all of whom state that qualia exist and that the desire to eliminate them is based on an erroneous interpretation on the part of some philosophers regarding what constitutes science.Dennett's strategy mirrors his teacher Ryle's approach of redefining first person phenomena in third person terms, and denying the coherence of the concepts which this approach struggles with.Dennett self-identifies with a few terms:In ''Consciousness Explained'', he affirms \"I am a sort of 'teleofunctionalist', of course, perhaps the original teleofunctionalist\".", "He goes on to say, \"I am ready to come out of the closet as some sort of verificationist\" (pp.", "460–61).===Evolutionary debate===Much of Dennett's work since the 1990s has been concerned with fleshing out his previous ideas by addressing the same topics from an evolutionary standpoint, from what distinguishes human minds from animal minds (''Kinds of Minds''), to how free will is compatible with a naturalist view of the world (''Freedom Evolves'').Dennett sees evolution by natural selection as an algorithmic process (though he spells out that algorithms as simple as long division often incorporate a significant degree of randomness).", "This idea is in conflict with the evolutionary philosophy of paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, who preferred to stress the \"pluralism\" of evolution (i.e., its dependence on many crucial factors, of which natural selection is only one).Dennett's views on evolution are identified as being strongly adaptationist, in line with his theory of the intentional stance, and the evolutionary views of biologist Richard Dawkins.", "In ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', Dennett showed himself even more willing than Dawkins to defend adaptationism in print, devoting an entire chapter to a criticism of the ideas of Gould.", "This stems from Gould's long-running public debate with E. O. Wilson and other evolutionary biologists over human sociobiology and its descendant evolutionary psychology, which Gould and Richard Lewontin opposed, but which Dennett advocated, together with Dawkins and Steven Pinker.", "Gould argued that Dennett overstated his claims and misrepresented Gould's, to reinforce what Gould describes as Dennett's \"Darwinian fundamentalism\".Dennett's theories have had a significant influence on the work of evolutionary psychologist Geoffrey Miller.===Religion and morality===Dennett is a vocal atheist and secularist, a member of the Secular Coalition for America advisory board, and a member of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, as well as an outspoken supporter of the Brights movement.", "Dennett is referred to as one of the \"Four Horsemen of New Atheism\", along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens.ex-Muslims convening in London in July 2017.In ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', Dennett writes that evolution can account for the origin of morality.", "He rejects the idea that morality being natural to us implies that we should take a skeptical position regarding ethics, noting that what is fallacious in the naturalistic fallacy is not to support values per se, but rather to ''rush'' from facts to values.In his 2006 book, ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon'', Dennett attempts to account for religious belief naturalistically, explaining possible evolutionary reasons for the phenomenon of religious adherence.In this book he declares himself to be \"a bright\", and defends the term.He has been doing research into clerics who are secretly atheists and how they rationalize their works.", "He found what he called a \"don't ask, don't tell\" conspiracy because believers did not want to hear of loss of faith.", "That made unbelieving preachers feel isolated but they did not want to lose their jobs and sometimes their church-supplied lodgings and generally consoled themselves that they were doing good in their pastoral roles by providing comfort and required ritual.", "The research, with Linda LaScola, was further extended to include other denominations and non-Christian clerics.", "The research and stories Dennett and LaScola accumulated during this project were published in their 2013 co-authored book, ''Caught in the Pulpit: Leaving Belief Behind''.===Memetics, postmodernism and deepity===Dennett wrote about and advocated the notion of memetics as a philosophically useful tool, most recently in his \"Brains, Computers, and Minds\", a three-part presentation through Harvard's MBB 2009 Distinguished Lecture Series.Dennett has been critical of postmodernism, having said: Dennett adopted and somewhat redefined the term \"deepity\", originally coined by Miriam Weizenbaum.", "Dennett used \"deepity\" for a statement that is apparently profound, but is actually trivial on one level and meaningless on another.", "Generally, a deepity has two (or more) meanings: one that is true but trivial, and another that sounds profound and would be important if true, but is actually false or meaningless.", "Examples are \"Que será será!", "\", \"Beauty is only skin deep!", "\", \"The power of intention can transform your life.\"", "The term has been cited many times.=== Artificial intelligence ===While approving of the increase in efficiency that humans reap by using resources such as expert systems in medicine or GPS in navigation, Dennett sees a danger in machines performing an ever-increasing proportion of basic tasks in perception, memory, and algorithmic computation because people may tend to anthropomorphize such systems and attribute intellectual powers to them that they do not possess.", "He believes the relevant danger from artificial intelligence (AI) is that people will misunderstand the nature of basically \"parasitic\" AI systems, rather than employing them constructively to challenge and develop the human user's powers of comprehension.As given in his most recent book, ''From Bacteria to Bach and Back'', Dennett's views are contrary to those of Nick Bostrom.", "Although acknowledging that it is \"possible in principle\" to create AI with human-like comprehension and agency, Dennett maintains that the difficulties of any such \"strong AI\" project would be orders of magnitude greater than those raising concerns have realized.", "According to Dennett, the prospect of superintelligence (AI massively exceeding the cognitive performance of humans in all domains) is at least 50 years away, and of far less pressing significance than other problems the world faces.=== Realism ===Dennett is known for his nuanced stance on realism.", "While he supports scientific realism, advocating that entities and phenomena posited by scientific theories exist independently of our perceptions, he leans towards instrumentalism concerning certain theoretical entities, valuing their explanatory and predictive utility, as showing in his discussion of real patterns.", "Dennett's pragmatic realism underlines the entanglement of language, consciousness, and reality.", "He posits that our discourse about reality is mediated by our cognitive and linguistic capacities, marking a departure from naive realism.==== Realism and Instrumentalism ====Dennett's philosophical stance on realism is intricately connected to his views on instrumentalism and the theory of real patterns.", "He draws a distinction between illata, which are genuine theoretical entities like electrons, and abstracta, which are \"calculation bound entities or logical constructs\" such as centers of gravity and the equator, placing beliefs and the like among the latter.", "One of Dennett's principal arguments is an instrumentalistic construal of intentional attributions, asserting that such attributions are environment relative.In discussing intentional states, Dennett posits that they should not be thought of as resembling theoretical entities, but rather as logical constructs, avoiding the pitfalls of intentional realism without lapsing into pure instrumentalism or even eliminativism.", "His instrumentalism and anti-realism are crucial aspects of his view on intentionality, emphasizing the centrality and indispensability of the intentional stance to our conceptual scheme." ], [ "Personal life", "Dennett married Susan Bell in 1962.They live in North Andover, Massachusetts, and have a daughter, a son, and five grandchildren.", "He is an avid sailor." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Atheism Tapes''* Cartesian materialism* Cognitive biology* Evolutionary psychology of religion* Jean Nicod Prize" ], [ "Selected works", "* ''Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology'' (MIT Press 1981) ()* ''Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting'' (MIT Press 1984) – on free will and determinism ()* ''Content and Consciousness'' (Routledge & Kegan Paul Books Ltd; 2nd ed.", "1986) ()* (First published 1987)* * ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life'' (Simon & Schuster; reprint edition 1996) ()* ''Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness'' (Basic Books 1997) ()* ''Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds (Representation and Mind)'' (MIT Press 1998) () – A Collection of Essays 1984–1996* * ''Freedom Evolves'' (Viking Press 2003) ()* ''Sweet Dreams: Philosophical Obstacles to a Science of Consciousness'' (MIT Press 2005) ()* ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon'' (Penguin Group 2006) ().", "* ''Neuroscience and Philosophy: Brain, Mind, and Language'' (Columbia University Press 2007) (), co-authored with Max Bennett, Peter Hacker, and John Searle* ''Science and Religion: Are They Compatible?''", "(Oxford University Press 2010) (), co-authored with Alvin Plantinga* ''Intuition Pumps And Other Tools for Thinking'' (W. W. Norton & Company 2013) ()* ''Caught in the Pulpit: Leaving Belief Behind'' (Pitchstone Publishing – 2013) () co-authored with Linda LaScola* ''Inside Jokes: Using Humor to Reverse-Engineer the Mind'' (MIT Press – 2011) (), co-authored with Matthew M. Hurley and Reginald B. Adams Jr.* ''From Bacteria to Bach and Back: The Evolution of Minds'' (W. W. Norton & Company – 2017) ()* ''I’ve Been Thinking'' (Allen Lane 2023) ()" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* John Brockman (1995).", "''The Third Culture''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster.", "(Discusses Dennett and others).", "* Andrew Brook and Don Ross (editors) (2000).", "''Daniel Dennett''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press.", "* Daniel C. Dennett (1997), \"Chapter 3.True Believers: The Intentional Strategy and Why it Works\", in John Haugeland, ''Mind Design II: Philosophy, Psychology, Artificial Intelligence''.", "Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.", "(reprint of 1981 publication).", "* Matthew Elton (2003).", "Dennett: Reconciling Science and Our Self-Conception.", "Cambridge, UK Polity Press.", "* P.M.S.", "Hacker and M.R.", "Bennett (2003) ''Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience''.", "Oxford, and Malden, Mass: Blackwell (Has an appendix devoted to a strong critique of Dennett's philosophy of mind)* Don Ross, Andrew Brook and David Thompson (editors) (2000) ''Dennett's Philosophy: A Comprehensive Assessment'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.", "* John Symons (2000) ''On Dennett''.", "Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company." ], [ "External links", "* Daniel Dennett at Tufts University* * * * * Searchable bibliography of Dennett's works*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life''''' is a 1995 book by the philosopher Daniel Dennett, in which the author looks at some of the repercussions of Darwinian theory.", "The crux of the argument is that, whether or not Darwin's theories are overturned, there is no going back from the dangerous idea that design (purpose or what something is for) might not need a designer.", "Dennett makes this case on the basis that natural selection is a blind process, which is nevertheless sufficiently powerful to explain the evolution of life.", "Darwin's discovery was that the generation of life worked algorithmically, that processes behind it work in such a way that given these processes the results that they tend toward must be so.Dennett says, for example, that by claiming that minds cannot be reduced to purely algorithmic processes, many of his eminent contemporaries are claiming that miracles can occur.", "These assertions have generated a great deal of debate and discussion in the general public.", "The book was a finalist for the 1995 National Book Award in non-fiction and the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction." ], [ "Background", "Dennett's previous book was ''Consciousness Explained'' (1991).", "Dennett noted discomfort with Darwinism among not only lay people but also even academics and decided it was time to write a book dealing with the subject.", "''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' is not meant to be a work of science, but rather an interdisciplinary book; Dennett admits that he does not understand all of the scientific details himself.", "He goes into a moderate level of detail, but leaves it for the reader to go into greater depth if desired, providing references to this end.In writing the book, Dennett wanted to \"get thinkers in other disciplines to take evolutionary theory seriously, to show them how they have been underestimating it, and to show them why they have been listening to the wrong sirens\".", "To do this he tells a story; one that is mainly original but includes some material from his previous work.Dennett taught an undergraduate seminar at Tufts University on Darwin and philosophy, which included most of the ideas in the book.", "He also had the help of fellow staff and other academics, some of whom read drafts of the book.", "It is dedicated to W. V. O. Quine, \"teacher and friend\"." ], [ "Synopsis", "===Part I: Starting in the Middle===\"Starting in the Middle\", Part I of ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'', gets its name from a quote by Willard Van Orman Quine: \"Analyze theory-building how we will, we all must start in the middle.", "Our conceptual firsts are middle-sized, middle-distance objects, and our introduction to them and to everything comes midway in the cultural evolution of the race.", "\"The first chapter \"Tell Me Why\" is named after a song.Before Charles Darwin, and still today, a majority of people see God as the ultimate cause of all design, or the ultimate answer to 'why?'", "questions.", "John Locke argued for the primacy of mind before matter, and David Hume, while exposing problems with Locke's view, could not see any alternative.cranes as an analogy.Darwin provided just such an alternative: evolution.", "Besides providing evidence of common descent, he introduced a mechanism to explain it: natural selection.", "According to Dennett, natural selection is a mindless, mechanical and algorithmic process—Darwin's dangerous idea.", "The third chapter introduces the concept of \"skyhooks\" and \"cranes\" (see below).", "He suggests that resistance to Darwinism is based on a desire for skyhooks, which do not really exist.", "According to Dennett, good reductionists explain apparent design without skyhooks; greedy reductionists try to explain it without cranes.Chapter 4 looks at the tree of life, such as how it can be visualized and some crucial events in life's history.", "The next chapter concerns the possible and the actual, using the 'Library of Mendel' (the space of all logically possible genomes) as a conceptual aid.In the last chapter of part I, Dennett treats human artifacts and culture as a branch of a unified Design Space.", "Descent or homology can be detected by shared design features that would be unlikely to appear independently.", "However, there are also \"Forced Moves\" or \"Good Tricks\" that will be discovered repeatedly, either by natural selection (see convergent evolution) or human investigation.===Part II: Darwinian Thinking in Biology===Origin''The first chapter of part II, \"Darwinian Thinking in Biology\", asserts that life originated without any skyhooks, and the orderly world we know is the result of a blind and undirected shuffle through chaos.The eighth chapter's message is conveyed by its title, \"Biology is Engineering\"; biology is the study of design, function, construction and operation.", "However, there are some important differences between biology and engineering.", "Related to the engineering concept of optimization, the next chapter deals with adaptationism, which Dennett endorses, calling Gould and Lewontin's \"refutation\" of it an illusion.", "Dennett thinks adaptationism is, in fact, the best way of uncovering constraints.The tenth chapter, entitled \"Bully for Brontosaurus\", is an extended critique of Stephen Jay Gould, who Dennett feels has created a distorted view of evolution with his popular writings; his \"self-styled revolutions\" against adaptationism, gradualism and other orthodox Darwinism all being false alarms.", "The final chapter of part II dismisses directed mutation, the inheritance of acquired traits and Teilhard's \"Omega Point\", and insists that other controversies and hypotheses (like the unit of selection and Panspermia) have no dire consequences for orthodox Darwinism.===Part III: Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality===Leviathan'', which appears at the beginning of chapter 16 \"On the Origin of Morality\".", "\"Mind, Meaning, Mathematics and Morality\" is the name of Part III, which begins with a quote from Nietzsche.", "Chapter 12, \"The Cranes of Culture\", discusses cultural evolution.", "It asserts that the meme has a role to play in our understanding of culture, and that it allows humans, alone among animals, to \"transcend\" our selfish genes.", "\"Losing Our Minds to Darwin\" follows, a chapter about the evolution of brains, minds and language.", "Dennett criticizes Noam Chomsky's perceived resistance to the evolution of language, its modeling by artificial intelligence, and reverse engineering.The evolution of meaning is then discussed, and Dennett uses a series of thought experiments to persuade the reader that meaning is the product of meaningless, algorithmic processes.Von Kempelen's chess automaton, discussed in chapter 15.Chapter 15 asserts that Gödel's Theorem does not make certain sorts of artificial intelligence impossible.", "Dennett extends his criticism to Roger Penrose.", "The subject then moves on to the origin and evolution of morality, beginning with Thomas Hobbes (who Dennett calls \"the first sociobiologist\") and Friedrich Nietzsche.", "He concludes that only an evolutionary analysis of ethics makes sense, though he cautions against some varieties of 'greedy ethical reductionism'.", "Before moving to the next chapter, he discusses some sociobiology controversies.The penultimate chapter, entitled \"Redesigning Morality\", begins by asking if ethics can be 'naturalized'.", "Dennett does not believe there is much hope of discovering an algorithm for doing the right thing, but expresses optimism in our ability to design and redesign our approach to moral problems.", "In \"The Future of an Idea\", the book's last chapter, Dennett praises biodiversity, including cultural diversity.", "In closing, he uses ''Beauty and the Beast'' as an analogy; although Darwin's idea may seem dangerous, it is actually quite beautiful." ], [ "Central concepts", "=== Design Space ===Dennett believes there is little or no principled difference between the naturally generated products of evolution and the man-made artifacts of human creativity and culture.", "For this reason he indicates deliberately that the complex fruits of the tree of life are in a very meaningful sense \"designed\"—even though he does not believe evolution was guided by a higher intelligence.Dennett supports using the notion of memes to better understand cultural evolution.", "He also believes even human creativity might operate by the Darwinian mechanism.", "This leads him to propose that the \"space\" describing biological \"design\" is connected with the space describing human culture and technology.A precise mathematical definition of Design Space is not given in ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea''.", "Dennett acknowledges this and admits he is offering a philosophical idea rather than a scientific formulation.=== Natural selection as an algorithm ===Dennett describes natural selection as a substrate-neutral, mindless algorithm for moving through Design Space.=== Universal acid ===Dennett writes about the fantasy of a \"universal acid\" as a liquid that is so corrosive that it would eat through anything that it came into contact with, even a potential container.", "Such a powerful substance would transform everything it was applied to; leaving something very different in its wake.", "This is where Dennett draws parallels from the “universal acid” to Darwin's idea:it eats through just about every traditional concept, and leaves in its wake a revolutionized world-view, with most of the old landmarks still recognizable, but transformed in fundamental ways.While there are people who would like to see Darwin's idea contained within the field of biology, Dennett asserts that this dangerous idea inevitably “leaks” out to transform other fields as well.===Skyhooks and cranes===Dennett uses the term \"skyhook\" to describe a source of design complexity that does not build on lower, simpler layers—in simple terms, a miracle.In philosophical arguments concerning the reducibility (or otherwise) of the human mind, Dennett's concept pokes fun at the idea of intelligent design emanating from on high, either originating from one or more gods, or providing its own grounds in an absurd, Munchausen-like bootstrapping manner.Dennett also accuses various competing neo-Darwinian ideas of making use of such supposedly unscientific skyhooks in explaining evolution, coming down particularly hard on the ideas of Stephen Jay Gould.Dennett contrasts theories of complexity that require such miracles with those based on \"cranes\", structures that permit the construction of entities of greater complexity but are themselves founded solidly \"on the ground\" of physical science." ], [ "Reception", "In ''The New York Review of Books'', John Maynard Smith praised ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'':It is therefore a pleasure to meet a philosopher who understands what Darwinism is about, and approves of it.Dennett goes well beyond biology.", "He sees Darwinism as a corrosive acid, capable of dissolving our earlier belief and forcing a reconsideration of much of sociology and philosophy.", "Although modestly written, this is not a modest book.", "Dennett argues that, if we understand ''Darwin's dangerous idea'', we are forced to reject or modify much of our current intellectual baggage...Writing in the same publication, Stephen Jay Gould criticised ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' for being an \"influential but misguided ultra-Darwinian manifesto\":Daniel Dennett devotes the longest chapter in ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' to an excoriating caricature of my ideas, all in order to bolster his defense of Darwinian fundamentalism.", "If an argued case can be discerned at all amid the slurs and sneers, it would have to be described as an effort to claim that I have, thanks to some literary skill, tried to raise a few piddling, insignificant, and basically conventional ideas to \"revolutionary\" status, challenging what he takes to be the true Darwinian scripture.", "Since Dennett shows so little understanding of evolutionary theory beyond natural selection, his critique of my work amounts to little more than sniping at false targets of his own construction.", "He never deals with my ideas as such, but proceeds by hint, innuendo, false attribution, and error.Gould was also a harsh critic of Dennett's idea of the \"universal acid\" of natural selection and of his subscription to the idea of memetics; Dennett responded, and the exchange between Dennett, Gould, and Robert Wright was printed in the ''New York Review of Books''.Biologist H. Allen Orr wrote a critical review emphasizing similar points in the ''Boston Review''.The book has also provoked a negative reaction from creationists; Frederick Crews writes that ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea'' \"rivals Richard Dawkins's ''The Blind Watchmaker'' as the creationists' most cordially hated text.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Bayes' theorem* Jerry Fodor* John Searle* Universal Darwinism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Errata, 1997* Gould's response to Dennett's \"neo-Darwinian orthodoxy\" from the New York Review of Books, June 26, 1997.", "* Danny Yee's Book Review of \"Darwin's Dangerous Idea\"* * Where do Morals Come From?", "Rebekah Rich, Bryn Mawr College, Spring 2004" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Douglas Hofstadter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Douglas Richard Hofstadter''' (born February 15, 1945) is an American cognitive and computer scientist whose research includes concepts such as the sense of self in relation to the external world, consciousness, analogy-making, strange loops, artificial intelligence, and discovery in mathematics and physics.", "His 1979 book ''Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid'' won both the Pulitzer Prize for general nonfiction and a National Book Award (at that time called The American Book Award) for Science.", "His 2007 book ''I Am a Strange Loop'' won the ''Los Angeles Times'' Book Prize for Science and Technology." ], [ "Early life and education", "Hofstadter was born in New York City to future Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Hofstadter and Nancy Givan Hofstadter.", "He grew up on the campus of Stanford University, where his father was a professor, and attended the International School of Geneva in 1958–59.He graduated with distinction in mathematics from Stanford University in 1965, and received his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Oregon in 1975, where his study of the energy levels of Bloch electrons in a magnetic field led to his discovery of the fractal known as Hofstadter's butterfly." ], [ "Academic career", "Since 1988, Hofstadter has been the College of Arts and Sciences Distinguished Professor of Cognitive Science and Comparative Literature at Indiana University in Bloomington, where he directs the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition which consists of himself and his graduate students, forming the \"Fluid Analogies Research Group\" (FARG).", "He was initially appointed to the Indiana University's Computer Science Department faculty in 1977, and at that time he launched his research program in computer modeling of mental processes (which he called \"artificial intelligence research\", a label he has since dropped in favor of \"cognitive science research\").", "In 1984, he moved to the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, where he was hired as a professor of psychology and was also appointed to the Walgreen Chair for the Study of Human Understanding.", "In 1988 he returned to Bloomington as \"College of Arts and Sciences Professor\" in both cognitive science and computer science.", "He was also appointed adjunct professor of history and philosophy of science, philosophy, comparative literature, and psychology, but has said that his involvement with most of those departments is nominal.", "In 1988 Hofstadter received the ''In Praise of Reason'' award, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry's highest honor.", "In April 2009 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society.", "In 2010 he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala, Sweden.At the University of Michigan and Indiana University, he and Melanie Mitchell coauthored a computational model of \"high-level perception\"—Copycat—and several other models of analogy-making and cognition, including the Tabletop project, co-developed with Robert M. French.", "The Letter Spirit project, implemented by Gary McGraw and John Rehling, aims to model artistic creativity by designing stylistically uniform \"gridfonts\" (typefaces limited to a grid).", "Other more recent models include Phaeaco (implemented by Harry Foundalis) and SeqSee (Abhijit Mahabal), which model high-level perception and analogy-making in the microdomains of Bongard problems and number sequences, respectively, as well as George (Francisco Lara-Dammer), which models the processes of perception and discovery in triangle geometry.Hofstadter has had several exhibitions of his artwork in various university galleries.", "These shows have featured large collections of his gridfonts, his ambigrams (pieces of calligraphy created with two readings, either of which is usually obtained from the other by rotating or reflecting the ambigram, but sometimes simply by \"oscillation\", like the Necker Cube or the rabbit/duck figure of Joseph Jastrow), and his \"Whirly Art\" (music-inspired visual patterns realized using shapes based on various alphabets from India).", "Hofstadter invented the term \"ambigram\" in 1984; many ambigrammists have since taken up the concept.Hofstadter collects and studies cognitive errors (largely, but not solely, speech errors), \"bon mots\", and analogies of all sorts, and his longtime observation of these diverse products of cognition.", "His theories about the mechanisms that underlie them have exerted a powerful influence on the architectures of the computational models he and FARG members have developed.Hofstadter's thesis about consciousness, first expressed in ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'' but also present in several of his later books, is that it is \"an emergent consequence of seething lower-level activity in the brain.\"", "In ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'' he draws an analogy between the social organization of a colony of ants and the mind seen as a coherent \"colony\" of neurons.", "In particular, Hofstadter claims that our sense of having (or being) an \"I\" comes from the abstract pattern he terms a \"strange loop\", an abstract cousin of such concrete phenomena as audio and video feedback that Hofstadter has defined as \"a level-crossing feedback loop\".", "The prototypical example of a strange loop is the self-referential structure at the core of Gödel's incompleteness theorems.", "Hofstadter's 2007 book ''I Am a Strange Loop'' carries his vision of consciousness considerably further, including the idea that each human \"I\" is distributed over numerous brains, rather than being limited to one.", "''Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language'' is a long book devoted to language and translation, especially poetry translation, and one of its leitmotifs is a set of 88 translations of \"Ma Mignonne\", a highly constrained poem by 16th-century French poet Clément Marot.", "In this book, Hofstadter jokingly describes himself as \"pilingual\" (meaning that the sum total of the varying degrees of mastery of all the languages that he has studied comes to 3.14159 ...), as well as an \"oligoglot\" (someone who speaks \"a few\" languages).In 1999, the bicentennial year of the Russian poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, Hofstadter published a verse translation of Pushkin's classic novel-in-verse ''Eugene Onegin''.", "He has translated other poems and two novels: ''La Chamade'' (''That Mad Ache'') by Françoise Sagan, and ''La Scoperta dell'Alba'' (''The Discovery of Dawn'') by Walter Veltroni, the then-head of the Partito Democratico in Italy.", "''The Discovery of Dawn'' was published in 2007, and ''That Mad Ache'' was published in 2009, bound together with Hofstadter's essay ''Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of Translation''.=== Hofstadter's Law ===Hofstadter's Law is \"It always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter's Law.\"", "The law is stated in ''Gödel, Escher, Bach''.=== Students ===Hofstadter's former Ph.D. students include (with dissertation title):*David ChalmersToward a Theory of Consciousness*Bob FrenchTabletop: An Emergent, Stochastic Model of Analogy-Making*Gary McGrawLetter Spirit (Part One): Emergent High-level Perception of Letters Using Fluid Concepts*Melanie MitchellCopycat: A Computer Model of High-Level Perception and Conceptual Slippage in Analogy-making" ], [ "Public image", "Hofstadter in Bologna, Italy, in 2002.Hofstadter has said that he feels \"uncomfortable with the nerd culture that centers on computers\".", "He admits that \"a large fraction of his audience seems to be those who are fascinated by technology\", but when it was suggested that his work \"has inspired many students to begin careers in computing and artificial intelligence\" he replied that he was pleased about that, but that he himself has \"no interest in computers\".", "In that interview he also mentioned a course he has twice given at Indiana University, in which he took a \"skeptical look at a number of highly touted AI projects and overall approaches\".", "For example, upon the defeat of Garry Kasparov by Deep Blue, he commented that \"It was a watershed event, but it doesn't have to do with computers becoming intelligent\".", "In his book ''Metamagical Themas'', he says that \"in this day and age, how can anyone fascinated by creativity and beauty fail to see in computers the ultimate tool for exploring their essence?", "\".Provoked by predictions of a technological singularity (a hypothetical moment in the future of humanity when a self-reinforcing, runaway development of artificial intelligence causes a radical change in technology and culture), Hofstadter has both organized and participated in several public discussions of the topic.", "At Indiana University in 1999 he organized such a symposium, and in April 2000, he organized a larger symposium titled \"Spiritual Robots\" at Stanford University, in which he moderated a panel consisting of Ray Kurzweil, Hans Moravec, Kevin Kelly, Ralph Merkle, Bill Joy, Frank Drake, John Holland and John Koza.", "Hofstadter was also an invited panelist at the first Singularity Summit, held at Stanford in May 2006.Hofstadter expressed doubt that the singularity will occur in the foreseeable future.In 1988 Dutch director Piet Hoenderdos created a docudrama about Hofstadter and his ideas, ''Victim of the Brain'', based on ''The Mind's I''.", "It includes interviews with Hofstadter about his work." ], [ "Columnist", "When Martin Gardner retired from writing his \"Mathematical Games\" column for ''Scientific American'' magazine, Hofstadter succeeded him in 1981–83 with a column titled ''Metamagical Themas'' (an anagram of \"Mathematical Games\").", "An idea he introduced in one of these columns was the concept of \"Reviews of This Book\", a book containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself that has an online implementation.", "One of Hofstadter's columns in ''Scientific American'' concerned the damaging effects of sexist language, and two chapters of his book ''Metamagical Themas'' are devoted to that topic, one of which is a biting analogy-based satire, \" A Person Paper on Purity in Language\" (1985), in which the reader's presumed revulsion at racism and racist language is used as a lever to motivate an analogous revulsion at sexism and sexist language; Hofstadter published it under the pseudonym William Satire, an allusion to William Safire.", "Another column reported on the discoveries made by University of Michigan professor Robert Axelrod in his computer tournament pitting many iterated prisoner's dilemma strategies against each other, and a follow-up column discussed a similar tournament that Hofstadter and his graduate student Marek Lugowski organized.", "The \"Metamagical Themas\" columns ranged over many themes, including patterns in Frédéric Chopin's piano music (particularly his études), the concept of superrationality (choosing to cooperate when the other party/adversary is assumed to be equally intelligent as oneself), and the self-modifying game of Nomic, based on the way the legal system modifies itself, and developed by philosopher Peter Suber." ], [ "Personal life", "Hofstadter was married to Carol Ann Brush until her death.", "They met in Bloomington, and married in Ann Arbor in 1985.They had two children, Danny and Monica.", "Carol died in 1993 from the sudden onset of a brain tumor, glioblastoma multiforme, when their children were 5 and 2.The Carol Ann Brush Hofstadter Memorial Scholarship for Bologna-bound Indiana University students was established in 1996 in her name.", "Hofstadter's book ''Le Ton beau de Marot'' is dedicated to their two children and its dedication reads \"To M. & D., living sparks of their Mommy's soul\".In 2010, Hofstadter met Baofen Lin in a cha-cha-cha class, and they married in Bloomington in September 2012.Hofstadter has composed pieces for piano and for piano and voice.", "He created an audio CD, ''DRH/JJ'', of these compositions performed mostly by pianist Jane Jackson, with a few performed by Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur, and Hofstadter.The dedication for ''I Am A Strange Loop'' is: \"To my sister Laura, who can understand, and to our sister Molly, who cannot.\"", "Hofstadter explains in the preface that his younger sister Molly never developed the ability to speak or understand language.As a consequence of his attitudes about consciousness and empathy, Hofstadter became a vegetarian in his teenage years, and has remained primarily so since that time." ], [ "In popular culture", "In the 1982 novel ''2010: Odyssey Two'', Arthur C. Clarke's first sequel to ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', HAL 9000 is described by the character \"Dr. Chandra\" as being caught in a \"Hofstadter–Möbius loop\".", "The movie uses the term \"H. Möbius loop\".On April 3, 1995, Hofstadter's book ''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought'' was the first book sold by Amazon.com." ], [ "Published works", "=== Books ===The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available):*''Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid'' () (1979)*''Metamagical Themas'' () (collection of ''Scientific American'' columns and other essays, all with postscripts)*''Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività'' () (in Italian only)*''Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies'' (co-authored with several of Hofstadter's graduate students) ()*''Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot'' () (1995, published 1996; volume 16 of series ''The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values'')*''Le Ton beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language'' ()*''I Am a Strange Loop'' () (2007)*''Surfaces and Essences: Analogy as the Fuel and Fire of Thinking'', co-authored with Emmanuel Sander () (first published in French as ''L'Analogie.", "Cœur de la pensée''; published in English in the U.S. in April 2013)=== Papers ===Hofstadter has written, among many others, the following papers:*\"Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields\", ''Phys.", "Rev.", "B'' '''14''' (1976) 2239.", "*\"A non-deterministic approach to analogy, involving the Ising model of ferromagnetism\", in Eduardo Caianiello (ed.", "), ''The Physics of Cognitive Processes''.", "Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific, 1987.", "* \"To Err is Human; To Study Error-making is Cognitive Science\" (co-authored by David J. Moser), Michigan Quarterly Review, Vol.", "XXVIII, No.", "2, 1989, pp. 185–215.", "*\"Speechstuff and thoughtstuff: Musings on the resonances created by words and phrases via the subliminal perception of their buried parts\", in Sture Allen (ed.", "), ''Of Thoughts and Words: The Relation between Language and Mind.", "Proceedings of the Nobel Symposium 92'', London/New Jersey: World Scientific Publ., 1995, 217–267.", "*\" On seeing A's and seeing As\", ''Stanford Humanities Review'' Vol.", "4, No.", "2 (1995) pp. 109–121.", "* \"''Analogy as the Core of Cognition''\", republished by Stanford University Libraries from Dedre Gentner, Keith Holyoak, and Boicho Kokinov (eds.)", "''The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science'', Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Book, 2001, pp.", "499–538.Hofstadter has also written over 50 papers that were published through the Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition.=== Involvement in other books ===Hofstadter has written forewords for or edited the following books:*''The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul'' (co-edited with Daniel Dennett), 1981.", "(, ) and ()*''Inversions'', by Scott Kim, 1981.", "(Foreword) ()*''Alan Turing: The Enigma'' by Andrew Hodges, 1983.", "(Preface)*''Sparse Distributed Memory'' by Pentti Kanerva, Bradford Books/MIT Press, 1988.", "(Foreword) ()*''Are Quanta Real?", "A Galilean Dialogue'' by J.M.", "Jauch, Indiana University Press, 1989.", "(Foreword) ()*''Gödel's Proof'' (2002 revised edition) by Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, edited by Hofstadter.", "In the foreword, Hofstadter explains that the book (originally published in 1958) exerted a profound influence on him when he was young.", "()*''Who Invented the Computer?", "The Legal Battle That Changed Computing History'' by Alice Rowe Burks, 2003.", "(Foreword)*''Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker'' by Christof Teuscher, 2003.", "(editor)*''Brainstem Still Life'' by Jason Salavon, 2004.", "(Introduction) ()*''Masters of Deception: Escher, Dalí & the Artists of Optical Illusion'' by Al Seckel, 2004.", "(Foreword)*''King of Infinite Space: Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry'' by Siobhan Roberts, Walker and Company, 2006.", "(Foreword)*''Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science'' by Karl Sigmund, Basic Books, 2017.Hofstadter wrote the foreword and helped with the translation.", "*''To Light the Flame of Reason: Clear Thinking for the Twenty-First Century'' by Christopher Sturmark, Prometheus, 2022.", "(Foreword and Contributions)===Translations===*''Eugene Onegin: A Novel Versification'' from the Russian original of Alexander Pushkin, 1999.", "()*''The Discovery of Dawn'' from the Italian original of Walter Veltroni, 2007.", "()*''That Mad Ache'', co-bound with ''Translator, Trader: An Essay on the Pleasantly Pervasive Paradoxes of Translation'' from the French original of Francoise Sagan), 2009.", "()" ], [ "See also", "* American philosophy* BlooP and FlooP* Egbert B. Gebstadter* Hofstadter points* Hofstadter's butterfly* Hofstadter's law* List of American philosophers* Platonia dilemma* Superrationality" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Stanford University Presidential Lecture – site dedicated to Hofstadter and his work* * \"The Man Who Would Teach Machines to Think\" by James Somers, ''The Atlantic'', November 2013 issue* Profile at Resonance Publications* NF Reviews – bibliographic page with reviews of several of Hofstadter's books* \"Autoportrait with Constraint\" – a short autobiography in the form of a lipogram* Github repo of sourcecode & literature of Hofstadter's students work* Douglas Hofstadter on the Literature Map*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dahomey" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Kingdom of Dahomey''' () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904.It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional power in the 18th century by expanding south to conquer key cities like Whydah belonging to the Kingdom of Whydah on the Atlantic coast which granted it unhindered access to the tricontinental triangular trade.For much of the middle 19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey became a key regional state, after eventually ending tributary status to the Oyo Empire.", "European visitors extensively documented the kingdom, and it became one of the most familiar African nations known to Europeans.", "The Kingdom of Dahomey was an important regional power that had an organized domestic economy built on conquest and slave labor, significant international trade and diplomatic relations with Europeans, a centralized administration, taxation systems, and an organized military.", "Notable in the kingdom were significant artwork, an all-female military unit called the Dahomey Amazons by European observers, and the elaborate religious practices of Vodun.The growth of Dahomey coincided with the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, and it became known to Europeans as a major supplier of slaves.", "Dahomey was a highly militaristic society constantly organised for warfare; it engaged in wars and raids against neighboring nations and sold captives into the Atlantic slave trade in exchange for European goods such as rifles, gunpowder, fabrics, cowrie shells, tobacco, pipes, and alcohol.", "Other captives became slaves in Dahomey, where they worked on royal plantations or were killed in human sacrifices during the festival celebrations known as the Annual Customs of Dahomey.", "The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved significant collection and distribution of gifts and tribute, religious Vodun ceremonies, military parades, and discussions by dignitaries about the future for the kingdom.In the 1840s, Dahomey began to face decline with British pressure to abolish the slave trade, which included the British Royal Navy imposing a naval blockade against the kingdom and enforcing anti-slavery patrols near its coast.", "Dahomey was also weakened after failing to invade and capture slaves in Abeokuta, a Yoruba city-state which was founded by the Oyo Empire refugees migrating southward.", "Dahomey later began experiencing territorial disputes with France which led to the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, resulting in French victory.", "The kingdom finally fell in 1894 when the last king, Béhanzin, was defeated by France in the Second Franco-Dahomean War, leading to the country being annexed into French West Africa as the colony of French Dahomey, later gaining independence in 1960 as the Republic of Dahomey, which would later rename itself Benin in 1975." ], [ "Name", "The Kingdom of Dahomey was referred to by many different names and has been written in a variety of ways, including ''Danxome'', ''Danhome'', and ''Fon''.", "The name ''Fon'' relates to the dominant ethnic and language group, the Fon people, of the royal families of the kingdom and is how the kingdom first became known to Europeans.", "The names ''Dahomey'', ''Danxome'', and ''Danhome'' share an origin story, which historian Edna Bay says may be a false etymology.The story goes that Dakodonu, considered the second king in modern kings lists, was granted permission by the Gedevi chiefs, the local rulers, to settle in the Abomey Plateau.", "Dakodonu requested additional land from a prominent chief named Dan (or Da) to which the chief responded sarcastically, \"Should I open up my belly and build you a house in it?\"", "For this insult, Dakodonu killed Dan and began the construction of his palace on the spot.", "The name of the kingdom was derived from the incident: ''Dan'' meaning \"chief\", ''xo'' meaning \"belly\" and ''me'' meaning \"inside of\"." ], [ "History", "The Kingdom of Dahomey was established around 1600 by the Fon people who had recently settled in the area (or were possibly a result of intermarriage between the Aja people and the local Gedevi).", "The foundational king for Dahomey is often considered to be Houegbadja (c. 1645–1685), who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey and began raiding and taking over towns outside of the Abomey Plateau.=== Kings ===+KingStart of ruleEnd of ruleDo-Aklin (Ganyihessou)≈16001620Dakodonou16201645Houégbadja16451680Akaba16801708Agaja17081740Tegbessou (Tegbesu)17401774Kpengla17741789Agonglo17901797Adandozan17971818Guézo (Ghézo/Gezo)18181858Glèlè18581889Béhanzin18891894Agoli-agbo18941900Source:The history of Dahomy, an inland Kingdom of Africa'', 1793===Rule of Agaja (1708–1740)===King Agaja, Houegbadja's grandson, came to the throne in 1708 and began significant expansion of the Kingdom of Dahomey.", "This expansion was made possible by the superior military force of King Agaja's Dahomey.", "In contrast to surrounding regions, Dahomey employed a professional standing army numbering around ten thousand.", "What the Dahomey lacked in numbers, they made up for in discipline and superior arms.", "In 1724, Agaja conquered Allada, the origin for the royal family according to oral tradition, and in 1727 he conquered Whydah.", "This increased size of the kingdom, particularly along the Atlantic coast, and increased power made Dahomey into a regional power.", "The result was near constant warfare with the main regional state, the Oyo Empire, from 1728 until 1740.The warfare with the Oyo empire resulted in Dahomey assuming a tributary status to the Oyo empire.===Rule of Tegbesu (1740–1774)===Tegbesu, also spelled as Tegbessou, was King of Dahomey, in present-day Benin, from 1740 until 1774.Tegbesu was not the oldest son of King Agaja (1708–1740), but was selected following his father's death after winning a succession struggle with a brother.", "King Agaja had significantly expanded the Kingdom of Dahomey during his reign, notably conquering Whydah in 1727.This increased the size of the kingdom and increased both domestic dissent and regional opposition.", "Tegbessou ruled over Dahomey at a point where it needed to increase its legitimacy over those whom it had recently conquered.", "As a result, Tegbesu is often credited with a number of administrative changes in the kingdom in order to establish the legitimacy of the kingdom.", "The slave trade increased significantly during Tegbessou's reign and began to provide the largest part of the income for the king.", "In addition, Tegbesu's rule is the one with the first significant ''kpojito'' or mother of the leopard with Hwanjile in that role.", "The ''kpojito'' became a prominently important person in Dahomey royalty.", "Hwanjile, in particular, is said to have changed dramatically the religious practices of Dahomey by creating two new deities and more closely tying worship to that of the king.", "According to one oral tradition, as part of the tribute owed by Dahomey to Oyo, Agaja had to give to Oyo one of his sons.", "The story claims that only Hwanjile, of all of Agaja's wives, was willing to allow her son to go to Oyo.", "This act of sacrifice, according to the oral tradition made Tegbesu, was favored by Agaja.", "Agaja reportedly told Tegbesu that he was the future king, but his brother Zinga was still the official heir.=== Rule of Ghezo (1818–1859) ===When King Ghezo ascended the throne in 1818, he was confronted by two immediate obstacles: the Kingdom of Dahomey was in political turmoil, and it was financially unstable.", "First, he needed to gain political independence by removing the tributary yoke that the Yoruba empire of Oyo had over the Dahomey since 1748.Secondly, he needed to revitalize the Dahomey economy.", "Both of these objectives relied on the slave trade.", "King Ghezo implemented new military strategies, which allowed them to take a physical stand against the Oyo, who were also a major competitor in the slave trade.", "He also put stipulations on Dahomey's participation in the slave trade.", "Under his reign, no longer would the Dahomey be traded, as they were under the leadership of his brother, Adandozan.", "Dahomey would focus on capturing their enemies and trading them instead.", "King Ghezo sought to eventually lead his people toward the \"legitimate\" trade of palm oil.The Dahomey were soon met with victory when they brought down the Oyo Empire and its yoke at Paonignan in 1827.While Brazil's demand for slaves increased in 1830, the British started a campaign to abolish the slave trade in Africa.", "The British government began putting significant pressure on King Ghezo in the 1840s to end the slave trade in Dahomey.", "King Ghezo responded to these requests by emphasizing that he was unable to end the slave trade because of domestic pressure.", "He explained to them that the entire region had become dependent on the slave trading, so ending immediately would destabilize his kingdom and lead to anarchy.", "King William Dappa Pepple of Bonny and King Kosoko of Lagos took the same stance toward the British requests.", "Instead, King Ghezo proposed an expansion of the palm oil trade and gradual abolition of the slave trade.King Ghezo's reign was marked by great battles and significant changes to the empire, including the elevation of the Agojie.", "These \"Dahomey Amazon\" were pivotal to the defeat of Oyo Empire.", "His reign also cemented the Kingdom of Dahomey as one of the most powerful African kingdoms that stood against British attempts, with Egba support, at converting people to Christianity, and maintained their traditional religion, known as Vodun.", "He abolished the human sacrifice of slaves and removed the death penalty for certain lesser offenses, such as adultery.", "Despite the kingdom's history of brutality, King Ghezo was often characterized as honorable and unconquerable, even by his enemies.", "British missionary Thomas Birch Freeman also depicted him as \"one of the most remarkable men of his age, whether we consider him in his private capacity as a man, or as a warrior and a statesmen.", "\"===End===Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913The kingdom fought the First Franco-Dahomean War and Second Franco-Dahomean War with France.", "The kingdom was reduced and made a French protectorate in 1894.In 1904, the area became part of a French colony, French Dahomey.In 1958, French Dahomey became the self-governing colony called the Republic of Dahomey and gained full independence in 1960.It was renamed in 1975 the People's Republic of Benin and in 1991 the Republic of Benin.=== Modernity ===Today, the kingdom continues to exist as a constituent monarchy located within Benin.", "Its rulers no longer hold any official powers under Benin's constitution, but they retain some political and economic influence.", "Modern kings participate in important Vodun religious festivals and other traditional ceremonies." ], [ "Politics", "Early writings often presented the kingdom as an absolute monarchy led by a despotic king.", "These depictions were often deployed as arguments by different sides in the slave trade debates, mainly in the United Kingdom, and as such were probably exaggerations.", "Recent historical work has emphasized the limits of monarchical power in the Kingdom of Dahomey.", "Historian John C. Yoder, with attention to the Great Council in the kingdom, argued that its activities do not \"imply that Dahomey's government was democratic or even that her politics approximated those of nineteenth-century European monarchies.", "Such evidence supports the thesis that governmental decisions were molded by conscious responses to internal political pressures as well as by executive fiat.\"", "The primary political divisions revolved around villages with chiefs and administrative posts appointed by the king and acting as his representatives to adjudicate disputes in the village.===King===King Ghezo displayed with a royal umbrellaThe King of Dahomey (''Ahosu'' in the Fon language) was the sovereign power of the kingdom.", "All of the kings claimed to be part of the ''Alladaxonou'' dynasty, claiming descent from the royal family in Allada.", "Much of the succession rules and administrative structures were created early by Kings Houegbadja, Akaba, and Agaja.", "Succession through the male members of the line was the norm, with the kingship typically (but not always) going to the oldest son.", "The king was selected largely through discussion and decision in the meetings of the Great Council, although how this operated was not always clear.", "The Great Council brought together a host of different dignitaries from throughout the kingdom yearly to meet at the Annual Customs of Dahomey.", "Discussions would be lengthy and included members, both men and women, from throughout the kingdom.", "At the end of the discussions, the king would declare the consensus of the group.===Royal court===Key positions in the King's court included the ''migan'' (Prime Minister), the ''mehu'' (Finance Minister), the ''yovogan'', the ''tokpo'' (Minister of Agriculture), the ''agan'' (general of the army), the ''kpojito'' (or queen mother), and later the ''chacha'' (or viceroy) of Whydah.", "Each of these cabinet positionswhich, with the exception of the ''kpojito'', were headed by menhad a female counterpart to complement them.", "The ''migan''a combination of ''mi'' (our) and ''gan'' (chief)was a primary consul for the king, a key judicial figure, and served as the head executioner.", "The ''mehu'' was similarly a key administrative officer who managed the palaces and the affairs of the royal family, economic matters, and the areas to the south of Allada (making the position key to contact with Europeans)." ], [ "Foreign relations", "The reception of the Ah-Haussoo-Noh-Beh in Abomey drawn by Frederick E. Forbes in 1851The relations between Dahomey and other countries were complex and heavily impacted by the transatlantic slave trade.===Brazil===In 1750, the Kingdom of Dahomey sent a diplomatic mission to Salvador, Portuguese colony of Brazil in order to strengthen diplomatic relations with this Portuguese colony following an incident which led to the expulsion of Portuguese-Brazilian diplomatic authorities in 1743.Other Dahomey missions were sent to Portuguese colony of Brazil from 1795 to 1805 with the purpose of strengthening relations with Portuguese colonial authorities and slave buyers residing in Brazilian territory, ensuring that they maintained an interest in purchasing enslaved people supplied by Dahomey rather than rival kingdoms.", "It is also recorded that in 1823, the Kingdom of Dahomey formally recognized Brazil's independence, making it one of the first political entities in the world to do so.The transatlantic slave trade between Brazil and Dahomey remained intense even under pressure from the United Kingdom for its abolition.", "Francisco Félix de Sousa, a former enslaved person and later a major slave trader in the Dahomey region, became a politically influential figure in that kingdom after the ascent of Guezo to the Dahomean throne.", "He was granted the honorary title of Chachá, vice-king of Ajudá, and a monopoly on the exportation of slaves.===France===In 1894, the last King of Dahomey, Béhanzin, surrendered his person to Alfred-Amédée DoddsIn 1861, the kingdom of Porto-Novo, one of Dahomey's tributaries, was attacked by the British Royal Navy, which was participating in anti-slaving patrols.", "Porto-Novo asked for protection from France and became a French protectorate as a result in 1863.This status was rejected by King Behanzin, who still declared Porto-Novo to be a tributary of Dahomey.", "Another issue of contention was the status of Cotonou, a port the French believed was under their control because of a treaty signed by Dahomey's representative in Whydah.", "Dahomey ignored all French claims there as well and continued to collect customs from the port.", "These territorial disputes escalated into the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, resulting in French victory.", "Dahomey was forced to sign a treaty surrendering Porto-Novo and Cotonou to the French.", "It later returned to raiding the area and disregarded French complaints, triggering the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892.The kingdom was defeated in 1894, it was annexed into the French colonial empire as French Dahomey, and King Behanzin was exiled to Algeria.===Portugal===The Portuguese fort at Ouidah was destroyed by the army of Dahomey in 1743 during its conquest of the city, so King Tegbesu desired to renew relations with Portugal.", "Dahomey sent at least five embassies to Portugal and Brazil during the years of 1750, 1795, 1805, 1811 and 1818, with the goal of negotiating the terms of the Atlantic slave trade.", "These missions created an official correspondence between the kings of Dahomey and the kings of Portugal, and gifts were exchanged between them.", "The Portuguese Crown paid for the expenses travel and accommodation expenses of Dahomey's ambassadors, who traveled between Lisbon and Salvador, Bahia.", "The embassies of 1805 and 1811 brought letters from King Adandozan, who had imprisoned Portuguese subjects in the Dahomean capital of Abomey and requested for Portugal to trade exclusively at Ouidah.", "Portugal promised to answer to his demands if he released the prisoners.A long and detailed letter from King Adandonzan dated 9 October 1810 shows that he had knowledge of the Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent exile of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, and he expressed remorse that he was not able to help the Portuguese royal family during their war against France.", "After detailing how he defeated the king of the Mahi nation, Adandonzan tells the Portuguese,===United Kingdom===Dahomey became a target of the British Empire's anti-slavery campaign during the 19th century.", "The British sent diplomatic missions to Dahomey in an effort to convince King Ghezo to abolish human sacrifice and slave trading.", "Ghezo did not immediately concede to British demands but attempted to maintain friendly relations with the British by encouraging the growth of new trade in palm oil instead.", "In 1851, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade against Dahomey, forcing Ghezo to sign a treaty in 1852 that immediately abolished the export of slaves.", "This was broken when slave trading resumed in 1857 and 1858.Historian Martin Meredith quotes Ghezo telling the British: During a diplomatic mission to Dahomey in 1849, Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the Royal Navy received an enslaved girl (later named Sara Forbes Bonetta) from King Ghezo as a \"gift\", who would later become a goddaughter to Queen Victoria.===United States===During the American Revolution, the rebelling United Colonies prohibited the international slave trade for a variety of economic, political, and moral reasons depending on the colony.", "Following the end of the revolution, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807, which federally outlawed the international slave trade, though domestic slavery itself would persist until the American Civil War.", "Thus, the United States never established any formal diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Dahomey.", "The last known slave ship that sailed to the United States secretly and illegally imported 110 slaves from Dahomey, purchased long after the abolition of the slave trade.", "The story was mentioned in the newspaper ''The Tarboro Southerner'' on July 14, 1860.Five days earlier, a schooner called ''Clotilda'', captained by William Foster, arrived in the bay of Mobile, Alabama carrying the last known shipment of slaves to the U.S.", "In 1858, an American man named Timothy Meaher made a wager with acquaintances that despite the law banning the slave trade, he could safely bring a load of slaves from Africa.", "He built the ''Clotilda'' slave ship and sent William Foster to captain it and retrieve enslaved Africans.Captain William Foster arrived in Ouidah, a coastal port of Dahomey, and retrieved 110 slaves.", "Describing how he came in possession of the slaves, he wrote in his journal in 1860,Zora Neale Hurston wrote about her interviews with Oluale Kossola, the last survivor of the ''Clotilda'', in her book ''Barracoon''.", "A notable descendant of a slave from this ship is Ahmir Khalib Thompson, an American music artist known as Questlove.", "Mr. Thompson's story is depicted in the PBS Television show ''Finding Your Roots'' Season 4, Episode 9.===Yoruba===The Oyo Empire engaged in frequent conflicts with the Kingdom of Dahomey and Dahomey became a tributary of the Oyo from 1732 until 1823.The city-state of Porto-Novo, under the protection of Oyo, and Dahomey had a long-standing rivalry largely over control of the slave trade along the coast.", "The rise of Abeokuta in the 1840s created another power rivaling Dahomey, largely by creating a safe haven for people from the slave trade.Notable Yoruba people who were captured by Dahomey in slave raids following the collapse of the Oyo Empire include Sara Forbes Bonetta (Aina), Cudjoe Lewis (Oluale Kossola), Matilda McCrear (Abake), Redoshi, and Seriki Williams Abass (Ifaremilekun Fagbemi)." ], [ "Military", "The military of the Kingdom of Dahomey was divided into two units: the right and the left.", "The right was controlled by the ''migan'' and the left was controlled by the ''mehu''.", "At least by the time of Agaja, the kingdom had developed a standing army that remained encamped wherever the king was.", "Soldiers in the army were recruited as young as seven or eight years old, initially serving as shield carriers for regular soldiers.", "After years of apprenticeship and military experience, they were allowed to join the army as regular soldiers.", "To further incentivize the soldiers, each soldier received bonuses paid in cowry shells for each enemy they killed or captured in battle.", "This combination of lifelong military experience and monetary incentives resulted in a cohesive, well-disciplined military.", "One European said Agaja's standing army consisted of \"elite troops, brave and well-disciplined, led by a prince full of valor and prudence, supported by a staff of experienced officers\".", "The army consisted of 15,000 personnel which was divided into right, left, center and reserve; and in each of these was further divided into companies and platoons.In addition to being well trained, the Dahomey army under Agaja was also very well armed.", "The Dahomey army favored imported European weapons as opposed to traditional weapons.", "For example, they used European flintlock muskets in long-range combat and imported steel swords and cutlasses in close combat.", "The Dahomey army also possessed twenty-five cannons.", "By the late 19th century, Dahomey had a large arsenal of weapons.", "These included the Chassepot Dreyse, Mauser, Snider Enfield, Wanzel, Werndl, Peabody action, Winchester, Spencer, Albini, Robert Jones carbine, French musketoon 1882 and the Mitrailleuse Reffye 1867.Along with firearms, Dahomey employed mortars.When going into battle, the king would take a secondary position to the field commander with the reason given that if any spirit were to punish the commander for decisions it should not be the king.", "Dahomey units were drilled constantly.", "They fired on command, employed countermarch, and formed extended lines from deep columns.", "Tactics such as covering fire, frontal attacks and flanking movements were used in the warfare of Dahomey.", "The Dahomey Amazons, a unit of all-female soldiers, is one of the most unusual aspects of the military of the kingdom.", "Unlike other regional powers, the military of Dahomey did not have a significant cavalry (like the Oyo empire) or naval power (which prevented expansion along the coast).", "From the 18th century, the state could obtain naval support from Ardra where they had created a subordinate dynasty after conquering the state in the early 18th century.", "Dahomey enlisted the services of Ardra's navy against the Epe in 1778 and Badagry in 1783.===Amazons===Dahomey female soldiersThe Dahomean state became widely known for its corps of female soldiers.", "Their origins are debated; they may have formed from a palace guard or from (female hunting teams).They were organized around 1729 to fill out the army and make it look larger in battle, armed only with banners.", "The women reportedly behaved so courageously they became a permanent corps.", "In the beginning, the soldiers were criminals pressed into service rather than death.", "Eventually, the corps was respected enough that King Ghezo ordered every family to send him their daughters, with the fittest being chosen as soldiers.", "European accounts clarified that seven distinct movements were required to load a Dane gun which took an Amazon 30 seconds in comparison to the 50 seconds it took a Dahomean male soldier to load.=== Siege and engineering ===In order to repress the navies of its neighbors, Dahomey built causeways starting from 1774.During a campaign against Whydah that year, Dahomey was able to force Whydah to fortify itself at an island called Foudou-Cong.", "Dahomey cut trees which were planted in the water to serve as a causeway and bridge the army's access to the fortified Whydah island.", "The causeway also obstructed the movement of a 700 canoe force belonging to Whydah.", "As a result, the Whydah army had to survive on the boats for months sustaining its forces with fish diet.", "According to Thornton, Dahomey used this strategy of siege causeways again in 1776 against another opponent state where it built 3 bridges to connect the island housing the opponent forces.", "Coastal belligerents opposing Dahomey allied with European forts against the state.", "Dahomey was able to capture Dutch and Portuguese forts in the 18th century through the use of ladders and sappers.", "Thornton writes that in 1737, Dahomey used scale ladders against the Dutch fort in Keta simultaneously as its sappers built a tunnel under the fort's bastion causing it to collapse when its defenders fired an artillery round within the bastion.", "A similar tactic was employed against a Portuguese fort with 30 mounted guns at Whydah in 1743 as its bastions collapsed enabling the Dahomey infantry to enter the fort.", "In 1728, Dahomey forces captured and destroyed a French fort at Whydah by blowing up the magazine that held the fort's ammunition and gunpowder.", "Another tactic for attacking coastal forts was the burning of nearby villages during a land breeze in order for the wind to carry the flames toward the fort.", "This tactic was first revealed by a British commander at Whydah in 1728, who countered it by burning the nearby villages during a sea breeze to prevent the Dahomeyan army from burning the villages during a land breeze.", "As a result of the threat posed by Oyo in the 18th century, the state built fortifications of its own with the help of a French officer from whom they learnt field fortification and artillery.", "According to a Dutch source in 1772, the king of Dahomey \"has made deep ditches around his entire country as well as walls and batteries mounted with cannons he captured at Fida Whydah.\"", "Thornton suggests these fortifications were mostly built out of wood.", "Dahomey used a tactic of trench construction against Oyo where its forces withdrew into the trenches after confrontation with the Oyo force.", "Despite this, Dahomey was overwhelmed by an Oyo siege after the arrival of reinforcement.", "In the mid 18th century, Abomey was surrounded by a ditch accessible by bridges whiles in 1772 the royal residence was surrounded with a mud brick wall 20 feet high, \"with blockhouses on each wall.\"", "Dahomey also built underground chambers in Abomey which served varying functions including that of providing military installations for the army.", "These souterrains have been dated to the late 17th century.", "Wheeled vehicles are recorded to have been implemented in Dahomeyan warfare.", "In an operation against Abeokuta in 1864, Dahomey fielded three guns mounted on locally made carriages of which historian Robin Law adds that these weapons did not play an effective role in the battle.", "Some references exist about the possible production of guns and gunpowder in Dahomey.", "In 1880, king Béhanzin informed a French mission that firearms were manufactured in the state.", "Amid the war with France in 1892, a French expeditionary force discovered tools and resources such as cartridge cases, signal rockets and electric batteries which are necessary for making cartridges and repairing firearms." ], [ "Economy", "The economic structure of the kingdom was highly intertwined with the political and religious systems and these developed together significantly.", "The main currency was cowry shells.===Domestic===The domestic economy largely focused on agriculture and crafts for local consumption.", "Until the development of palm oil, very little agricultural or craft goods were traded outside of the kingdom.", "Markets served a key role in the kingdom and were organized around a rotating cycle of four days with a different market each day (the market type for the day was religiously sanctioned).", "Agriculture work was largely decentralized and done by most families.", "With the expansion of the kingdom, agricultural plantations began to be a common agricultural method in the kingdom.", "Craftwork was largely dominated by a formal guild system.", "Several wealthy citizens stored their cowrie wealth in a building called ''akueho'' (cowrie huts) located in the compounds of their houses.", "Such cowrie huts were designed to protect the cowries from fire and theft.", "Iroko argues that this was a form of banking in Dahomey because the owners of such ''akueho'' houses regularly kept the deposits of others in the storehouse which they used as a form of loans to 3rd parties.", "Guyer and Stiansen on the other hand, are skeptical of Iroko's theory.==== Taxation ==== Herskovits recounts a complex tax system in the kingdom, in which officials who represented the king, the , gathered data from each village regarding their harvest.", "Then the king set a tax based upon the level of production and village population.", "In addition, the king's own land and production were taxed.", "After significant road construction undertaken by the kingdom, toll booths were also established that collected yearly taxes based on the goods people carried and their occupation.", "Officials also sometimes imposed fines for public nuisance before allowing people to pass.", "Tax officials on road tolls were provided with armed guards.", "Taxes were imposed on craft workers including blacksmiths, weavers and wood cutters for example.", "Kangaroo courts could be held at any place such as the market or on roads, presided over by officials recognized by the central government.", "Such courts could extract some form of tax from the litigants before judging the case.", "Since the 18th century, prostitution (''Ko-si'') was licensed by the king.", "Robert Norris and Archibald Dalzel documented in the late 18th century that the central government was responsible for distributing prostitutes throughout the state at a price set by civil decree.", "Taxes were derived from prostitutes during the annual customs.=== Royal Road ===An unpaved road system was developed from the port of Ouidah through Cana up to Abomey.", "Its purpose was to improve the transportation of the king between Cana and Abomey.", "The Royal Road dates to the 18th century but most primary sources about the road date to the century after.", "The road stretched over seven miles in a near straight line, between the gates of the two towns and its width was estimated to be 20–30 meters.", "The road was occasionally kept weeded and cleared with cutlass.", "Primary sources give varying accounts that the Royal Road was kept cleared every two or three months or even six weeks.", "The road was shaded by tall trees.", "The biggest specimen was that of a bombax tree species.", "Surrounding the road on both sides were intensive farms which Forbes stated in the mid 19th century, to have \"rivaled that of the Chinese.\"", "In addition, religious shrines were lined along the road and Forbes counted 60 of them en route to Abomey.", "A palace was built halfway along the road by Tegbesu (1740–1774) to host the king as a resting place during transport.", "There is a lack of information about security provided across the Royal Road.", "Primary sources from the mid 19th century indicate that a large pair of carronades was placed on each side of the road near Abomey, which pointed toward Cana.", "A large number of cannons with diverse calibers were also placed at the road's end before the gates of Cana.", "Historian Alpern, indicates that the cannons in front of Cana might have served a ceremonial purpose because they lacked carriages to utilize.===Slavery===Both domestic slavery and the Atlantic slave trade were important to the economy of Dahomey.", "Men, women, and children captured by Dahomey in wars and slave raids were sold to European slave traders in exchange for various goods such as rifles, gunpowder, textiles, cowry shells, and alcohol.", "Dahomey used magical rituals for slave trading.", "Prior to being sold to Europeans, slaves were forced to march in circles around the \"Tree of Forgetfulness\" so they would lose memories of their culture, family, and homeland.", "The purpose of this ritual was to prevent the spirits of deceased slaves from returning and seeking revenge against the royalty of Dahomey.Other war captives who were not intended to be sold to Europeans remained in Dahomey as slaves.", "There, they worked on royal plantations that supplied food for the army and royal court.", "Some historians such as Watson and Schellinger have argued that the shift from slave trading to a plantation economy in the 19th century worsened the social perception of slaves in Dahomey.", "They cite reasons that slaves before then were treated as members of their master's family and they could attain free status after a generation or two.", "Following the intensification of palm oil in the state, it became common for slaves to be abused and ill treated.", "To solve this issue, King Ghezo declared the trial of cases involving the murder of slaves at the Judicial Court in Abomey.There was a history of large-scale human sacrifice using slaves." ], [ "Religion", "The Kingdom of Dahomey shared many religious rituals with surrounding populations.", "It also developed unique ceremonies, beliefs, and religious stories.", "These included royal ancestor worship and West African Vodun.===Royal ancestor worship===Early kings established clear worship of royal ancestors and centralized their ceremonies in the Annual Customs of Dahomey.", "The spirits of the kings had an exalted position in the land of the dead and it was necessary to get their permission for many activities on earth.", "Ancestor worship predated the kingdom of Dahomey; under King Agaja, a cycle of ritual was created centered on first celebrating the ancestors of the king and then celebrating a family lineage.The Annual Customs of Dahomey ( or in Fon) involved multiple elaborate components and some aspects may have been added in the 19th century.", "In general, the celebration involved distribution of gifts, human sacrifice, military parades, and political councils.", "Its main religious aspect was to offer thanks and gain the approval for ancestors of the royal lineage.Human sacrifice was an important part of the practice.", "During the Annual Custom, 500 prisoners would be sacrificed.", "In addition, when a ruler died, hundreds, to thousands of prisoners would be sacrificed.", "In 1727, an English trader alleged that he witness the Dahomey massacre 400 people during a Vodun ceremony.", "The number is also often reported to be 4,000.Human sacrifice was often exaggerated by contemporary anti-abolitionist Western authors, who sought to justify the continued need for slavery as a means to \"rescue\" Africans from a worse fate in Dahomey.===Cosmology===Dahomey had a unique form of West African Vodun that linked together preexisting animist traditions with vodun practices.", "Oral history recounted that Hwanjile, a wife of Agaja and mother of Tegbessou, brought Vodun to the kingdom and ensured its spread.", "The primary deity is the combined Mawu-Lisa (Mawu having female characteristics and Lisa having male characteristics) and it is claimed that this god took over the world that was created by their mother Nana-Buluku.", "Mawu-Lisa governs the sky and is the highest pantheon of gods, but other gods exist in the earth and in thunder.", "Religious practice organized different priesthoods and shrines for each different god and each different pantheon (sky, earth or thunder).", "Women made up a significant amount of the priest class and the chief priest was always a descendant of Dakodonou." ], [ "Arts", "Zoomorphic representation of Béhanzin as a sharkThe arts in Dahomey were unique and distinct from the artistic traditions elsewhere in Africa.", "The arts were substantially supported by the king and his family, had non-religious traditions, assembled multiple different materials, and borrowed widely from other peoples in the region.", "Common art forms included wood and ivory carving, metalwork (including silver, iron and brass, appliqué cloth, and clay bas-reliefs).The king was key in supporting the arts and many of them provided significant sums for artists resulting in the unique development, for the region, of a non-religious artistic tradition in the kingdom.", "Artists were not of a specific class but both royalty and commoners made important artistic contributions.", "Kings were often depicted in large zoomorphic forms with each king resembling a particular animal in multiple representations.Suzanne Blier identifies two unique aspects of art in Dahomey: Assemblage of different components and borrowing from other states.", "Assemblage of art, involving the combination of multiple components (often of different materials) combined in a single piece of art, was common in all forms and was the result of the various kings promoting finished products rather than particular styles.", "This assembling may have been a result of the second feature, which involved the wide borrowing of styles and techniques from other cultures and states.", "Clothing, cloth work, architecture, and the other forms of art all resemble other artistic representation from around the region.Much of the artwork revolved around the royalty.", "Each of the palaces at the Royal Palaces of Abomey contained elaborate bas-reliefs (''noundidė'' in Fon) providing a record of the king's accomplishments.", "Each king had his own palace within the palace complex and within the outer walls of their personal palace was a series of clay reliefs designed specific to that king.", "These were not solely designed for royalty and chiefs, temples, and other important buildings had similar reliefs.", "The reliefs would present Dahomey kings often in military battles against the Oyo or Mahi tribes to the north of Dahomey with their opponents depicted in various negative depictions (the king of Oyo is depicted in one as a baboon eating a cob of corn).", "Historical themes dominated representation and characters were basically designed and often assembled on top of each other or in close proximity creating an ensemble effect.", "In addition to the royal depictions in the reliefs, royal members were depicted in power sculptures known as ''bocio'', which incorporated mixed materials (including metal, wood, beads, cloth, fur, feathers, and bone) onto a base forming a standing figure.", "The bocio are religiously designed to include different forces together to unlock powerful forces.", "In addition, the cloth appliqué of Dahomey depicted royalty often in similar zoomorphic representation and dealt with matters similar to the reliefs, often the kings leading during warfare.Dahomey had a distinctive tradition of casting small brass figures of animals or people, which were worn as jewellery or displayed in the homes of the relatively well-off.", "These figures, which continue to be made for the tourist trade, were relatively unusual in traditional African art in having no religious aspect, being purely decorative, as well as indicative of some wealth.", "Also unusual, by being so early and clearly provenanced, is a carved wooden tray (not dissimilar to much more recent examples) in Ulm, Germany, which was brought to Europe before 1659, when it was described in a printed catalogue.Wheeled carriages were used in Dahomey after their introduction into the region of modern Benin in the late 17th century.", "Some carriages were manufactured indigenously while most were obtained as gifts from European allies.", "The carriages were often used for ceremonial purposes and were drawn mostly by men due to the small number of horses in the state.", "Carriages in Dahomey came in varying sizes and shapes.", "Some were modelled after ships, elephants and horses.", "Burton noted that the road between Abomey and the town of Cana, which was about six to seven miles long, was regularly kept weeded for the convenience of the royal carriages." ], [ "In popular culture", "The poster announcing the London premiere of ''In Dahomey'' at the Shaftesbury Theatre, 1903The Kingdom of Dahomey has been depicted in a number of different works of fiction or creative nonfiction.===Literature and theatre===*In the novel ''Robur the Conqueror'' (1886) by Jules Verne, the crew and passengers of the ''Albatross'' travel to Dahomey, where they interrupt an act of human sacrifice.", "*''In Dahomey'' (1903) was a successful Broadway musical, the first full-length Broadway musical written entirely by African Americans, in the early 20th century.", "*Novelist Paul Hazoumé's first novel ''Doguicimi'' (1938) was based on decades of research into the oral traditions of the Kingdom of Dahomey during the reign of King Ghezo.", "*The anthropologist Judith Gleason wrote a novel, ''Agõtĩme: Her Legend'' (1970), centered on one of the wives of a king of Dahomey in the late 18th century, who offends her husband who sells her to slavery in Brazil; she makes a bargain with a ''vodu'' (deity), putting her son on the throne of Dahomey and bringing her home.", "*Another novel tracing the background of a slave, this time in the United States, was ''The Dahomean'', or ''The Man from Dahomey'' (1971), by the African-American novelist Frank Yerby; its hero is an aristocratic warrior.", "*In the third of George McDonald Fraser's Flashman novels, ''Flash for Freedom!''", "(1971), Flashman dabbles in the slave trade and visits Dahomey.", "*''The Viceroy of Ouidah'' (1980) by Bruce Chatwin is the story of a Brazilian who, hoping to make his fortune from slave trading, sails to Dahomey in 1812, befriending its unbalanced king and coming to a bad end.", "*The main character of one of the two parallel stories in ''Will Do Magic for Small Change'' (2016) by Andrea Hairston is Kehinde, a Yoruba woman forced into the Dahomean army; she struggles with divided loyalty, and after the fall of Behanzin, joins a French entertainment troupe who intend to exhibit her as an Amazon at the Chicago World's Fair.", "*The Booker Prize-winning novel ''Girl, Woman, Other'' (2019) by Bernardine Evaristo features a character named Amma who writes and directs a play titled ''The Last Amazon of Dahomey''.", "*Behanzin's resistance to the French attempt to end slave trading and human sacrifice has been central to a number of works.", "Jean Pliya's first play ''Kondo le requin'' (1967), winner of the Grand Prize for African History Literature, tells the story of Behanzin's struggle to maintain the old order.", "Maryse Condé's novel ''The Last of the African Kings'' (1992) similarly focuses on Behanzin's resistance and his exile to the Caribbean.", "The novel ''Thread of Gold Beads'' (2012) by Nike Campbell centers on a daughter of Behanzin; through her eyes, the end of his reign is observed.", "* Zora Neale Hurston's book ''Barracoon: The Story of the Last \"Black Cargo\"'', posthumously published May 2018.===Film and television===*Dahomey's role in the slave trade is the central focus of the film ''Cobra Verde'' (1987), directed by Werner Herzog and adapted from the novel ''The Viceroy of Ouidah'' (1980).", "The main protagonist is a fictional Brazilian slave trader who travels to the kingdom, and the character is based upon the historical Brazilian slave trader Francisco Félix de Sousa, who was politically and economically influential in Dahomey during the reigns of King Adandozan and King Ghezo.", "*The historical television drama ''Victoria'' (2016) portrays the real-life story of Sara Forbes Bonetta being freed from slavery in Dahomey in season 2 episode 17 (\"Comfort and Joy\").", "*The Dahomey Amazons are depicted in the film ''The Woman King'' (2022), directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood.", "* A documentary titled ''Dahomey'' directed by Mati Diop, an international co-production among France, Senegal and Benin, was selected in the Competition at the 74th Berlin International Film Festival to be held from 15 to 25 February 2024, where it will compete for the Golden Bear.", "It is about return of 26 of the royal treasures of the Kingdom of Dahomey to Benin.===Video games===Dahomey has been depicted in some historical war strategy video games.", "*The Dahomey Amazons appear in the historical strategy video game ''Empire: Total War'' (2009), developed by Creative Assembly.", "*In the grand strategy video games ''Europa Universalis IV'' (2013) and ''Victoria 3'' (2022), both developed by Paradox Interactive, Dahomey appears as one of many historical nations that players can play as or interact with." ], [ "See also", "* Asante people* Blockade of Africa" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*******" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dragoon" ], [ "Introduction", "Mounted Russian dragoon armed with an infantry long gun, '''Dragoons''' were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot.", "From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat with swords and firearms from horseback.", "While their use goes back to the late 16th century, dragoon regiments were established in most European armies during the 17th and early 18th centuries; they provided greater mobility than regular infantry but were far less expensive than cavalry.The name reputedly derives from a type of firearm, called a ''dragon'', which was a handgun version of a blunderbuss, carried by dragoons of the French Army.The title has been retained in modern times by a number of armoured or ceremonial mounted regiments." ], [ "Origins and name", "Cartoon of a French dragoon intimidating a Huguenot in the ''Dragonnades''The establishment of dragoons evolved from the practice of sometimes transporting infantry by horse when speed of movement was needed.", "In 1552, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, mounted several companies of infantry on pack horses to achieve surprise, another example being that used by Louis of Nassau in 1572 during operations near Mons in Hainaut, when 500 infantry were transported this way.", "It is also suggested the first dragoons were raised by the Marshal de Brissac in 1600.According to old German literature, dragoons were invented by Count Ernst von Mansfeld, one of the greatest German military commanders, in the early 1620s.", "There are other instances of mounted infantry predating this.", "However Mansfeld, who had learned his profession in Hungary and the Netherlands, often used horses to make his foot troops more mobile, creating what was called an \"armée volante\" (French for ''flying army'').During the Spanish Conquest of Peru in the 16th century, conquistadors fought on horse with arquebuses, prefiguring the origin of European dragoons.The name possibly derives from an early weapon, a short wheellock, called a ''dragon'' because its muzzle was decorated with a dragon's head.", "The practice comes from a time when all gunpowder weapons had distinctive names, including the culverin, serpentine, falcon, falconet, etc.", "It is also sometimes claimed a galloping infantryman with his loose coat and the burning match resembled a dragon.It has also been suggested that the name derives from the German \"tragen\" or the Dutch \"dragen\", both being the verb \"to carry\" in their respective languages.", "Howard Reid claims the name and role descend from the Latin Draconarius.=== Use as a verb ===Dragoon is occasionally used as a verb meaning to subjugate or persecute by the imposition of troops; and by extension to compel by any violent measures or threats.", "The term dates from 1689, when dragoons were being used by the French monarchy to persecute Protestants, particularly by forcing Protestants to lodge a dragoon (dragonnades) in their house to watch over them at the householder's expense." ], [ "Early history and role", "Early dragoons were not organized in squadrons or troops as were cavalry, but in companies like the infantry.", "Their commissioned and non-commissioned officers bore infantry ranks, while they used drummers, not buglers, to communicate orders on the battlefield.", "The flexibility of mounted infantry made dragoons a useful arm, especially when employed for what would now be termed \"internal security\" against smugglers or civil unrest, and on line of communication security duties.In Britain, companies of dragoons were first raised during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and prior to 1645 either served as independent troops or were attached to cavalry units.", "When the New Model Army was first approved by Parliament in January 1645, it included ten regiments of cavalry, each with a company of dragoons attached.", "At the urging of Sir Thomas Fairfax, on 1 March they were formed into a separate unit of 1,000 men, commanded by Colonel John Okey, and played an important part at the Battle of Naseby in June.Supplied with inferior horses and more basic equipment, the dragoon regiments were cheaper to raise and maintain than the expensive regiments of cavalry.", "When in the 17th century Gustav II Adolf introduced dragoons into the Swedish Army, he provided them with a sabre, an axe and a matchlock musket, using them as \"labourers on horseback\".", "Many of the European armies henceforth imitated this all-purpose set of weaponry.", "Dragoons of the late 17th and early 18th centuries retained strong links with infantry in appearance and equipment, differing mainly in the substitution of riding boots for shoes and the adoption of caps instead of broad-brimmed hats to enable muskets to be worn slung.French dragoon of the Volontaires de Saxe regiment, mid-18th centuryA non-military use of dragoons was the 1681 ''Dragonnades'', a policy instituted by Louis XIV to intimidate Huguenot families into either leaving France or re-converting to Catholicism by billeting ill-disciplined dragoons in Protestant households.", "While other categories of infantry and cavalry were also used, the mobility, flexibility and available numbers of the dragoon regiments made them particularly suitable for repressive work of this nature over a wide area.In the Spanish Army, Pedro de la Puente organized a body of dragoons in Innsbruck in 1635.In 1640, a tercio of a thousand dragoons armed with the arquebus was created in Spain.", "By the end of the 17th century, the Spanish Army had three tercios of dragoons in Spain, plus three in the Netherlands and three more in Milan.", "In 1704, the Spanish dragoons were reorganised into regiments by Philip V, as were the rest of the tercios.Dragoons were at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, and constantly sought to improve their horsemanship, armament and social status.", "By the Seven Years' War in 1756, their primary role in most European armies had progressed from that of mounted infantry to that of heavy cavalry.", "They were sometimes described as 'medium' cavalry, midway between heavy/armoured and light/unarmoured regiments, though this was a classification that was rarely used at the time.", "Their original responsibilities for scouting and picket duty had passed to hussars and similar light cavalry corps in the French, Austrian, Prussian, and other armies.", "In the Imperial Russian Army, due to the availability of Cossack troops, the dragoons were retained in their original role for much longer.An exception to the rule was the British Army, which from 1746 onward gradually redesignated all regiments of \"Horse\" (regular cavalry) as lower paid \"Dragoons\", in an economy measure.", "Starting in 1756, seven regiments of Light Dragoons were raised and trained in reconnaissance, skirmishing and other work requiring endurance in accordance with contemporary standards of light cavalry performance.", "The success of this new class of cavalry was such that another eight dragoon regiments were converted between 1768 and 1783.When this reorganisation was completed in 1788, the cavalry arm consisted of regular dragoons and seven units of Dragoon Guards.", "The designation of Dragoon Guards did not mean that these regiments (the former 2nd to 8th Horse) had become Household Troops, but simply that they had been given a more dignified title to compensate for the loss of pay and prestige.Towards the end of 1776, George Washington realized the need for a mounted branch of the American military.", "In January 1777 four regiments of light dragoons were raised.", "Short term enlistments were abandoned and the dragoons joined for three years, or \"the war\".", "They participated in most of the major engagements of the American War of Independence, including the Battles of White Plains, Trenton, Princeton, Brandywine, Germantown, Saratoga, Cowpens, and Monmouth, as well as the Yorktown campaign." ], [ "19th century", "Battle of JenaDuring the Napoleonic Wars, dragoons generally assumed a cavalry role, though remaining a lighter class of mounted troops than the armored cuirassiers.", "Dragoons rode larger horses than the light cavalry and wielded straight, rather than curved swords.", "Emperor Napoleon often formed complete divisions out of his 30 dragoon regiments, while in 1811 six regiments were converted to ''Chevau-Legers Lanciers''; they were often used in battle to break the enemy's main resistance.", "In northern and eastern Europe they were employed as heavy cavalry, while in the Peninsular War they also fulfilled the role of lighter cavalry, for example in anti-guerrilla operations.", "In 1809, French dragoons scored notable successes against Spanish armies at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes.Post 1805, the 7th, 10th, 15th and 18th regiments of Light Dragoons of the British Army were re-designated as hussars and when the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815, some became lancers.", "The transition from dragoons to hussars was however a slow one, affecting uniforms but not equipment and functions.", "Even titles often remained ambiguous until 1861, for example, 18th King's Light Dragoons (Hussars).The seven regiments of Dragoon Guards served as the heavy cavalry arm of the British Army, although unlike continental cuirassiers they carried no armour.", "Between 1816 and 1861, the other twenty-one cavalry regiments were either disbanded or rebadged as lancers or hussars.", "The creation of a unified German state in 1871 brought together the dragoon regiments of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, Baden, Hesse, and Württemberg in a single numbered sequence, although historic distinctions of insignia and uniform were largely preserved.", "Two regiments of the Imperial Guard were designated as dragoons.The Austrian (later Austro-Hungarian) Army of the 19th century included six regiments of dragoons in 1836, classed as heavy cavalry for shock action, but in practice used as multi-purpose medium troops.", "After 1859 all but two Austrian dragoon regiments were converted to cuirassiers or disbanded.", "From 1868 to 1918 the Austro-Hungarian dragoons numbered 15 regiments.During the 18th century, Spain raised several regiments of dragoons to protect the northern provinces and borders of New Spain, the present-day states of California, Nevada, Colorado, Texas, Kansas, Arizona, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota.", "In mainland Spain, dragoons were reclassified as light cavalry from 1803 but remained among the elite units of the Spanish Colonial Army.", "A number of dragoon officers played a leading role in initiating the Mexican War of Independence in 1810, including Ignacio Allende, Juan Aldama and Agustin de Iturbide, who briefly served as Emperor of México from 1822 to 1823.Prior to the War of 1812 the U.S. organized the Regiment of Light Dragoons.", "For the war a second regiment was activated; that regiment was consolidated with the original regiment in 1814.The original regiment was consolidated with the Corps of Artillery in June 1815.The United States Dragoons was organized by an Act of Congress approved on 2 March 1833 after the disbandment of the Battalion of Mounted Rangers.", "The unit became the \"First Regiment of Dragoons\" when the Second Dragoons was raised in 1836.In 1861, they were re-designated as the 1st and 2nd Cavalry but did not change their role or equipment, although the traditional orange uniform braiding of the dragoons was replaced by the standard yellow of the Cavalry branch.", "This marked the official end of dragoons in the U.S. Army in name, although certain modern units trace their origins back to the historic dragoon regiments.", "In practice, all US cavalry assumed a dragoon-like role, frequently using carbines and pistols, in addition to their swords.Between 1881 and 1907 all Russian cavalry (other than Cossacks and Imperial Guard regiments) were designated as dragoons, reflecting an emphasis on the double ability of dismounted action as well as the new cavalry tactics in their training and a growing acceptance of the impracticality of employing historical cavalry tactics against modern firepower.", "Upon the reinstatement of Uhlan and Hussar Regiments in 1907 their training pattern, as well as that of the Cuirassiers of the Guard, remained unchanged until the collapse of the Russian Imperial Army.In Japan, during the late 19th and early 20th century, dragoons were deployed in the same way as in other armies, but were dressed as hussars." ], [ "20th century", "German dragoons near Reims 1914In the period before 1914, dragoon regiments still existed in the British and French armies, as well as the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Canadian, Peruvian, Swiss, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, and Spanish.", "Their uniforms varied greatly, lacking the characteristic features of hussar or lancer regiments.", "Uniforms bore occasional reminders of their mounted infantry origins: the 28 dragoon regiments of the Imperial German Army wore the infantry Pickelhaube or spiked helmet, while British dragoons wore scarlet tunics for full dress while hussars and all but one of the lancer regiments wore dark blue.", "In other respects however dragoons had adopted the same tactics, roles and equipment as other branches of the cavalry and the distinction had become simply one of traditional titles.", "Weaponry had ceased to have a historic connection, with both the French and German dragoon regiments carrying lances during the early stages of World War I.The historic German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian dragoon regiments ceased to exist as distinct branches following the overthrow of the respective imperial regimes of these countries during 1917–18.The Spanish dragoons, which dated back to 1640, were reclassified as numbered cavalry regiments in 1931 as part of the army modernization policies of the Second Spanish Republic.Baden dragoon in a World War I monument at Karlsruhe.", "While almost an anachronism after the early stages of that war, German dragoons did see continuing service on the Eastern Front until 1917.Note the functional Stahlhelm helmet.The Australian Light Horse were similar to 18th-century dragoon regiments in some respects, being mounted infantry which normally fought on foot, their horses' purpose being transportation.", "They served during the Second Boer War and World War I.", "The Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade became famous for the Battle of Beersheba in 1917 where they charged on horseback using rifle bayonets in hand, since neither sabres or lances were part of their equipment.", "Later in the Palestine campaign Pattern 1908 Cavalry swords were issued and used in the campaign leading to the fall of Damascus.Probably the last use of real dragoons (infantry on horseback) in combat was made by the Portuguese Army in the war in Angola during the 1960s and 1970s.", "In 1966, the Portuguese created an experimental horse platoon to operate against the guerrillas in the high grass region of Eastern Angola, in which each soldier was armed with a G3 battle rifle for combat on foot and with a semi-automatic pistol to fire from horseback.", "The troops on horseback were able to operate in difficult terrain unsuited to motor vehicles and had the advantage of being able to control the area around them, with a clear view over the grass that foot troops did not have.", "Moreover, these unconventional troops created a psychological impact on an enemy that was not used to facing horse troops, and thus had no training or strategy to deal with them.", "The experimental horse platoon was so successful that its entire parent battalion was transformed from an armored reconnaissance unit to a three-squadron horse battalion known as the \"Dragoons of Angola\".", "One of the typical operations carried out by the Dragoons of Angola, in cooperation with airmobile forces, consisted of the dragoons chasing the guerrillas and pushing them in one direction, with the airmobile troops being launched from helicopter in the enemy rear, trapping the enemy between the two forces.=== Dragoner rank ===Until 1918 '''''Dragoner''''' (en: dragoon) was the designation given to the lowest ranks in the dragoon regiments of the Austro-Hungarian and Imperial German Armies.", "The ''Dragoner'' rank, together with all other private ranks of the different branch of service, belonged to the so-called ''Gemeine'' rank group." ], [ "Modern dragoons", "=== Brazil ===Pedro of Braganza (later Emperor of Brazil as Pedro I) declares the Brazilian independence while surrounded by his guard of honour, which later became known as Independence Dragoons, 7 September 1822 The Independence Dragoons during the arrival ceremony of French president Jacques Chirac at the Palácio da Alvorada in Brasília, 25 May 2006The guard of honour for the President of Brazil includes the 1st Guards Cavalry Regiment of the Brazilian Army, known as the ''\"Dragões da Independência\"'' (Independence Dragoons).", "The name was given in 1927 and refers to the fact that a detachment of dragoons escorted the Prince Royal of Portugal and Brazil, Pedro of Braganza, at the time when he declared the Brazilian independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on 7 September 1822.The Independence Dragoons wear 19th-century dress uniforms similar to those of the earlier Imperial Honor Guard, which are used as the regimental full dress uniform since 1927.The uniform was designed by Debret, in white and red, with plumed bronze helmets.", "The colors and pattern were influenced by the Austrian dragoons of the period, as the Brazilian Empress consort was also an Austrian archduchess.", "The color of the plumes varies according to rank.", "The Independence Dragoons are armed with lances and sabres, the latter only for the officers and the colour guard.The regiment was established in 1808 by the Prince Regent and future King of Portugal, John VI, with the duty of protecting the Portuguese royal family, which had sought refuge in Brazil during the Napoleonic wars.", "However dragoons had existed in Portugal since at least the early 18th century and, in 1719, units of this type of cavalry were sent to Brazil, initially to escort shipments of gold and diamonds and to guard the Viceroy who resided in Rio de Janeiro (1st Cavalry Regiment – Vice-Roy Guard Squadron).", "Later, they were also sent to the south to serve against the Spanish during frontier clashes.", "After the proclamation of the Brazilian independence, the title of the regiment was changed to that of the Imperial Honor Guard, with the role of protecting the Imperial Family.", "The Guard was later disbanded by Emperor Pedro II and would be recreated only later in the republican era.At the time of the Republic proclamation in 1889, horse No.", "6 of the Imperial Honor Guard was ridden by the officer making the declaration of the end of Imperial rule, Second lieutenant Eduardo José Barbosa.", "This is commemorated by the custom under which the horse having this number is used only by the commander of the modern regiment.=== Canada ===Memorial stained glass window at Royal Military College of Canada of 2770 LCol KL Jefferson, a member of the 12th Manitoba Dragoons, an armoured regiment of the Canadian Army and Canadian ForcesThere are three dragoon regiments in the Canadian Army: The Royal Canadian Dragoons and two reserve regiments, the British Columbia Dragoons and the Saskatchewan Dragoons.The Royal Canadian Dragoons is the senior Armoured regiment in the Canadian Army.", "The regiment was authorized in 1883 as the Cavalry School Corps, being redesignated as Canadian Dragoons in 1892, adding the Royal designation the next year.", "The RCD has a history of fighting dismounted, serving in the Second Boer War in South Africa as mounted infantry, fighting as infantry with the 1st Canadian Division in Flanders in 1915–1916 and spending the majority of the regiment's service in the Italian Campaign 1944–1945 fighting dismounted.", "In 1994 when the regiment deployed to Bosnia as part of the United Nations Protection Force, B Squadron was employed as a mechanized infantry company.", "The current role of The Royal Canadian Dragoons is to provide Armour Reconnaissance support to 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group (2 CMBG) as well as C Squadron RCD in Gagetown which is a part of 2 CMBG and the RCD Regiment with Leopard 2A4 and 2A6 tanks.The Royal Canadian Mounted Police were accorded the formal status of a regiment of dragoons in 1921.The modern RCMP does not retain any military status however.=== Chile ===Founded as the ''Dragones de la Reina'' (Queen's Dragoons) in 1758 and later renamed the Dragoons of Chile in 1812, and then becoming the Carabineros de Chile in 1903.The Carabineros are the national police of Chile.", "The military counterpart, that of the 15th Reinforced Regiment \"Dragoons\" is now as of 2010 the 4th Armored Brigade \"Chorrillos\" based in Punta Arenas as the 6th Armored Cavalry Squadron \"Dragoons\", and form part of the 5th Army Division.=== Denmark ===The Royal Danish Army includes amongst its historic regiments the Jutish Dragoon Regiment, which was raised in 1670.=== France ===The modern French Army retains three dragoon regiments from the thirty-two in existence at the beginning of World War I: the 2nd, which is a nuclear, biological and chemical protection regiment, the 5th, an experimental Combined arms regiment, and the 13th (Special Reconnaissance).=== Lithuania ===Beginning in the 17th century, the mercenary army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania included dragoon units.", "In the middle of the 17th century there were 1,660 dragoons in an army totaling 8,000 men.", "By the 18th century there were four regiments of dragoons.Lithuanian cavalrymen served in dragoon regiments of both the Russian and Prussian armies, after the Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.Between 1920 and 1924 and 1935–1940 the Lithuanian Army included the Third Dragoon ''Iron Wolf'' Regiment.", "The dragoons were the equivalent of the present-day Volunteer Forces.In modern Lithuania the Grand Duke Butigeidis Dragoon Battalion (''Lithuanian: didžiojo kunigaikščio Butigeidžio dragūnų batalionas'') is designated as dragoons, with a motorized infantry role.=== Mexico ===During the times of the Viceroyalty, regiments of dragoons (Dragon de cuera) were created to defend New Spain.", "They were mostly horsemen from the provinces.", "During and after the Mexican war of independence, dragons have played an important role in military conflicts within the country such as the Battle of Puebla during the French intervention, until the Mexican Revolution.", "One of the best-known military marches in Mexico is the Marcha Dragona (dragon march), the only one currently used by cavalry and motorized units during the parade on 16 September to commemorate Independence Day.=== Norway ===In the Norwegian Army during the early part of the 20th century, dragoons served in part as mounted troops, and in part on skis or bicycles (''hjulryttere'', meaning \"wheel-riders\").", "Dragoons fought on horses, bicycles and skis against the German invasion in 1940.After World War II the dragoon regiments were reorganized as armoured reconnaissance units.", "\"Dragon\" is the rank of a compulsory service private cavalryman while enlisted (regular) cavalrymen have the same rank as infantrymen: \"Grenader\".=== Pakistan ===The Armoured Regiment \"34 Lancers\" of Pakistan Army Armoured Corps is also known as \"Dragoons\".=== Peru ===The \"Mariscal Domingo Nieto\" Cavalry Regiment Escort, named after Field Marshal Domingo Nieto, a former President of Peru, were the traditional Guard of the Government Palace until 5 March 1987 and its disbandment in that year.", "However, by Ministerial Resolution No 139-2012/DE/EP of 2 February 2012 the restoration of the Cavalry Regiment \"Marshal Domingo Nieto\" as the official escort of the President of the Republic of Peru was announced.", "The main mission of the reestablished regiment was to guarantee the security of the President of the Republic and of the Government Palace.This regiment of dragoons was created in 1904 following the suggestion of a French military mission which undertook the reorganization of the Peruvian Army in 1896.The initial title of the unit was Cavalry Squadron \"President's Escort\".", "It was modelled on the French dragoons of the period.", "The unit was later renamed as the Cavalry Regiment \"President's Escort\" before receiving its current title in 1949.The Peruvian Dragoon Guard has throughout its existence worn French-style uniforms of black tunic and red breeches in winter and white coat and red breeches in summer, with red and white plumed bronze helmets with the coat of arms of Peru and golden or red epaulettes depending on rank.", "They retain their original armament of lances and sabres, until the 1980s rifles were used for dismounted drill.At 13:00 hours every day, the main esplanade in front of the Government Palace of Perú fronting Lima's Main Square serves as the stage for the changing of the guard, undertaken by members of the Presidential Life Guard Escort Dragoons, mounted or dismounted.", "While the dismounted changing is held on Mondays and Fridays, the mounted ceremony is held twice a month on a Sunday.=== Portugal ===The Portuguese Army still maintains two units which are descended from former regiments of dragoons.", "These are the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry (the former \"Olivença Dragoons\") and the 6th Regiment of Cavalry (the former \"Chaves Dragoons\").", "Both regiments are, presently, armoured units.", "The Portuguese Rapid Reaction Brigade's Armoured Reconnaissance Squadron – a unit from the 3rd Regiment of Cavalry – is known as the \"Paratroopers Dragoons\".During the Portuguese Colonial War in the 1960s and the 1970s, the Portuguese Army created an experimental horse platoon, to combat the guerrillas in eastern Angola.", "This unit was soon augmented, becoming a group of three squadrons, known as the \"Angola Dragoons\".", "The Angola Dragoons operated as mounted infantry – like the original dragoons – each soldier being armed with a pistol to fire when on horseback and with an automatic rifle, to use when dismounted.", "A unit of the same type was being created in Mozambique when the war ended in 1974.=== Spain ===The Spanish Army began the training of a dragoon corps in 1635 under the direction of Pedro de la Puente at Innsbruck.", "In 1640 the first dragoon \"tercio\" was created, equipped with arquebuses and maces.", "The number of dragoon tercios was increased to nine by the end of the XVII century: three garrisoned in Spain, another three in the Netherlands and the remainder in Milan.The ''tercio''s were converted into a Regimental system, beginning in 1704.Philip V created several additional dragoon regiments to perform the functions of a police corps in the New World.", "Notable amongst those units were the leather-clad ''dragones de cuera''.In 1803 the dragoon regiments were renamed as \"''caballería ligera''\" (light cavalry).", "By 1815 these units had been disbanded.Spain recreated its dragoons in the late nineteenth century.", "Three Spanish dragoon regiments were still in existence in 1930.=== Sweden ===In the Swedish Army, dragoons comprise the Military Police and Military Police Rangers.", "They also form the 13th Battalion of the Life Guards, which is a military police unit.", "The 13th (Dragoons) Battalion have roots that go back as far as 1523, making it one of the world's oldest military units still in service.", "Today, the only mounted units still retained by the Swedish Army are the two dragoons squadrons of the King's Guards Battalion of the Life Guards.", "Horses are used for ceremonial purposes only, most often when the dragoons take part in the changing of the guards at The Royal Palace in Stockholm.", "\"''Livdragon''\" is the rank of a private cavalryman.=== Switzerland ===Mounted dragoons existed in the Swiss Armed Forces until the early 1970s, when they were converted into Armoured Grenadiers units.", "The \"''Dragoner''\" had to prove he was able to keep a horse at home before entering the army.", "At the end of basic training they had to buy a horse at a reduced price from the army and to take it home together with equipment, uniform and weapon.", "In the \"yearly repetition course\" the dragoons served with their horses, often riding from home to the meeting point.The abolition of the dragoon units, believed to be the last non-ceremonial horse cavalry in Europe, was a contentious issue in Switzerland.", "On 5 December 1972 the Swiss ''National Council'' approved the measure by 91 votes, against 71 for retention.=== United Kingdom ===As of 2021, the British Army contains four regiments designated as dragoons: 1st The Queens Dragoon Guards, Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, the Royal Dragoon Guards, and the Light Dragoons.", "These perform a variety of reconnaissance and light support activities, including convoy protection, and operate the Jackal, the Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle and the FV107 Scimitar light tank.=== United States ===US dragoons charging Mexican infantry at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma in May 1846.The 1st and 2nd Battalion, 48th Infantry were mechanized infantry units assigned to the 3rd Armored Division (3AD) in West Germany during the Cold War.", "The unit crest of the 48th Infantry designated the unit as Dragoons, purely a traditional designation.The 1st Dragoons was reformed in the Vietnam War era as the 1st Squadron, 1st U.S. Cavalry.", "It served in the Iraq War and remains as the oldest cavalry unit, as well as the most decorated one, in the U.S. Army.", "Today's modern 1–1 Cavalry is a scout/attack unit, equipped with MRAPs, M3A3 Bradley CFVs, and Strykers.Another modern United States Army unit, informally known as the 2nd Dragoons, is the 2nd Cavalry Regiment.", "This unit was originally organized as the Second Regiment of Dragoons in 1836 and was renamed the Second Cavalry Regiment in 1861, being redesignated as the 2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment in 1948.The regiment is currently equipped with the Stryker family of wheeled fighting vehicles and was redesignated as the 2nd Stryker Cavalry Regiment in 2006.In 2011 the 2nd Dragoon regiment was redesignated as the 2nd Cavalry Regiment.", "The 2nd Cavalry Regiment has the distinction of being the longest continuously serving regiment in the United States Army.The 113th Army Band at Fort Knox is also officially nicknamed as \"The Dragoons\".", "This derives from its formation as the Band, First Regiment of Dragoons on 8 July 1840.Company D, 3rd Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion of the United States Marine Corps, is nicknamed the \"Dragoons\".", "Their combat history includes service in the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan from 2002 to 2013." ], [ "See also", "* Carabinier* Cuirassier* Gendarmerie* Harquebusier* Hobilar* Hussar* Motorized infantry* Reiter – A type of pistol-armed cavalry* Ulan" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "General and cited sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bennett, James A, Edited by Brooks, Clinton E., Reeve, Frank D. (1948).", "''Forts and Forays, James A. Bennett: A DRAGOON IN NEW MEXICO 1850-1856.''", "The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.", "* Hildreth, James (1836).", "''Dragoon Campaigns to the Rocky Mountains, Being a History of the Enlistment, Organization, and first Campaigns of The Regiment Of UNITED STATES DRAGOONS''.", "New York: Wiley & Long, No.", "161 Broadway.", "1836.D.", "Fanshaw, Printer.", "** Note 1: Possibly from a previous writing, which resulted in a court martial, in which he was acquitted (p. 8), the author wished to remain anonymous and sometimes listed his name as \"By A Dragoon\" in lieu of his real name.", "** Note 2: At the time of the author's enlistment in 1833, only one regiment of U.S. Dragoons ''existed'', therefore there was no need to designate it with a number.", "When two more mounted regiments were created by Congress in 1836, the Regiment of Dragoons became the 1st U.S.", "Dragoons.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Napoleonic Cavalry: Dragoons, Cuirassiers* Saskatchewan Dragoons (Canada)* British Columbia Dragoons (Canada)* First Regiment of Cavalry (USA) * The Society of the Military Horse* \"Field Marshal Nieto\" Regiment of Cavalry (Perú) * Perú 1970: Changing of the Dragoon Guard" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dulcimer" ], [ "Introduction", "Early Belgian Dulcimer (or Hackbrett) from the Hans Adler collectionThe word '''dulcimer''' refers to two families of musical string instruments." ], [ "Hammered dulcimers", "The word ''dulcimer'' originally referred to a trapezoidal zither similar to a psaltery whose many strings are struck by handheld \"hammers\".", "Variants of this instrument are found in many cultures, including:* Hammered dulcimer (England, Scotland, United States)* Hackbrett (southern Germany, Austria, Switzerland)* Tsymbaly (Ukraine), tsimbl (Ashkenazi Jewish), țambal (Romania) and cimbalom (Hungary) may refer to either a relatively small folk instrument or a larger classical instrument.", "The santouri (Greece) (called \"santur\" in the Ottoman Empire) is almost identical to the Jewish and Romanian folk instruments.", "* Santur (Iran and Iraq)* Santoor (northern India and Pakistan) is constructed and tuned differently from the santur of Iran and Iraq* Khim (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand)* Yangqin (China), Đàn tam thập lục (Vietnam), yanggeum (Korea)" ], [ "Appalachian dulcimer and derivatives", "In the Appalachian region of the U.S. in the nineteenth century, hammered dulcimers were rare.", "There, the word ''dulcimer'', which was familiar from the King James Version of the Bible, was used to refer to a three or four stringed fretted instrument, generally played on the lap by strumming.", "Variants include:* The original Appalachian dulcimer* Various twentieth century derivatives, including** Banjo dulcimer, with banjo-like resonating membrane** Resonator dulcimer, with inset conical resonator** Bowed dulcimer, teardrop-shaped and played upright with a bow** Electric dulcimer, various types of dulcimer which use a pickup to amplify the sound" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dutch West India Company" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dutch West India Company''' or '''WIC''' () was a chartered company of Dutch merchants as well as foreign investors, formally known as '''GWC''' (''Geoctrooieerde Westindische Compagnie''; ).", "Among its founders were Reynier Pauw, Willem Usselincx (1567–1647) and Jessé de Forest (1576–1624).", "On 3 June 1621, it was granted a charter for a trade monopoly in the Dutch West Indies by the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and given jurisdiction over Dutch participation in the Atlantic slave trade, Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America.The area where the company could operate consisted of West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope) and the Americas, which included the Pacific Ocean and ended east of the Maluku Islands, according to the Treaty of Tordesillas.", "The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants.", "The company became instrumental in the largely ephemeral Dutch colonization of the Americas (including New Netherland) in the seventeenth century.From 1624 to 1654, in the context of the Dutch–Portuguese War, the GWC held Portuguese territory in northeast Brazil, but they were ousted from Dutch Brazil following fierce resistance.", "After several reversals, the GWC reorganized and a new charter was granted in 1675, largely on the strength in the Atlantic slave trade.", "This \"new\" version lasted for more than a century, until after the Fourth Anglo–Dutch War, during which it lost most of its assets." ], [ "Origins", "West India House, headquarters of the Dutch West India Company from 1623 to 1647Reinier Pauw, Portrait by Jan Anthonisz.", "van RavesteynWhen the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was founded in 1602, some traders in Amsterdam did not agree with its monopolistic policies.", "With help from Petrus Plancius, a Dutch-Flemish astronomer, cartographer, and clergyman, they sought for a northeastern or northwestern access to Asia to circumvent the VOC monopoly.", "In 1609, English explorer Henry Hudson, in employment of the VOC, landed on the coast of New England and sailed up what is now known as the Hudson River in his quest for the Northwest Passage to Asia.", "However, he failed to find a passage.", "Consequently, in 1615, Isaac Le Maire and Samuel Blommaert, assisted by others, focused on finding a south-westerly route around South America's Tierra del Fuego archipelago in order to circumvent the monopoly of the VOC.One of the first sailors who focused on trade with Africa was Balthazar de Moucheron.", "The trade with Africa offered several possibilities to set up trading posts or factories, an important starting point for negotiations.", "It was Blommaert, however, who stated that, in 1600, eight companies sailed on the coast of Africa, competing with each other for the supply of copper, from the Kingdom of Loango.", "Pieter van den Broecke was employed by one of these companies.", "In 1612, a Dutch fortress was built in Mouree (present day Ghana), along the Dutch Gold Coast.Trade with the Caribbean, for salt, sugar and tobacco, was hampered by Spain and delayed because of peace negotiations.", "Spain offered peace on condition that the Dutch Republic would withdraw from trading with Asia and America.", "Spain refused to sign the peace treaty if a West Indian Company would be established.", "At this time, the Dutch War of Independence (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic was occurring.", "Grand Pensionary Johan van Oldenbarnevelt offered to suspend trade with the West Indies in exchange for the Twelve Years' Truce.", "He took the proposal of founding a West-India Company off table.", "The result was that, during a few years, the Dutch sailed under a foreign flag to South America.", "However, ten years later, Stadtholder Maurice of Orange, proposed to continue the war with Spain, but also to distract attention from Spain to the Republic.", "In 1619, his opponent Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded, and when in April 1621 the truce expired, the West Indian Company could be established.The West India Company received its charter from the States-General in June 1621, granting it a 24-year monopoly on trade and colonization that included the American coast between Newfoundland and the Straits of Magellan.", "One of the promotors all these years was Reynier Pauw who appointed two of his sons as the first managers in 1621; both Pieter and Michael Reyniersz Pauw were in function for fifteen years.", "Reynier Pauw jr, Cornelis Bicker and Samuel Blommaert were appointed in 1622." ], [ "Organization", "Willem Usselincx, co-founder of the Dutch West India CompanyThe Zwaanendael Colony along the DelawarePiet Heyn, GWC admiral who captured the Spanish silver fleet in 1628.The ''Dutch West India Company'' was organized similarly to the Dutch East India Company (VOC).", "Like the VOC, the GWC had five offices, called chambers (''kamers''), in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hoorn, Middelburg and Groningen, of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company.", "The board consisted of 19 members, known as the Heeren XIX (the Nineteen Gentlemen).", "The institutional structure of the GWC followed the federal structure, which entailed extensive discussion for any decision, with regional representation: 8 from Amsterdam; 4 from Zeeland, 2 each from the Northern Quarter (Hoorn and Enkhuizen), the Maas (Rotterdam, Delft and Dordrecht), the region of Groningen, and one representative from the States General.", "Each region had its own chamber and board of directors.", "The validity of the charter was set at 24 years.Only in 1623 was funding arranged, after several bidders were put under pressure.", "The States General of the Netherlands and the VOC pledged one million guilders in the form of capital and subsidy.", "Although Iberian writers said that crypto-Jews or Marranos played an important role in the formation of both the VOC and the GWC, research has shown that initially they played a minor role, but expanded during the period of the Dutch in Brazil.", "Emigrant Calvinists from the Spanish Netherlands did make significant investments in the GWC.", "Investors did not rush to put their money in the company in 1621, but the States-General urged municipalities and other institutions to invest.", "Explanations for the slow investment by individuals were that shareholders had \"no control over the directors' policy and the handling of ordinary investors' money,\" that it was a \"racket\" to provide \"cushy posts for the directors and their relatives, at the expense of ordinary shareholders\".", "The VOC directors invested money in the GWC, without consulting their shareholders, causing dissent among a number of shareholders.", "In order to attract foreign shareholders, the GWC offered equal standing to foreign investors with Dutch, resulting in shareholders from France, Switzerland, and Venice.", "A translation of the original 1621 charter appeared in English, ''Orders and Articles granted by the High and Mightie Lords the States General of the United Provinces concerning the erecting of a West-Indies Companie, Anno Dom.", "MDCXII''.", "by 1623, the capital for the GWC at 2.8 million florins was not as great the VOC's original capitalization of 6.5 million, but it was still a substantial sum.", "The GWC had 15 ships to carry trade and plied the west African coast and Brazil.Unlike the VOC, the GWC had no right to deploy military troops.", "When the Twelve Years' Truce in 1621 was over, the Republic had a free hand to re-wage war with Spain.", "A ''Groot Desseyn'' (\"grand design\") was devised to seize the Portuguese colonies in Africa and the Americas, so as to dominate the sugar and slave trade.", "When this plan failed, privateering became one of the major goals within the GWC.", "The arming of merchant ships with guns and soldiers to defend themselves against Spanish ships was of great importance.", "On almost all ships in 1623, 40 to 50 soldiers were stationed, possibly to assist in the hijacking of enemy ships.", "It is unclear whether the first expedition was the expedition by Jacques l'Hermite to the coast of Chile, Peru and Bolivia, set up by Stadtholder Maurice with the support of the States General and the VOC.The company was initially a dismal failure, in terms of its expensive early projects, and its directors shifted emphasis from conquest of territory to pursue plunder of shipping.", "The most spectacular success for the GWC was Piet Heyn's seizure of the Spanish silver fleet, which carried silver from Spanish colonies to Spain.", "He had also seized a consignment of sugar from Brazil and a galleon from Honduras with cacao, indigo, and other valuable goods.", "Privateering was its most profitable activity in the late 1620s.", "Despite Heyn's success at plunder, the company's directors realized that it was not a basis to build long-term profit, leading them to renew their attempts to seize Iberian territory in the Americas.", "They decided their target was Brazil.", "(Recapture of Bahia)===Involvement in Brazil===There were conflicts between directors from different areas of The Netherlands, with Amsterdam less supportive of the company.", "Non-maritime cities, including Haarlem, Leiden, and Gouda, along with Enkhuizen and Hoorn were enthusiastic about seizing territory.", "They sent a fleet to Brazil, capturing Olinda and Pernambuco in 1630 in their initial foray to create a Dutch Brazil, but could not hold them due to a strong Portuguese resistance.", "Company ships continued privateering in the Caribbean, as well seizing vital land resources, particularly salt pans.", "The company's general lack of success saw their shares plummet and the Dutch and The Spanish renewed truce talks in 1633.In 1629, the GWC gave permission to a number of investors in New Netherlands to found patroonships, enabled by the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions which was ratified by the Dutch States General on June 7, 1629.The patroonships were created to help populate the colony, by providing investors grants providing land for approximately 50 people \"upwards of 15 years old\", per grant, mainly in the region of New Netherland.", "Patroon investors could expand the size of their land grants as large as 4 miles, \"along the shore or along one bank of a navigable river...\" Rensselaerswyck was the most successful Dutch West India Company patroonship.Forts of the Gold Coast (map circa 1700)The New Netherland area, which included New Amsterdam, covered parts of present-day New York, Connecticut, Delaware, and New Jersey, with Manhattan and Fort Amsterdam serving as the first capital.", "Other settlements were established on the Netherlands Antilles, and in South America, in Dutch Brazil, Suriname and Guyana.", "In Africa, posts were established on the Gold Coast (now Ghana), the Slave Coast (now Benin), and briefly in Dutch Loango-Angola.", "It was a neo-feudal system, where patrons were permitted considerable powers to control the overseas colony.", "In the Americas, fur (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded the enslaved (mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname), gold, copper and ivory.===Decline===Recife or Mauritsstad – capital of Nieuw HollandRapenburg In North America, the settlers Albert Burgh, Samuel Blommaert, Samuel Godijn, Johannes de Laet had little success with populating the colony of New Netherland, and to defend themselves against local Amerindians.", "Only Kiliaen Van Rensselaer managed to maintain his settlement in the north along the Hudson.", "Blommaert secretly tried to secure his interests with the founding of the colony of New Sweden on behalf of Sweden on the Delaware in the south.", "The main focus of the GWC now went to Brazil.Only in 1630 did the West India Company manage to conquer a part of Brazil.", "In 1630, the colony of New Holland (capital Mauritsstad, present-day Recife) was founded, taking over Portuguese possessions in Brazil.", "In the meantime, the war demanded so many of its forces that the company had to operate under a permanent threat of bankruptcy.", "In fact, the GWC went bankrupt in 1636 and all attempts at rehabilitation were doomed to failure.", "In 1636, the Dutch West India Company took possession of St. Eustatius, Sint Maarten, and Saba which all fell under Dutch control.", "A commander was stationed on St. Eustatius to govern all three islands by 1678.Because of the ongoing war in Brazil, the situation for the GWC in 1645, at the end of the charter, was very bad.", "An attempt to compensate the losses of the GWC with the profits of the VOC failed because the directors of the VOC did not want to.", "In 1645, the main participants in the GWC were members of the Trip family.", "Merging the two companies was not feasible.", "Amsterdam was not willing to help out, because it had too much interest in peace and healthy trade relations with Portugal.", "This indifferent attitude of Amsterdam was the main cause of the slow, half-hearted policy, which would eventually lead to losing the colony.", "In 1647, the company made a restart using 1.5 million guilders, capital of the VOC.", "The States General took responsibility for the warfare in Brazil.===Restart===Painting by Johannes Vingboons of both Elmina Castle and Fort Nassau, Ghana (ca 1665)Due to the Peace of Westphalia, the attacks on Spanish shipping were forbidden to the GWC.", "The Portuguese succeeded in the recapture of Angola.", "Many merchants from Amsterdam and Zeeland decided to work with marine and merchants from the Holy Roman Empire, Denmark–Norway, England and other European countries.", "In 1649, a competing Swedish Africa Company was founded; the GWC obtained a monopoly on gold and enslaved Africans with the kingdom of Accra (present-day Ghana).", "Elmina Castle was the main port.", "In 1654 the Dutch were thrown out of Brazil after the recapture of Recife.", "In 1656, the company signed the Treaty of Butre (Dutch Gold Coast).", "In 1659 the Danish West India Company, an undercover Dutch enterprise, was founded.", "(In 1660 the Royal African Company was founded, led by the Duke of York.", ")In 1662, the GWC obtained several ''asiento'' subcontracts with the Spanish Crown, under which the Dutch were allowed to deliver 24,000 enslaved Africans.", "The GWC made Curaçao a centre of the Atlantic slave trade, bringing slaves from West Africa to the island, before selling them elsewhere in the Caribbean and Spanish Main.", "The influence of the GWC in Africa was threatened during the Second and Third Anglo–Dutch Wars, but English efforts to displace the Dutch from the region ultimately proved unsuccessful.The first West India Company suffered a long agony, and its end in 1674 was painless.", "The reason that the GWC could drag on for 27 years seems to have been its valuable West African possessions, due to its slaves." ], [ "Second West India Company", "Gerrit Lamberts (1776–1850), the demolition of the West India House in 1817When the GWC could not repay its debts in 1674, the company was dissolved.", "But due to continued high demand for trade between West Africa and the Dutch colonies in the Americas (mainly slave trade), a second West India Company known as the New West India Company was chartered that same year.", "This new company controlled the same trade area as the first but privateering was no longer an asset.", "All ships, fortresses, etc.", "were taken over by the new company.", "Nobody was fired, but the number of directors was reduced from 19 to 10, and the number of governors from 74 to 50.By 1679, the new GWC had slightly more than guilders which was largely supplied by the Amsterdam Chamber.", "In 1687, due to the Asiento possessed by Balthasar Coymans, the company paid the highest dividend.From 1694 until 1700, the GWC waged a long conflict against the Eguafo Kingdom along the Gold Coast, present-day Ghana.", "The Komenda Wars drew in significant numbers of neighbouring African kingdoms and led to the replacement of the gold trade with enslaved Africans.", "Calabar was the largest slave trading place in Africa.", "Sint Eustatius (Dutch Caribbean) became the most profitable asset of the GWC and a transit point for enslaved Africans in the transatlantic slave trade.", "After 1734 the GWC was primarily engaged in facilitating the slave trade, and only responsible for the supply of slaves until 1738.The company then began to outsource the slave trade and left it to private enterprise, especially in Middelburg, Zeeland.In 1750 Thomas Hope was elected in the board of the company, but preferred the Heren XVII after two years; he was succeeded by Nicolaas Geelvinck in 1764.In 1773, when drinking coffee and cocoa was popular almost everywhere, the family Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck sold its property in the colony of Surinam.", "The GWC participated in a bigger share together with the Society of Suriname.", "Many planters in Surinam and the Caribbean came into financial trouble because of the mortgages (Crisis of 1772); the demand for slaves dropped.", "In 1775, the last slave ship entered the port of Willemstad.", "From 1780 on the company made losses and paid no dividend.After the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, it became apparent that the GWC was no longer capable of defending its own colonies, as Sint Eustatius, Berbice, Essequibo, Demerara, and some forts on the Dutch Gold Coast were rapidly taken by the British.", "In 1791 it was decided not to renew the patent to the GWC and to dissolve the company.", "All stocks were sold and territories previously held by the GWC came under the rule of the States General of the Netherlands.", "A directorate Ad-Interim took over the administration.", "A Council of Colonies was established as administrator over the affairs of the GWC until 1795.Around 1800 there was an attempt to create a third West India Company, but without success." ], [ "See also", "* List of Dutch West India Company trading posts and settlements* Atlantic slave trade* Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions* Dutch colonization of the Americas* Dutch–Portuguese War* Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)* List of director generals of New Netherland* New Holland (Acadia)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Boxer, Charles R. ''The Dutch in Brazil, 1624-1654''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press 1957.", "*Ebert, Christopher.", "\"Dutch Trade with Brazil before the Dutch West India Company, 1587–1621.\"", "''Riches from Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Transatlantic Trade and Shipping'' (2003): 1585–1817.", "*Emmer, Pieter C. \"The West India Company, 1621–1791: Dutch or Atlantic?.\"", "''Companies and trade: Essays on overseas trading companies during the ancien régime'' (1981): 71–95.", "*Emmer, Pieter C. ''The Dutch in the Atlantic economy, 1580-1880: Trade, slavery and emancipation''.", "Vol.", "614.Variorum, 1998.", "*Frijhoff, W. Th M. \"The West India Company and the Reformed Church: Neglect or Concern?.\"", "(1997).", "* Groesen, Michiel van, (ed.)", "\"The Legacy of Dutch Brazil\", Cambridge University Press, 2014.", "* Groesen, Michiel van \"Amsterdam's Atlantic: Print Culture and the Making of Dutch Brazil\", University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017.", "* Heijer, Henk den.", "\"The Dutch West India Company, 1621–1791.\"", "in Johannes Postma and Victor Enthoven, eds.", "''Riches From Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Transatlantic Trade and Shipping, 1585-1817''.", "Leiden: Brill 2003, 77–114.*_________.", "\"The West African Trade of the Dutch West Indian Company 1674-1740,\" in Postma and Enthoven, eds.", "''Riches from Atlantic Commerce'', pp.", "Leiden: Brill 2003, pp. 139–69.", "* * Klooster, Wim.", "''The Dutch Moment: War, Trade, and Settlement in the Seventeenth-Century Atlantic World''.", "(Cornell University Press, 2016).", "419 pp.", "*Meuwese, Marcus P. \" For the Peace and Well-Being of the Country\": Intercultural Mediators and Dutch-Indian Relations in New Netherland and Dutch Brazil, 1600–1664.Diss.", "University of Notre Dame, 2003.", "* * ''Peltries or plantations: the economic policies of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland, 1623-1639''.", "Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1969.", "*Pijning, Erst.", "\"Idealism and Power: The Dutch West India Company in the Brazil trade (1630-1654),\" in Allen L. Macinnes and Arthur H. William (eds.)", "''Shaping the Stuart World, 1603-1714: The Atlantic Connection''.", "Leiden: Brill 2006, 207–32.", "*Postma, Johannes.", "\"West-African Exports and the Dutch West India Company, 1675–1731.\"", "''Economisch-en sociaal-historisch jaarboek'' 36 (1973).", "*Postma, Johannes.", "\"The dimension of the Dutch slave trade from Western Africa.\"", "''The Journal of African History'' 13.02 (1972): 237–248.", "*Rink, Oliver A.", "\"Private Interest and Godly Gain: The West India Company and the Dutch Reformed Church in New Netherland, 1624-1664.\"", "New York History 75.3 (1994): 245.", "*Ryder, Alan Frederick Charles.", "\"Dutch trade on the Nigerian coast during the seventeenth century.\"", "''Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria'' 3.2 (1965): 195–210.", "*Rutten, Alphons MG. ''Dutch transatlantic medicine trade in the eighteenth century under the cover of the West India Company''.", "Erasmus Pub., 2000.", "* Schmidt, Benjamin, ''Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570-1670'', Cambridge: University Press, 2001.", "*Van den Boogaart, Ernst.", "''Infernal Allies: The Dutch West India Company and the Tarairiu, 1631-1654''.", "1980.", "*Van Hoboken, W. J.", "\"The Dutch West India Company: the political background of its rise and decline.\"", "''Britain and the Netherlands'' 1 (1960): 41–61.", "*Visscher, Nic Joh.", "''A Bibliographical and Historical Essay on the Dutch Books and Pamphlets Relating to New-Netherland, and to the Dutch West-India Company and to Its Possessions in Brazil, Angola Etc., as Also on the Maps, Charts, Etc.", "of New-Netherland''.", "Muller, 1867.", "*Weslager, Clinton Alfred.", "''Dutch explorers, traders and settlers in the Delaware Valley, 1609-1664''.", "University of Pennsylvania Press, 1961.", "*Zandvliet, Kees.", "''Mapping for money: maps, plans, and topographic paintings and their role in Dutch Overseas Expansion during the 16th and 17th Centuries''.", "Amsterdam: Batavian Lion International, 1998." ], [ "External links", "* Dutch Portuguese Colonial History Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil.", "Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.", "* Facsimile of 15 GWC books Relating about the events in Brazil in the 17th century (PT & NL)* GWC ship halve maan The GWC ship the Halve Maan.", "* Charter of the Dutch West India Company Text of the Charter of the Dutch West India Company: 1621* Netherlands West India Company GWC* Atlas of Mutual Heritage – online atlas of VOC and GWC settlements" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dyula language" ], [ "Introduction", "A Dyula speaker speaking Mossi and Dyula, recorded in Taiwan.", "'''Dyula''' (or '''Jula''', '''Dioula''', ''Julakan'' ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲) is a language of the Mande language family spoken mainly in Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Mali, and also in some other countries, including Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau.", "It is one of the Manding languages and is most closely related to Bambara, being mutually intelligible with Bambara as well as Malinke.", "It is a trade language in West Africa and is spoken by millions of people, either as a first or second language.", "Similar to the other Mande languages, it uses tones.", "It may be written in the Latin, Arabic or N'Ko scripts." ], [ "History", "Historically, Dyula (\"jula\" in the language) was not an ethonym, but rather a Manding language label literally meaning 'trader'.", "The term used to distinguish Muslim traders from the non-Muslim population living in the same area, mainly Senufo agricultors.", "It then became an exonym for Manding-speaking traders such as the Bambara or the Mandinka and their languages.", "At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity.", "These communities speak varieties of Dyula with common traits that distinguish it from the lingua franca form of Jula that one hears in markets across much of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire.Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka.", "It became a widely used lingua franca.", "Native speakers of Manding in the Ivory Coast use the pejorative term 'Tagbusikan' to refer to this simplified language, while they called their own language 'Konyakakan', 'Odiennekakan' or 'Maukakan'.", "The influx of millions of migrant workers from the Sahel further boostered the use of Dyula in the Ivory Coast due to the need of a lingua franca.", "Many Burkinabe learned Dyula while staying in the Ivory Coast and further disseminated it back home.", "Today, Dyula is used to at least some extent by 61% of the population of the Ivory Coast and by about 35% of the Burkinabe (mainly those living in the southern or western part of the country)." ], [ "Phonology", "=== Consonants ===LabialAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalNasalPlosivevoicelessvoicedFricativevoicelessvoicedRhoticApproximant=== Vowels ===FrontCentralBackCloseClose-midOpen-midOpenThe seven vowel sounds may also be either lengthened or nasalized ." ], [ "Writing systems", "=== N'Ko alphabet ===The N'Ko script is an indigenous writing system for the Manding language continuum, invented in 1949 by Solomana Kanté, a Guinean educator.", "Today, the script has been digitised as part of Unicode, which allows it to be used easily online, but the lack of funding and the official status of French means that use of this alphabet largely happens outside of formal education and is not systematically used on street signs, etc.=== Latin alphabet and orthography ===Dioula orthography is regulated in Burkina Faso by the Dioula Sub-Commission of the National Commission for Languages.", "On 15 July 1971, the National Sub-Commission for Dioula was created and on 16 July 1971, it began a study in order to set the Dioula alphabet.", "An alphabet was published on 27 July 1973 and gained official status on 2 February 1979.Some letters were added later, for borrowed words, and others were replaced: by , and by .Dioula AlphabetABC D EƐ FGHIJKLMNƝŊOƆPRSTUVWYZabcdeɛfghijklmnɲŋoɔprstuvwyzPhonetic valueIn Burkina Faso, the Dioula alphabet is made up of 28 letters each representing a single phoneme.", "In the orthography, long vowels are represented by doubled letters; thus, /e/ is written and /eː/, .", "The nasalisation of a vowel is written followed by an n; for example, /ẽ/ is written .The notation of tones was recommended in 1973, but in practice they are not written.", "The transcription guide published in 2003 does not reiterate this recommendation.", "Tones are noted solely in lexicographical works.", "However, to avoid ambiguity, tone marking is obligatory in certain cases.For example:* ''he/she'' (third person singular pronoun)* ''you'' (second person plural pronoun)" ], [ "Use in media", "Dioula can be heard spoken in the 2004 film ''Night of Truth'', directed by Fanta Régina Nacro, Burkina Faso's first female director." ], [ "See also", "* Dyula people" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An ka taa: a website with a dictionary, resources and media in and about Jula and Manding more generally.", "* Database of audio recordings in Jula (Dioula) - basic Catholic prayers" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission du dioula, ''Guide de transcription du Dioula'', Burkina Faso, 2003* Commission nationale des langues burkinabè – Sous-commission nationale du dioula, ''Règles orthographiques du Dioula'', Ouagadougou, Coopération suisse, 1999, 69* Moussa Coulibaly et Haraguchi Takehiko, ''Lexique du Dioula'', Institute of Developing Economies, 1993 ( read online )* Maurice Delafosse, ''Vocabulaires comparatifs de plus de 60 langues ou dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire et dans les régions limitrophes'', Paris, E. Leroux, 1904, 284* Maurice Delafosse, ''Essai de manuel pratique de la langue mandé ou mandingue.", "Étude grammaticale du dialecte dyoula.", "Vocabulaire français-dyoula.", "Histoire de Samori en mandé.", "Étude comparée des principaux dialectes mandé'', Paris, Publications de l'INALCO, 1904, 304* Mohamadou Diallo, « Le noyau du code orthographique du dioula du Burkina Faso », ''Mandekan, Bulletin semestriel d’études linguistiques mandé'', o 37, 2001, 9-31* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (master's thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Les syntagmes nominaux du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1991, 81* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (DEA thesis, supervised by Bakary Coulibaly), ''Approche définitoire du jula véhiculaire'', University of Ouagadougou, 1992, 79* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Tons, segments et règles transformationnelles en jula », ''Mandenkan'', Paris, o 30, 1995, 41-54* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo (University of Rouen thesis, supervised by Claude Caitucoli (URA-CNRS 1164)), ''Langues nationales, langues véhiculaires, langue officielle et glottopolitique au Burkina Faso'', 1996, 832* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Les fondements scientifiques d'une règle d'écriture orthographique : le redoublement de la voyelle finale du défini en jula », ''Cahiers du CERLESHS'', University of Ouagadougou, o 16, 1999, 127-144* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, ''À propos de jula à Bobo-Dioulasso'', 2000, 73-83, spécial 2, PUO* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « L'ethisme jula : origines et évolution d'un groupe ethnolinguistique dans la boucle du Niger », dans Y. G. Madiéga et O. Nao, 1, 2003, 370-379* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « À propos des constructions du syntagme complétif en dioula », ''Cahiers du CERLESHS'', University of Ouagadougou, o 20, 2003, 179-211* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, « Vers une approche sociolinguistique des dérivatifs en dioula véhiculaire », ''Cahiers du CERLESHS'', University of Ouagadougou, o 1* er numéro spécial, June 2003, 221-223* Mamadou Lamine Sanogo, ''La recherche terminologique dans un dialecte couvert : le cas du dioula'', Paris, Édition des archives contemporaines, 2006, 631-639* Y.", "Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 1, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1968* Y.", "Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 2, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1970* Y.", "Person, ''Samori : Une révolution dyula'', 3, Dakar, IFAN, « Mémoires de l’Institut fondamental d’Afrique noire », 1975" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Desi Arnaz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha III''' (March 2, 1917 – December 2, 1986), known as '''Desi Arnaz''', was a Cuban-American actor, musician and bandleader.", "He played Ricky Ricardo on the American television sitcom ''I Love Lucy'', in which he co-starred with his wife Lucille Ball.", "Arnaz and Ball are credited as the innovators of the syndicated rerun, which they pioneered with the ''I Love Lucy'' series.Arnaz and Lucille Ball co-founded and ran the television production company called Desilu Productions, originally to market ''I Love Lucy'' to television networks.", "After ''I Love Lucy'' ended, Arnaz went on to produce several other television series, at first with Desilu Productions, and later independently, including ''The Ann Sothern Show'' and ''The Untouchables''.", "He was also the bandleader of his Latin group, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra.", "He was known for playing conga drums and popularized the conga line in the United States." ], [ "Early life", "Arnaz was born in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba, to Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Alberni II (March 8, 1894 – May 31, 1973) and Dolores \"Lolita\" de Acha y de Socias (April 2, 1896 – October 24, 1988).", "His father was Santiago's youngest mayor and also served in the Cuban House of Representatives.", "His maternal grandfather was Alberto de Acha, an executive at rum producer Bacardi & Co.A descendant of Cuban nobility, Arnaz was a great-great-great-grandson of José Joaquín.", "The Cuban Revolution of 1933 forced Arnaz and his family to lose everything and flee Cuba.", "A mob attacked and destroyed the family's houses, property, and livestock.", "Arnaz narrowly escaped the attack because he was able to hop in a car getting away.", "His father, Alberto Arnaz, was jailed and all of his property was confiscated.", "He was released after six months when his father-in-law Alberto de Acha intervened on his behalf.The family then fled to Miami, where Desi attended high school.", "They came to the United States with no money and Desi had to live with his father in a garage that was infested with rats and roaches.", "In the summer of 1934, he attended Saint Leo Prep (near Tampa) to improve his English.", "His first jobs included working at Woolworth's and cleaning canary cages in Miami.", "He then went into the tile business with his father before turning to show business full time." ], [ "Professional career", "===Musician and actor===After finishing high school, Arnaz formed a band, the Siboney Septet, and began making a name for himself in Miami.", "Xavier Cugat, after seeing Arnaz perform, hired him for his touring orchestra, playing the conga drum and singing.", "Becoming a star attraction encouraged him to start his own band, the Desi Arnaz Orchestra.Arnaz and his orchestra became a hit in New York City's club scene, including a club named La Conga, where he is credited with introducing the concept of conga line dancing to the United States.He came to the attention of Rodgers and Hart who, in 1939, cast him in their Broadway musical ''Too Many Girls''.", "The show was a hit and RKO Pictures bought the movie rights.Arnaz went to Hollywood the next year to appear in the show's movie version at RKO, which also starred Lucille Ball.", "Arnaz and Ball fell in love during the film's production and eloped on November 30, 1940.Arnaz appeared in several movies in the 1940s such as ''Bataan'', starring Robert Taylor (1943).", "His portrayal of Felix Ramirez, the jive-loving California National Guardsman, was described by ''New York Times'' critic Bosley Crowther as one of several supporting players who were \"convincing in soldier roles\".===Military service===April 27, 1943, Arnaz received his draft notice.", "However, Arnaz was disqualified from overseas service due to hypertension and knee injuries, which caused him pain with prolonged physical exertion, according to his military physical examination.", "He had injured his left knee prior to his enlistment and injured his right knee soon after enlisting on May 23, 1943, during a baseball game at Camp Arlington.", "He completed his recruit training, but was classified for limited service in the United States Army during World War II.He was assigned to direct United Service Organization (USO) programs at the Birmingham General Army Hospital in the San Fernando Valley.", "It was his responsibility to keep injured soldiers entertained while they were recovering in the hospital.", "Thanks to his Hollywood connections, Arnaz was able to bring celebrities to visit the hospital and boost morale of the soldiers.", "For example, discovering the first thing the wounded soldiers requested was a glass of cold milk, he arranged for movie starlets to meet them and pour the milk for them.Arnaz served two years, seven months and four days.", "His primary unit was the 9th Service Command, Army Service Forces.", "For his service during World War II, he was awarded the Army Good Conduct Medal, the American Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal.Arnaz was discharged as a staff sergeant on September 30, 1945.===Career post-military===Following his discharge as a staff sergeant on December 1, 1945, Arnaz formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings.", "He sang for troops in Birmingham Hospital with John Macchia and hired his childhood friend Marco Rizo to play piano and arrange for the orchestra.For the 1946–47 season, Arnaz was the bandleader, conducting his Desi Arnaz Orchestra, on Bob Hope's radio show (''The Pepsodent Show'') on NBC.In 1951, Arnaz was given a game show on CBS Radio, ''Your Tropical Trip'' to entice Arnaz and Ball to stay at CBS over a competing offer from NBC, and to keep Arnaz and his band employed and in Hollywood, rather than touring.", "The musical game show, hosted by Arnaz and featuring Arnaz's orchestra, had audience members competing for a Caribbean vacation.", "The program aired from January 1951 until September, shortly before the premiere of ''I Love Lucy'' in October.When he became successful in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll, and Rizo arranged and orchestrated the music for ''I Love Lucy''.Lucille Ball and Arnaz, 1957===''I Love Lucy''===On October 15, 1951, Arnaz co-starred in the premiere of ''I Love Lucy'', in which he played a fictionalized version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Enrique \"Ricky\" Ricardo.", "His co-star was his real-life wife, Lucille Ball, who played Ricky's wife, Lucy.", "Television executives had been pursuing Ball to adapt her very popular radio series ''My Favorite Husband'' for television.", "Ball insisted on Arnaz playing her on-air spouse so the two would be able to spend more time together.", "CBS wanted Ball's ''Husband'' co-star Richard Denning.The original premise was for the couple to portray Lucy and Larry Lopez, a successful show business couple whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage.", "Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Jess Oppenheimer changed it to make Ricky Ricardo a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy an ordinary housewife who had show business fantasies but no talent.", "The character name \"Larry Lopez\" was dropped because of a real-life bandleader named Vincent Lopez, and was replaced with \"Ricky Ricardo\".", "The name was inspired by Henry Richard, a family friend and the brother of P.C.", "Richard of P.C.", "Richard & Son.", "This name translates to Enrique Ricardo.", "Ricky often appeared at, and later owned, the Tropicana Club, which under his ownership he renamed Club Babalu.Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latin American Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance as they were told that Desi's Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers.", "The couple overcame these objections, however, by touring together, during the summer of 1950, in a live vaudeville act they developed with the help of Spanish clown Pepito Pérez, together with Ball's radio show writers.", "Much of the material from their vaudeville act, including Lucy's memorable seal routine, was used in the pilot episode of ''I Love Lucy''.", "Segments of the pilot were recreated in the sixth episode of the show's first season.", "During his time on the show, Arnaz and Ball became TV's most successful entrepreneurs.=== Desilu Productions ===Lucille Ball and Arnaz in Los Angeles, 1953With Ball, Arnaz founded Desilu Productions in 1950, initially to produce the vaudeville-style touring act that led to ''I Love Lucy''.", "At that time, most television programs were broadcast live, and as the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only kinescope images.", "Karl Freund, Arnaz's cameraman, and even Arnaz himself have been credited with the development of the multiple-camera setup production style using adjacent sets in front of a live audience that became the standard for subsequent situation comedies.", "The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show.", "Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with Freund to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming, and adhere to fire and safety codes.", "Due to the expense of 35mm film, Arnaz and Ball agreed to salary cuts.", "In return, they retained the rights to the films.", "This was the basis for their invention of re-runs and syndicating TV shows (a huge source of new revenue).In addition to ''I Love Lucy'', he executive produced ''The Ann Sothern Show'' and ''Those Whiting Girls'' (starring Margaret Whiting and Barbara Whiting), and was involved in several other series such as ''The Untouchables'', ''Whirlybirds'', and ''Sheriff of Cochise'' / ''United States Marshal''.", "While he was producing ''The Untouchables'', Arnaz was allegedly the target of a mafia murder plot, which was later called off, due to the show's negative publicity of gangsters.", "These allegations were made in the 1980s by Jimmy Fratianno in his book, ''The Last Mafioso.''", "Arnaz denied these claims were true.", "He also produced the feature film ''Forever, Darling'' (1956), in which he and Ball starred.The original Desilu company continued long after Arnaz's divorce from Ball and her subsequent marriage to Gary Morton.", "Desilu continued to produce its own programs in addition to providing facilities to other producers.", "In 1962, Arnaz sold his share of Desilu to Ball and formed his own production company after their divorce.", "With the newly formed Desi Arnaz Productions, he made ''The Mothers-In-Law'' (at Desilu) for United Artists Television and NBC.", "This sitcom ran for two seasons from 1967 to 1969.During its two-year run, Arnaz made four guest appearances as a Spanish matador, Señor Delgado.Arnaz's company was succeeded-in-interest by the company now known as Desilu, Too.", "Desilu, Too and Lucille Ball Productions worked hand-in-hand with MPI Home Video in the home video reissues of the Ball/Arnaz material not owned by CBS (successor-in-interest to Paramount Television, which in turn succeeded the original Desilu company).", "This material included ''Here's Lucy'' and ''The Mothers-In-Law'', as well as many programs and specials Ball and Arnaz made independently of each other.===Later career===In the 1970s, Arnaz co-hosted a week of shows with daytime host and producer Mike Douglas.", "Vivian Vance appeared as a guest.", "Arnaz also headlined a ''Kraft Music Hall'' special on NBC that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance.", "Arnaz suffered a severe attack of diverticulitis in 1971, which required an operation and several years of recovery.", "He worked with Universal Studios for two years working on development deals for two shows that eventually fell through, ''Dr.", "Domingo'' (the character did appear on one episode of ''Ironside'') and ''Chairman of the Board'' starring Elke Sommer.", "Arnaz moved on to work on his autobiography for two years.To promote his autobiography, ''A Book'', on February 21, 1976, Arnaz served as a guest host on ''Saturday Night Live'', with his son, Desi, Jr., also appearing.", "The program contained spoofs of ''I Love Lucy'' and ''The Untouchables''.", "The spoofs of ''I Love Lucy'' were supposed to be earlier concepts of the show that never made it on the air, such as \"I Love Louie\", where Desi lived with Louis Armstrong.", "He read Lewis Carroll's poem \"Jabberwocky\" in a heavy Cuban accent (he pronounced it \"Habberwocky\").", "Desi Jr., played the drums and, supported by the ''SNL'' band, Desi sang both \"Babalú\" and another favorite from his dance band days, \"Cuban Pete\"; the arrangements were similar to the ones used on ''I Love Lucy''.", "He ended the broadcast by leading the entire cast in a conga line through the ''SNL'' studio.In 1976, CBS paid tribute to Lucille Ball with the two-hour special ''CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years.''", "Both Ball and Arnaz appeared on the screen for the special, which is the first time they appeared together in 16 years since their divorce.When asked about returning to television in a 1976 newspaper article, Arnaz said, \"People ask me to go back on TV but the thin' is, it's too tough competing with the Ricky Ricardo of 20 years ago.", "He looks a lot better than I do.\"", "Arnaz made a guest appearance on the TV series ''Alice'', in 1978 starring Linda Lavin and produced by ''I Love Lucy'' co-creators Madelyn Pugh (Madelyn Davis) and Bob Carroll, Jr. His last acting role was as Mayor Leon Quiñones in the 1982 film, ''The Escape Artist''.Arnaz owned the Indian Wells Country Club in Palm Desert, CA.", "He also taught classes at San Diego State University in studio production and acting for television." ], [ "Personal life", "=== Beliefs ===Arnaz and Ball decided that ''I Love Lucy'' would maintain what Arnaz termed \"basic good taste\" and were therefore determined to avoid ethnic jokes, as well as humor based on physical handicaps or mental disabilities.", "Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent; even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking.Arnaz was also a lifelong Catholic.===Politics===A lifelong Republican, Arnaz was deeply patriotic about the United States.", "In his memoirs, he wrote that he knew of no other country in the world where \"a sixteen-year-old kid, broke and unable to speak the language\" could achieve the successes that he had.", "He was a supporter of Richard Nixon and member of the Spanish-Speaking Committee for the Re-Election of the President in 1972.Nixon appointed Arnaz as the U.S. roving ambassador to Latin America in the early 1970s.", "He was a supporter of Ronald Reagan and spoke at campaign rallies, such as one hosted by the National Republican Hispanic Assembly in 1980.He was an advocate for the Hispanic community, encouraging them to take the 1980 census to increase federal funding for their communities.=== Marriages ===Ball and Arnaz in 1955Arnaz and Lucille Ball were married on November 30, 1940.Their marriage was always turbulent.", "Convinced that Arnaz was being unfaithful to her, along with him coming home drunk several times, Ball filed for divorce in September 1944.The interlocutory degree became final in October 1944, but because they had spent the night together the day before, Californian law at the time had declared it null and void.", "Arnaz and Ball subsequently had two children, actors Lucie Arnaz (born 1951) and Desi Arnaz Jr. (born 1953).Hollywood procurer and prostitute Scotty Bowers claimed in his memoir ''Full Service'' that he had procured as many as two to three prostitutes per week for Arnaz, each of whom was paid 200 dollars, as opposed to the usual 20.Lucille Ball confronted Bowers about this and publicly slapped him in the face, yelling \"You!", "Stop pimping for my husband!", "\"Arnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his growing problems with alcohol, gambling, and infidelity.", "According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company, as well as supervising its day-to-day operations, had greatly worsened as the company grew much larger, and he felt compelled to seek outlets to alleviate the stress.", "Arnaz also suffered from diverticulitis.", "Ball divorced him on March 2, 1960, which was coincidentally his birthday.", "When Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement regarding Desilu, wherein she bought him out.Edith Mack Hirsch (née McSkimming) was Arnaz's second wife.", "After the two married on March 2, 1963 (Arnaz's 46th birthday), he greatly reduced his show business activities.", "The two were married for 22 years until Edith died from cancer on March 23, 1985.Although Arnaz and Ball both married other spouses after their divorce in 1960, they remained friends and grew closer in his final decade.", "For Lucy's appearance at the Kennedy Center Honors in 1986, Arnaz had written a statement.", "Read by Robert Stack as a posthumous statement, Arnaz wrote, \"P.S.", "I Love Lucy was never just a title.\"", "Family home video later aired on television showed Ball and Arnaz playing together with their grandson Simon shortly before Arnaz's death.=== Health ===Arnaz suffered from knee injuries as a young man shortly before and during his military service in World War II.", "The pain was troublesome enough that he was disqualified from serving overseas.", "In the late 1960s, he was seriously injured in an accident when the floor collapsed and he was impaled by a tree stump in his home in Baja California.", "An operation saved his life, although his health was never the same after the incident.", "Throughout his life he periodically had to seek medical treatment for diverticulitis and intestinal issues, sometimes requiring hospitalization.After his second wife Edith's death in 1985, Arnaz was persuaded by his children to seek treatment for his decades-long alcohol addiction, which by then had seriously damaged his health.", "Lucie Arnaz described her pride at attending a treatment meeting with her father where he stood up and said \"I'm Desi, and I'm an alcoholic\".=== Arrests ===Arnaz had a few run-ins with the law.", "He was arrested in 1959 on an intoxication charge while he was walking Hollywood Blvd.", "In 1966, he was arrested and charged with assault with a deadly weapon after an altercation with youth parking in front of his house.", "Two young men were allegedly partying nearby and harassing his then-15-year-old daughter Lucie and her friend.", "Arnaz confronted them, threatened to shoot their tires and cars, and then fired two shots that went into the ground.", "He spent three hours at the San Diego jail and was released on $1,100 bail." ], [ "Later life", "Desi in the 1974 television special, ''California, My Way''.Desi Arnaz spent his retirement doing activities he enjoyed including sailing his yacht (he was a skilled yachtsman since childhood), fishing, and cooking Cuban dishes.", "He suffered from numerous health issues later in life.", "He contributed to charitable and nonprofit organizations, including San Diego State University.", "He was active in politics and made occasional public appearances.", "He was the guest of honor at the Carnival Miami in March 1982 where he performed with his children, Lucie and Desi Jr., in front of a crowd of 35,000.Arnaz was known to be very loving to his grandchildren.===Thoroughbred racing===Arnaz and his second wife eventually moved to Del Mar, California where he lived the rest of his life in semi-retirement.", "He owned a horse-breeding farm in Corona, California and raced Thoroughbreds.", "The Desi Arnaz Stakes at Del Mar Racetrack is named in his honor.===Death===Arnaz was a regular smoker for much of his life and often smoked cigarettes on the set of ''I Love Lucy''.", "He smoked cigars until he was in his sixties.", "Arnaz was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1986 and underwent treatment.", "Lucille Ball visited him during this time in the hospital and the two watched VHS tapes of ''I Love Lucy''.", "His daughter Lucie was by his side constantly during his final days.On November 30, 1986, Ball called him.", "They talked for a short time due to Arnaz's state of health, as he had barely spoken to anyone and hadn't eaten for three days.", "According to Lucie, her mother simply said \"I love you.", "I love you.", "Desi, I love you,\" repeating the words over the phone.", "Arnaz finished the conversation by answering \"I love you, too, honey.", "Good luck with your show.\"", "Lucie hadn't realized the solemnity of this last time, not until she checked her diary to notice the date had been the 46th anniversary of Ball and Arnaz's wedding.He died two days later on December 2, 1986, at the age of 69.Arnaz was cremated and his ashes scattered.", "Ball was one of hundreds to attend Arnaz's funeral, which was held at St. James Roman Catholic Church in San Diego County, California.His death came just five days before Lucille Ball received the Kennedy Center Honors.", "His mother outlived him by almost two years." ], [ "Legacy", "Desi Arnaz has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame: one at 6301 Hollywood Boulevard for contributions to motion pictures and one at 6250 Hollywood Boulevard for television.", "Unlike his co-stars, Arnaz was never nominated for an Emmy for his performance in ''I Love Lucy''; however, as executive producer of the series, he was nominated four times in the Best Situation Comedy category, winning twice.", "In 1956, he won a Golden Globe for Best Television Achievement for helping to shape the American Comedy through his contributions in front of and behind the camera of ''I Love Lucy''.", "He was inducted into the Television Academy's Hall of Fame.The Lucille Ball-Desi Arnaz Center museum is in Jamestown, New York, and the Desi Arnaz Bandshell in the Lucille Ball Memorial Park is in Celoron, New York.Desi Arnaz appears as a character in Oscar Hijuelos's 1989 novel ''The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love'' and is portrayed by his son, Desi Arnaz Jr., in the 1992 film adaptation, ''The Mambo Kings''.Maurice Benard portrayed Desi Arnaz in the 1991 television film ''Lucy & Desi: Before the Laughter''.In the 2003 television film ''Lucy'', Desi Arnaz was portrayed by Danny Pino.Arnaz was portrayed by Oscar Nuñez in ''I Love Lucy: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom'', a comedy about how Arnaz and Ball battled to get their sitcom on the air.", "It had its world premiere in Los Angeles on July 12, 2018, co-starring Sarah Drew as Lucille Ball and Seamus Dever as ''I Love Lucy'' creator-producer-head writer Jess Oppenheimer.", "The play, written by Jess Oppenheimer's son, Gregg Oppenheimer, was recorded in front of a live audience for nationwide public radio broadcast and online distribution.", "BBC Radio 4 broadcast a serialized version of the play in the UK in August 2020, as ''LUCY LOVES DESI: A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Sitcom,'' starring Wilmer Valderrama as Arnaz and co-starring Anne Heche as Lucille Ball.On March 2, 2019, Google celebrated what would have been Arnaz's 102nd birthday with a Google Doodle.Javier Bardem portrayed Arnaz in the 2021 biographical film ''Being the Ricardos'' written and directed by Aaron Sorkin and produced by Amazon Studios, alongside Nicole Kidman as Ball.", "He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor." ], [ "Filmography", "===As actor===* 1940: ''Too Many Girls'' .... Manuelito Lynch* 1941: ''Father Takes a Wife'' .... Carlos Bardez* 1942: ''Four Jacks and a Jill'' .... Steve Sarto / King Stephan VIII of Aregal* 1942: ''The Navy Comes Through'' .... Pat Tarriba* 1943: ''Bataan'' .... Felix Ramirez* 1946: ''Cuban Pete'' ....", "Himself* 1947: ''Jitterumba'' (Short) ....", "Band Leader* 1949: ''Holiday in Havana'' .... Carlos Estrada* 1951: ''I Love Lucy'' (181 episodes, 1951–1957) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1952: ''What's My Line'' ....", "Himself (Guest)* 1953: ''I Love Lucy: The Movie'' .... Ricky Ricardo / Himself* 1954: ''The Long, Long Trailer'' .... Nicholas 'Nicky' Collini* 1955: ''What's My Line'' ....", "Himself (Guest) with Lucille Ball* 1956: ''Lucy's Really Lost Moments'' .... Ricky Ricardo* 1956: ''I Love Lucy Christmas Show'' (TV Series) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1956: ''Forever, Darling'' .... Lorenzo Xavier Vega* 1957: ''The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour'' (13 episodes, 1957–1960) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1958: ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse'' (5 episodes, 1958–1960) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1959: ''Make Room for Daddy'' (1 episode, 1959) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1959: ''Sunday Showcase'' (1 episode, 1959) .... Ricky Ricardo* 1961: ''The Red Skelton Show'' (1 episode, 1961) ....", "Guest / Himself* 1967: ''The Mothers-in-Law'' (4 episodes, 1967–1968) .... Raphael del Gado* 1970: ''Kraft Music Hall'' (1 episode, 1970) ....", "Host* 1970: ''The Virginian'' (repackaged as \"The Men From Shiloh\") (1 episode, 1970) .... El Jefe* 1974: ''Ironside'' (1 episode \"Riddle at 24000\" season 7 episode 23, 1974) .... Dr. Juan Domingo* 1976: ''Saturday Night Live'' (February 21, as host and musical guest)* 1976: ''CBS Salutes Lucy: The First 25 Years'' (TV Special) ....", "Himself* 1978: ''Alice'' (1 episode, 1978) .... Paco* 1982: ''The Escape Artist'' .... Mayor Leon Quiñones (final film role)===As producer===* 1952: ''I Love Lucy'' (executive producer) (131 episodes, 1952–1956) (producer)* 1955: ''Those Whiting Girls'' TV series (executive producer) (unknown episodes)* 1956: ''Forever, Darling'' (producer)* 1956: ''I Love Lucy Christmas Show'' (TV) (producer)* 1957: ''The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour'' (executive producer) (13 episodes, 1957–1960)* 1958: ''The Fountain of Youth'' (TV) (executive producer)* 1958: ''The Texan'' TV series (executive producer) (unknown episodes)* 1958: ''The Ann Sothern Show'' (executive producer) (93 episodes, 1958–1961)* 1960: ''New Comedy Showcase'' TV series (executive producer)* 1961: ''The Untouchables'' (executive producer) (3 episodes, 1961–1962)* 1962: ''The Lucy Show'' (executive producer) (15 episodes, 1962–1963)* 1967: ''The Mothers-In-Law'' (executive producer) (56 episodes, 1967–1969)* 1968: ''Land's End'' TV pilot (producer)===As writer===* 1959: ''Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse'' (1 episode, 1959) – Ballad for a Bad Man (1959) TV episode (writer)* 1968: ''Land's End'' TV pilot (creator)===As director===* 1959: ''Sunday Showcase'' (1 episode, 1959)* 1959: ''The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour'' (3 episodes, 1959–1960)* 1966: ''The Carol Channing Show'' (TV)* 1967: ''The Mothers-In-Law'' (24 episodes, 1967–1968)===Soundtracks===* 1940: ''Too Many Girls'' (performer: \"Spic 'n' Spanish\", \"You're Nearer\", \"Conga\") (\"'Cause We Got Cake\")* 1941: ''Father Takes a Wife'' (\"Perfidia\" (1939), \"Mi amor\" (1941))* 1942: ''Four Jacks and a Jill'' (\"Boogie Woogie Conga\" 1941)* 1946: ''Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra'' (performer: \"Guadalajara\", \"Babalu (Babalú)\", \"Tabu (Tabú)\", \"Pin Marin\") ... a.k.a.", "\"Melody Masters: Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra\" – USA (series title)* 1949: ''Holiday in Havana'' (writer: \"Holiday In Havana\", \"The Arnaz Jam\")* 1956: ''Forever, Darling'' (performer: \"Forever, Darling\" (reprise))* 1952: ''I Love Lucy'' (3 episodes, 1952–1956) ... a.k.a.", "\"Lucy in Connecticut\" – USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a.", "\"The Sunday Lucy Show\" – USA (rerun title) ... a.k.a.", "\"The Top Ten Lucy Show\" – USA (rerun title) – Lucy and Bob Hope (1956) TV episode (performer: \"Nobody Loves the Ump\" (uncredited)) – Ricky's European Booking (1955) TV episode (performer: \"Forever, Darling\" (uncredited)) – Cuban Pals (1952) TV episode (performer: \"The Lady in Red\", \"Similau\")* 1958: ''The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour'' (1 episode, 1958) ... a.k.a.", "\"We Love Lucy\" – USA (syndication title) – Lucy Wins a Race Horse (1958) TV episode (performer: \"The Bayamo\")* 2001: ''I Love Lucy's 50th Anniversary Special'' (TV) (performer: \"California, Here I Come\", \"Babalu (Babalú)\") ... a.k.a.", "\"The I Love Lucy 50th Anniversary Special\" – USA (DVD title)" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Arnaz, Desi.", "''A Book''.", "New York: William Morrow, 1976; (autobiography to 1960)* Sanders, Coyne Steven, and Thomas W. Gilbert.", "''Desilu: The Story of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz''.", "New York: Morrow, 1993; (revised edition 2011 ) (full dual biography focusing prominently on business affairs of Desilu Productions)* Brady, Kathleen.", "''Lucille The Life of Lucille Ball'' (1994), New York: Hyperion; * de los Reyes, Vanessa.", "''I Love Ricky: How Desi Arnaz Challenged American Popular Culture'' (2008).", "Department of History, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.", "* Pérez Firmat, Gustavo.", "\"The Man Who Loved Lucy\", in ''Life on the Hyphen: The Cuban-American Way''.", "Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1994.Rpt.", "1996, 1999.Revised and expanded edition, 2012.", "* Harris, Warren.", "''Lucy & Desi: The Legendary Love Story of Television's Most Famous Couple'' New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991." ], [ "See also", "* List of Cuban Americans* List of actors with Hollywood Walk of Fame motion picture stars" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Guide to the Desi Arnaz Papers 1947–1976 Special Collections and University Archives, Library and Information Access, San Diego State University* Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz Papers, 1915-1990 at the Library of Congress* \"Arnaz, Desi – U.S. Actor/Media Executive\" at the Museum of Broadcast Communications* Desi Arnaz from the Federal Bureau of Investigation Vault" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "DNA virus" ], [ "Introduction", "''Orthopoxvirus'' particlesA '''DNA virus''' is a virus that has a genome made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is replicated by a DNA polymerase.", "They can be divided between those that have two strands of DNA in their genome, called double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, and those that have one strand of DNA in their genome, called single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses.", "dsDNA viruses primarily belong to two realms: ''Duplodnaviria'' and ''Varidnaviria'', and ssDNA viruses are almost exclusively assigned to the realm ''Monodnaviria'', which also includes some dsDNA viruses.", "Additionally, many DNA viruses are unassigned to higher taxa.", "Reverse transcribing viruses, which have a DNA genome that is replicated through an RNA intermediate by a reverse transcriptase, are classified into the kingdom ''Pararnavirae'' in the realm ''Riboviria''.DNA viruses are ubiquitous worldwide, especially in marine environments where they form an important part of marine ecosystems, and infect both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.", "They appear to have multiple origins, as viruses in ''Monodnaviria'' appear to have emerged from archaeal and bacterial plasmids on multiple occasions, though the origins of ''Duplodnaviria'' and ''Varidnaviria'' are less clear.Prominent disease-causing DNA viruses include herpesviruses, papillomaviruses, and poxviruses." ], [ "Baltimore classification", "The Baltimore classification system is used to group viruses together based on their manner of messenger RNA (mRNA) synthesis and is often used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary history.", "DNA viruses constitute two Baltimore groups: Group I: double-stranded DNA viruses, and Group II: single-stranded DNA viruses.", "While Baltimore classification is chiefly based on transcription of mRNA, viruses in each Baltimore group also typically share their manner of replication.", "Viruses in a Baltimore group do not necessarily share genetic relation or morphology.===Double-stranded DNA viruses===The first Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a double-stranded DNA genome.", "All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process.", "First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the site where transcription begins, allowing for the recruitment of a host RNA polymerase.", "Second, once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands.", "Third, the RNA polymerase terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site.dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome.", "Bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions of each other, is widely used.", "A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around the circular genome is also common.", "Some dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the prior synthesized strand, forming a dsDNA genome.", "Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition whereby a viral genome in a host cell's DNA is replicated to another part of a host genome.dsDNA viruses can be subdivided between those that replicate in the cell nucleus, and as such are relatively dependent on host cell machinery for transcription and replication, and those that replicate in the cytoplasm, in which case they have evolved or acquired their own means of executing transcription and replication.", "dsDNA viruses are also commonly divided between tailed dsDNA viruses, referring to members of the realm ''Duplodnaviria'', usually the tailed bacteriophages of the order ''Caudovirales'', and tailless or non-tailed dsDNA viruses of the realm ''Varidnaviria''.===Single-stranded DNA viruses===The canine parvovirus is an ssDNA virus.The second Baltimore group of DNA viruses are those that have a single-stranded DNA genome.", "ssDNA viruses have the same manner of transcription as dsDNA viruses.", "However, because the genome is single-stranded, it is first made into a double-stranded form by a DNA polymerase upon entering a host cell.", "mRNA is then synthesized from the double-stranded form.", "The double-stranded form of ssDNA viruses may be produced either directly after entry into a cell or as a consequence of replication of the viral genome.", "Eukaryotic ssDNA viruses are replicated in the nucleus.Most ssDNA viruses contain circular genomes that are replicated via rolling circle replication (RCR).", "ssDNA RCR is initiated by an endonuclease that bonds to and cleaves the positive strand, allowing a DNA polymerase to use the negative strand as a template for replication.", "Replication progresses in a loop around the genome by means of extending the 3'-end of the positive strand, displacing the prior positive strand, and the endonuclease cleaves the positive strand again to create a standalone genome that is ligated into a circular loop.", "The new ssDNA may be packaged into virions or replicated by a DNA polymerase to form a double-stranded form for transcription or continuation of the replication cycle.Parvoviruses contain linear ssDNA genomes that are replicated via rolling hairpin replication (RHR), which is similar to RCR.", "Parvovirus genomes have hairpin loops at each end of the genome that repeatedly unfold and refold during replication to change the direction of DNA synthesis to move back and forth along the genome, producing numerous copies of the genome in a continuous process.", "Individual genomes are then excised from this molecule by the viral endonuclease.", "For parvoviruses, either the positive or negative sense strand may be packaged into capsids, varying from virus to virus.Nearly all ssDNA viruses have positive sense genomes, but a few exceptions and peculiarities exist.", "The family ''Anelloviridae'' is the only ssDNA family whose members have negative sense genomes, which are circular.", "Parvoviruses, as previously mentioned, may package either the positive or negative sense strand into virions.", "Lastly, bidnaviruses package both the positive and negative linear strands." ], [ "ICTV classification", "The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) oversees virus taxonomy and organizes viruses at the basal level at the rank of realm.", "Virus realms correspond to the rank of domain used for cellular life but differ in that viruses within a realm do not necessarily share common ancestry, nor do the realms share common ancestry with each other.", "As such, each virus realm represents at least one instance of viruses coming into existence.", "Within each realm, viruses are grouped together based on shared characteristics that are highly conserved over time.", "Three DNA virus realms are recognized: ''Duplodnaviria'', ''Monodnaviria'', and ''Varidnaviria''.===''Duplodnaviria''===Illustrated sample of ''Duplodnaviria'' virions''Duplodnaviria'' contains dsDNA viruses that encode a major capsid protein (MCP) that has the HK97 fold.", "Viruses in the realm also share a number of other characteristics involving the capsid and capsid assembly, including an icosahedral capsid shape and a terminase enzyme that packages viral DNA into the capsid during assembly.", "Two groups of viruses are included in the realm: tailed bacteriophages, which infect prokaryotes and are assigned to the order ''Caudovirales'', and herpesviruses, which infect animals and are assigned to the order ''Herpesvirales''.", "''Duplodnaviria'' is a very ancient realm, perhaps predating the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of cellular life.", "Its origins not known, nor whether it is monophyletic or polyphyletic.", "A characteristic feature is the HK97-fold found in the MCP of all members, which is found outside the realm only in encapsulins, a type of nanocompartment found in bacteria: this relation is not fully understood.The relation between caudoviruses and herpesviruses is also uncertain: they may share a common ancestor or herpesviruses may be a divergent clade from the realm ''Caudovirales''.", "A common trait among duplodnaviruses is that they cause latent infections without replication while still being able to replicate in the future.", "Tailed bacteriophages are ubiquitous worldwide, important in marine ecology, and the subject of much research.", "Herpesviruses are known to cause a variety of epithelial diseases, including herpes simplex, chickenpox and shingles, and Kaposi's sarcoma.===''Monodnaviria''===''Monodnaviria'' contains ssDNA viruses that encode an endonuclease of the HUH superfamily that initiates rolling circle replication and all other viruses descended from such viruses.", "The prototypical members of the realm are called CRESS-DNA viruses and have circular ssDNA genomes.", "ssDNA viruses with linear genomes are descended from them, and in turn some dsDNA viruses with circular genomes are descended from linear ssDNA viruses.Viruses in ''Monodnaviria'' appear to have emerged on multiple occasions from archaeal and bacterial plasmids, a type of extra-chromosomal DNA molecule that self-replicates inside its host.", "The kingdom ''Shotokuvirae'' in the realm likely emerged from recombination events that merged the DNA of these plasmids and complementary DNA encoding the capsid proteins of RNA viruses.CRESS-DNA viruses include three kingdoms that infect prokaryotes: ''Loebvirae'', ''Sangervirae'', and ''Trapavirae''.", "The kingdom ''Shotokuvirae'' contains eukaryotic CRESS-DNA viruses and the atypical members of ''Monodnaviria''.", "Eukaryotic monodnaviruses are associated with many diseases, and they include papillomaviruses and polyomaviruses, which cause many cancers, and geminiviruses, which infect many economically important crops.===''Varidnaviria''===A ribbon diagram of the MCP of ''Pseudoalteromonas virus PM2'', with the two jelly roll folds colored in red and blue''Varidnaviria'' contains DNA viruses that encode MCPs that have a jelly roll fold folded structure in which the jelly roll (JR) fold is perpendicular to the surface of the viral capsid.", "Many members also share a variety of other characteristics, including a minor capsid protein that has a single JR fold, an ATPase that packages the genome during capsid assembly, and a common DNA polymerase.", "Two kingdoms are recognized: ''Helvetiavirae'', whose members have MCPs with a single vertical JR fold, and ''Bamfordvirae'', whose members have MCPs with two vertical JR folds.Varidnaviria is either monophyletic or polyphyletic and may predate the LUCA.", "The kingdom ''Bamfordvirae'' is likely derived from the other kingdom ''Helvetiavirae'' via fusion of two MCPs to have an MCP with two jelly roll folds instead of one.", "The single jelly roll (SJR) fold MCPs of ''Helvetiavirae'' show a relation to a group of proteins that contain SJR folds, including the Cupin superfamily and nucleoplasmins.Marine viruses in ''Varidnaviria'' are ubiquitous worldwide and, like tailed bacteriophages, play an important role in marine ecology.", "Most identified eukaryotic DNA viruses belong to the realm.", "Notable disease-causing viruses in ''Varidnaviria'' include adenoviruses, poxviruses, and the African swine fever virus.", "Poxviruses have been highly prominent in the history of modern medicine, especially ''Variola virus'', which caused smallpox.", "Many varidnaviruses can become endogenized in their host's genome; a peculiar example are virophages, which after infecting a host, can protect the host against giant viruses.===Baltimore classification===dsDNA viruses are classified into three realms and include many taxa that are unassigned to a realm:* All viruses in ''Duplodnaviria'' are dsDNA viruses.", "* In ''Monodnaviria'', members of the class ''Papovaviricetes'' are dsDNA viruses.", "* All viruses in ''Varidnaviria'' are dsDNA viruses.", "* The following taxa that are unassigned to a realm exclusively contain dsDNA viruses:** Orders: ''Ligamenvirales''** Families: ''Ampullaviridae'', ''Baculoviridae'', ''Bicaudaviridae'', ''Clavaviridae'', ''Fuselloviridae'', ''Globuloviridae'', ''Guttaviridae'', ''Halspiviridae'', ''Hytrosaviridae'', ''Nimaviridae'', ''Nudiviridae'', ''Ovaliviridae'', ''Plasmaviridae'', ''Polydnaviridae'', ''Portogloboviridae'', ''Thaspiviridae'', ''Tristromaviridae''** Genera: ''Dinodnavirus'', ''Rhizidiovirus''ssDNA viruses are classified into one realm and include several families that are unassigned to a realm:* In ''Monodnaviria'', all members except viruses in ''Papovaviricetes'' are ssDNA viruses.", "* The unassigned families ''Anelloviridae'' and ''Spiraviridae'' are ssDNA virus families.", "* Viruses in the family ''Finnlakeviridae'' contain ssDNA genomes.", "''Finnlakeviridae'' is unassigned to a realm but is a proposed member of ''Varidnaviria''." ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Daniel Ortega" ], [ "Introduction", "'''José Daniel Ortega Saavedra''' (; born 11 November 1945) is a Nicaraguan politician who has been President of Nicaragua since 2007.Previously he was leader of Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as coordinator (1979–1985) of the Junta of National Reconstruction, and then as President of Nicaragua (1985–1990).", "During his first term, he implemented policies to achieve leftist reforms across Nicaragua.", "In later years, Ortega's left-wing radical politics cooled significantly, leading him to pursue pro-business policies and even rapprochement with the Catholic Church.", "However, in 2022, Ortega resumed repression of the Church, and has imprisoned prelate Rolando José Álvarez Lagos.", "Ortega came to prominence with the overthrow and exile of US-backed dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979 during the Nicaraguan Revolution.", "As a leader in the Sandinista National Liberation Front (, FSLN) Ortega became leader of the ruling Junta of National Reconstruction.", "A Marxist–Leninist, Ortega pursued a program of nationalization, land reform, wealth redistribution and literacy programs during his first period in office.", "Ortega's government was responsible for the forced displacement of 10,000 indigenous people.", "In 1984, Ortega won Nicaragua's first ever free and fair presidential election with over 60% of the vote as the FSLN's candidate.", "Throughout the 1980s, Ortega's government faced a rebellion by US-backed rebels, known as the Contras.", "The US also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinista government, imposing a full trade embargo, and planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's ports.", "After a presidency marred by conflict and economic collapse, Ortega was defeated in the 1990 Nicaraguan general election by Violeta Chamorro, in an election marked by US interference.Ortega was an unsuccessful candidate for president in 1996 and 2001 but won the 2006 Nicaraguan general election.", "In office, he made alliances with fellow Latin American socialists.", "His second administration, in contrast to his previous political career, abandoned most of his earlier leftist principles, and became increasingly anti-democratic, alienating many of his former revolutionary allies.In June 2018, organisations such as Amnesty International and the OAS reported that Ortega had engaged in a violent oppression campaign against the anti-Ortega 2018–2022 Nicaraguan protests.", "The violent crackdown and subsequent constriction of civil liberties have led to massive waves of emigration to neighboring Costa Rica, with more than 30,000 Nicaraguans filing for asylum in that country.", "In his fourth term, Ortega ordered the closure of several NGOs, universities, and newspapers.His government jailed many potential rival candidates in the 2021 Nicaraguan general election, including Cristiana Chamorro Barrios.", "Ortega's government also imprisoned other opponents, such as former allies Dora María Téllez and Hugo Torres Jiménez.", "In August 2021, Nicaragua cancelled the operating permits of six US and European NGOs.", "Many critics of the Ortega government, including opposition leaders, journalists and members of civil society, fled the country in mid-2021.After Ortega was re-elected in 2021, United States President Joe Biden banned him and his officials from entering the United States." ], [ "Early life", "===Early childhood===Ortega was born in La Libertad, department of Chontales, Nicaragua, into a working-class family.", "His parents, Daniel Ortega Cerda and Lidia Saavedra, were opposed to the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle.", "His mother was imprisoned by Somoza's National Guard for being in possession of \"love letters\", which the police said were coded political missives.", "Ortega and his two brothers grew up to become revolutionaries.", "His brother Humberto Ortega is a former general, military leader, and published writer, and the third brother Camilo Ortega died fighting the Somoza regime in 1978.They had a sister, Germania, who died.=== Juigalpa and Managua===Seeking stable employment, the family migrated from La Libertad to the provincial capital of Juigalpa, and then to a middle-class neighborhood in Managua.", "In Managua, Ortega and his brother studied at the upper-middle class high school, the LaSalle Institute, where Ortega was classmates with Arnoldo Aleman, who would go on to be mayor of Managua (1990-1995) and later President of Nicaragua (1997-2002).", "Ortega's father Daniel Ortega Cedra detested US military intervention in Nicaragua and Washington's support for the Somoza government.", "He imparted this anti-American sentiment to his sons.=== Early political activity===From an early age, Ortega opposed Nicaragua's president Anastasio Somoza Debayle, and became involved in the underground movement against his government.", "Ortega and his brother Humberto formed the Insurrectionist, or Tercerista (Third Way) faction, culminating in the Nicaraguan Revolution.", "After the overthrow and exile of Somoza Debayle's government, Ortega became leader of the ruling multi-partisan Junta of National Reconstruction.Ortega was first arrested for political activities at the age of 15, and quickly joined the then-underground Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) in 1963.In 1964, Ortega travelled to Guatemala, where the police arrested him and turned him over to the Nicaraguan National Guard.", "After his release from detainment, Ortega arranged the assassination of his torturer, Guardsman Gonzalo Lacayo, in August 1967.=== Imprisonment===He was imprisoned in 1967 for taking part in armed robbery of a branch of the Bank of America.", "He told collaborators that they should be killed if they did not take part in the robbery.", "Ortega was released in late 1974, along with other Sandinista prisoners, in exchange for Somocista hostages.", "While imprisoned at the El Modelo jail, just outside Managua, Ortega wrote poems, one of which he titled \"I Never Saw Managua When Miniskirts Were in Fashion\".", "During his imprisonment, Ortega was tortured.", "While he was incarcerated at El Modelo, his mother helped stage protests and hunger strikes for political prisoners; this resulted in improving the treatment of incarcerated Sandinistas.=== Exile in Cuba===Upon release in 1974, Ortega was exiled to Cuba.", "There he received training in guerrilla warfare from Fidel Castro's Marxist–Leninist government.", "He later returned secretly to Nicaragua.=== Sectional division within the FSLN===In the late 1970s, divisions over the FSLN's campaign against Somoza led Ortega and his brother Humberto to form the Insurrectionist, or ''Tercerista'' (Third Way) faction.", "The Terceristas sought to combine the distinct guerrilla war strategies of the two other factions, Tomás Borge's ''Guerra Prolongada Popular'' (GPP, or Prolonged People's War), and Jaime Wheelock's ''Proletarian Tendency''.", "The Ortega brothers forged alliances with a wide array of anti-Somoza forces, including Catholic and Protestant activists, and other non-Marxist civil society groups.", "The Terceristas became the most effective faction in wielding political and military strength, and their push for FSLN solidarity received the support of revolutionary leaders such as Fidel Castro.=== Marriage and family===Ortega married Rosario Murillo in 1979 in a secret ceremony.", "They moved to Costa Rica with her three children from a previous marriage.", "Ortega remarried Murillo in 2005 in order to have the marriage recognized by the Catholic Church, as part of his effort to reconcile with the church.", "The couple has eight children, three of them together.", "Murillo serves as the Ortega government's spokeswoman and a government minister, among other positions.", "Ortega adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez in 1986, through a court case." ], [ "Sandinista revolution and first presidency (1979–1990)", "Nicaragua inflation rate 1980–1993When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person Junta of National Reconstruction, which included Sandinista militant Moisés Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez, businessman Alfonso Robelo, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of a murdered journalist.", "In September 1979, United States President Carter hosted Ortega at the White House, and warned him against arming other Central American leftist guerrilla movements.", "At the time, Ortega spoke truthfully when he denied Sandinista involvement in neighboring countries.", "When Ortega questioned the Americans about CIA support for anti-Sandinista groups, Carter and Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher said the reports were false.", "After the meeting, Carter asked Congress for $75 million in aid to Nicaragua, contingent on the Sandinista government's promise not to aid other guerrillas.The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and in 1981 Ortega became the coordinator of the Junta.", "As the only member of the FSLN National Directorate in the Junta, he was the effective leader of the country.", "After attaining power, the FSLN embarked upon an ambitious programme of social reform.", "They arranged to redistribute of land to about 100,000 families; launched a literacy drive, and made health care improvements that ended polio through mass vaccinations, and reduced the frequency of other treatable diseases.", "The Sandinista nationalization efforts affected mostly banks and industries owned by the extended Somoza family.", "More than half of all farms, businesses, and industries remained in private hands.", "The revolutionary government wanted to preserve a mixed economy and support private sector investment.", "The Superior Council of Private Enterprise (COSEP) opposed the Sandinistas' economic reform.", "The main organization of Nicaraguan big business was composed of prosperous families from the Pacific coast cities, who dominated commerce and banking.", "Ortega took a very hard line against opposition to his policies: On 21 February 1981, the Sandinista army killed 7 Miskito Indians and wounded 17.Ortega's administration forced displacement of many of the indigenous population: 10,000 individuals had been moved by 1982.Thousands of Indians fled to take refuge across the border in Honduras, and Ortega's government imprisoned 14,000 in Nicaragua.", "Anthropologist Gilles Bataillon termed this \"politics of ethnocide\" in Nicaragua.", "The Indians formed two rebel groups – the Misura and Misurasata.", "They were joined in the north by Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) and in the south by former Sandinistas and peasantry who, under the leadership of Edén Pastora, were resisting forced collectivization.In 1980 the Sandinista government launched the massive Nicaraguan Literacy Campaign and said the illiteracy rate fell from 50% to 13% in the span of five months.", "Robert F. Arnove said the figures were excessive because many \"unteachable\" illiterates were omitted from the statistics, and many people declared literate were found to be unable to read or write a simple sentence.", "Richard Kraft said that even if the figures were exaggerated, the \"accomplishment is without precedent in educational history\".", "In 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the Nadezhda K. Krupskaya prize in recognition of its efforts.", "The FSLN also focused on improving the Nicaraguan health system, particularly through vaccination campaigns and the construction of public hospitals.", "These actions reduced child mortality by half, to 40 deaths per thousand.", "By 1982, the World Health Organization deemed Nicaragua a model for primary health care.", "During this period, Nicaragua won the UNESCO prize for exceptional health progress.In 1981, United States President Ronald Reagan accused the FSLN of joining with Soviet-backed Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries, such as El Salvador.", "People within the Reagan administration authorized the CIA to begin financing, arming and training rebels as anti-Sandinista guerrillas, some of whom were former officers from Somoza's National Guard.", "These were known collectively as the Contras.", "This resulted in one of the largest political scandals in US history, (the Iran–Contra affair).", "Oliver North and several members of the Reagan administration defied the Boland Amendment, selling arms to Iran and using the proceeds in order to secretly fund the Contras.The Contra war claimed 30,000 lives in Nicaragua.", "The tactics used by the Sandinista government to fight the Contras have been widely condemned for their suppression of civil rights.", "On 15 March 1982, the junta declared a state of siege, which allowed it to close independent radio stations, suspend the right of association, and limit the freedom of trade unions.", "Nicaragua's Permanent Commission on Human Rights condemned Sandinista human rights violations, accusing them of killing and forcibly disappearing thousands of persons in the first few years of the war.", "Ortega (far right) with Spanish Prime Minister Felipe González, Cuban President Fidel Castro and Spanish Deputy Prime Minister Alfonso Guerra in Madrid, 1984At the 1984 general election Ortega won the presidency with 67% of the vote and took office on 10 January 1985.In the early phases of the campaign, Ortega enjoyed many institutional advantages, and used the full power of the press, police, and Supreme Electoral Council against the fractured opposition.", "In the weeks before the November election, Ortega gave a U.N. speech denouncing talks held in Rio de Janeiro on electoral reform.", "But by 22 October, the Sandinistas signed an accord with opposition parties to reform electoral and campaign laws, making the process more fair and transparent.", "While campaigning, Ortega promoted the Sandinistas' achievements, and at a rally said that \"Democracy is literacy, democracy is land reform, democracy is education and public health.\"", "International observers judged the election to be the first free election held in the country in more than half a century.", "A report by an Irish governmentary delegation stated: \"The electoral process was carried out with total integrity.", "The seven parties participating in the elections represented a broad spectrum of political ideologies.\"", "The general counsel of New York's Human Rights Commission described the election as \"free, fair and hotly contested\".", "A study by the US Latin American Studies Association (LASA) concluded that the FSLN (Sandinista Front) \"did little more to take advantage of its incumbency than incumbent parties everywhere (including the U.S.) routinely do.\"", "However some people described the election as \"rigged\".", "According to a detailed study, since the 1984 election was for posts subordinate to the Sandinista Directorate, the elections were no more subject to approval by vote than the Central Committee of the Communist Party is in countries of the East Bloc.Ortega and Spanish Prime Minister Felipe González in 1989Thirty-three per cent of the Nicaraguan voters cast ballots for one of six opposition parties—three to the right of the Sandinistas, three to the left—which had campaigned with the aid of government funds and free TV and radio time.", "Two conservative parties captured a combined 23% of the vote.", "They held rallies across the country (a few of which were disrupted by FSLN supporters) and blasted the Sandinistas in harsh terms.", "Most foreign and independent observers noted this pluralism in debunking the Reagan administration charge—ubiquitous in the US media—that it was a \"Soviet-style sham\" election.", "Some opposition parties boycotted the election, allegedly under pressure from US embassy officials, and so it was denounced as being unfair by the Reagan administration.", "Reagan thus maintained that he was justified to continue supporting what he referred to as the Contras' \"democratic resistance\".The illegal intervention of the Contras continued (albeit covertly) after Ortega's democratic election.", "Peace talks between five Central American heads of state in July 1987 led to the signing of the Central American Peace Accords, and the beginning of a roadmap to the end of the conflict.", "In 1988, the Contras first entered into peace talks with the Sandinista government, although the violence continued, as did their US support.", "Despite US opposition, disarmament of the Contras began in 1989." ], [ "In opposition (1990–2007)", "In the 1990 presidential election, Ortega lost his reelection bid to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the junta.", "Chamorro was supported by the US and a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Oppositora, UNO), an alliance that ranged from conservatives and liberals to communists.", "She ran an effective campaign, presenting herself as the peace candidate and promising to end the US-funded Contra War if she won.", "Ortega campaigned on the slogan, \"Everything Will Be Better\", and promised that, with the Contra war over, he could focus on the nation's recovery.", "Contrary to what most observers expected, Chamorro shocked Ortega and won the election.", "Chamorro's UNO coalition garnered 54% of the vote, and won 51 of the 92 seats in the National Assembly.", "Immediately after the loss, the Sandinistas tried to maintain unity around their revolutionary posture.", "In Ortega's concession speech the following day he vowed to keep \"ruling from below\" a reference to the power that the FSLN still wielded in various sectors.", "He also stressed his belief that the Sandinistas had the goal of bringing \"dignity\" to Latin America, and not necessarily to hold on to government posts.", "In 1991, Ortega said elections were \"an instrument to reaffirm\" the FSLN's \"political and ideological positions,\" and also \"confront capitalism.\"", "However, the electoral loss led to pronounced divisions in the FSLN.", "Some members adopted more pragmatic positions, and sought to transform the FSLN into a modern social democratic party engaged in national reconciliation and class cooperation.", "Ortega and other party insiders found common ground with the radicals, who still promoted anti-imperialism and class conflict to achieve social change.Possible explanations for his loss include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won.", "Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission stating that 42 people were killed by the contras in \"election violence\" in October 1989.This led many commentators to assume that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation.From 19 to 21 July 1991, the FSLN held a National Congress to mend the rifts between members and form a new overarching political program.", "The effort failed to unite the party, and intense debates over the internal governance of the FSLN continued.", "The pragmatists, led by the former vice president Sergio Ramirez, formed the basis of a \"renovating\" faction, and supported collaboration with other political forces to preserve the rule of law in Nicaragua.", "Under the leadership of Ortega and Tomás Borge, the radicals regrouped into the \"principled\" faction, and branded themselves the Izquierda Democratica (ID), or Democratic Left (DL).", "The DL fought the Chamorro government with disruptive labor strikes and demonstrations, and renewed calls for the revolutionary reconstruction of Nicaraguan society.", "During the 20–23 May 1994, extraordinary congress, Ortega ran against a fellow National Directorate member, Henry Ruiz, for the position of party secretary-general.", "Ortega was elected with 287 to Ruiz's 147 votes, and the DL secured the most dominant role in the FSLN.On 9 September 1994, Ortega gained more power after taking over Sergio Ramirez's seat in the Asamblea Sandinista (Sandinista Assembly).", "Ramirez had been chief of the FSLN's parliamentary caucus since 1990, but Ortega came to oppose his actions in the National Assembly, setting the stage for Ramirez's removal.", "Historic leaders, such as Ernesto Cardenal, a former minister of culture in the Sandinista government, rejected Ortega's consolidation of power: \"My resignation from the FSLN has been caused by the kidnapping of the party carried out by Daniel Ortega and the group he heads.\"", "The party formally split on 8 January 1995, when Ramirez and a number of prominent Sandinista officials quit.Ortega ran for election again, in October 1996 and November 2001, but lost on both occasions to Arnoldo Alemán and Enrique Bolaños, respectively.", "In these elections, a key issue was the allegation of corruption.", "In Ortega's last days as president, through a series of legislative acts known as \"The Piñata\", estates that had been seized by the Sandinista government (some valued at millions and even billions of US dollars) became the private property of various FSLN officials, including Ortega himself.In the 1996 campaign, Ortega faced the Liberal Alliance (Alianza Liberal), headed by Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo, a former mayor of Managua.", "The Sandinistas softened their anti-imperialist rhetoric, with Ortega calling the US \"our great neighbor,\" and vowing to cooperate \"within a framework of respect, equality, and justice.\"", "The image change failed, as Aleman's Liberal Alliance came first with 51.03% of the vote, while Ortega's FSLN secured 37.75%.Ortega's policies became more moderate during his time in opposition, and he gradually changed much of his former Marxist–Leninist stance in favor of an agenda of democratic socialism.", "His Roman Catholic faith has become more public in recent years as well, leading Ortega to embrace a variety of socially conservative policies; in 2006 the FSLN endorsed a strict law banning all abortions in Nicaragua.", "In the run-up to the 2006 elections, Ortega displayed his ties to the Catholic Church by renewing his marriage vows before Cardinal Miguel Obando y Bravo.Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC).", "The controversial alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties is aimed at distributing power between the PLC and FSLN, and preventing other parties from rising.", "After sealing the agreement in January 2000, the two parties controlled the three key institutions of the state: the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Electoral Council.", "''\"El Pacto\",'' as it is known in Nicaragua, is said to have personally benefited former presidents Ortega and Alemán greatly, while constraining then-president Bolaños.", "One of the key accords of the pact was to lower the ratio necessary to win a presidential election in the first round from 45% to 35%, a change in electoral law that would become decisive in Ortega's favor in the 2006 elections.At the Fourth Ordinary Congress of the FSLN, held 17–18 March 2002, Ortega eliminated the National Directorate (DN).", "Once the main collective leadership body of the party, with nine members, the DN no longer met routinely, and only three historic members remained.", "Instead, the body just supported decisions already made by the secretary-general.", "Ortega sidelined party officials and other members while empowering his own informal circle, known as the ring of iron.=== 2001 presidential election ===In the November 2001 general elections, Ortega lost his third successive presidential election, this time to Enrique Bolaños of the Constitutionalist Liberal Party.Under Ortega's direction, the FSLN formed the broad National Convergence (Convergencia Nacional) coalition in opposition to the PLC.", "Ortega abandoned the revolutionary tone of the past, and infused his campaign with religious imagery, giving thanks in speeches to \"God and the Revolution\" for the post-1990 democracy, and said a Sandinista victory would enable the Nicaraguan people to \"pass through the sea and reach the Promised Land.\"", "The US opposed Ortega's candidacy from the beginning.", "The US ambassador even appeared with the PLC's Enrique Bolaños while distributing food aid.", "The 11 September 2001, terrorist attacks doomed Ortega's chances, as the threat of a US invasion became an issue.", "Bolanos convinced many Nicaraguans that the renewed US hostility towards terrorism would endanger their country if the openly anti-US Ortega prevailed.", "Bolanos ended up with 56.3% of the vote, and Ortega won 42.3%.===2006 presidential election===In 2006, Daniel Ortega was elected president with 38% of the vote.", "This occurred despite the fact that the breakaway Sandinista Renovation Movement (MRS) continued to oppose the FSLN, running former Mayor of Managua, Herty Lewites as its candidate for president.", "Ortega personally attacked Lewites' Jewish background, compared him to Judas, and warned he \"could end up hanged.\"", "However, Lewites died several months before the elections.Ortega emphasized peace and reconciliation in his campaign, and selected a former Contra leader, Jaime Morales Carazo, as his running mate.", "The FSLN also won 38 seats in the congressional elections, becoming the party with the largest representation in parliament.", "The split in the Constitutionalist Liberal Party helped allow the FSLN to become the largest party in Congress; however, the Sandinista vote had a minuscule split between the FSLN and MRS, and that the liberal party combined is larger than the Frente Faction.", "In 2010, several liberal congressmen raised accusations about the FSLN presumably attempting to buy votes to pass constitutional reforms that would allow Ortega to run for office for the 6th time since 1984." ], [ "Second presidency (2007–present)", "According to Tim Rogers, writing in ''The Atlantic'', during his second term as president, Ortega took \"full control of all four branches of government, state institutions, the military, and police\", and in the process dismantled \"Nicaragua's institutional democracy\".", "Frances Robles wrote that Ortega took control \"every aspect of government ... the National Assembly, the Supreme Court, the armed forces, the judiciary, the police and the prosecutor's office\".", "In its 2019 World Report, Human Rights Watch wrote that Ortega \"aggressively dismantled all institutional checks on presidential power\".", "Many journalists and governments criticize Ortega and label him a dictator.===2008 elections===In June 2008, the Nicaraguan Supreme Court disqualified the MRS and the Conservative Party from participation in municipal elections.", "In November 2008, the Supreme Electoral Council received national and international criticism following irregularities in municipal elections, but agreed to review results for Managua only, while the opposition demanded a nationwide review.", "For the first time since 1990, the Council decided not to allow national or international observers to witness the election.", "Instances of intimidation, violence, and harassment of opposition political party members and NGO representatives have been recorded.", "Official results show Sandinista candidates winning 94 of the 146 municipal mayoralties, compared to 46 for the main opposition Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC).", "The opposition claimed that marked ballots were dumped and destroyed, that party members were refused access to some of the vote counts and that tallies from many polling places were altered.", "As a result of the fraud allegations, the European Union suspended $70m of aid, and the US$64m.With the late-2000s recession, Ortega in 2011 characterised capitalism as in its \"death throes\" and portrayed the Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America (ALBA) was the most advanced, most Christian and fairest project.", "He also said God was punishing the United States with the financial crisis for trying to impose its economic principles on poor countries.", "\"It's incredible that in the most powerful country in the world, which spends billions of dollars on brutal wars ... people do not have enough money to stay in their homes.", "\"Before the National Sandinista Council held in September 2009, Lenin Cerna, the secretary of the party organization, called for diversifying its political strategies.", "He declared the FSLN's future depended on implementing new plans, \"so that the party can advance via new routes and in new ways, always under Ortega's leadership.\"", "Ortega gained power over the selection of candidates, allowing him to personally choose all candidates for public office.During an interview with David Frost for the Al Jazeera English programme ''Frost Over the World'' in March 2009, Ortega suggested that he would like to change the constitution to allow him to run again for president.", "In Judicial Decision 504, issued on 19 October 2009, the Supreme Court of Justice of Nicaragua declared portions of Articles 147 and 178 of the Constitution of Nicaragua inapplicable; these provisions concerned the eligibility of candidates for president, vice-president, mayor, and vice-mayor—a decision that had the effect of allowing Ortega to run for reelection in 2011.For this decision, the Sandinista magistrates formed the required quorum by excluding the opposition magistrates and replacing them with Sandinista substitutes, violating the Nicaraguan constitution.", "Opposing parties, the church and human rights groups in Nicaragua denounced the decision.", "Throughout 2010, court rulings gave Ortega greater power over judicial and civil service appointments.While supporting abortion rights during his presidency during the 1980s, Ortega has since embraced the Catholic Church's position of strong opposition.", "While non-emergency abortions have long been illegal in Nicaragua, recently even abortions \"in the case where the pregnancy endangers the mother's life\", otherwise known as therapeutic abortions have been made illegal in the days before the 2006 election, with a six-year prison term in such cases, too—a move supported by Ortega.===2011 election===Ortega was re-elected president with a vote on 6 November and confirmation on 16 November 2011.During the election, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) blocked both domestic and international poll observers from multiple polling stations.", "According to the Supreme Electoral Council, Ortega defeated Fabio Gadea, with 63% of the vote.Daniel Ortega in 2013.;2014 amendmentsIn January 2014 the National Assembly, dominated by the FSLN, approved constitutional amendments that abolished term limits for the presidency and allowed a president to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms.", "While the FSLN claimed the amendments would assure the stability Nicaragua needed to deal with long-term problems, the opposition claimed they were a threat to democracy.", "The constitutional reforms also gave Ortega the sole power to appoint military and police commanders.===2016 elections===As of 2016, Ortega's family owns three of the nine free-to-air television channels in Nicaragua, and controls a fourth (the public Channel 6).", "Four of the remaining five are controlled by Mexican mogul Ángel González, and are generally considered to be aligned with Ortega's ruling FSLN party.", "There are no government restrictions on Internet use; the Ortega administration attempted to gain complete control over online media in 2015, but failed due to opposition from civil society, political parties, and private organizations.In June 2016, the Nicaraguan supreme court ruled to oust Eduardo Montealegre, the leader of the main opposition party, leaving the main opposition coalition with no means of contesting the November 2016 national elections.", "In August 2016, Ortega chose his wife, Rosario Murillo, as his vice-presidential running-mate for re-election.According to ''The Washington Post'', figures announced on November 7, 2016, put Daniel Ortega in line for his third consecutive term as president, also being his fourth term overall.", "The Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) reported Ortega and Murillo won 72.4% of the vote, with 68% turnout.", "The opposition coalition had called the election a \"farce\" and had called for the boycott of the election.", "International observers were not allowed to observe the vote.", "Nevertheless, according to the BBC, Ortega was the most popular candidate by far, possibly due to Nicaragua's stable economic growth and lack of violence compared to its neighbours El Salvador and Honduras in recent years.", ";Economic situation during presidencyAccording to Tim Rogers, until the 2018 unrest, as president Ortega presided over \"the fastest-growing economy in Central America\" and was a \"poster child for foreign investment and citizen security in a region known for gangs and unrest\".", "During this time the Ortega government formed an alliance with the Superior Council for Private Enterprise (COSEP), Nicaragua's council of business chambers.", "However the same unpopular decree which \"unilaterally overhauling the social-security tax system\" (mentioned below) and precipitated the unrest in April 2018, also broke Ortega's arrangement with COSEP, and along with US sanctions, brought a sharp economic drop that as of mid-2020 is still \"crippling\" Nicaragua's economy.===Response to the COVID-19 pandemic===President Ortega's government has been the target of criticism for its lack of a response to the pandemic.On 14 March 2020, Ortega's government called a massive demonstration called \"Love in the Time of COVID-19\" as a show of support to him and his government.", "This occurred in the middle of the COVID-19 pandemic which had only recently been officially declared by the WHO.According to CNN, as of mid-June 2020, Ortega had \"refused to impose strict, preventive quarantine measures seen in neighboring countries\" to fight the COVID-19 pandemic.", "\"Public schools remain open, businesses continue to operate, festivals and cultural events are happening on an almost-weekly basis.\"", "The story stated that from mid-March to mid-June six politicians had died, and, according to witnesses, their remains disposed of at night in \"express burials\" (with police in attendance but \"no Mass, no wake and no funeral arrangements\", no photographs).", "The Ortega government said reports of \"express burials\" were \"false news\".", "According to AP News \"the government threatened to ban\" professional baseball players \"who refuse to play baseball ... And everyone is warned to keep quiet.", "\"In hospitals \"ruling-party activists ensure no information leaks out\", and it quotes a doctor (anesthesiologist María Nela Escoto) complaining that in the public hospital where she works \"everything is secret.", "They don't allow suggestions, and you can't question anything because they're watching.", "It's a very hostile environment.", "\"(At the start of the pandemic, Ortega was out of the public eye for \"more than 40 days\", and no explanation was given for his absence when he returned.", ")===2018–2022 Nicaraguan protests===In April 2018, student protests over a nature reserve fire expanded to cover an unpopular decree that would have cut social security benefits and increased taxpayer contributions.", "The protesters were violently set upon by the state sponsored Sandinista Youth.", "Despite attempts by Ortega's government to hide the incident through censorship of all private-owned news outlets, photos and videos of the violence made their way to social media where they sparked outrage and urged more Nicaraguans to join in on the protests.", "Tensions escalated quickly, as police began using tear gas canisters and rubber bullets, and eventually live ammunition on unarmed protesters.", "Authorities were also seen arming Sandinista Youth members with weapons to serve as paramilitary forces.", "Dozens of student protesters were subsequently killed.", "Despite the withdrawal of the unpopular decree, the protests continue, with most protesters demanding Ortega's and his cabinet's resignations.On 30 May 2018, Nicaragua's Mother's Day, over 300,000 people marched to honor the mothers of students killed in the preceding protests.", "Despite the attendance of children, mothers and retirees, and lack of any violence by marchers, marchers were attacked in an event dubbed the \"Mother's Day Massacre\".", "16 were killed, and 88 injured, as \"police sprayed the crowd with bullets, government sharpshooters positioned on the roof of the national baseball stadium went headhunting with sniper rifles\".In June 2018, Tim Rogers wrote in ''The Atlantic'' magazine:Over the past seven weeks, Ortega's police and paramilitaries have killed more than 120 people, mostly students and other young protesters who are demanding the president's ouster and a return to democracy, according to a human-rights group CENIDH, Nicaraguan Center for Human Rights.", "Police hunt students like enemy combatants.", "Sandinista Youth paramilitaries, armed and paid by Ortega's party, drive around in pickup trucks attacking protesters.", "Gangs of masked men loot and burn shops with impunity.", "Cops wear civilian clothing, and some paramilitaries dress in police uniforms.", "\"This is starting to look more like Syria than Caracas,\" one Nicaraguan business leader told me.By December 3, 22 people were dead and 565 imprisoned.", "Professionals involved in the protests (lawyers, engineering majors, radio broadcasters and merchants) had been reduced to lives of \"ever-changing safe houses, encrypted messaging apps and pseudonyms\", with the Ortega government allegedly \"hunting us like deer,\" according to one dissident (Roberto Carlos Membreño Briceño).", "Human rights organization offices were raided, computers seized and observers expelled.", "Observers from the Organization of American States were expelled after releasing a critical investigative report of the government's response to the protests.", "The report found the government had progressed from \"using tear gas to rubber bullets, then real bullets and finally military firepower like assault rifles and grenade launchers\", based on an analysis of videos posted on social media.", "At least 1,400 people involved in the protests were hurt, although that the number was probably \"far higher because most people were too afraid to go to public hospitals, where doctors were fired for treating wounded protesters\".", "By July 2019 the international human rights organization Human Rights Watch called on the United States to impose sanctions on Ortega \"and other top\" Nicaraguan officials \"implicated\" in the crackdown on protests.===Foreign policy===Ortega with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in Russia on 18 December 2008Soon after the 2006 election, Ortega paid an official visit to Iran and met Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.", "Ortega told the press that the \"revolutions of Iran and Nicaragua are almost twin revolutions...since both revolutions are about justice, liberty, self-determination, and the struggle against imperialism.", "\"On 6 March 2008, following the 2008 Andean diplomatic crisis, Ortega announced that Nicaragua was breaking diplomatic ties with Colombia \"in solidarity with the Ecuadorian people\".", "Ortega also stated, \"We are not breaking relations with the Colombian people.", "We are breaking relations with the terrorist policy practiced by Álvaro Uribe's government\".", "The relations were restored with the resolution at a Rio Group summit held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 7 March 2008.At the summit Colombia's Álvaro Uribe, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Venezuela's Hugo Chávez and Ortega publicly shook hands in a show of good-will.", "The handshakes, broadcast live throughout Latin America, appeared to signal that a week of military buildups and diplomatic repercussions was over.", "After the handshakes, Ortega said he would re-establish diplomatic ties with Colombia.", "Uribe then quipped that he would send him the bill for his ambassador's plane fare.On 25 May 2008, Ortega, upon learning of the death of FARC guerrilla leader Manuel Marulanda in Colombia, expressed condolences to the family of Marulanda and solidarity with the FARC and called Marulanda an extraordinary fighter who battled against profound inequalities in Colombia.", "The declarations were protested by the Colombian government and criticized in the major Colombian media outlets.Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva at Itamaraty Palace in Brasília, 28 July 2010.On 2 September 2008, during ceremonies for the 29th anniversary of the founding of the Nicaraguan army, Ortega announced that \"Nicaragua recognizes the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports the Russian government's position\".", "Ortega's decision made Nicaragua the second country (after Russia) to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia.Ortega with the president of the Republic of China Tsai Ing-wen, 10 January 2017Under Ortega's leadership, Nicaragua joined the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas.When seeking office, Ortega threatened to cut diplomatic recognition with the Republic of China (Taiwan, formerly Nationalist China) in order to restore relations with the Mainland-based People's Republic of China (as in the period from 1985 to 1990) as the legal government of China.", "But he did not do so.", "In 2007 Ortega stated that Nicaragua did not accept the One China Policy of the PRC government and that Nicaragua reserved the right to maintain official diplomatic relations with the ROC.", "He reassured President Chen Shui Bian in 2007 that Nicaragua would not break diplomatic relations with the ROC.", "He explained that during the Reagan administration the United States imposed sanctions on Nicaragua.", "But cutting ties with Taipei was a sad and painful decision because of the friendship between Nicaragua and Taiwan's people and government.", "Ortega met with the ROC President Ma Ying-jeou in 2009 and both agreed to improve the diplomatic ties between both countries.", "However, with a trade show from China (PRC) in Managua in 2010, he is attempting a two-track policy to get benefits from both sides.", "In 2016 Nicaragua and China (ROC) signed an air services agreement and Ortega stated that Nicaragua's free trade deal with the ROC had benefited both nations.", "The ROC increased its investment in Nicaragua.", "In December 2021, Nicaragua once again switched recognition with the PRC.In September 2010, after a US report listed Nicaragua as a \"major\" drug-trafficking centre, with Costa Rica and Honduras, Ortega urged the US Congress and Obama administration to allocate more resources to assist the fight against drug trafficking.During the Libyan Civil War, Ortega was among the very few leaders who spoke out in clear defense of the embattled Muammar Gaddafi.", "During a telephone conversation between the two, Ortega told Gaddafi that he was \"waging a great battle to defend his nation\" and stated that \"it's at difficult times that loyalty and resolve are put to the test.", "\"Ortega has said that Assad's victory in the 2014 election is an important step to \"attain peace in Syria and a clear cut evidence that the Syrian people trust their president as a national leader and support his policies which aim at maintaining Syria's sovereignty and unity\".Ortega attended the swearing-in ceremony of Nicolás Maduro for his second term on 10 January 2019.In an interview with Max Blumenthal in August 2019, Ortega stated that he was open to the idea of Bernie Sanders (who had visited him in 1985) winning the US presidency in 2020 and that Sanders's message \"goes in the right direction for the U.S. to become a pole of peace, development, and cooperation.", "\"===Environmental policy===In 2016, Daniel Ortega did not sign the Paris Agreement because he felt the deal did not do enough to protect the climate, although he later changed his mind.", "Moreover, Nicaragua rejected projects of mining of the Canadian group B2 Gold which could represent a threat to the environment.", "According to government estimates, Nicaragua has passed from 25% renewable electricity to 52% between 2007 and 2016.===International sanctions======= United States ====In November 2021, Joe Biden signed into law the \"Reinforcing Nicaragua's Adherence to Conditions for Electoral Reform Act\" (RENACER Act) which extended US sanctions against Nicaragua and gave Biden the power to exclude Nicaragua from the Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR) and to obstruct multilateral loans to Nicaragua.", "Venezuela and Russia condemned the new law.==== Ukraine ====In February 2021, Ukraine's ''Verkhovna Rada'' approved economic sanctions against President Ortega and his government.", "The sanctions were in response to Ortega sending a delegation to the Russian-occupied territory of Crimea in November 2020." ], [ "Electoral history", "===1984 general election======1990 general election======1996 general election======2001 general election======2006 general election======2011 general election======2016 general election======2021 general election===" ], [ "Controversy", "Ortega's second presidency has been subject to much criticism and accusations of his becoming a strongman.", "The 2018 protests have been pointed to as being symbolic of these tensions.", "In 2018, Frances Robles wrote in ''The New York Times'' that the \"many Ortega adult children manage everything from gasoline distribution to television stations\" in Nicaragua.In the months preceding the November 2021 Nicaraguan general election, Ortega's government arrested many prominent opposition members.", "As of 23 July, 26 opposition leaders have been imprisoned.On 24 March 2022, the ambassador Arturo McFields, condemned the Ortega government and requested the release of political prisoners, alluding that the government people were \"tired of dictatorship\" and that it was not easy to denounce it.", "As a result, he was dismissed.The American lawyer Paul Reichler also left his position as representative due to \"moral conscience\", who felt that the president \"was no longer the Daniel Ortega whom he respected so much and served with so much pride.\"", "Reichler found it inconceivable that someone like Ortega would have mercilessly suppressed peaceful demonstrations and imprisoned his former colleagues in inhumane conditions, and accused him of \"murdering\" a general by withholding medical treatment.", "This figure of American origin served as Nicaragua's international legal adviser before the International Court of Justice, when Managua denounced the United States for financing the counterrevolution, winning the case.The Ortega administration also ordered the closure of the Nicaraguan Language Academy for failing to register as a \"foreign agent\" ratified by the Sandinista parliament with the favorable vote of 75 deputies of the ruling FSLN.===Sexual abuse allegations===In 1998, Daniel Ortega's adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez released a 48-page report in which she alleged he had sexually abused her from 1979, when she was 12, until 1990.Ortega and his wife Murillo denied the allegation.", "The case could not proceed in Nicaraguan courts, which have been consistently allied with Ortega, because he had immunity from prosecution as a member of parliament, and the five-year statute of limitations for sexual abuse and rape charges had expired.", "Narváez's complaint to the Inter-American Human Rights Commission was ruled admissible on 15 October 2001.On 4 March 2002, the Nicaraguan government accepted the commission's recommendation of a \"friendly agreement\".", "Narváez withdrew the accusations in 2008.Following the 2016 election, Narváez renewed her accusations and said that she had become an outcast in her family.In 2019 a documentary film ''Exiliada'' was released which revolves around Zoilamérica Narváez and her sexual abuse allegations against Ortega.There is also the case of Elvia Junieth who was allegedly abused by the president in 2005, and, according to the family, a girl was born from that relationship that Ortega did not recognize.", "Ernesto Moncada Lau, another of the assistants to the Sandinista president, appears on the birth certificate as the father of the minor.", "Her brother died in the Tipitapa Model prison in November 2021." ], [ "Foreign honours", "* Abkhazia** 70px Order of Honour and Glory, First Class* Cuba** 70px Order of José Martí* Mongolia** 70px Order of Sukhbaatar* Peru** 70px Order of the Sun of Peru* Russia** 70px Order of Friendship* South Ossetia** 70px Uatsamonga Order" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * , especially:**" ], [ "External links", "* Office of the President * Biography by CIDOB" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Destroyer" ], [ "Introduction", "Litorral combat ship (LCS) are the longest and heaviest destroyers currently in service.Caio Duilio'', belongs to the of Franco-Italian designed first-rate frigates.In naval terminology, a '''destroyer''' is a fast, maneuverable, long-endurance warship intended to escortlarger vessels in a fleet, convoy, or carrier battle group and defend them against a wide range of general threats.", "They were originally conceived in 1885 by Fernando Villaamil for the Spanish Navy as a defense against torpedo boats, and by the time of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, these \"torpedo boat destroyers\" (TBDs) were \"large, swift, and powerfully armed torpedo boats designed to destroy other torpedo boats\".", "Although the term \"destroyer\" had been used interchangeably with \"TBD\" and \"torpedo boat destroyer\" by navies since 1892, the term \"torpedo boat destroyer\" had been generally shortened to simply \"destroyer\" by nearly all navies by the First World War.Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations; typically, a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together.", "After the war, destroyers grew in size.", "The American s had a displacement of 2,200 tons, while the has a displacement of up to 9,600 tons, a difference of nearly 340%.", "Moreover, the advent of guided missiles allowed destroyers to take on the surface-combatant roles previously filled by battleships and cruisers.", "This resulted in larger and more powerful guided-missile destroyers more capable of independent operation.At the start of the 21st century, destroyers are the global standard for surface-combatant ships, with only two nations (the United States and Russia) officially operating the heavier cruisers, with no battleships or true battlecruisers remaining.", "Modern guided-missile destroyers are equivalent in tonnage but vastly superior in firepower to cruisers of the World War II era, and are capable of carrying nuclear-tipped cruise missiles.", "At long, a displacement of 9,200 tons, and with an armament of more than 90 missiles, guided-missile destroyers such as the ''Arleigh Burke'' class are actually larger and more heavily armed than most previous ships classified as guided-missile cruisers.", "The Chinese Type 055 destroyer has been described as a cruiser in some US Navy reports due to its size and armament.Many NATO navies, such as the Canadian, French, Spanish, Dutch, Danish, and German, use the term \"frigate\" for their destroyers, which leads to some confusion." ], [ "Origins", "Fernando Villaamil, credited as the inventor of the destroyer concept, died in action during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba in 1898.The emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s.", "A navy now had the potential to destroy a superior enemy battle fleet using steam launches to fire torpedoes.", "Cheap, fast boats armed with torpedoes called torpedo boats were built and became a threat to large capital ships near enemy coasts.", "The first seagoing vessel designed to launch the self-propelled Whitehead torpedo was the 33-ton in 1876.She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons; these were replaced in 1879 by a single torpedo tube in the bow.", "By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, fast enough to evade enemy picket boats.At first, the threat of a torpedo-boat attack to a battle fleet was considered to exist only when at anchor, but as faster and longer-range torpedo boats and torpedoes were developed, the threat extended to cruising at sea.", "In response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called \"catchers\" were built, which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea.", "They needed significant seaworthiness and endurance to operate with the battle fleet, and as they inherently became larger, they became officially designated \"torpedo-boat destroyers\", and by the First World War were largely known as \"destroyers\" in English.", "The antitorpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French (), Italian (), Portuguese (), Czech (), Greek (, ), Dutch () and, up until the Second World War, Polish (, now obsolete).Once destroyers became more than just catchers guarding an anchorage, they were recognized to be also ideal to take over the offensive role of torpedo boats themselves, so they were also fitted with torpedo tubes in addition to their antitorpedo-boat guns.", "At that time, and even into World War I, the only function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks and to make such attacks on the battleships of the enemy.", "The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future.===Early designs===The Imperial Japanese Navy's ''Kotaka'' (1887)An important development came with the construction of HMS ''Swift'' in 1884, later redesignated TB 81.This was a large (137 ton) torpedo boat with four 47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes.", "At , while still not fast enough to engage enemy torpedo boats reliably, the ship at least had the armament to deal with them.Another forerunner of the torpedo-boat destroyer (TBD) was the Japanese torpedo boat (''Falcon''), built in 1885.Designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the Isle of Dogs, London Yarrow shipyard in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887.The long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached , and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat built to date.", "In her trials in 1889, ''Kotaka'' demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying larger warships on the high seas.", "The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for ''Kotaka'', \"considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer\".The German aviso , launched in 1886, was designed as a \"''Torpedojäger''\" (torpedo hunter), intended to screen the fleet against attacks by torpedo boats.", "The ship was significantly larger than torpedo boats of the period, displacing some , with an armament of guns and Hotchkiss revolver cannon.===Torpedo gunboat===HMS ''Spider'', an early model of torpedo gunboatThe first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was the torpedo gunboat.", "Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes and an adequate gun armament, intended for hunting down smaller enemy boats.", "By the end of the 1890s, torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the TBDs, which were much faster.The first example of this was , designed by Nathaniel Barnaby in 1885, and commissioned in response to the Russian War scare.", "The gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats.", "Exactly long and in beam, she displaced 550 tons.", "Built of steel, ''Rattlesnake'' was unarmoured with the exception of a -inch protective deck.", "She was armed with a single 4-inch/25-pounder breech-loading gun, six 3-pounder QF guns and four torpedo tubes, arranged with two fixed tubes at the bow and a set of torpedo-dropping carriages on either side.", "Four torpedo reloads were carried.A number of torpedo gunboat classes followed, including the ''Grasshopper'' class, the , the , and the – all built for the Royal Navy during the 1880s and the 1890s.", "In the 1880s, the Chilean Navy ordered the construction of two torpedo gunboats from the British shipyard Laird Brothers, which specialized in the construction of this type of vessel.", "The novelty is that one of these ''Almirante Lynch''-class torpedo boats managed to sink the ironclad with a self-propelled torpedoes in the Battle of Caldera Bay in 1891, thus surpassing its main function of hunting torpedo boats.Fernando Villaamil, second officer of the Ministry of the Navy of Spain, designed his own torpedo gunboat to combat the threat from the torpedo boat.", "He asked several British shipyards to submit proposals capable of fulfilling these specifications.", "In 1885, the Spanish Navy chose the design submitted by the shipyard of James and George Thomson of Clydebank.", "(''Destroyer'' in Spanish) was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887.Some authors considered her as the first destroyer ever built.", "''Destructor'' in 1890, the first destroyer ever builtShe displaced 348 tons, and was the first warship equipped with twin triple-expansion engines generating , for a maximum speed of , which made her one of the faster ships in the world in 1888.She was armed with one Spanish-designed Hontoria breech-loading gun, four (6-pounder) Nordenfelt guns, two (3-pdr) Hotchkiss cannons and two Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes.", "The ship carried three torpedoes per tube.", "She carried a crew of 60.In terms of gunnery, speed, and dimensions, the specialised design to chase torpedo boats and her high-seas capabilities, ''Destructor'' was an important precursor to the TBD." ], [ "Development of modern destroyers", ", the first modern destroyer, commissioned in 1894The first classes of ships to bear the formal designation TBD were the of two ships and of two ships of the Royal Navy.Early torpedo gunboat designs lacked the range and speed to keep up with the fleet they were supposed to protect.", "In 1892, the Third Sea Lord, Rear Admiral John \"Jacky\" Fisher ordered the development of a new type of ships equipped with the then-novel water-tube boilers and quick-firing small-calibre guns.", "Six ships to the specifications circulated by the admiralty were ordered initially, comprising three different designs each produced by a different shipbuilder: and from John I. Thornycroft & Company, and from Yarrows, and and from Laird, Son & Company.These ships all featured a turtleback (i.e.", "rounded) forecastle that was characteristic of early British TBDs.", "and were both built by Thornycroft, displaced 260 tons (287.8 tons full load), and were 185 feet in length.", "They were armed with one 12-pounder gun and three 6-pounder guns, with one fixed 18-in torpedo tube in the bow plus two more torpedo tubes on a revolving mount abaft the two funnels.", "Later, the bow torpedo tube was removed and two more 6-pounder guns added, instead.", "They produced 4,200 hp from a pair of Thornycroft water-tube boilers, giving them a top speed of 27 knots, giving the range and speed to travel effectively with a battle fleet.", "In common with subsequent early Thornycroft boats, they had sloping sterns and double rudders.The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first TBD in 1899, with the ''torpilleur d'escadre''.", "The United States commissioned its first TBD, , Destroyer No.", "1, in 1902, and by 1906, 16 destroyers were in service with the US Navy.===Subsequent improvements===Builders' plans for the British , built 1894–95Torpedo boat destroyer designs continued to evolve around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways.", "The first was the introduction of the steam turbine.", "The spectacular unauthorized demonstration of the turbine-powered at the 1897 Spithead Navy Review, which, significantly, was of torpedo-boat size, prompted the Royal Navy to order a prototype turbine-powered destroyer, of 1899.This was the first turbine warship of any kind, and achieved a remarkable on sea trials.", "By 1910, the turbine had been widely adopted by all navies for their faster ships.The second development was the replacement of the torpedo boat-style turtleback foredeck by a raised forecastle for the new s built in 1903, which provided better sea-keeping and more space below deck.The first warship to use only fuel oil propulsion was the Royal Navy's TBD , after experiments in 1904, although the obsolescence of coal as a fuel in British warships was delayed by oil's availability.", "Other navies also adopted oil, for instance the USN with the of 1909.In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern.", "The hull was long and narrow, with a relatively shallow draft.", "The bow was either raised in a forecastle or covered under a turtleback; underneath this were the crew spaces, extending to the way along the hull.", "Aft of the crew spaces was as much engine space as the technology of the time would allow - several boilers and engines or turbines.", "Above deck, one or more quick-firing guns were mounted in the bows, in front of the bridge; several more were mounted amidships and astern.", "Two tube mountings (later on, multiple mountings) were generally found amidships.Between 1892 and 1914, destroyers became markedly larger; initially 275 tons with a length of for the Royal Navy's first of TBDs, up to the First World War with long destroyers displacing 1,000 tons was not unusual.", "Construction remained focused on putting the biggest possible engines into a small hull, though, resulting in a somewhat flimsy construction.", "Often, hulls were built of high-tensile steel only thick.By 1910, the steam-driven displacement (that is, not hydroplaning) torpedo boat had become redundant as a separate type.", "Germany, nevertheless, continued to build such boats until the end of World War I, although these were effectively small coastal destroyers.", "In fact, Germany never distinguished between the two types, giving them pennant numbers in the same series and never giving names to destroyers.", "Ultimately, the term \"torpedo boat\" came to be attached to a quite different vessel – the very fast-hydroplaning, motor-driven motor torpedo boat." ], [ "Early use and World War I", "Navies originally built TBDrs to protect against torpedo boats, but admirals soon appreciated the flexibility of the fast, multipurpose vessels that resulted.", "Vice-Admiral Sir Baldwin Walker laid down destroyer duties for the Royal Navy:* Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about* Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass* Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return* Attacking an enemy fleetEarly destroyers were extremely cramped places to live, being \"without a doubt magnificent fighting vessels... but unable to stand bad weather\".", "During the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy TBD ''Akatsuki'' described \"being in command of a destroyer for a long period, especially in wartime... is not very good for the health\".", "Stating that he had originally been strong and healthy, he continued, \"life on a destroyer in winter, with bad food, no comforts, would sap the powers of the strongest men in the long run.", "A ''destroyer'' is always more uncomfortable than the others, and rain, snow, and ''sea-water'' combine to make them damp; in fact, in bad weather, there is not a dry spot where one can rest for a moment.", "\"The Japanese destroyer-commander finished with, \"Yesterday, I looked at myself in a mirror for a long time; I was disagreeably surprised to see my face thin, full of wrinkles, and as old as though I were 50.My clothes (uniform) cover nothing but a skeleton, and my bones are full of rheumatism.", "\"In 1898, the US Navy officially classified , a long all steel vessel displacing 165 tons, as a torpedo boat, but her commander, LT. John C. Fremont, described her as \"...a compact mass of machinery not meant to keep the sea nor to live in... as five-sevenths of the ship are taken up by machinery and fuel, whilst the remaining two-sevenths, fore and aft, are the crew's quarters; officers forward and the men placed aft.", "And even in those spaces are placed anchor engines, steering engines, steam pipes, etc.", "rendering them unbearably hot in tropical regions.", "\"===Early combat===, of the The TBD's first major use in combat came during the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian fleet anchored in Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War on 8 February 1904.Three destroyer divisions attacked the Russian fleet in port, firing a total of 18 torpedoes, but only two Russian battleships, and , and a protected cruiser, , were seriously damaged due to the proper deployment of torpedo nets.", "''Tsesarevich'', the Russian flagship, had her nets deployed, with at least four enemy torpedoes \"hung up\" in them, and other warships were similarly saved from further damage by their nets.While capital-ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units engaged almost continually in raiding and patrol actions.", "The first shot of the war at sea was fired on 5 August 1914 by , one of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla, in an engagement with the German auxiliary minelayer .Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted the Battle of Heligoland Bight, and filled a range of roles in the Battle of Gallipoli, acting as troop transports and as fire-support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role.", "Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo boats took part in the Battle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships.", "Jutland also concluded with a messy night action between the German High Seas Fleet and part of the British destroyer screen., a The threat evolved by World War I with the development of the submarine, or U-boat.", "The submarine had the potential to hide from gunfire and close underwater to fire torpedoes.", "Early-war destroyers had the speed and armament to intercept submarines before they submerged, either by gunfire or by ramming.", "Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that they were difficult to hit with torpedoes.", "was the first destroyer to successfully ram a submarine.The desire to attack submarines under water led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war.", "They were quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, and depth charges and hydrophones for identifying submarine targets.", "The first submarine casualty credited to a destroyer was the German , rammed by on 29 October 1914.While ''U-19'' was only damaged, the next month, successfully sank .", "The first depth-charge sinking was on 4 December 1916, when was sunk by HMS ''Llewellyn''.The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on antisubmarine patrol.", "Once Germany adopted unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, destroyers were called on to escort merchant convoys.", "US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be dispatched upon the American entry to the war, and a squadron of Japanese destroyers even joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean.", "Patrol duty was far from safe; of the 67 British destroyers lost in the war, collisions accounted for 18, while 12 were wrecked.At the end of the war, the state-of-the-art was represented by the British W class." ], [ "1918–1945", "V-class destroyer, The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments.", "A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the war, because destroyers had expended all their torpedoes in an initial salvo.", "The British V and W classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models.", "The V and W classes set the standard of destroyer building well into the 1920s.Two Romanian destroyers and , though, had the greatest firepower of all destroyers in the world throughout the first half of the 1920s.", "This was largely because, between their commissioning in 1920 and 1926, they retained the armament that they had while serving in the Italian Navy as scout cruisers (''esploratori'').", "When initially ordered by Romania in 1913, the Romanian specifications envisioned three 120 mm guns, a caliber which would eventually be adopted as the standard for future Italian destroyers.", "Armed with three 152 mm and four 76 mm guns after being completed as scout cruisers, the two warships were officially re-rated as destroyers by the Romanian Navy.", "The two Romanian warships were thus the destroyers with the greatest firepower in the world throughout much of the interwar period.", "As of 1939, when the Second World War started, their artillery, although changed, was still close to cruiser standards, amounting to nine heavy naval guns (five of 120 mm and four of 76 mm).", "In addition, they retained their two twin 457 mm torpedo tubes and two machine guns, plus the capacity to carry up to 50 mines.", "''Fubuki''-class destroyer, The next major innovation came with the Japanese or \"special type\", designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928.The design was initially noted for its powerful armament of six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and three triple torpedo mounts.", "The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for antiaircraft warfare, and the , oxygen-fueled Long Lance Type 93 torpedo.", "The later of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedoes close at hand in the superstructure, allowing reloading within 15 minutes.Most other nations replied with similar larger ships.", "The US adopted twin 5-inch (127 mm) guns, and the subsequent and es (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16, respectively.France's is the fastest destroyer class ever built.In the Mediterranean, the Italian Navy's building of very fast light cruisers of the prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs.", "The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930.The of 1935 carried five guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of , which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer.", "The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift; most Italian designs of the 1930s were rated at over , while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns.Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program.", "The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels.", "This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy guns.", "German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery; while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems.Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller, but more numerous than those used by other nations.", "The British built a series of destroyers (the to ), which were about 1,400 tons standard displacement, and had four guns and eight torpedo tubes; the American of 1938 was similar in size, but carried five guns and ten torpedo tubes.", "Realizing the need for heavier gun armament, the British built the of 1936 (sometimes called ''Afridi'' after one of two lead ships).", "These ships displaced 1,850 tons and were armed with eight guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes.", "These were followed by the J-class and L-class destroyers, with six guns in twin turrets and eight torpedo tubes.Antisubmarine sensors included sonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent.", "Antisubmarine weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in World War I, had made no progress.===Later combat===, a during World War IIDuring the 1920s and 1930s, destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster.", "British and American destroyers were common on the Chinese coast and rivers, even supplying landing parties to protect colonial interests.", "By World War II, the threat had evolved once again.", "Submarines were more effective, and aircraft had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the early-war fleet destroyers were ill-equipped for combating these new targets.", "They were fitted with new light antiaircraft guns, radar, and forward-launched ASW weapons, in addition to their existing dual-purpose guns, depth charges, and torpedoes.", "Increasing size allowed improved internal arrangement of propulsion machinery with compartmentation, so ships were less likely to be sunk by a single hit.", "In most cases torpedo and/or dual-purpose gun armament was reduced to accommodate new anti-air and anti-submarine weapons.", "By this time the destroyers had become large, multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right.", "As a result, casualties on destroyers were among the highest.", "In the US Navy, particularly in World War II, destroyers became known as tin cans due to their light armor compared to battleships and cruisers.The need for large numbers of antisubmarine ships led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized antisubmarine warships called corvettes and frigates by the Royal Navy and destroyer escorts by the USN.", "A similar programme was belatedly started by the Japanese (see ).", "These ships had the size and displacement of the original TBDs from which the contemporary destroyer had evolved." ], [ "Post-World War II", "Polish destroyer is preserved as a museum ship in Gdynia.Some conventional destroyers completed in the late 1940s and 1950s were built on wartime experience.", "These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the squid mortar.", "Examples include the British , US , and the Soviet s.Some World War II–vintage ships were modernized for antisubmarine warfare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships.", "Examples include the US FRAM I programme and the British Type 15 frigates converted from fleet destroyers.The advent of surface-to-air missiles and surface-to-surface missiles, such as the Exocet, in the early 1960s changed naval warfare.", "Guided missile destroyers (DDG in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine, and surface threats.", "Examples include the Soviet , the British , and the US .The 21st century destroyers tend to display features such as large, slab sides without complicated corners and crevices to keep the radar cross-section small, vertical launch systems to carry a large number of missiles at high readiness to fire, and helicopter flight decks and hangars." ], [ "Operators", "Countries by destroyer number (countries which operate destroyers in blue, specific colour code shown on image)* operates a single Type 42 destroyer used as transport ship.", "* operates three s.Chinese Navy Luyang III-class (Type 052D) destroyer* operates seven Renhai-class destroyers, two Luyang I-class destroyers, six Luyang II-class destroyers, 24 Luyang III-class destroyers and two Luzhou-class destroyers.", "China also operates two Luhu-class destroyers, one Luhai-class destroyer and four -class destroyers that are of older models.", "It is notable that the Renhai class (Type 055) is considered to be a cruiser by NATO and the U.S. Department of Defense for its tonnage and capability matching that of the .", "* (Taiwan) operates four s, purchased from the United States.", "* operates single Z-class destroyer for training use.", "* operates two s and eight FREMM Multipurpose frigates of the ''Aquitaine''-class variant.", "The French Navy does not use the term \"destroyer\" but rather \"first-rate frigate\" for these ship types, but they are marked with the NATO \"D\" hull code which places them in the destroyer type, as opposed to \"F\" for frigate.", "* has HS ''Velos'', a , remains ceremonially in commission due to her historical significance.", "* operates two s, three s, three , and three destroyers.", "* operates two s and two Orizzonte-class destroyers.Izumo-class, internationally regarded as helicopter carrier* operates two , two , four , two , four , five , nine , eight , and two s, along with six s. Japan also operates two and two helicopter destroyers, internationally regarded as helicopter carriers.", "* operates three , six and three destroyers.", "* has the which remains ceremonially in commission due to her historical significance.", "''Admiral Panteleyev'', an guided missile destroyer of the Russian Navy* The Russian Navy operates two and eight destroyers.", "* operates a single purchased from the United States for training use.", "* operates six Type 45 or ''Daring''-class destroyers.", "* , an guided missile destroyer of the United States Navy operates 73 active guided missile destroyers (DDGs) of a planned class of 92, and also has two active destroyer of a planned class of three, all .=== Ships of equivalent to frigates ===* operates four s. This class's hull is MEKO 360H2 frigate.", "* operates five s. These ships are classified as destroyers by Iran, but internationally regarded as light frigates.=== Ships of note classed as frigates ===* operates the ENS ''Tahya Misr''.", "This is one of the ''Aquitaine''-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.", "* operates three s and four s. These ships are officially classified as frigates by Germany, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.", "* operates the ''Mohammed VI''.", "This is one of the ''Aquitaine''-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.", "* operates four s. These ships are classified as frigates by the Netherlands, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.", "* operates four s. These ships are subclasses of Spain's ''Alvaro de Bazan''-class, and classified as frigates, but are regarded as destroyers due to their size and armament.", "* operates .", "This ship was classified as a destroyer from 1990 to 2001, when she was reclassified as a frigate.", "No official reason was given for this and there was no change in armament or capability, thus remaining in the destroyer type.", "* operates five s. These ships are officially classified as a frigates by Spain, but due to their size and capabilities are regarded internationally as destroyers.=== Former operators ===* lost its entire navy upon the Empire's collapse following World War I.", "* lost its entire navy upon its conquest by the Bolsheviks in 1921.", "* sold its two and s to Peru in 1933, to prevent their capture by the Soviet Union.", "* transferred its only back to Japan in 1942.", "* decommissioned its only in 1963.", "* decommissioned its last in 1965.", "* decommissioned its last in 1967.", "* decommissioned its last Z-class destroyer in 1972.", "* decommissioned its H-class destroyer in 1972.", "* transferred its remaining to The Philippines in 1975 following the Fall of Saigon.", "* decommissioned its last W-class destroyer in 1976.", "* decommissioned its only destroyer, in 1980.", "* decommissioned both its and four s in 1982 following defense reviews.", "* decommissioned both its s and its lone in 1986.", "* decommissioned its last in 1991.", "* lone was destroyed by a fire in 1992.", "* decommissioned its lone in 1994.", "* decommissioned its lone in 1997.", "* decommissioned its last in 2000.", "* decommissioned its lone in 2003.", "* decommissioned its last in 2004.", "* decommissioned its last s in 2005.", "* decommissioned its last in 2006.", "* decommissioned its last in 2007.", "* decommissioned its last ''Garcia''-class destroyer escort in 2008.", "* decommissioned its last in 2011.", "* decommissioned its last in 2015.", "* decommissioned its last in 2017.", "* decommissioned its last in 2018.", "* decommissioned its last in 2023." ], [ "Future development", "''Baden-Württemberg'', an F125-class frigate of the German Navy; currently the biggest frigates worldwide.", "In size and role they are qualified as destroyers* plans to build 7,000-ton destroyers after the delivery of the new frigates, and TKMS presented to the Navy its most modern 7,200-ton MEKO A-400 air defense destroyer, an updated version of the German F-125-class frigates.", "The similarities between the projects and the high rate of commonality between requirements were also crucial for the consortium's victory.", "* is adding six more Type 052D destroyer and sixteen more Type 055 destroyer class ships to its navy.", "* is building five new ''Amiral Ronarc'h''-class destroyers (classed as \"first rank frigates\" in the French Navy).", "*: Six multi-mission F126 frigates which will have destroyer-size and corresponding capabilities (Length: 163 m, displacement: 10,550 tons)* has ordered three Frégate de défense et d'intervention (with an option on a fourth) from France.", "* is building four s, of which two have been commissioned.", "The nation has also begun development of its Next Generation Destroyer (NGD), also referred to as ''Project 18''-class destroyers.", "* is currently building 1-2 s.* is currently researching development into their new DDX project to replace their ''Durand da le Penne''-class destroyers.", "* Is developing plans for its DDR Destroyer Revolution Project.", "* has begun development of its KDX-IIA destroyers.", "These ships are to be a subclass of South Korea's s. The first unit is expected to enter service in 2019.Additionally, s are being built.", "* has begun development of its .", "Design work was ongoing as of 2020.", "* is currently developing its TF2000-class destroyer as the largest part of the MILGEM project.", "A total of seven ships will be constructed and will specialise in anti-air warfare.", "* is in the early stages of developing a Type 83 destroyer design after the unveiling of these plans in the 2021 defence white paper.", "The class is projected to replace the current Type 45 destroyer fleet beginning in the latter 2030s.", "*, currently has 19 additional ''Arleigh Burke'' destroyers planned or under construction.", "The new ships will be the upgraded \"flight III\" version.", "The United States has also started development of its DDG(X) next-generation destroyer project.", "Construction of the first ship is expected to start in 2028." ], [ "See also", "* List of destroyer classes* United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification* Bombardment of Cherbourg* List of destroyers of the Second World War" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Evans, David C. ''Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy'', 1887–1941, Mark R. Peattie.", "Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland * Gardiner, Robert (Editor).", "''Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships (1860–1905)'': Naval Institute Press, 1985.", "* Gove, Philip Babock (Editor in Chief).", "''Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged.''", "(2002) Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers, Massachusetts, US.", "* Grant, R. Captain.", "''Before Port Arthur in a Destroyer; The Personal Diary of a Japanese Naval Officer.''", "London, John Murray; first and second editions published in 1907.", "* Howe, Christopher.", "''Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War,'' The University of Chicago Press, * Jentschura, Hansgeorg.", "''Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945.''", "United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, 1977..* Lyon, David, ''The First Destroyers.''", "Chatham Publishing, 1 & 2 Faulkner's Alley, Cowcross St. London, Great Britain; 1996..* Sanders, Michael S. (2001) '' The Yard: Building a Destroyer at the Bath Iron Works'', HarperCollins, * Simpson, Richard V. ''Building The Mosquito Fleet, The US Navy's First Torpedo Boats.''", "Arcadia Publishing, (2001); Charleston, South Carolina, US.", ".", "* Preston, Antony.", "''Destroyers'', Bison Books (London) 1977.", "* Van der Vat, Dan.", "''The Atlantic Campaign''.", "* Navy Designates Next-Generation Zumwalt Destroyer" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dorothy Parker" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dorothy Parker''' (née '''Rothschild'''; August 22, 1893 – June 7, 1967) was an American poet, writer, critic, wit, and satirist based in New York; she was known for her caustic wisecracks, and eye for 20th-century urban foibles.From a conflicted and unhappy childhood, Parker rose to acclaim, both for her literary works published in magazines, such as ''The New Yorker,'' and as a founding member of the Algonquin Round Table.", "Following the breakup of the circle, Parker traveled to Hollywood to pursue screenwriting.", "Her successes there, including two Academy Award nominations, were curtailed when her involvement in left-wing politics resulted in her being placed on the Hollywood blacklist.Dismissive of her own talents, she deplored her reputation as a \"wisecracker\".", "Nevertheless, both her literary output and reputation for sharp wit have endured.", "Some of her works have been set to music." ], [ "Early life and education", "Also known as Dot or Dottie, Parker was born Dorothy Rothschild in 1893 to Jacob Henry Rothschild and his wife Eliza Annie (née Marston) (1851–1898) at 732 Ocean Avenue in Long Branch, New Jersey.", "Parker wrote in her essay \"My Home Town\" that her parents returned from their summer beach cottage there to their Manhattan apartment shortly after Labor Day (September 4) so that she could be called a true New Yorker.Parker's mother was of Scottish descent.", "Her father was the son of Sampson Jacob Rothschild (1818–1899) and Mary Greissman (b.", "1824), both Prussian-born Jews.", "Sampson Jacob Rothschild was a merchant who immigrated to the United States around 1846, settling in Monroe County, Alabama.", "Dorothy's father was one of five known siblings: Simon (1854–1908); Samuel (b.", "1857); Hannah (1860–1911), later Mrs. William Henry Theobald; and Martin, born in Manhattan on December 12, 1865, who perished in the sinking of the ''Titanic'' in 1912.Her mother died in Manhattan in July 1898, a month before Parker's fifth birthday.", "Her father remarried in 1900 to Eleanor Frances Lewis (1851–1903), a Protestant.Parker has been said to have hated her father, who allegedly physically abused her, and her stepmother, whom she is said to have refused to call \"mother\", \"stepmother\", or \"Eleanor\", instead referring to her as \"the housekeeper\".", "However, her biographer Marion Meade refers to this account as \"largely false\", stating that the atmosphere in which Parker grew up was indulgent, affectionate, supportive and generous.Parker grew up on the Upper West Side and attended a Roman Catholic elementary school at the Convent of the Blessed Sacrament on West 79th Street with her sister, Helen, and classmate Mercedes de Acosta.", "Parker once joked that she was asked to leave following her characterization of the Immaculate Conception as \"spontaneous combustion\".Her stepmother died in 1903, when Parker was nine.", "Parker later attended Miss Dana's School, a finishing school in Morristown, New Jersey.", "She graduated in 1911, at the age of 18, according to Kinney, just before the school closed, although Rhonda Pettit and Marion Meade state she never graduated from high school.", "Following her father's death in 1913, she played piano at a dancing school to earn a living while she worked on her poetry.She sold her first poem to ''Vanity Fair'' magazine in 1914 and some months later was hired as an editorial assistant for ''Vogue'', another Condé Nast magazine.", "She moved to ''Vanity Fair'' as a staff writer after two years at ''Vogue.", "''In 1917, she met a Wall Street stockbroker, Edwin Pond Parker II(1893–1933) and they married before he left to serve in World War I with the U.S. Army 4th Division.", "She filed for divorce in 1928.Dorothy retained her married name Parker, though she remarried to Alan Campbell, screenwriter and former actor, in 1934, and moved to Hollywood." ], [ "Algonquin Round Table years", "Parker, with Algonquin Round Table members and guests (l–r) Art Samuels (editor of ''Harper's'' and, briefly, ''The New Yorker''), Charles MacArthur, Harpo Marx, and Alexander Woollcott, circa 1919Parker's career took off in 1918 while she was writing theater criticism for ''Vanity Fair,'' filling in for the vacationing P. G. Wodehouse.", "At the magazine, she met Robert Benchley, who became a close friend, and Robert E. Sherwood.", "The trio began lunching at the Algonquin Hotel almost daily and became founding members of what became known as the Algonquin Round Table.", "This numbered among its members the newspaper columnists Franklin P. Adams and Alexander Woollcott, as well as the editor Harold Ross, the novelist Edna Ferber, the reporter Heywood Broun, and the comedian Harpo Marx.", "Through their publication of her lunchtime remarks and short verses, particularly in Adams' column \"The Conning Tower\", Parker began developing a national reputation as a wit.Parker's caustic wit as a critic initially proved popular, but she was eventually dismissed by ''Vanity Fair'' on January 11, 1920 after her criticisms had too often offended the playwright–producer David Belasco, the actor Billie Burke, the impresario Florenz Ziegfeld, and others.", "Benchley resigned in protest.", "(Sherwood is sometimes reported to have done so too, but in fact had been fired in December 1919.)", "Parker soon started working for ''Ainslee's Magazine'', which had a higher circulation.", "She also published pieces in ''Vanity Fair,'' which was happier to publish her than employ her, ''The Smart Set'', and ''The American Mercury'', but also in the popular ''Ladies’ Home Journal'', ''Saturday Evening Post,'' and ''Life''.When Harold Ross founded ''The New Yorker'' in 1925, Parker and Benchley were part of a board of editors he established to allay the concerns of his investors.", "Parker's first piece for the magazine was published in its second issue.", "She became famous for her short, viciously humorous poems, many highlighting ludicrous aspects of her many (largely unsuccessful) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide.The next 15 years were Parker's period of greatest productivity and success.", "In the 1920s alone she published some 300 poems and free verses in ''Vanity Fair,'' ''Vogue,'' \"The Conning Tower\" and ''The New Yorker'' as well as ''Life'', ''McCall's'' and ''The New Republic.''", "Her poem \"Song in a Minor Key\" was published during a candid interview with New York N.E.A.", "writer Josephine van der Grift.Cover of the first edition of ''Enough Rope''Parker published her first volume of poetry, ''Enough Rope,'' in 1926.It sold 47,000 copies and garnered impressive reviews.", "''The Nation'' described her verse as \"caked with a salty humor, rough with splinters of disillusion, and tarred with a bright black authenticity\".", "Although some critics, notably ''The New York Times'' reviewer, dismissed her work as \"flapper verse\", the book helped Parker's reputation for sparkling wit.", "She released two more volumes of verse, ''Sunset Gun'' (1928) and ''Death and Taxes'' (1931), along with the short story collections ''Laments for the Living'' (1930) and ''After Such Pleasures'' (1933).", "''Not So Deep as a Well'' (1936) collected much of the material previously published in ''Rope,'' ''Gun,'' and ''Death''; and she re-released her fiction with a few new pieces in 1939 as ''Here Lies''.Parker collaborated with playwright Elmer Rice to create ''Close Harmony,'' which ran on Broadway in December 1924.The play was well received in out-of-town previews and favorably reviewed in New York, but it closed after only 24 performances.", "As ''The Lady Next Door'', it became a successful touring production.Some of Parker's most popular work was published in ''The New Yorker'' in the form of acerbic book reviews under the byline \"Constant Reader\".", "Her response to the whimsy of A.", "A. Milne's ''The House at Pooh Corner'' was \"Tonstant Weader fwowed up.\"", "Her reviews appeared semi-regularly from 1927 to 1933, were widely read, and were posthumously published in 1970 in a collection titled ''Constant Reader''.Her best-known short story, \"Big Blonde\", published in ''The Bookman'', was awarded the O. Henry Award as the best short story of 1929.Her short stories, though often witty, were also spare and incisive, and more bittersweet than comic; her poetry has been described as sardonic.Parker eventually separated from her husband Edwin Parker, divorcing in 1928.She had a number of affairs, her lovers including reporter-turned-playwright Charles MacArthur and the publisher Seward Collins.", "Her relationship with MacArthur resulted in a pregnancy.", "Parker is alleged to have said, \"how like me, to put all my eggs into one bastard”.", "She had an abortion, and fell into a depression that culminated in her first attempt at suicide.Toward the end of this period, Parker began to become more politically aware and active.", "What would become a lifelong commitment to activism began in 1927, when she became concerned about the pending executions of Sacco and Vanzetti.", "Parker traveled to Boston to protest the proceedings.", "She and fellow Round Tabler Ruth Hale were arrested, and Parker eventually pleaded guilty to a charge of \"loitering and sauntering\", paying a $5 fine." ], [ "Hollywood", "In 1932, Parker met Alan Campbell, an actor hoping to become a screenwriter.", "They married two years later in Raton, New Mexico.", "Campbell's mixed parentage was the reverse of Parker's: he had a German-Jewish mother and a Scottish father.", "She learned that he was bisexual and later proclaimed in public that he was \"queer as a billy goat\".", "The pair moved to Hollywood and signed ten-week contracts with Paramount Pictures, with Campbell (also expected to act) earning $250 per week and Parker earning $1,000 per week.", "They would eventually earn $2,000 and sometimes more than $5,000 per week as freelancers for various studios.", "She and Campbell \"received writing credit for over 15 films between 1934 and 1941\".In 1933, when informed that famously taciturn former president Calvin Coolidge had died, Parker remarked, \"How could they tell?", "\"In 1935, Parker contributed lyrics for the song \"I Wished on the Moon\", with music by Ralph Rainger.", "The song was introduced in ''The Big Broadcast of 1936'' by Bing Crosby.With Campbell and Robert Carson, she wrote the script for the 1937 film ''A Star Is Born'', for which they were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing—Screenplay.", "She wrote additional dialogue for ''The Little Foxes'' in 1941.Together with Frank Cavett, she received a \"Writing (Motion Picture Story)\" Oscar nomination for ''Smash-Up, the Story of a Woman'' (1947), starring Susan Hayward.After the United States entered the Second World War, Parker and Alexander Woollcott collaborated to produce an anthology of her work as part of a series published by Viking Press for servicemen stationed overseas.", "With an introduction by W. Somerset Maugham, the volume compiled over two dozen of Parker's short stories, along with selected poems from ''Enough Rope'', ''Sunset Gun'', and ''Death and Taxes''.", "It was published in the United States in 1944 as ''The Portable Dorothy Parker''.", "Hers is one of three volumes in the ''Portable'' series, including volumes devoted to William Shakespeare and the Bible, that had remained in continuous print as of 1976.During the 1930s and 1940s, Parker became an increasingly vocal advocate of civil liberties and civil rights and a frequent critic of authority figures.", "During the Great Depression, she was among numerous American intellectuals and artists who became involved in related social movements.", "She reported in 1937 on the Loyalist cause in Spain for the Communist magazine ''New Masses''.", "At the behest of Otto Katz, a covert Soviet Comintern agent and operative of German Communist Party agent Willi Münzenberg, Parker helped to found the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League in 1936, which the FBI suspected of being a Communist Party front.", "The League's membership eventually grew to around 4,000.According to David Caute, its often wealthy members were \"able to contribute as much to Communist Party funds as the whole American working class\", although they may not have been intending to support the Party cause.Parker also chaired the Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee's fundraising arm, \"Spanish Refugee Appeal\".", "She organized Project Rescue Ship to transport Loyalist veterans to Mexico, headed Spanish Children's Relief, and lent her name to many other left-wing causes and organizations.", "Her former Round Table friends saw less and less of her, and her relationship with Robert Benchley became particularly strained (although they would reconcile).", "Parker met S. J. Perelman at a party in 1932 and, despite a rocky start (Perelman called it \"a scarifying ordeal\"), they remained friends for the next 35 years.", "They became neighbors when the Perelmans helped Parker and Campbell buy a run-down farm in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, near New Hope, a popular summer destination among many writers and artists from New York.Parker was listed as a Communist by the publication ''Red Channels'' in 1950.The FBI compiled a 1,000-page dossier on her because of her suspected involvement in Communism during the era when Senator Joseph McCarthy was raising alarms about communists in government and Hollywood.", "As a result, movie studio bosses placed her on the Hollywood blacklist.", "Her final screenplay was ''The Fan,'' a 1949 adaptation of Oscar Wilde's ''Lady Windermere's Fan'', directed by Otto Preminger.Her marriage to Campbell was tempestuous, with tensions exacerbated by Parker's increasing alcohol consumption and Campbell's long-term affair with a married woman in Europe during World War II.", "They divorced in 1947, remarried in 1950, then separated in 1952 when Parker moved back to New York.", "From 1957 to 1962, she wrote book reviews for ''Esquire.''", "Her writing became increasingly erratic owing to her continued abuse of alcohol.", "She returned to Hollywood in 1961, reconciled with Campbell, and collaborated with him on a number of unproduced projects until Campbell died from a drug overdose in 1963." ], [ "Later life and death", "Following Campbell's death, Parker returned to New York City and the Volney residential hotel.", "In her later years, she denigrated the Algonquin Round Table, although it had brought her such early notoriety:Parker occasionally participated in radio programs, including ''Information Please'' (as a guest) and ''Author, Author'' (as a regular panelist).", "She wrote for the ''Columbia Workshop'', and both Ilka Chase and Tallulah Bankhead used her material for radio monologues.Parker died on June 7, 1967, of a heart attack at the age of 73.In her will, she bequeathed her estate to Martin Luther King Jr., and upon King's death, to the NAACP.", "At the time of her death, she was living at the Volney residential hotel on East 74th Street.===Burial===Following her cremation, Parker's ashes were unclaimed for several years.", "Finally, in 1973, the crematorium sent them to her lawyer's office; by then he had retired, and the ashes remained in his colleague Paul O'Dwyer's filing cabinet for about 17 years.", "In 1988, O'Dwyer brought this to public attention, with the aid of celebrity columnist Liz Smith; after some discussion, the NAACP claimed Parker's remains and designed a memorial garden for them outside its Baltimore headquarters.", "The plaque read:Plaque at Parker's birthplaceIn early 2020, the NAACP moved its headquarters to downtown Baltimore and how this might affect Parker's ashes became the topic of much speculation, especially after the NAACP formally announced it would later move to Washington, D.C.The NAACP restated that Parker's ashes would ultimately be where her family wished.", "\"It’s important to us that we do this right,\" said the NAACP.Relatives called for the ashes to be moved to the family's plot in Woodlawn Cemetery, in the Bronx, where a place had been reserved for Parker by her father.", "On August 18, 2020, Parker's urn was exhumed.", "\"Two executives from the N.A.A.C.P.", "spoke, and a rabbi who had attended her initial burial said Kaddish.\"", "On August 22, 2020, Parker was re-buried privately in Woodlawn, with the possibility of a more public ceremony later.", "\"Her legacy means a lot,\" added representatives from the NAACP." ], [ "Honors", "On August 22, 1992, the 99th anniversary of Parker's birth, the United States Postal Service issued a 29¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series.", "The Algonquin Round Table, as well as the number of other literary and theatrical greats who lodged at the hotel, contributed to the Algonquin Hotel's being designated in 1987 as a New York City Historic Landmark.", "In 1996, the hotel was designated as a National Literary Landmark by the Friends of Libraries USA, based on the contributions of Parker and other members of the Round Table.", "The organization's bronze plaque is attached to the front of the hotel.", "Parker's birthplace at the Jersey Shore was also designated a National Literary Landmark by Friends of Libraries USA in 2005 and a bronze plaque marks the former site of her family house.In 2014, Parker was elected to the New Jersey Hall of Fame." ], [ "In popular culture", "Parker inspired a number of fictional characters in several plays of her day.", "These included \"Lily Malone\" in Philip Barry's ''Hotel Universe'' (1932), \"Mary Hilliard\" (played by Ruth Gordon) in George Oppenheimer's ''Here Today'' (1932), \"Paula Wharton\" in Gordon's 1944 play ''Over Twenty-one'' (directed by George S. Kaufman), and \"Julia Glenn\" in the Kaufman–Moss Hart collaboration ''Merrily We Roll Along'' (1934).", "Kaufman's representation of her in ''Merrily We Roll Along'' led Parker, once his Round Table compatriot, to despise him.", "She also was portrayed as \"Daisy Lester\" in Charles Brackett's 1934 novel ''Entirely Surrounded''.", "She is mentioned in the original introductory lyrics in Cole Porter's song \"Just One of Those Things\" from the 1935 Broadway musical ''Jubilee'', which have been retained in the standard interpretation of the song as part of the Great American Songbook.Parker is a character in the novel ''The Dorothy Parker Murder Case'' by George Baxt (1984), in a series of ''Algonquin Round Table Mysteries'' by J. J. Murphy (2011– ), and in Ellen Meister's novel ''Farewell, Dorothy Parker'' (2013).", "She is the main character in \"Love For Miss Dottie\", a short story by Larry N Mayer, which was selected by writer Mary Gaitskill for the collection ''Best New American Voices 2009'' (Harcourt).She has been portrayed on film and television by Dolores Sutton in ''F.", "Scott Fitzgerald in Hollywood'' (1976), Rosemary Murphy in ''Julia'' (1977), Bebe Neuwirth in ''Dash and Lilly'' (1999), and Jennifer Jason Leigh in ''Mrs.", "Parker and the Vicious Circle'' (1994).", "Neuwirth was nominated for an Emmy Award for her performance, and Leigh received a number of awards and nominations, including a Golden Globe nomination.Television creator Amy Sherman-Palladino named her production company 'Dorothy Parker Drank Here Productions' in tribute to Parker.Tucson actress Lesley Abrams wrote and performed the one-woman show ''Dorothy Parker's Last Call'' in 2009 in Tucson, Arizona, presented by the Winding Road Theater Ensemble.", "She reprised the role at the Live Theatre Workshop in Tucson in 2014.The play was selected to be part of the Capital Fringe Festival in DC in 2010.In 2018, American drag queen Miz Cracker played Parker in the celebrity-impersonation game show episode of the Season 10 of ''Rupaul's Drag Race''.In the 2018 film ''Can You Ever Forgive Me?''", "(based on the 2008 memoir of the same name), Melissa McCarthy plays Lee Israel, an author who for a time forged original letters in Dorothy Parker's name." ], [ "Adaptations", "In the 2010s some of her poems from the early 20th century have been set to music by the composer Marcus Paus as the operatic song cycle ''Hate Songs for Mezzo-Soprano and Orchestra'' (2014); Paus's ''Hate Songs'' was described by musicologist Ralph P. Locke as \"one of the most engaging works\" in recent years; \"the cycle expresses Parker's favorite theme: how awful human beings are, especially the male of the species\".With the authorization of the NAACP, lyrics taken from her book of poetry ''Not So Deep as a Well'' were used in 2014 by Canadian singer Myriam Gendron to create a folk album of the same title.", "Also in 2014, Chicago jazz bassist/singer/composer Katie Ernst issued her album ''Little Words'', consisting of her authorized settings of seven of Parker's poems.In 2021 her book ''Men I'm Not Married To'' was adapted as an opera of the same name by composer Lisa DeSpain and librettist Rachel J. Peters.", "It premiered virtually as part of Operas in Place and Virtual Festival of New Operas commissioned by Baldwin Wallace Conservatory Voice Performance, Cleveland Opera Theater, and On Site Opera on February 18, 2021." ], [ "Bibliography", "===Essays and reporting===* * (a collection of 31 literary reviews originally published in ''The New Yorker'', 1927–1933)* (compilation of reviews, edited by Fitzpatrick; most of these reviews have never been reprinted)*Short story: A Telephone Call*Short story: \"Here We Are\"=== Short fiction ===;Collections* 1930: ''Laments for the Living'' (includes 13 short stories)** The Sexes** Mr. Durant** Just a Little One** New York to Detroit** The Wonderful Old Gentleman** The Mantle of Whistler** A Telephone Call** You Were Perfectly Fine** Little Curtis** The Last Tea** Big Blonde** Arrangement in Black and White** Dialogue at Three in the Morning* 1933: ''After Such Pleasures'' (includes 11 short stories)** Horsie** Here We Are** Too Bad** From the Diary of a New York Lady** The Waltz** Dusk Before Fireworks** The Little Hours** Sentiment** A Young Woman in Green Lace** Lady With a Lamp** Glory in the Daytime* 1939: ''Here Lies: The Collected Stories of Dorothy Parker'' (reprints of the stories from both previous collections, plus 3 new stories)** Clothe the Naked** Soldiers of the Republic** The Custard Heart* 1942: ''Collected Stories'' (stories from the first two collections)* 1944: ''The Portable Dorothy Parker'' (reprints of the stories from the previous collections, plus 8 new stories and verse from 3 poetry books)** The Lovely Leave** The Standard of Living** Song of the Shirt, 1941** Mrs. Hofstadter on Josephine Street** Cousin Larry** I Live on Your Visits** Lolita** The Bolt Behind the Blue* 1995: ''Complete Stories'' (Penguin Books) (reprints of all stories, plus 13 previously uncollected stories)** Such a Pretty Little Picture** A Certain Lady** Oh!", "He's Charming!", "** Travelogue** A Terrible Day Tomorrow** The Garter** The Cradle of Civilization** But the One on the Right** Advice to the Little Peyton Girl** Mrs. Carrington and Mrs. Crane** The Road Home** The Game** The Banquet of Crow===Poetry collections===* 1926: ''Enough Rope''* 1928: ''Sunset Gun''* 1931: ''Death and Taxes''* 1936: ''Collected Poems: Not So Deep as a Well''* 1944: ''Collected Poetry''* 1996: ''Not Much Fun: The Lost Poems of Dorothy Parker'' (UK title: ''The Uncollected Dorothy Parker'')** 2009: ''Not Much Fun: The Lost Poems of Dorothy Parker'' (2nd ed., with additional poems)=== Plays ===* 1929: ''Close Harmony'' (with Elmer Rice)* 1949: ''The Coast of Illyria'' (with Ross Evans), about the murder of Mary and Charles Lamb's mother by Mary* 1953: ''Ladies of the Corridor'' (with Arnaud D'Usseau)=== Screenplays ===* 1936: ''Suzy'' (with Alan Campbell, Horace Jackson and Lenore J.", "Coffee; based on\ta novel by Herman Gorman)* 1937: ''A Star is Born'' (with William A. Wellman, Robert Carson and Alan Campbell)* 1938: ''Sweethearts'' (with Alan Campbell, Laura Perelman and S.J.", "Perelman)* 1938: ''Trade Winds'' (with Alan Campbell and Frank R. Adams; story by Tay Garnett)* 1941: ''Week-End for Three'' (with Alan Campbell; story by Budd Schulberg)* 1942: ''Saboteur'' (with Peter Viertel and Joan Harrison)* 1947: ''Smash-Up, the Story of a Woman'' (with Frank Cavett, John Howard Lawson and Lionel Wiggam)* 1949: ''The Fan'' (with Walter Reisch and Ross Evans; based on ''Lady Windermere's Fan'' by Oscar Wilde)===Critical studies and reviews of Parker's work===*" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Randall Calhoun, ''Dorothy Parker: A Bio-Bibliography''.", "Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1993.", "* Kevin C. Fitzpatrick, ''A Journey into Dorothy Parker's New York''.", "Berkeley, CA: Roaring Forties Press, 2005.", "* John Keats, ''You Might As Well Live: The Life and Times of Dorothy Parker''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1970.", "* Marion Meade, ''Dorothy Parker: What Fresh Hell is This?''.", "New York: Villard, 1988.", "* S. J. Perelman, \"Dorothy Parker\".", "In ''The Last Laugh''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Dorothy Parker Society* Algonquin Round Table* Dorothy Parker on Poeticous* Selected Poems by Dorothy Parker* \" Best under appreciated local landmark: Dorothy Parker Memorial Garden\", ''Baltimore City Paper'', September 21, 2005.", "* Emdashes coverage of Dorothy Parker* Dorothy Parker photo gallery; GettyImages* === Online editions ===* * * * * Minstrels Archive section on Parker's works" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dylan Thomas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dylan Marlais Thomas''' (27 October 1914 – 9 November 1953) was a Welsh poet and writer whose works include the poems \"Do not go gentle into that good night\" and \"And death shall have no dominion\", as well as the \"play for voices\" ''Under Milk Wood''.", "He also wrote stories and radio broadcasts such as ''A Child's Christmas in Wales'' and ''Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog''.", "He became widely popular in his lifetime; and remained so after his death at the age of 39 in New York City.", "By then, he had acquired a reputation, which he had encouraged, as a \"roistering, drunken and doomed poet\".He was born in Uplands, Swansea, in 1914, leaving school in 1932 to become a reporter for the ''South Wales Daily Post''.", "Many of his works appeared in print while he was still a teenager.", "In 1934, the publication of \"Light breaks where no sun shines\" caught the attention of the literary world.", "While living in London, Thomas met Caitlin Macnamara; they married in 1937 and had three children: Llewelyn, Aeronwy, and Colm.He came to be appreciated as a popular poet during his lifetime, though he found earning a living as a writer difficult.", "He began augmenting his income with reading tours and radio broadcasts.", "His radio recordings for the BBC during the late 1940s brought him to the public's attention, and he was frequently featured by the BBC as an accessible voice of the literary scene.Thomas first travelled to the United States in the 1950s; his readings there brought him a degree of fame; while his erratic behaviour and drinking worsened.", "His time in the United States cemented his legend; and he went on to record to vinyl such works as ''A Child's Christmas in Wales''.", "During his fourth trip to New York in 1953, Thomas became gravely ill and fell into a coma.", "He died on 9 November and his body was returned to Wales.", "On 25 November, he was interred at St. Martin's churchyard in Laugharne, Carmarthenshire.Although Thomas wrote exclusively in the English language, he has been acknowledged as one of the most important Welsh poets of the 20th century.", "He is noted for his original, rhythmic, and ingenious use of words and imagery.", "His position as one of the great modern poets has been much discussed, and he remains popular with the public." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early life===5 Cwmdonkin Drive, alt=On a hill street stands a two-storeyed semi-detached house with bay windows to the front and a sloped tiled roof with a chimney.Dylan Thomas was born on 27 October 1914 in Swansea, the son of Florence Hannah (''née'' Williams; 1882–1958), a seamstress, and David John 'Jack' Thomas (1876–1952), a teacher.", "His father had a first-class honours degree in English from University College, Aberystwyth, and ambitions to rise above his position teaching English literature at the local grammar school.", "Thomas had one sibling, Nancy Marles (1906–1953), who was eight years his senior.", "At the 1921 census, Nancy and Dylan are noted as speaking both Welsh and English.", "Their parents were also bilingual in English and Welsh, and Jack Thomas taught Welsh at evening classes.", "One of their Swansea relations has recalled that, at home, \"Both Auntie Florrie and Uncle Jack always spoke Welsh.\"", "There are three accounts from the 1940s of Dylan singing Welsh hymns and songs, and of speaking a little Welsh.Thomas's father chose the name Dylan, which could be translated as \"son of the sea\" after Dylan ail Don, a character in ''The Mabinogion''.", "His middle name, Marlais, was given in honour of his great-uncle, William Thomas, a Unitarian minister and poet whose bardic name was Gwilym Marles.", "Dylan, pronounced ˈ ˈdəlan (Dull-an) in Welsh, caused his mother to worry that he might be teased as the \"dull one\".", "When he broadcast on Welsh BBC early in his career, he was introduced using this pronunciation.", "Thomas favoured the Anglicised pronunciation and gave instructions that it should be Dillan .The red-brick semi-detached house at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive (in the respectable area of the Uplands), in which Thomas was born and lived until he was 23, had been bought by his parents a few months before his birth.====Childhood====Thomas has written a number of accounts of his childhood growing up in Swansea, and there are also accounts available by those who knew him as a young child.", "Thomas wrote several poems about his childhood and early teenage years, including \"Once it was the colour of saying\" and \"The hunchback in the park\", as well as short stories such as ''The Fight'' and ''A Child's Christmas in Wales''.Thomas' four grandparents played no part in his childhood.", "For the first ten years or so of his life, Thomas' Swansea aunts and uncles helped with his upbringing.", "These were his mother's three siblings, Polly and Bob, who lived in the St Thomas district of Swansea and Theodosia, and her husband, the Rev.", "David Rees, in Newton, Swansea, where parishioners recall Thomas sometimes staying for a month or so at a time.", "All four aunts and uncles spoke Welsh and English.", "Thomas' childhood also featured regular summer trips to the Llansteffan peninsula, a Welsh-speaking part of Carmarthenshire.", "In the land between Llangain and Llansteffan, his mother's family, the Williamses and their close relatives, worked a dozen farms with over a thousand acres between them.", "The memory of Fernhill, a dilapidated 15-acre farm rented by his maternal aunt, Ann Jones, and her husband, Jim Jones, is evoked in the 1945 lyrical poem \"Fern Hill\", but is portrayed more accurately in his short story, ''The Peaches''.", "Thomas also spent part of his summer holidays with Jim's sister, Rachel Jones, at neighbouring Pentrewyman farm, where he spent his time riding Prince the cart horse, chasing pheasants and fishing for trout.", "All these relatives were bilingual, and many worshipped at Smyrna chapel in Llangain where the services were always in Welsh, including Sunday School which Thomas sometimes attended.", "There is also an account of the young Thomas being taught how to swear in Welsh.", "His schoolboy friends recalled that \"It was all Welsh—and the children played in Welsh...he couldn't speak English when he stopped at Fernhill...in all his surroundings, everybody else spoke Welsh...\" At the 1921 census, 95% of residents in the two parishes around Fernhill were Welsh speakers.", "Across the whole peninsula, 13%—more than 200 people—spoke only Welsh.A few fields south of Fernhill lay Blaencwm, a pair of stone cottages to which his mother's Swansea siblings had retired, and with whom the young Thomas and his sister, Nancy, would sometimes stay.", "A couple of miles down the road from Blaencwm is the village of Llansteffan, where Thomas used to holiday at Rose Cottage with another Welsh-speaking aunt, Anne Williams, his mother's half-sister who had married into local gentry.", "Anne’s daughter, Doris, married a dentist, Randy Fulleylove.", "The young Dylan also holidayed with them in Abergavenny, where Fulleylove had his practice.Thomas' paternal grandparents, Anne and Evan Thomas, lived at The Poplars in Johnstown, just outside Carmarthen.", "Anne was the daughter of William Lewis, a gardener in the town.", "She had been born and brought up in Llangadog, as had her father, who is thought to be \"Grandpa\" in Thomas's short story ''A Visit to Grandpa's'', in which Grandpa expresses his determination to be buried not in Llansteffan but in Llangadog.Evan worked on the railways and was known as Thomas the Guard.", "His family had originated in another part of Welsh-speaking Carmarthenshire, in the farms that lay around the villages of Brechfa, Abergorlech, Gwernogle and Llanybydder, and which the young Thomas occasionally visited with his father.", "His father's side of the family also provided the young Thomas with another kind of experience; many lived in the towns of the South Wales industrial belt, including Port Talbot, Pontarddulais and Cross Hands.Thomas had bronchitis and asthma in childhood and struggled with these throughout his life.", "He was indulged by his mother, Florence, and enjoyed being mollycoddled, a trait he carried into adulthood, becoming skilled in gaining attention and sympathy.", "But Florence would have known that child deaths had been a recurring event in the family's history, and it's said that she herself had lost a child soon after her marriage.", "But if Thomas was protected and spoilt at home, the real spoilers were his many aunts and older cousins, those in both Swansea and the Llansteffan countryside.", "Some of them played an important part in both his upbringing and his later life, as Thomas's wife, Caitlin, has observed: \"He couldn't stand their company for more than five minutes...", "Yet Dylan couldn't break away from them, either.", "They were the background from which he had sprung, and he needed that background all his life, like a tree needs roots.", "\".====Education====The main surviving structure of the former Swansea Grammar School on Mount Pleasant, mostly destroyed during the Swansea Blitz of 1941, was renamed the Dylan Thomas Building in 1988 to honour its former pupil.", "It was then part of the former Swansea Metropolitan University campusMount Pleasant site of Swansea Grammar SchoolThomas's formal education began at Mrs Hole's dame school, a private school on Mirador Crescent, a few streets away from his home.", "He described his experience there in ''Reminiscences of Childhood'':Never was there such a dame school as ours, so firm and kind and smelling of galoshes, with the sweet and fumbled music of the piano lessons drifting down from upstairs to the lonely schoolroom, where only the sometimes tearful wicked sat over undone sums, or to repent a little crime – the pulling of a girl's hair during geography, the sly shin kick under the table during English literature.Alongside dame school, Thomas also took private lessons from Gwen James, an elocution teacher who had studied at drama school in London, winning several major prizes.", "She also taught \"Dramatic Art\" and \"Voice Production\", and would often help cast members of the Swansea Little Theatre (see below) with the parts they were playing.", "Thomas's parents' storytelling and dramatic talents, as well as their theatre-going interests, could also have contributed to the young Thomas's interest in performance.In October 1925, Thomas enrolled at Swansea Grammar School for boys, in Mount Pleasant, where his father taught English.", "There are several accounts by his teachers and fellow pupils of Thomas’ time at grammar school.", "He was an undistinguished pupil who shied away from school, preferring reading and drama activities.", "In his first year one of his poems was published in the school's magazine, and before he left he became its editor.", "Thomas' various contributions to the school magazine can be found here:During his final school years he began writing poetry in notebooks; the first poem, dated 27 April (1930), is entitled \"Osiris, come to Isis\".", "In June 1928, Thomas won the school's mile race, held at St. Helen's Ground; he carried a newspaper photograph of his victory with him until his death.In 1931, when he was 16, Thomas left school to become a reporter for the ''South Wales Daily Post'', where he remained for some 18 months.", "After leaving the newspaper, Thomas continued to work as a freelance journalist for several years, during which time he remained at Cwmdonkin Drive and continued to add to his notebooks, amassing 200 poems in four books between 1930 and 1934.Of the 90 poems he published, half were written during these years.====On the stage====The Little Theatre relocated to Swansea's Maritime Quarter in 1979 and was renamed the alt=A wide three storied building with windows to the upper two stories and an entrance on the ground floor.", "A statue of Thomas sits outside.The stage was also an important part of Thomas's life from 1929 to 1934, as an actor, writer, producer and set painter.", "He took part in productions at Swansea Grammar School, and with the YMCA Junior Players and the Little Theatre, which was based in the Mumbles.", "It was also a touring company that took part in drama competitions and festivals around South Wales.", "Between October 1933 and March 1934, for example, Thomas and his fellow actors took part in five productions at the Mumbles theatre, as well as nine touring performances.", "Thomas continued with acting and production throughout his life, including his time in Laugharne, South Leigh and London (in the theatre and on radio), as well as taking part in nine stage readings of ''Under Milk Wood''.", "The Shakespearian actor, John Laurie, who had worked with Thomas on both the stage and radio thought that Thomas would \"have loved to have been an actor\" and, had he chosen to do so, would have been \"Our first real poet-dramatist since Shakespeare.", "\"Painting the sets at the Little Theatre was just one aspect of the young Thomas's interest in art.", "His own drawings and paintings hung in his bedroom in Cwmdonkin Drive, and his early letters reveal a broader interest in art and art theory.", "Thomas saw writing a poem as an act of construction \"as a sculptor works at stone,\" later advising a student \"to treat words as a craftsman does his wood or stone...hew, carve, mould, coil, polish and plane them...\" Throughout his life, his friends included artists, both in Swansea and in London, as well as in America.In his free time, Thomas visited the cinema in Uplands, took walks along Swansea Bay, and frequented Swansea's pubs, especially the Antelope and the Mermaid Hotels in Mumbles.", "In the Kardomah Café, close to the newspaper office in Castle Street, he met his creative contemporaries, including his friend the poet Vernon Watkins and the musician and composer, Daniel Jones with whom, as teenagers, Thomas had helped to set up the \"Warmley Broadcasting Corporation\".", "This group of writers, musicians and artists became known as \"The Kardomah Gang\".", "This was also the period of his friendship with Bert Trick, a local shopkeeper, left-wing political activist and would-be poet, and with the Rev.", "Leon Atkin, a Swansea minister, human rights activist and local politician.In 1933, Thomas visited London for probably the first time.===London, 1933–1939===Thomas was a teenager when many of the poems for which he became famous were published: \"And death shall have no dominion\", \"Before I Knocked\" and \"The Force That Through the Green Fuse Drives the Flower\".", "\"And death shall have no dominion\" appeared in the ''New English Weekly'' in May 1933.When \"Light breaks where no sun shines\" appeared in ''The Listener'' in 1934, it caught the attention of three senior figures in literary London, T. S. Eliot, Geoffrey Grigson and Stephen Spender.", "They contacted Thomas and his first poetry volume, ''18 Poems'', was published in December 1934.", "''18 Poems'' was noted for its visionary qualities which led to critic Desmond Hawkins writing that the work was \"the sort of bomb that bursts no more than once in three years\".", "The volume was critically acclaimed and won a contest run by the ''Sunday Referee'', netting him new admirers from the London poetry world, including Edith Sitwell and Edwin Muir.", "The anthology was published by Fortune Press, in part a vanity publisher that did not pay its writers and expected them to buy a certain number of copies themselves.", "A similar arrangement was used by other new authors including Philip Larkin.In May 1934, Thomas made his first visit to Laugharne, \"the strangest town in Wales\", as he described it in an extended letter to Pamela Hansford Johnson, in which he also writes about the town's estuarine bleakness, and the dismal lives of the women cockle pickers working the shore around him.The following year, in September 1935, Thomas met Vernon Watkins, thus beginning a lifelong friendship.", "Thomas introduced Watkins, working at Lloyds Bank at the time, to his friends, now known as The Kardomah Gang.", "In those days, Thomas used to frequent the cinema on Mondays with Tom Warner who, like Watkins, had recently suffered a nervous breakdown.", "After these trips, Warner would bring Thomas back for supper with his aunt.", "On one occasion, when she served him a boiled egg, she had to cut its top off for him, as Thomas did not know how to do this.", "This was because his mother had done it for him all his life, an example of her coddling him.", "Years later, his wife Caitlin would still have to prepare his eggs for him.In December 1935, Thomas contributed the poem \"The Hand That Signed the Paper\" to Issue 18 of the bi-monthly ''New Verse''.", "In 1936, his next collection ''Twenty-five Poems'', published by J. M. Dent, also received much critical praise.", "Two years later, in 1938, Thomas won the Oscar Blumenthal Prize for Poetry; it was also the year in which New Directions offered to be his publisher in the United States.", "In all, he wrote half his poems while living at Cwmdonkin Drive before moving to London.", "During this time Thomas's reputation for heavy drinking developed.By the late 1930s, Thomas was embraced as the \"poetic herald\" for a group of English poets, the New Apocalyptics.", "Thomas refused to align himself with them and declined to sign their manifesto.", "He later stated that he believed they were \"intellectual muckpots leaning on a theory\".", "Despite this, many of the group, including Henry Treece, modelled their work on Thomas's.In the politically charged atmosphere of the 1930s Thomas's sympathies were very much with the radical left, to the point of his holding close links with the communists; he was also decidedly pacifist and anti-fascist.", "He was a supporter of the left-wing No More War Movement and boasted about participating in demonstrations against the British Union of Fascists.", "Bert Trick has provided an extensive account of an Oswald Mosley rally in the Plaza cinema in Swansea in July 1933 that he and Thomas attended.====Marriage====In early 1936, Thomas met Caitlin Macnamara (1913–1994), a 22-year-old dancer of Irish and French Quaker descent.", "She had run away from home, intent on making a career in dance, and aged 18 joined the chorus line at the London Palladium.", "Introduced by Augustus John, Caitlin's lover, they met in The Wheatsheaf pub on Rathbone Place in London's West End.", "Laying his head in her lap, a drunken Thomas proposed.", "Thomas liked to assert that he and Caitlin were in bed together ten minutes after they first met.", "Although Caitlin initially continued her relationship with John, she and Thomas began a correspondence, and in the second half of 1936 were courting.", "They married at the register office in Penzance, Cornwall, on 11 July 1937.In May 1938, they moved to Wales, renting a cottage in the village of Laugharne, Carmarthenshire.", "They lived there intermittently for just under two years until July 1941, and did not return to live in Laugharne until 1949.Their first child, Llewelyn Edouard, was born on 30 January 1939.===Wartime, 1939–1945===In 1939, a collection of 16 poems and seven of the 20 short stories published by Thomas in magazines since 1934, appeared as ''The Map of Love''.", "Ten stories in his next book, ''Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog'' (1940), were based less on lavish fantasy than those in ''The Map of Love'' and more on real-life romances featuring himself in Wales.", "Sales of both books were poor, resulting in Thomas living on meagre fees from writing and reviewing.", "At this time he borrowed heavily from friends and acquaintances.", "Hounded by creditors, Thomas and his family left Laugharne in July 1940 and moved to the home of critic John Davenport in Marshfield near Chippenham in Gloucestershire.", "There Thomas collaborated with Davenport on the satire ''The Death of the King's Canary'', though due to fears of libel the work was not published until 1976.At the outset of the Second World War, Thomas was worried about conscription, and referred to his ailment as \"an unreliable lung\".", "Coughing sometimes confined him to bed, and he had a history of bringing up blood and mucus.", "After initially seeking employment in a reserved occupation, he managed to be classified Grade III, which meant that he would be among the last to be called up for service.", "Saddened to see his friends going on active service, he continued drinking and struggled to support his family.", "He wrote begging letters to random literary figures asking for support, a plan he hoped would provide a long-term regular income.", "Thomas supplemented his income by writing scripts for the BBC, which not only gave him additional earnings but also provided evidence that he was engaged in essential war work.In February 1941, Swansea was bombed by the Luftwaffe in a \"three nights' blitz\".", "Castle Street was one of many streets that suffered badly; rows of shops, including the Kardomah Café, were destroyed.", "Thomas walked through the bombed-out shell of the town centre with his friend Bert Trick.", "Upset at the sight, he concluded: \"Our Swansea is dead\".", "Thomas later wrote a feature programme for the radio, ''Return Journey'', which described the café as being \"razed to the snow\".", "The programme, produced by Philip Burton, was first broadcast on 15 June 1947.The Kardomah Café reopened on Portland Street after the war.====Making films====In five film projects, between 1942 and 1945, the Ministry of Information (MOI) commissioned Thomas to script a series of documentaries about both urban planning and wartime patriotism, all in partnership with director John Eldridge: ''Wales: Green Mountain, Black Mountain'', ''New Towns for Old'', ''Fuel for Battle'', ''Our Country'' and ''A City Reborn.", "''In May 1941, Thomas and Caitlin left their son with his grandmother at Blashford and moved to London.", "Thomas hoped to find employment in the film industry and wrote to the director of the films division of the Ministry of Information.", "After being rebuffed, he found work with Strand Films, providing him with his first regular income since the ''South Wales Daily Post''.", "Strand produced films for the MOI; Thomas scripted at least five films in 1942, ''This Is Colour'' (a history of the British dyeing industry) and ''New Towns For Old'' (on post-war reconstruction).", "''These Are The Men'' (1943) was a more ambitious piece in which Thomas's verse accompanies Leni Riefenstahl's footage of an early Nuremberg Rally.", "''Conquest of a Germ'' (1944) explored the use of early antibiotics in the fight against pneumonia and tuberculosis.", "''Our Country'' (1945) was a romantic tour of Britain set to Thomas's poetry.In early 1943, Thomas began a relationship with Pamela Glendower; one of several affairs he had during his marriage.", "The affairs either ran out of steam or were halted after Caitlin discovered his infidelity.", "In March 1943, Caitlin gave birth to a daughter, Aeronwy, in London.", "They lived in a run-down studio in Chelsea, made up of a single large room with a curtain to separate the kitchen.====Escaping to Wales====The Thomas family also made several escapes back to Wales.", "Between 1941 and 1943, they lived intermittently in Plas Gelli, Talsarn, in Cardiganshire.", "Plas Gelli sits close by the River Aeron, after whom Aeronwy is thought to have been named.", "Some of Thomas's letters from Gelli can be found in his ''Collected Letters'' whilst an extended account of Thomas's time there can be found in D. N. Thomas' book, ''Dylan Thomas: A Farm, Two Mansions and a Bungalow'' (2000).", "The Thomases shared the mansion with his childhood friends from Swansea, Vera and Evelyn Phillips.", "Vera's friendship with the Thomases in nearby New Quay is portrayed in the 2008 film, ''The Edge of Love''.In July 1944, with the threat in London of German flying bombs, Thomas moved to the family cottage at Blaencwm near Llangain, Carmarthenshire, where he resumed writing poetry, completing \"Holy Spring\" and \"Vision and Prayer\".In September that year, the Thomas family moved to New Quay in Cardiganshire (Ceredigion), where they rented Majoda, a wood and asbestos bungalow on the cliffs overlooking Cardigan Bay.", "It was there that Thomas wrote a radio piece about New Quay, ''Quite Early One Morning'', a sketch for his later work, ''Under Milk Wood''.", "Of the poetry written at this time, of note is ''Fern Hill'', started while living in New Quay, continued at Blaencwm in July and August 1945 and first published in October 1945 Thomas' nine months in New Quay, said first biographer, Constantine FitzGibbon, were \"a second flowering, a period of fertility that recalls the earliest days…with a great outpouring of poems\", as well as a good deal of other material.", "His second biographer, Paul Ferris, agreed: \"On the grounds of output, the bungalow deserves a plaque of its own.\"", "Thomas' third biographer, George Tremlett, concurred, describing the time in New Quay as \"one of the most creative periods of Thomas's life.\"", "Professor Walford Davies, who co-edited the 1995 definitive edition of the play, has noted that New Quay \"was crucial in supplementing the gallery of characters Thomas had to hand for writing ''Under Milk Wood''.", "\"===Broadcasting years, 1945–1949===The Boat House, Laugharne, the Thomas family home from 1949Although Thomas had previously written for the BBC, it was a minor and intermittent source of income.", "In 1943, he wrote and recorded a 15-minute talk titled \"Reminiscences of Childhood\" for the Welsh BBC.", "In December 1944, he recorded ''Quite Early One Morning'' (produced by Aneirin Talfan Davies, again for the Welsh BBC) but when Davies offered it for national broadcast BBC London turned it down.", "On 31 August 1945, the BBC Home Service broadcast ''Quite Early One Morning'' and, in the three years beginning in October 1945, Thomas made over a hundred broadcasts for the corporation.", "Thomas was employed not only for his poetry readings, but for discussions and critiques.In the second half of 1945, Thomas began reading for the BBC Radio programme, ''Book of Verse'', broadcast weekly to the Far East.", "This provided Thomas with a regular income and brought him into contact with Louis MacNeice, a congenial drinking companion whose advice Thomas cherished.", "On 29 September 1946, the BBC began transmitting the Third Programme, a high-culture network which provided opportunities for Thomas.", "He appeared in the play ''Comus'' for the Third Programme, the day after the network launched, and his rich, sonorous voice led to character parts, including the lead in Aeschylus's ''Agamemnon'' and Satan in an adaptation of ''Paradise Lost''.", "Thomas remained a popular guest on radio talk shows for the BBC, who regarded him as \"useful should a younger generation poet be needed\".", "He had an uneasy relationship with BBC management and a staff job was never an option, with drinking cited as the problem.", "Despite this, Thomas became a familiar radio voice and within Britain was \"in every sense a celebrity\".By late September 1945, the Thomases had left Wales and were living with various friends in London.", "In December, they moved to Oxford to live in a summerhouse on the banks of the Cherwell.", "It belonged to the historian, A.J.P.", "Taylor.", "His wife, Margaret, would prove to be Thomas's most committed patron.The publication of ''Deaths and Entrances'' in February 1946 was a major turning point for Thomas.", "Poet and critic Walter J. Turner commented in ''The Spectator'', \"This book alone, in my opinion, ranks him as a major poet\".====Italy, South Leigh and Prague...====The following year, in April 1947, the Thomases travelled to Italy, after Thomas had been awarded a Society of Authors scholarship.", "They stayed first in villas near Rapallo and then Florence, before moving to a hotel in Rio Marina on the island of Elba.", "On their return, Thomas and family moved, in September 1947, into the Manor House in South Leigh, just west of Oxford, found for him by Margaret Taylor.", "He continued with his work for the BBC, completed a number of film scripts and worked further on his ideas for ''Under Milk Wood'', including a discussion in late 1947 of ''The Village of the Mad'' (as the play was then called) with the BBC producer Philip Burton.", "He later recalled that, during the meeting, Thomas had discussed his ideas for having a blind narrator, an organist who played for a dog and two lovers who wrote to each other every day but never met.In March 1949 Thomas travelled to Prague.", "He had been invited by the Czech government to attend the inauguration of the Czechoslovak Writers' Union.", "Jiřina Hauková, who had previously published translations of some of Thomas's poems, was his guide and interpreter.", "In her memoir, Hauková recalls that at a party in Prague, Thomas \"narrated the first version of his radio play ''Under Milk Wood''.\"", "She describes how he outlined the plot about a town that was declared insane, mentioning the organist who played for sheep and goats and the baker with two wives.====...and back to Laugharne====A month later, in May 1949, Thomas and his family moved to his final home, the Boat House at Laugharne, purchased for him at a cost of £2,500 in April 1949 by Margaret Taylor.", "Thomas acquired a garage a hundred yards from the house on a cliff ledge which he turned into his writing shed, and where he wrote several of his most acclaimed poems.", "He also rented \"Pelican House\" opposite his regular drinking den, Brown's Hotel, for his parents who lived there from 1949 until 1953.Caitlin gave birth to their third child, a boy named Colm Garan Hart, on 25 July 1949.In October, the New Zealand poet, Allen Curnow, came to visit Thomas at the Boat House, who took him to his writing shed and \"fished out a draft to show me of the unfinished ''Under Milk Wood''\" that was, says Curnow, titled ''The Town That Was Mad''.", "This is the first known sighting of the script of the play that was to become ''Under Milk Wood''.===America, Iran...and ''Under Milk Wood'', 1950–1953===American poet John Brinnin invited Thomas to New York, where in February 1950 they embarked on a lucrative three-month tour of arts centres and campuses.", "The tour, which began in front of an audience of a thousand at the Kaufmann Auditorium of the Poetry Centre in New York, took in about 40 venues.", "During the tour, Thomas was invited to many parties and functions and on several occasions became drunk – going out of his way to shock people – and was a difficult guest.", "Thomas drank before some of his readings, though it is argued he may have pretended to be more affected by it than he actually was.", "The writer Elizabeth Hardwick recalled how intoxicating a performer he was and how the tension would build before a performance: \"Would he arrive only to break down on the stage?", "Would some dismaying scene take place at the faculty party?", "Would he be offensive, violent, obscene?\"", "Caitlin said in her memoir, \"Nobody ever needed encouragement less, and he was drowned in it.", "\"On returning to Britain, Thomas began work on two further poems, \"In the white giant's thigh\", which he read on the ''Third Programme'' in September 1950, and the incomplete \"In country heaven\".", "In October, Thomas sent a draft of the first 39 pages of 'The Town That Was Mad' to the BBC.", "The task of seeing this work through to production as ''Under Milk Wood'' was assigned to the BBC's Douglas Cleverdon, who had been responsible for casting Thomas in 'Paradise Lost'.Despite Cleverdon's urgings, the script slipped from Thomas's priorities and in January 1951 he went to Iran to work on a film for the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, an assignment which Callard has speculated was undertaken on behalf of British intelligence agencies.", "Thomas toured the country with the film crew, and his letters home vividly express his shock and anger with the poverty he saw around him.", "He also gave a reading at the British Council and talked with a number of Iranian intellectuals, including Ebrahim Golestan whose account of his meeting with Thomas has been translated and published.", "The film was never made, with Thomas returning to Wales in February, though his time in Iran allowed him to provide a few minutes of material for a BBC documentary, 'Persian Oil'.Later that year, Thomas published two poems, which have been described as \"unusually blunt.\"", "They were an ode, in the form of a villanelle, to his dying father, ''Do not go gentle into that good night'', and the ribald ''Lament''.Although he had a range of wealthy patrons, including Margaret Taylor, Princess Marguerite Caetani and Marged Howard-Stepney, Thomas was still in financial difficulty, and he wrote several begging letters to notable literary figures, including T. S. Eliot.", "Taylor was not keen on Thomas taking another trip to the United States, and thought that if he had a permanent address in London he would be able to gain steady work there.", "She bought a property, 54 Delancey Street, in Camden Town, and in late 1951 Thomas and Caitlin lived in the basement flat.", "Thomas would describe the flat as his \"London house of horror\" and did not return there after his 1952 tour of America.====Second tour January 20 to May 16, 1952====Thomas undertook a second tour of the United States in 1952, this time with Caitlin – after she had discovered he had been unfaithful on his earlier trip.", "They drank heavily, and Thomas began to suffer with gout and lung problems.", "The second tour was the most intensive of the four, taking in 46 engagements.", "The trip also resulted in Thomas recording his first poetry to vinyl, which Caedmon Records released in America later that year.", "One of his works recorded during this time, ''A Child's Christmas in Wales'', became his most popular prose work in America.", "The original 1952 recording of the book was a 2008 selection for the United States National Recording Registry, stating that it is \"credited with launching the audiobook industry in the United States\".A shortened version of the first half of ''The Town That Was Mad'' was published in ''Botteghe Oscure'' in May 1952, with the title ''Llareggub.", "A Piece for Radio Perhaps''.", "Thomas had been in Laugharne for almost three years, but his half-play had made little progress since his time living in South Leigh.", "By the summer of 1952, the half-play's title had been changed to ''Under Milk Wood'' because John Brinnin thought the title ''Llareggub'' would not attract American audiences.", "On 6 November 1952, Thomas wrote to the editor of ''Botteghe Oscure'' to explain why he hadn't been able to \"finish the second half of my piece for you.\"", "He had failed shamefully, he said, to add to \"my lonely half of a looney maybe-play\".On 10 November 1952 Thomas's last collection ''Collected Poems, 1934–1952'', was published by Dent; he was 38.It won the Foyle poetry prize.", "Reviewing the volume, critic Philip Toynbee declared that \"Thomas is the greatest living poet in the English language\".", "The winter of 1952/3 brought much personal tragedy: Thomas's father died from pneumonia just before Christmas 1952; and in the Spring of 1953 his sister died from liver cancer, one of his patrons overdosed, three friends died at young ages and Caitlin had an abortion.====Third tour 21 April to 3 June 1953====In April 1953, Thomas returned alone for a third tour of America.", "He performed a \"work in progress\" version of ''Under Milk Wood'', solo, for the first time at Harvard University on 3 May.", "A week later, the work was performed with a full cast at the Poetry Centre in New York.", "He met the deadline only after being locked in a room by Brinnin's assistant, Liz Reitell, and he was still editing the script on the afternoon of the performance; its last lines were handed to the actors as they were putting on their makeup.During this penultimate tour, Thomas met the composer Igor Stravinsky who had become an admirer after having been introduced to his poetry by W. H. Auden.", "They had discussions about collaborating on a \"musical theatrical work\" for which Thomas would provide the libretto on the theme of \"the rediscovery of love and language in what might be left after the world after the bomb.\"", "The shock of Thomas's death later in the year moved Stravinsky to compose his ''In Memoriam Dylan Thomas'' for tenor, string quartet and four trombones.", "The first performance in Los Angeles in 1954 was introduced with a tribute to Thomas from Aldous Huxley.Thomas spent the last nine or ten days of his third tour in New York mostly in the company of Reitell, with whom he had an affair.", "During this time, Thomas fractured his arm falling down a flight of stairs when drunk.", "Reitell's doctor, Milton Feltenstein, put his arm in plaster and treated him for gout and gastritis.After returning home, Thomas worked on ''Under Milk Wood'' in Laugharne.", "Aeronwy, his daughter, noticed that his health had \"visibly deteriorated...I could hear his racking cough.", "Every morning he had a prolonged coughing attack...The coughing was nothing new but it seemed worse than before.\"", "She also noted that the blackouts that Thomas was experiencing were \"a constant source of comment\" amongst his Laugharne friends.", "Thomas sent the original manuscript to Douglas Cleverdon on 15 October 1953.It was copied and returned to Thomas, who lost it in a pub in London and required a duplicate to take to America.", "Thomas flew to the States on 19 October 1953 for what would be his final tour.", "He died in New York before the BBC could record ''Under Milk Wood''.", "Richard Burton starred in the first broadcast in 1954, and was joined by Elizabeth Taylor in a subsequent film.", "In 1954, the play won the Prix Italia for literary or dramatic programmes.=== Final tour and death in New York===St Martin's Church, Laugharne|alt= A simple white cross engraved with a memorial message to Thomas stands in a grave yardThomas left Laugharne on 9 October 1953 on the first leg of his fourth trip to America.", "He called on his mother, Florence, to say goodbye: \"He always felt that he had to get out from this country because of his chest being so bad.\"", "Thomas had suffered from chest problems for most of his life, though they began in earnest soon after he moved in May 1949 to the Boat House at Laugharne – the \"bronchial heronry\", as he called it.", "Within weeks of moving in, he visited a local doctor, who prescribed medicine for both his chest and throat.While waiting in London before his flight, Thomas stayed with the comedian Harry Locke and worked on ''Under Milk Wood''.", "Locke noted that Thomas was having trouble with his chest, \"terrible\" coughing fits that made him go purple in the face.", "He was also using an inhaler to help his breathing.", "There were reports, too, that Thomas was also having blackouts.", "His visit to the BBC producer Philip Burton, a few days before he left for New York, was interrupted by a blackout.", "On his last night in London, he had another in the company of his fellow poet Louis MacNeice.Thomas arrived in New York on 20 October 1953 to undertake further performances of ''Under Milk Wood'', organised by John Brinnin, his American agent and Director of the Poetry Centre.", "Brinnin did not travel to New York but remained in Boston to write.", "He handed responsibility to his assistant, Liz Reitell.", "She met Thomas at Idlewild Airport and was shocked at his appearance.", "He looked pale, delicate and shaky, not his usual robust self: \"He was very ill when he got here.\"", "After being taken by Reitell to check in at the Chelsea Hotel, Thomas took the first rehearsal of ''Under Milk Wood''.", "They then went to the White Horse Tavern in Greenwich Village, before returning to the Chelsea Hotel.The next day, Reitell invited him to her apartment, but he declined.", "They went sightseeing, but Thomas felt unwell and retired to his bed for the rest of the afternoon.", "Reitell gave him half a grain (32.4 milligrams) of phenobarbitone to help him sleep and spent the night at the hotel with him.", "Two days later, on 23 October, at the third rehearsal, Thomas said he was too ill to take part, but he struggled on, shivering and burning with fever, before collapsing on the stage.The following day, 24 October, Reitell took Thomas to see her doctor, Milton Feltenstein, who administered cortisone injections and Thomas made it through the first performance that evening, but collapsed immediately afterwards.", "\"This circus out there,\" he told a friend who had come back-stage, \"has taken the life out of me for now.\"", "Reitell later said that Feltenstein was \"rather a wild doctor who thought injections would cure anything.", "\"White Horse Tavern in New York City, where Thomas was drinking shortly before his death|alt= On the corner of a block is a building with large glass fronts on both sides; a sign displaying the tavern's name shines brightly above in red neon.At the next performance on 25 October, his fellow actors realised that Thomas was very ill: \"He was desperately ill…we didn't think that he would be able to do the last performance because he was so ill…Dylan literally couldn't speak he was so ill…still my greatest memory of it is that he had no voice.", "\"On the evening of 27 October, Thomas attended his 39th birthday party but felt unwell and returned to his hotel after an hour.", "The next day, he took part in ''Poetry and the Film'', a recorded symposium at Cinema 16.A turning point came on 2 November.", "Air pollution in New York had risen significantly and exacerbated chest illnesses such as Thomas had.", "By the end of the month, over 200 New Yorkers had died from the smog.On 3 November, Thomas spent most of the day in his room, entertaining various friends.", "He went out in the evening to keep two drink appointments.", "After returning to the hotel, he went out again for a drink at 2 am.", "After drinking at the White Horse, Thomas returned to the Hotel Chelsea, declaring, \"I've had eighteen straight whiskies.", "I think that's the record!\"", "The barman and the owner of the pub who served him later commented that Thomas could not have drunk more than half that amount.Thomas had an appointment at a clam house in New Jersey with Ruthven Todd on 4 November.", "When Todd telephoned the Chelsea that morning, Thomas said he was feeling ill and postponed the engagement.", "Todd thought he sounded \"terrible\".", "The poet, Harvey Breit, was another to phone that morning.", "He thought that Thomas sounded \"bad\".", "Thomas's voice, recalled Breit, was \"low and hoarse\".", "He had wanted to say: \"You sound as though from the tomb\", but instead he told Thomas that he sounded like Louis Armstrong.Later, Thomas went drinking with Reitell at the White Horse and, feeling sick again, returned to the hotel.", "Feltenstein came to see him three times that day, administering the cortisone secretant ACTH by injection and, on his third visit, half a grain (32.4 milligrams) of morphine sulphate, which affected Thomas's breathing.", "Reitell became increasingly concerned and telephoned Feltenstein for advice.", "He suggested she get male assistance, so she called upon the painter Jack Heliker, who arrived before 11 pm.", "At midnight on 5 November, Thomas's breathing became more difficult and his face turned blue.", "Reitell phoned Feltenstein who arrived at the hotel at about 1 am, and called for an ambulance.", "It then took another hour for the ambulance to arrive at St. Vincent's, even though it was only a few blocks from the Chelsea.Thomas was admitted to the emergency ward at St Vincent's Hospital at 1:58 am.", "He was comatose, and his medical notes state that \"the impression upon admission was acute alcoholic encephalopathy damage to the brain by alcohol, for which the patient was treated without response\".", "Feltenstein then took control of Thomas's care, even though he did not have admitting rights at St. Vincent's.", "The hospital's senior brain specialist, C.G.", "Gutierrez-Mahoney, was not called to examine Thomas until the afternoon of 6 November, some 36 hours after Thomas's admission.Caitlin, having flown from Britain, arrived at the hospital the following morning, by which time a tracheotomy had been performed.", "Her first words are reported to have been, \"Is the bloody man dead yet?\"", "Permitted to see Thomas for a short time, she returned, drunk, in the afternoon and made threats to John Brinnin.", "Feltenstein had her put into a straitjacket and committed to the River Crest Sanitarium.It is now believed that Thomas had been suffering from bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema and asthma before his admission to St Vincent's.", "In their 2004 paper, ''Death by Neglect'', D. N. Thomas and former GP Principal Simon Barton disclose that Thomas was found to have pneumonia when he was admitted to hospital in a coma.", "Doctors took three hours to restore his breathing, using artificial respiration and oxygen.", "Summarising their findings, they conclude: \"The medical notes indicate that, on admission, Dylan's bronchial disease was found to be very extensive, affecting upper, mid and lower lung fields, both left and right.\"", "The forensic pathologist, Bernard Knight, who examined the post-mortem report, concurs: \"death was clearly due to a severe lung infection with extensive advanced bronchopneumonia...the severity of the chest infection, with greyish consolidated areas of well-established pneumonia, suggests that it had started before admission to hospital.", "\"Thomas died at noon on 9 November, having never recovered from his coma.", "A nurse, and the poet John Berryman, were present with him at the time of death.===Aftermath===Rumours circulated of a brain haemorrhage, followed by competing reports of a mugging or even that Thomas had drunk himself to death.", "Later, speculation arose about drugs and diabetes.", "At the post-mortem, the pathologist found three causes of death – pneumonia, brain swelling and a fatty liver.", "Despite the poet's heavy drinking, his liver showed no sign of cirrhosis.The publication of John Brinnin's 1955 biography ''Dylan Thomas in America'' cemented Thomas's reputation as a \"roistering, drunken and doomed poet\"; Brinnin focuses on Thomas's last few years and paints a picture of him as a drunk and a philanderer.", "Later biographies have criticised Brinnin's view, especially his coverage of Thomas's death.", "David Thomas in ''Fatal Neglect: Who Killed Dylan Thomas?''", "claims that Brinnin, along with Reitell and Feltenstein, were culpable.", "FitzGibbon's 1965 biography ignores Thomas's heavy drinking and skims over his death, giving just two pages in his detailed book to Thomas's demise.", "Ferris in his 1989 biography includes Thomas's heavy drinking, but is more critical of those around him in his final days and does not draw the conclusion that he drank himself to death.", "Many sources have criticised Feltenstein's role and actions, especially his incorrect diagnosis of delirium tremens and the high dose of morphine he administered.", "Dr C. G. de Gutierrez-Mahoney, the doctor who treated Thomas while at St. Vincents, concluded that Feltenstein's failure to see that Thomas was gravely ill and have him admitted to hospital sooner \"was even more culpable than his use of morphine\".Caitlin Thomas's autobiographies, ''Caitlin Thomas – Leftover Life to Kill'' (1957) and ''My Life with Dylan Thomas: Double Drink Story'' (1997), describe the effects of alcohol on the poet and on their relationship.", "\"Ours was not only a love story, it was a drink story, because without alcohol it would never had got on its rocking feet\", she wrote, and \"The bar was our altar.\"", "Biographer Andrew Lycett ascribed the decline in Thomas's health to an alcoholic co-dependent relationship with his wife, who deeply resented his extramarital affairs.", "In contrast, Dylan biographers Andrew Sinclair and George Tremlett express the view that Thomas was not an alcoholic.", "Tremlett argues that many of Thomas's health issues stemmed from undiagnosed diabetes.Thomas died intestate, with assets worth £100.His body was brought back to Wales for burial in the village churchyard at Laugharne.", "Thomas's funeral, which Brinnin did not attend, took place at St Martin's Church in Laugharne on 24 November.", "Six friends from the village carried Thomas's coffin.", "Caitlin, without her customary hat, walked behind the coffin, with his childhood friend Daniel Jones at her arm and her mother by her side.", "The procession to the church was filmed and the wake took place at Brown's Hotel.", "Thomas's fellow poet and long-time friend Vernon Watkins wrote ''The Times'' obituary.Thomas's widow, Caitlin, died in 1994 and was buried alongside him.", "Thomas's father, \"DJ\", died on 16 December 1952 and his mother Florence in August 1958.Thomas's elder son, Llewelyn, died in 2000, his daughter, Aeronwy in 2009, and his younger son, Colm, in 2012." ], [ "Poetry", "===Poetic style and influences===Thomas's refusal to align with any literary group or movement has made him and his work difficult to categorise.", "Although influenced by the modern symbolism and surrealism movements he refused to follow such creeds.", "Instead, critics view Thomas as part of the modernism and romanticism movements, though attempts to pigeon-hole him within a particular neo-romantic school have been unsuccessful.", "Elder Olson, in his 1954 critical study of Thomas's poetry, wrote of \"…a further characteristic which distinguished Thomas's work from that of other poets.", "It was unclassifiable.", "\"Olson continued that in a postmodern age that continually attempted to demand that poetry have social reference, none could be found in Thomas's work, and that his work was so obscure that critics could not explicate it.Thomas's verbal style played against strict verse forms, such as in the villanelle \"Do not go gentle into that good night\".", "His images appear carefully ordered in a patterned sequence, and his major theme was the unity of all life, the continuing process of life and death and new life that linked the generations.", "Thomas saw biology as a magical transformation producing unity out of diversity, and in his poetry sought a poetic ritual to celebrate this unity.", "He saw men and women locked in cycles of growth, love, procreation, new growth, death, and new life.", "Therefore, each image engenders its opposite.", "Thomas derived his closely woven, sometimes self-contradictory images from the Bible, Welsh folklore, preaching, and Sigmund Freud.", "Explaining the source of his imagery, Thomas wrote in a letter to Glyn Jones: \"My own obscurity is quite an unfashionable one, based, as it is, on a preconceived symbolism derived (I'm afraid all this sounds wooly and pretentious) from the cosmic significance of the human anatomy\".Thomas's early poetry was noted for its verbal density, alliteration, sprung rhythm and internal rhyme, and some critics detected the influence of the English poet Gerard Manley Hopkins.", "This is attributed to Hopkins, who taught himself Welsh and who used sprung verse, bringing some features of Welsh poetic metre into his work.", "When Henry Treece wrote to Thomas comparing his style to that of Hopkins, Thomas wrote back denying any such influence.", "Thomas greatly admired Thomas Hardy, who is regarded as an influence.", "When Thomas travelled in America, he recited some of Hardy's work in his readings.Other poets from whom critics believe Thomas drew influence include James Joyce, Arthur Rimbaud and D. H. Lawrence.", "William York Tindall, in his 1962 study, ''A Reader's Guide to Dylan Thomas'', finds comparison between Thomas's and Joyce's wordplay, while he notes the themes of rebirth and nature are common to the works of Lawrence and Thomas.", "Although Thomas described himself as the \"Rimbaud of Cwmdonkin Drive\", he stated that the phrase \"Swansea's Rimbaud\" was coined by poet Roy Campbell.", "Critics have explored the origins of Thomas's mythological pasts in his works such as \"The Orchards\", which Ann Elizabeth Mayer believes reflects the Welsh myths of the ''Mabinogion''.Thomas's poetry is notable for its musicality, most clear in \"Fern Hill\", \"In Country Sleep\", \"Ballad of the Long-legged Bait\" and \"In the White Giant's Thigh\" from ''Under Milk Wood''.Thomas once confided that the poems which had most influenced him were ''Mother Goose'' rhymes which his parents taught him when he was a child:Thomas became an accomplished writer of prose poetry, with collections such as ''Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog'' (1940) and ''Quite Early One Morning'' (1954) showing he was capable of writing moving short stories.", "His first published prose work, ''After the Fair'', appeared in ''The New English Weekly'' on 15 March 1934.Jacob Korg believes that one can classify Thomas's fiction work into two main bodies: vigorous fantasies in a poetic style and, after 1939, more straightforward narratives.", "Korg surmises that Thomas approached his prose writing as an alternate poetic form, which allowed him to produce complex, involuted narratives that do not allow the reader to rest.===Welsh poet=== Thomas disliked being regarded as a provincial poet and decried any notion of 'Welshness' in his poetry.", "When he wrote to Stephen Spender in 1952, thanking him for a review of his ''Collected Poems'', he added \"Oh, & I forgot.", "I'm not influenced by Welsh bardic poetry.", "I can't read Welsh.\"", "Despite this his work was rooted in the geography of Wales.", "Thomas acknowledged that he returned to Wales when he had difficulty writing, and John Ackerman argues that \"His inspiration and imagination were rooted in his Welsh background\".", "Caitlin Thomas wrote that he worked \"in a fanatically narrow groove, although there was nothing narrow about the depth and understanding of his feelings.", "The groove of direct hereditary descent in the land of his birth, which he never in thought, and hardly in body, moved out of.", "\"Head of Programmes Wales at the BBC, Aneirin Talfan Davies, who commissioned several of Thomas's early radio talks, believed that the poet's \"whole attitude is that of the medieval bards.\"", "Kenneth O. Morgan counter-argues that it is a 'difficult enterprise' to find traces of ''cynghanedd'' (consonant harmony) or ''cerdd dafod'' (tongue-craft) in Thomas's poetry.", "Instead he believes his work, especially his earlier more autobiographical poems, are rooted in a changing country which echoes the Welshness of the past and the Anglicisation of the new industrial nation: \"rural and urban, chapel-going and profane, Welsh and English, Unforgiving and deeply compassionate.\"", "Fellow poet and critic Glyn Jones believed that any traces of ''cynghanedd'' in Thomas's work were accidental, although he felt Thomas consciously employed one element of Welsh metrics; that of counting syllables per line instead of feet.", "Constantine Fitzgibbon, who was his first in-depth biographer, wrote \"No major English poet has ever been as Welsh as Dylan\".Although Thomas had a deep connection with Wales, he disliked Welsh nationalism.", "He once wrote, \"Land of my fathers, and my fathers can keep it\".", "While often attributed to Thomas himself, this line actually comes from the character Owen Morgan-Vaughan, in the screenplay Thomas wrote for the 1948 British melodrama ''The Three Weird Sisters''.", "Robert Pocock, a friend from the BBC, recalled \"I only once heard Dylan express an opinion on Welsh Nationalism.", "He used three words.", "Two of them were Welsh Nationalism.\"", "Although not expressed as strongly, Glyn Jones believed that he and Thomas's friendship cooled in the later years as he had not 'rejected enough' of the elements that Thomas disliked – \"Welsh nationalism and a sort of hill farm morality\".", "Apologetically, in a letter to Keidrych Rhys, editor of the literary magazine ''Wales'', Thomas's father wrote that he was \"afraid Dylan isn't much of a Welshman\".", "Though FitzGibbon asserts that Thomas's negativity towards Welsh nationalism was fostered by his father's hostility towards the Welsh language." ], [ "Critical reception", "Thomas's work and stature as a poet have been much debated by critics and biographers since his death.", "Critical studies have been clouded by Thomas's personality and mythology, especially his drunken persona and death in New York.", "When Seamus Heaney gave an Oxford lecture on the poet he opened by addressing the assembly, \"Dylan Thomas is now as much a case history as a chapter in the history of poetry\", querying how 'Thomas the Poet' is one of his forgotten attributes.", "David Holbrook, who has written three books about Thomas, stated in his 1962 publication ''Llareggub Revisited'', \"the strangest feature of Dylan Thomas's notoriety—not that he is bogus, but that attitudes to poetry attached themselves to him which not only threaten the prestige, effectiveness and accessibility to English poetry but also destroyed his true voice and, at last, him.\"", "The Poetry Archive notes that \"Dylan Thomas's detractors accuse him of being drunk on language as well as whiskey, but whilst there's no doubt that the sound of language is central to his style, he was also a disciplined writer who re-drafted obsessively\".Many critics have argued that Thomas's work is too narrow and that he suffers from verbal extravagance.", "Those that have championed his work have found the criticism baffling.", "Robert Lowell wrote in 1947, \"Nothing could be more wrongheaded than the English disputes about Dylan Thomas's greatness ...", "He is a dazzling obscure writer who can be enjoyed without understanding.\"", "Kenneth Rexroth said, on reading ''Eighteen Poems'', \"The reeling excitement of a poetry-intoxicated schoolboy smote the Philistine as hard a blow with one small book as Swinburne had with ''Poems and Ballads''.\"", "Philip Larkin in a letter to Kingsley Amis in 1948, wrote that \"no one can 'stick words into us like pins'... like he Thomas can\", but followed that by stating that he \"doesn't use his words to any advantage\".", "Amis was far harsher, finding little of merit in his work, and claiming that he was 'frothing at the mouth with piss.'", "In 1956, the publication of the anthology ''New Lines'' featuring works by the British collective The Movement, which included Amis and Larkin amongst its number, set out a vision of modern poetry that was damning towards the poets of the 1940s.", "Thomas's work in particular was criticised.", "David Lodge, writing about The Movement in 1981 stated \"Dylan Thomas was made to stand for everything they detest, verbal obscurity, metaphysical pretentiousness, and romantic rhapsodizing\".Despite criticism by sections of academia, Thomas's work has been embraced by readers more so than many of his contemporaries, and is one of the few modern poets whose name is recognised by the general public.", "In 2009, over 18,000 votes were cast in a BBC poll to find the UK's favourite poet; Thomas was placed 10th.", "Several of his poems have passed into the cultural mainstream, and his work has been used by authors, musicians and film and television writers.", "The BBC Radio programme, ''Desert Island Discs'', in which guests usually choose their favourite songs, has heard 50 participants select a Dylan Thomas recording.", "John Goodby states that this popularity with the reading public allows Thomas's work to be classed as vulgar and common.", "He also cites that despite a brief period during the 1960s when Thomas was considered a cultural icon, that the poet has been marginalized in critical circles due to his exuberance, in both life and work, and his refusal to know his place.", "Goodby believes that Thomas has been mainly snubbed since the 1970s and has become \"... an embarrassment to twentieth-century poetry criticism\", his work failing to fit standard narratives and thus being ignored rather than studied.", "In June 2022, Thomas was the subject of BBC Radio 4's ''In Our Time''." ], [ "Memorials", "alt=Statue of Thomas in the Maritime Quarter, SwanseaIn Swansea's maritime quarter are the Dylan Thomas Theatre, home of the Swansea Little Theatre of which Thomas was once a member, and the former Guildhall built in 1825 and now occupied by the Dylan Thomas Centre, a literature centre, where exhibitions and lectures are held and setting for the annual Dylan Thomas Festival.", "Outside the centre stands a bronze statue of Thomas, by John Doubleday.", "Another monument to Thomas stands in Cwmdonkin Park, one of his favourite childhood haunts, close to his birthplace.", "The memorial is a small rock in an enclosed garden within the park cut by and inscribed by the late sculptor Ronald Cour with the closing lines from Fern Hill.", ":::Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means:::Time held me green and dying:::Though I sang in my chains like the sea.Plaque in memory of Thomas, in Poets' Corner, Westminster AbbeyThomas's home in Laugharne, the Boathouse, is a museum run by Carmarthenshire County Council.", "His writing shed is also preserved.", "In 2004, the Dylan Thomas Prize was created in his honour, awarded to the best published writer in English under the age of 30.In 2005, the Dylan Thomas Screenplay Award was established.", "The prize, administered by the Dylan Thomas Centre, is awarded at the annual Swansea Bay Film Festival.", "In 1982 a plaque was unveiled in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey.", "The plaque is also inscribed with the last two lines of \"Fern Hill\".In 2014, the Royal Patron of The Dylan Thomas 100 Festival was Charles, Prince of Wales, who in 2013 made a recording of \"Fern Hill\" for National Poetry Day.In 2014, to celebrate the centenary of Thomas's birth, the British Council Wales undertook a year-long programme of cultural and educational works.", "Highlights included a touring replica of Thomas's work shed, Sir Peter Blake's exhibition of illustrations based on ''Under Milk Wood'' and a 36-hour marathon of readings, which included Michael Sheen and Sir Ian McKellen performing Thomas's work.", "The same year, Thomas was among the ten people commemorated on a UK postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail in their \"Remarkable Lives\" issue.The actor, Dylan Sprouse and Columbine shooter, Dylan Klebold are both named after him.", "Thomas is mentioned in the song \"Dylan Thomas\" from Better Oblivion Community Center's 2019 album." ], [ "List of works", "* ''The Collected Poems of Dylan Thomas: The New Centenary Edition.''", "Ed.", "with Introduction by John Goodby.", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2014* ''The Notebook Poems 1930–34'', edited by Ralph Maud.", "London: Dent, 1989* ''Dylan Thomas: The Filmscripts'', ed.", "John Ackerman.", "London: Dent 1995* ''Dylan Thomas: Early Prose Writings'', ed.", "Walford Davies.", "London: Dent 1971* ''Collected Stories'', ed.", "Walford Davies.", "London: Dent, 1983* ''Under Milk Wood: A Play for Voices'', ed.", "Walford Davies and Ralph Maud.", "London: Dent, 1995* ''On the Air with Dylan Thomas: The Broadcasts'', ed.", "R. Maud.", "New York: New Directions, 1991===Correspondence===* Ferris, Paul (ed.)", "(2017), ''Dylan Thomas: The Collected Letters'', 2 vols.", "Introduction by Paul Ferris.", "London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson : Vol I: 1931–1939 : Vol II: 1939–1953* Watkins, Vernon (ed) (1957), ''Letters to Vernon Watkins''.", "London: Dent.===Posthumous film adaptations=======Films based on works by Dylan Thomas====* 2007: ''Dylan Thomas: A War Films Anthology'' (DDHE/IWM D23702 – 2006)* 1972: ''Under Milk Wood'', starring Richard Burton, Elizabeth Taylor, and Peter O'Toole* 1987: ''A Child's Christmas in Wales'' directed by Don McBrearty* 1992: ''Rebecca's Daughters'' starring Peter O'Toole and Joely Richardson* 2009: ''Nadolig Plentyn yng Nghymru/A Child's Christmas in Wales'', 2009 BAFTA Best Short Film, animation, soundtrack in Welsh and English, Director: Dave Unwin.", "Extras include filmed comments from Aeronwy Thomas.", "5-016886-088457* 2014: ''Under Milk Wood'' BBC, starring Charlotte Church, Tom Jones, Griff Rhys-Jones and Michael Sheen====Films featuring selections from the works of Dylan Thomas====* 1996: ''Independence Day'': Before the attack, the President paraphrases Thomas's \"do not go gentle into that good night\".", "* 2014: ''Interstellar'': The poem is featured throughout the film as a recurring theme regarding the perseverance of humanity====Films featuring Dylan Thomas====* 2014: ''Set Fire to the Stars'', with Thomas portrayed by Celyn Jones and John Brinnin by Elijah Wood* 2016: ''Dominion'', written and directed by Steven Bernstein, examines the final hours of Thomas's life (Rhys Ifans)===Opera adaptation===* ''Unter dem Milchwald'' by German composer Walter Steffens on his own libretto using Erich Fried's translation of ''Under Milk Wood'' into German, Hamburg State Opera 1973 and Staatstheater Kassel 1977===Music adaptation===* The Spanish troubadour Rafa Bocero has set the poem \"Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night\" to music, and translated several verses into Spanish.", "In 2018, he performed the song at Dylan Thomas' birthplace in Swansea." ], [ "Footnotes", "===Notes======References===" ], [ "Bibliography", "* John Ackerman (ed.)", "(1995).", "''Dylan Thomas: The Film Scripts'', Dent.", "* * Brinnin, J.", "(1955).", "''Dylan Thomas in America'', New York: Avon Books* Cleverdon, D. (1969).", "''The Growth of Under Milk Wood'', Dent.", "* Ellis, Hannah (ed.)", "(2014).", "''Dylan Thomas: A Centenary Celebration'', London: Bloomsbury* * * Ferris, P. (2000).", "''Dylan Thomas: The Collected Letters'', J.M.", "Dent: London.", "* * * * * * * * Maud, Ralph (1970).", "''Dylan Thomas in Print: A Bibliographical History'', University of Pittsburgh Press.", "* Maud, Ralph (1991).", "''On The Air With Dylan Thomas: The Broadcasts'', New York: New Directions.", "* Nashold, J., and Tremlett, G. (1997).", "''The Death of Dylan Thomas'', Mainstream Publishing.", "* * ** * * * * * * * Thomas, David N. (2020).", "''Under Milk Wood: A Play for Ears'' in ''New Welsh Reader'', Summer.", "* * (First published 1991, Constable)" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ackerman, J.", "(1998) ''Welsh Dylan'', Seren: Bridgend** Davies, J.", "A.", "(2000).", "''Dylan Thomas's Swansea, Gower and Laugharne'', University of Wales Press*** Thomas, A.", "(2009) .", "''My Father's Places'', London: Constable* Thomas, D. N., ed.", "(2003).", "''Dylan Remembered 1914-1934'', vol.", "1, Seren.", "* Thomas, D. N., ed.", "(2004).", "''Dylan Remembered 1935-1953'', vol.", "2, Seren." ], [ "External links", "* Colin Edwards Interviews and Papers about Dylan Thomas, National Library of Wales* Dylan Thomas Collection at the Harry Ransom Center* Discover Dylan Thomas – Official Family & Estate Web Site* Dylan Thomas Digital Collection, Harry Ransom Centre, Universities of Texas/Swansea* Dylan Thomas: Death by Neglect* Dylan Thomas and South Leigh * Dylan Thomas' Llansteffan childhood* Dylan and his aunties* Dylan Thomas and New Quay *** * Profile at the Poetry Foundation* Dylan Thomas: Profile and Poems at Poets.org* Profile with poems – written and audio, at the Poetry Archive* Dylan Thomas Centre, Swansea, Web site* BBC Wales' Dylan Thomas site.", "Retrieved 11 September 2010* ''\"Poem in October\"'' – recited by Dylan Thomas, BBC Radio, September 1945.Retrieved 5 August 2014* Audio files: Anthology Film Archives – including Dylan Thomas (drunk), Symposium at Cinema 16, 28 October 1953.Retrieved 11 September 2010* Dylan Thomas Digital Collection from the University at Buffalo Libraries**" ] ]
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[ [ "Fern Hill" ], [ "Introduction", "\"'''Fern Hill'''\" (1945) is a poem by the Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, first published in ''Horizon'' magazine in October 1945, with its first book publication in 1946 as the last poem in ''Deaths and Entrances''." ], [ "Creation", "Thomas had started writing ''Fern Hill'' in New Quay, Cardiganshire, where he lived from September 4, 1944, to July 1945.Further work was done on the poem in July and August 1945 at Blaencwm, the family cottage in Carmarthenshire, Wales.", "A draft was sent to a friend in late August, and then the completed poem to his publisher on September 18, 1945.The house Fernhill is a Grade 2 listed residence just outside Llangain in Carmarthenshire.", "In Thomas' day, it had an orchard and fifteen acres of farmland, most of it of poor quality.", "Thomas had extended stays here in the 1920s with his aunt Annie and her husband, Jim Jones.", "They had lived at Fernhill from about 1908 to 1928, renting it from the daughter of Robert Ricketts Evans (also known as Robert Anderson Evans), an occasional hangman and public executioner who once lived in Fernhill.", "Thomas’ own notes about Fernhill confirm that he knew the various stories about Evans the Hangman.Thomas wrote about Fernhill (calling it Gorsehill) in his short story, ''The Peaches'', in which he describes it as a ramshackle house of hollow fear.", "Fernhill's dilapidated farmyard and buildings are also described in ''The Peaches''.", "Jim Jones had shown little interest in farming, as his neighbours had noticed: there was “no work in him...left Fernhill farm to ruins.” Jim had sold most of his farming machinery, implements and livestock before moving to Fernhill.", "He'd also been convicted for allowing decomposing animal carcasses to lie around his fields.Fernhill, said an official survey, had an outside earth closet, water was carried in from a well in the farmyard, washing oneself was done in the kitchen, whilst meals were cooked on an open fire.", "Its two living rooms were lit by candles and paraffin lamps.", "The house, said the survey, had “extreme rising dampness” and smelt, wrote Thomas in ''The Peaches'', \"of rotten wood and damp and animals\".Thomas' holidays here have been recalled in interviews with his schoolboy friends and with Annie and Jim's neighbours.", "A further account describes both Thomas’ childhood and later years on the family farms between Llangain and Llansteffan, as well as suggesting that the poem ''Fern Hill'' was inspired not just by the house Fernhill but by another farm as well." ], [ "Linguistic considerations", "The poem starts as a straightforward evocation of his childhood visits to his Aunt Annie's farm::Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs:About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green,:The night above the dingle starry,In the middle section, the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to Eden.", ":All the sun long it was running, it was lovely, the hay:Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys, it was air...:With the dew, come back, the cock on his shoulder: it was all:Shining, it was Adam and maiden,By the end, the poet's older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening::Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means,:Time held me green and dying:Though I sang in my chains like the sea.The poem uses internal half rhyme and full rhyme as well as end rhyme.", "Thomas was very conscious of the effect of spoken or intoned verse and explored the potentialities of sound and rhythm, in a manner reminiscent of Gerard Manley Hopkins.", "He always denied having conscious knowledge of Welsh, but \"his lines chime with internal consonantal correspondence, or ''cynghanedd'', a prescribed feature of Welsh versification\"." ], [ "Legacy", "''Fern Hill'' has been set to music by the American composer John Corigliano, for SATB chorus with orchestral accompaniment.Samples of the ''Fern Hill'' poem read by Dylan Thomas himself are used in the track ''Apple Towns'' by the one-man act ''Reflection Nebula''.", "''Happy as the Grass Was Green'' became the title of a 1973 drama film.Canadian performer Raffi transformed the poem as a song called \"Up on Fernhill\" on his 2002 album: \"Let's Play!\"" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Annie Fernhill: Dylan's favourite aunt* Dylan Thomas: A True Childhood* Discover Dylan Thomas* The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas (archive)* Fern Hill (Telegram Channel)* Llangain history" ] ]
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[ [ "David Bowie" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Robert Jones''' (8 January 194710 January 2016), known professionally as '''David Bowie''' ( ), was an English singer, songwriter, musician, and actor.", "He is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century.", "Bowie was acclaimed by critics and musicians, particularly for his innovative work during the 1970s.", "His career was marked by reinvention and visual presentation, and his music and stagecraft had a significant impact on popular music.Bowie developed an interest in music from an early age.", "He studied art, music and design before embarking on a professional career as a musician in 1963.He released a string of unsuccessful singles with local bands and a solo album before achieving his first top-five entry on the UK Singles Chart with \"Space Oddity\" (1969).", "After a period of experimentation, he re-emerged in 1972 during the glam rock era with the flamboyant and androgynous alter ego Ziggy Stardust.", "The character was spearheaded by the success of \"Starman\" and album ''The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars'', which won him widespread popularity.", "In 1975, Bowie's style shifted towards a sound he characterised as \"plastic soul\", initially alienating many of his UK fans but garnering his first major US crossover success with the number-one single \"Fame\" and the album ''Young Americans''.", "In 1976, Bowie starred in the cult film ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'' and released ''Station to Station''.", "In 1977, he again changed direction with the electronic-inflected album ''Low'', the first of three collaborations with Brian Eno that came to be known as the Berlin Trilogy.", "''\"Heroes\"'' (1977) and ''Lodger'' (1979) followed; each album reached the UK top five and received lasting critical praise.After uneven commercial success in the late 1970s, Bowie had three number-one hits: the 1980 single \"Ashes to Ashes\", its album ''Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)'' and \"Under Pressure\" (a 1981 collaboration with Queen).", "He achieved his greatest commercial success in the 1980s with ''Let's Dance'' (1983).", "Between 1988 and 1992, he fronted the hard rock band Tin Machine before resuming his solo career in 1993.Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Bowie continued to experiment with musical styles, including industrial and jungle.", "He also continued acting; his roles included Major Jack Celliers in ''Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence'' (1983), Jareth the Goblin King in ''Labyrinth'' (1986), Phillip Jeffries in ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' (1992), Andy Warhol in the biopic ''Basquiat'' (1996), and Nikola Tesla in ''The Prestige'' (2006), among other film and television appearances and cameos.", "He stopped touring after 2004 and his last live performance was at a charity event in 2006.He returned from a decade-long recording hiatus in 2013 with ''The Next Day'' and remained musically active until his death from liver cancer in 2016.He died two days after both his 69th birthday and the release of his final album, ''Blackstar''.During his lifetime, his record sales, estimated at over 100 million records worldwide, made him one of the best-selling musicians of all time.", "Often dubbed the \"chameleon of rock\" due to his constant musical reinventions, he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996.", "''Rolling Stone'' ranked him among the greatest artists in history.", "As of 2022, Bowie was the best-selling vinyl artist of the 21st century." ], [ "Early life", "David Robert Jones was born on 8 January 1947 in Brixton, London.", "His mother, Margaret Mary \"Peggy\" (née Burns), was born at Shorncliffe Army Camp near Cheriton, Kent.", "Her paternal grandparents were Irish immigrants who had settled in Manchester.", "She worked as a waitress at a cinema in Royal Tunbridge Wells.", "His father, Haywood Stenton \"John\" Jones, was from Doncaster, Yorkshire, and worked as a promotions officer for the children's charity Barnardo's.", "The family lived at 40 Stansfield Road, on the boundary between Brixton and Stockwell in the south London borough of Lambeth.", "Bowie attended Stockwell Infants School until he was six, acquiring a reputation as a gifted and single-minded child—and a defiant brawler.From 1953, Bowie moved with his family to Bickley and then Bromley Common, before settling in Sundridge Park in 1955 where he attended Burnt Ash Junior School.", "His voice was considered \"adequate\" by the school choir, and he demonstrated above-average abilities in playing the recorder.", "At the age of nine, his dancing during the newly introduced music and movement classes was strikingly imaginative: teachers called his interpretations \"vividly artistic\" and his poise \"astonishing\" for a child.", "The same year, his interest in music was further stimulated when his father brought home a collection of American 45s by artists including the Teenagers, the Platters, Fats Domino, Elvis Presley and Little Richard.", "Upon listening to Little Richard's song \"Tutti Frutti\", Bowie later said that he had \"heard God\".Bowie was first impressed with Presley when he saw his cousin Kristina dance to \"Hound Dog\" soon after its release in 1956.According to Kristina, she and David \"danced like possessed elves\" to records of various artists.", "By the end of the following year, Bowie had taken up the ukulele and tea-chest bass, begun to participate in skiffle sessions with friends, and had started to play the piano; meanwhile, his stage presentation of numbers by both Presley and Chuck Berry—complete with gyrations in tribute to the original artists—to his local Wolf Cub group was described as \"mesmerizing ... like someone from another planet\".", "Having encouraged his son to follow his dreams of being an entertainer since he was a toddler, in the late 1950s David's father took him to meet singers and other performers preparing for the Royal Variety Performance, introducing him to Alma Cogan and Tommy Steele.", "After taking his eleven-plus exam at the conclusion of his Burnt Ash Junior education, Bowie went to Bromley Technical High School.", "It was an unusual technical school, as biographer Christopher Sandford wrote:Bowie's maternal half-brother, Terry Burns, was a substantial influence on his early life.", "Burns, who was 10 years older than Bowie, had schizophrenia and seizures, and lived alternately at home and in psychiatric wards; while living with Bowie, he introduced the younger man to many of his lifelong influences, such as modern jazz, Buddhism, Beat poetry and the occult.", "In addition to Burns, a significant proportion of Bowie's extended family members had schizophrenia spectrum disorders, including an aunt who was institutionalised and another who underwent a lobotomy; this has been labelled as an influence on his early work.Bowie studied art, music and design, including layout and typesetting.", "After Burns introduced him to modern jazz, his enthusiasm for players like Charles Mingus and John Coltrane led his mother to give him a Grafton saxophone in 1961.He was soon receiving lessons from baritone saxophonist Ronnie Ross.He received a serious injury at school in 1962 when his friend George Underwood punched him in the left eye during a fight over a girl.", "After a series of operations during a four-month hospitalisation, his doctors determined that the damage could not be fully repaired and Bowie was left with faulty depth perception and anisocoria (a permanently dilated pupil), which gave a false impression of a change in the iris' colour, erroneously suggesting he had heterochromia iridum (one iris a different colour to the other); his eye later became one of Bowie's most recognisable features.", "Despite their altercation, Bowie remained on good terms with Underwood, who went on to create the artwork for Bowie's early albums." ], [ "Music career", "===1962–1967: Early career to debut album===A trade ad photo of Bowie in 1967Bowie formed his first band, the Konrads, in 1962 at the age of 15.Playing guitar-based rock and roll at local youth gatherings and weddings, the Konrads had a varying line-up of between four and eight members, Underwood among them.", "When Bowie left the technical school the following year, he informed his parents of his intention to become a pop star.", "His mother arranged his employment as an electrician's mate.", "Frustrated by his bandmates' limited aspirations, Bowie left the Konrads and joined another band, the King Bees.", "He wrote to the newly successful washing-machine entrepreneur John Bloom inviting him to \"do for us what Brian Epstein has done for the Beatles—and make another million.\"", "Bloom did not respond to the offer, but his referral to Dick James's partner Leslie Conn led to Bowie's first personal management contract.Conn quickly began to promote Bowie.", "His debut single, \"Liza Jane\", credited to Davie Jones with the King Bees, was not commercially successful.", "Dissatisfied with the King Bees and their repertoire of Howlin' Wolf and Willie Dixon covers, Bowie quit the band less than a month later to join the Manish Boys, another blues outfit, who incorporated folk and soul—\"I used to dream of being their Mick Jagger\", he recalled.", "Their cover of Bobby Bland's \"I Pity the Fool\" was no more successful than \"Liza Jane\", and Bowie soon moved on again to join the Lower Third, a blues trio strongly influenced by the Who.", "\"You've Got a Habit of Leaving\" fared no better, signalling the end of Conn's contract.", "Declaring that he would exit the pop music world \"to study mime at Sadler's Wells\", Bowie nevertheless remained with the Lower Third.", "His new manager, Ralph Horton, later instrumental in his transition to solo artist, helped secure him a contract with Pye Records.", "Publicist Tony Hatch signed Bowie on the basis that he wrote his own songs.", "Dissatisfied with Davy (and Davie) Jones, which in the mid-1960s invited confusion with Davy Jones of the Monkees, he took on the stage name David Bowie after the 19th-century American pioneer James Bowie and the knife he had popularised.", "His first release under the name was the January 1966 single \"Can't Help Thinking About Me\", recorded with the Lower Third.", "It flopped like its predecessors.Bowie departed the Lower Third after the single's release, partly due to Horton's influence, and released two more singles for Pye, \"Do Anything You Say\" and \"I Dig Everything\", both of which featured a new band called the Buzz, before signing with Deram Records.", "Around this time Bowie also joined the Riot Squad; their recordings, which included one of Bowie's original songs and material by the Velvet Underground, went unreleased.", "Kenneth Pitt, introduced by Horton, took over as Bowie's manager.", "His April 1967 solo single, \"The Laughing Gnome\", on which speeded-up and high-pitched vocals were used to portray the gnome, failed to chart.", "Released six weeks later, his album debut, ''David Bowie'', an amalgam of pop, psychedelia and music hall, met the same fate.", "It was his last release for two years.", "In September, Bowie recorded \"Let Me Sleep Beside You\" and \"Karma Man\", both rejected by Deram and left unreleased until 1970.The tracks marked the beginning of Bowie's working relationship with producer Tony Visconti which, with large gaps, lasted for the rest of Bowie's career.=== 1968–1971: ''Space Oddity'' to ''Hunky Dory'' ===Studying the dramatic arts under Lindsay Kemp, from avant-garde theatre and mime to commedia dell'arte, Bowie became immersed in the creation of personae to present to the world.", "Satirising life in a British prison, his composition \"Over the Wall We Go\" became a 1967 single for Oscar; another Bowie song, \"Silly Boy Blue\", was released by Billy Fury the following year.", "Playing acoustic guitar, Hermione Farthingale formed a group with Bowie and guitarist John Hutchinson named Feathers; between September 1968 and early 1969 the trio gave a small number of concerts combining folk, Merseybeat, poetry and mime.After the break-up with Farthingale, Bowie moved in with Mary Finnigan as her lodger.", "In February and March 1969, he undertook a short tour with Marc Bolan's duo Tyrannosaurus Rex, as third on the bill, performing a mime act.", "Continuing the divergence from rock and roll and blues begun by his work with Farthingale, Bowie joined forces with Finnigan, Christina Ostrom and Barrie Jackson to run a folk club on Sunday nights at the Three Tuns pub in Beckenham High Street.", "The club was influenced by the Arts Lab movement, developing into the Beckenham Arts Lab and became extremely popular.", "The Arts Lab hosted a free festival in a local park, the subject of his song \"Memory of a Free Festival\".Plaque at Trident Studios in London marking where Bowie recorded six albums between 1969 and 1974Pitt attempted to introduce Bowie to a larger audience with the ''Love You till Tuesday'' film, which went unreleased until 1984.Feeling alienated over his unsuccessful career and deeply affected by his break-up, Bowie wrote \"Space Oddity\", a tale about a fictional astronaut named Major Tom.", "The song earned him a contract with Mercury Records and its UK subsidiary Philips, who issued \"Space Oddity\" as a single on 11 July 1969, five days ahead of the Apollo 11 launch.", "Reaching the top five in the UK, it was his first and last hit for three years.", "Bowie's second album followed in November.", "Originally issued in the UK as ''David Bowie'', it caused some confusion with its predecessor of the same name, and the US release was instead titled ''Man of Words/Man of Music''; it was reissued internationally in 1972 by RCA Records as ''Space Oddity''.", "Featuring philosophical post-hippie lyrics on peace, love and morality, its acoustic folk rock occasionally fortified by harder rock, the album was not a commercial success at the time.Bowie met Angela Barnett in April 1969.They married within a year.", "Her impact on him was immediate—he wrote his 1970 single \"The Prettiest Star\" for her—and her involvement in his career far-reaching, leaving Pitt with limited influence which he found frustrating.", "Having established himself as a solo artist with \"Space Oddity\", Bowie desired a full-time band he could record with and could relate to personally.", "The band Bowie assembled comprised John Cambridge, a drummer Bowie met at the Arts Lab, Visconti on bass and Mick Ronson on electric guitar.", "Known as Hype, the bandmates created characters for themselves and wore elaborate costumes that prefigured the glam style of the Spiders from Mars.", "After a disastrous opening gig at the London Roundhouse, they reverted to a configuration presenting Bowie as a solo artist.", "Their initial studio work was marred by a heated disagreement between Bowie and Cambridge over the latter's drumming style, leading to his replacement by Mick Woodmansey.", "Not long after, Bowie fired his manager and replaced him with Tony Defries.", "This resulted in years of litigation that concluded with Bowie having to pay Pitt compensation.The studio sessions continued and resulted in Bowie's third album, ''The Man Who Sold the World'' (1970), which contained references to schizophrenia, paranoia and delusion.", "It represented a departure from the acoustic guitar and folk rock style established by his second album, to a more hard rock sound.", "Mercury financed a coast-to-coast publicity tour across the US in which Bowie, between January and February 1971, was interviewed by media.", "Exploiting his androgynous appearance, the original cover of the UK version unveiled two months later depicted Bowie wearing a dress.", "He took the dress with him and wore it during interviews, to the approval of critics – including ''Rolling Stone''s John Mendelsohn, who described him as \"ravishing, almost disconcertingly reminiscent of Lauren Bacall\".Bowie and Tony Defries at ''Andy Warhol's Pork'' at London's Roundhouse in 1971During the tour, Bowie's observation of two seminal American proto-punk artists led him to develop a concept that eventually found form in the Ziggy Stardust character: a melding of the persona of Iggy Pop with the music of Lou Reed, producing \"the ultimate pop idol\".", "A girlfriend recalled his \"scrawling notes on a cocktail napkin about a crazy rock star named Iggy or Ziggy\", and on his return to England he declared his intention to create a character \"who looks like he's landed from Mars\".", "The \"Stardust\" surname was a tribute to the \"Legendary Stardust Cowboy\", whose record he was given during the tour.", "Bowie later covered \"I Took a Trip on a Gemini Space Ship\" on 2002's ''Heathen''.", "''Hunky Dory'' (1971) found Visconti supplanted in both roles by Ken Scott producing and Trevor Bolder on bass.", "It again featured a stylistic shift towards art pop and melodic pop rock, with light fare tracks such as \"Kooks\", a song written for his son, Duncan Zowie Haywood Jones, born on 30 May.", "Elsewhere, the album explored more serious subjects, and found Bowie paying unusually direct homage to his influences with \"Song for Bob Dylan\", \"Andy Warhol\" and \"Queen Bitch\", the latter a Velvet Underground pastiche.", "His first release through RCA, it was a commercial failure, partly due lack of promotion from the label.", "Peter Noone of Herman's Hermits covered the album's track \"Oh!", "You Pretty Things\", which reached number 12 in the UK.===1972–1974: Glam rock era===Bowie during the Ziggy Stardust Tour, 1972–1973Dressed in a striking costume, his hair dyed reddish-brown, Bowie launched his Ziggy Stardust stage show with the Spiders from Mars—Ronson, Bolder and Woodmansey—at the Toby Jug pub in Tolworth in Kingston upon Thames on 10 February 1972.The show was hugely popular, catapulting him to stardom as he toured the UK over the next six months and creating, as described by David Buckley, a \"cult of Bowie\" that was \"unique—its influence lasted longer and has been more creative than perhaps almost any other force within pop fandom.\"", "''The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars'' (1972), combining the hard rock elements of ''The Man Who Sold the World'' with the lighter experimental rock and pop of ''Hunky Dory'', was released in June and was considered one of the defining albums of glam rock.", "\"Starman\", issued as an April single ahead of the album, was to cement Bowie's UK breakthrough: both single and album charted rapidly following his July ''Top of the Pops'' performance of the song.", "The album, which remained in the chart for two years, was soon joined there by the six-month-old ''Hunky Dory''.", "At the same time, the non-album single \"John, I'm Only Dancing\" and \"All the Young Dudes\", a song he wrote and produced for Mott the Hoople, were successful in the UK.", "The Ziggy Stardust Tour continued to the United States.Bowie contributed backing vocals, keyboards and guitar to Reed's 1972 solo breakthrough ''Transformer'', co-producing the album with Ronson.", "The following year, Bowie co-produced and mixed the Stooges' album ''Raw Power'' alongside Iggy Pop.", "His own ''Aladdin Sane'' (1973) was his first UK number-one album.", "Described by Bowie as \"Ziggy goes to America\", it contained songs he wrote while travelling to and across the US during the earlier part of the Ziggy tour, which now continued to Japan to promote the new album.", "''Aladdin Sane'' spawned the UK top five singles \"The Jean Genie\" and \"Drive-In Saturday\".Bowie's love of acting led to his total immersion in the characters he created for his music.", "\"Offstage I'm a robot.", "Onstage I achieve emotion.", "It's probably why I prefer dressing up as Ziggy to being David.\"", "With satisfaction came severe personal difficulties: acting the same role over an extended period, it became impossible for him to separate Ziggy Stardust—and later, the Thin White Duke—from his own character offstage.", "Ziggy, Bowie said, \"wouldn't leave me alone for years.", "That was when it all started to go sour ... My whole personality was affected.", "It became very dangerous.", "I really did have doubts about my sanity.\"", "His later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both ''Ziggy Stardust'' and ''Aladdin Sane'', were ultra-theatrical affairs filled with shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a sumo wrestling loincloth or simulating oral sex with Ronson's guitar.", "Bowie toured and gave press conferences as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt on-stage \"retirement\" at London's Hammersmith Odeon on 3 July 1973.Footage from the final show was incorporated for the film ''Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars'', which premiered in 1979 and commercially released in 1983.After breaking up the Spiders, Bowie attempted to move on from his Ziggy persona.", "His back catalogue was now highly sought after: ''The Man Who Sold the World'' had been re-released in 1972 along with ''Space Oddity''.", "''Hunky Dory'' \"Life on Mars?\"", "was released in June 1973 and peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart.", "Entering the same chart in September, his 1967 novelty record \"The Laughing Gnome\" reached number six.", "''Pin Ups'', a collection of covers of his 1960s favourites, followed in October, producing a UK number three hit in his version of the McCoys's \"Sorrow\" and itself peaking at number one, making Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK.", "It brought the total number of Bowie albums concurrently on the UK chart to six.===1974–1976: \"Plastic soul\" and the Thin White Duke===Bowie performing \"Rebel Rebel\" on ''TopPop'' in February 1974Bowie moved to the US in 1974, initially staying in New York City before settling in Los Angeles.", "''Diamond Dogs'' (1974), parts of which found him heading towards soul and funk, was the product of two distinct ideas: a musical based on a wild future in a post-apocalyptic city, and setting George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'' to music.", "The album went to number one in the UK, spawning the hits \"Rebel Rebel\" and \"Diamond Dogs\", and number five in the US.", "The supporting Diamond Dogs Tour visited cities in North America between June and December 1974.Choreographed by Toni Basil, and lavishly produced with theatrical special effects, the high-budget stage production was filmed by Alan Yentob.", "The resulting documentary, ''Cracked Actor'', featured a pasty and emaciated Bowie: the tour coincided with his slide from heavy cocaine use into addiction, producing severe physical debilitation, paranoia and emotional problems.", "He later commented that the accompanying live album, ''David Live'', ought to have been titled \"David Bowie Is Alive and Well and Living Only in Theory\".", "''David Live'' nevertheless solidified Bowie's status as a superstar, charting at number two in the UK and number eight in the US.", "It also spawned a UK number ten hit in a cover of Eddie Floyd's \"Knock on Wood\".", "After a break in Philadelphia, where Bowie recorded new material, the tour resumed with a new emphasis on soul.Bowie performing on the Diamond Dogs Tour, July 1974The fruit of the Philadelphia recording sessions was ''Young Americans'' (1975).", "Sandford writes, \"Over the years, most British rockers had tried, one way or another, to become black-by-extension.", "Few had succeeded as Bowie did now.\"", "The album's sound, which Bowie identified as \"plastic soul\", constituted a radical shift in style that initially alienated many of his UK devotees.", "''Young Americans'' was a commercial success in both the US and the UK and yielded Bowie's first US number one, \"Fame\", a collaboration with John Lennon.", "A re-issue of the 1969 single \"Space Oddity\" became Bowie's first number-one hit in the UK a few months after \"Fame\" achieved the same in the US.", "He mimed \"Fame\" and his November single \"Golden Years\" on the US variety show ''Soul Train'', earning him the distinction of being one of the first white artists to appear on the programme.", "The same year, Bowie fired Defries as his manager.", "At the culmination of the ensuing months-long legal dispute, he watched, as described by Sandford, \"millions of dollars of his future earnings being surrendered\" in what were \"uniquely generous terms for Defries\", then \"shut himself up in West 20th Street, where for a week his howls could be heard through the locked attic door.\"", "Michael Lippman, Bowie's lawyer during the negotiations, became his new manager; Lippman, in turn, was awarded substantial compensation when he was fired the following year.Bowie performs with Cher on the variety show ''Cher'', 1975.", "''Station to Station'' (1976), produced by Bowie and Harry Maslin, introduced a new Bowie persona, the Thin White Duke of its title track.", "Visually, the character was an extension of Thomas Jerome Newton, the extraterrestrial being he portrayed in the film ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'' the same year.", "Developing the funk and soul of ''Young Americans'', ''Station to Station''s synthesiser-heavy arrangements were influenced by electronic and German krautrock.", "Bowie's cocaine addiction during this period was at its peak; he often did not sleep for three to four days at a time during ''Station to Station'' recording sessions and later said he remembered \"only flashes\" of its making.", "His sanity—by his own later admission—had become twisted from cocaine; he referenced the drug directly in the album's ten-minute title track.", "The album's release was followed by a -month-long concert tour, the Isolar Tour, of Europe and North America.", "The core band that coalesced to record the album and tour—rhythm guitarist Carlos Alomar, bassist George Murray and drummer Dennis Davis—continued as a stable unit for the remainder of the 1970s.", "Bowie performed on stage as the Thin White Duke.Bowie as the Thin White Duke at Maple Leaf Gardens, Toronto, 1976The tour was highly successful but mired in political controversy.", "Bowie was quoted in Stockholm as saying that \"Britain could benefit from a Fascist leader\", and was detained by customs on the Russian/Polish border for possessing Nazi paraphernalia.", "Matters came to a head in London in May in what became known as the \"Victoria Station incident\".", "Arriving in an open-top Mercedes convertible, Bowie waved to the crowd in a gesture that some alleged was a Nazi salute, which was captured on camera and published in ''NME''.", "Bowie said the photographer caught him in mid-wave.", "He later blamed his pro-fascism comments and his behaviour during the period on his cocaine addiction, the character of the Thin White Duke and his life living in Los Angeles, a city he later said \"should be wiped off the face of the Earth\".", "He later apologised for these statements, and throughout the 1980s and 1990s criticised racism in European politics and the American music industry.", "Nevertheless, his comments on fascism, as well as Eric Clapton's alcohol-fuelled denunciations of Pakistani immigrants in 1976, led to the establishment of Rock Against Racism.===1976–1979: Berlin era===Apartment building at Hauptstraße 155, Schöneberg, Berlin, where Bowie lived from 1976 to 1978In August 1976, Bowie moved to West Berlin with his old friend Iggy Pop to rid themselves of their respective drug addictions and escape the spotlight.", "Bowie's interest in German krautrock and the ambient works of multi-instrumentalist Brian Eno culminated in the first of three albums, co-produced with Visconti, that became known as the Berlin Trilogy.", "The album, ''Low'' (1977), was recorded in France and took influence from krautrock and experimental music and featured both short song-fragments and ambient instrumentals.", "Before its recording, Bowie produced Iggy Pop's debut solo album ''The Idiot'', described by Pegg as \"a stepping stone between ''Station to Station'' and ''Low''\".", "''Low'' was completed in November, but left unreleased for three months.", "RCA did not see the album as commercially viable and were expecting another success following ''Young Americans'' and ''Station to Station''.", "Bowie's former manager Tony Defries, who maintained a significant financial interest in Bowie's affairs, also tried to prevent.", "Upon its release in January 1977, ''Low'' yielded the UK number three single \"Sound and Vision\", and its own performance surpassed that of ''Station to Station'' in the UK chart, where it reached number two.", "Bowie himself did not promote it, instead touring with Pop as his keyboardist throughout March and April before recording Pop's follow-up, ''Lust for Life''.Echoing ''Low''s minimalist, instrumental approach, the second of the trilogy, ''\"Heroes\"'' (1977), incorporated pop and rock to a greater extent, seeing Bowie joined by guitarist Robert Fripp.", "It was the only album recorded entirely in Berlin.", "Incorporating ambient sounds from a variety of sources including white noise generators, synthesisers and koto, the album was another hit, reaching number three in the UK.", "Its title track was released in both German and French and, though only reached number 24 in the UK singles chart, later became one of his best-known tracks.", "In contrast to ''Low'', Bowie promoted ''\"Heroes\"'' extensively, performing the title track on Marc Bolan's television show ''Marc'', and again two days later for Bing Crosby's final CBS television Christmas special, when he joined Crosby in \"Peace on Earth/Little Drummer Boy\", a version of \"The Little Drummer Boy\" with a new, contrapuntal verse.", "RCA belatedly released the recording as a single five years later in 1982, charting in the UK at number three.Bowie performing in Oslo, Norway, 1978After completing ''Low'' and ''\"Heroes\"'', Bowie spent much of 1978 on the Isolar II world tour, bringing the music of the first two Berlin Trilogy albums to almost a million people during 70 concerts in 12 countries.", "By now he had broken his drug addiction; Buckley writes that Isolar II was \"Bowie's first tour for five years in which he had probably not anaesthetised himself with copious quantities of cocaine before taking the stage. ...", "Without the oblivion that drugs had brought, he was now in a healthy enough mental condition to want to make friends.\"", "Recordings from the tour made up the live album ''Stage'', released the same year.", "Bowie also recorded narration for an adaptation of Sergei Prokofiev's classical composition ''Peter and the Wolf'', which was released as an album in May 1978.The final piece in what Bowie called his \"triptych\", ''Lodger'' (1979), eschewed the minimalist, ambient nature of its two predecessors, making a partial return to the drum- and guitar-based rock and pop of his pre-Berlin era.", "The result was a complex mixture of new wave and world music, in places incorporating Hijaz non-Western scales.", "Some tracks were composed using Eno's Oblique Strategies cards: \"Boys Keep Swinging\" entailed band members swapping instruments, \"Move On\" used the chords from Bowie's early composition \"All the Young Dudes\" played backwards, and \"Red Money\" took backing tracks from ''The Idiot'' \"Sister Midnight\".", "The album was recorded in Switzerland and New York City.", "Ahead of its release, RCA's Mel Ilberman described it as \"a concept album that portrays the Lodger as a homeless wanderer, shunned and victimized by life's pressures and technology.\"", "''Lodger'' reached number four in the UK and number 20 in the US, and yielded the UK hit singles \"Boys Keep Swinging\" and \"DJ\".", "Towards the end of the year, Bowie and Angie initiated divorce proceedings, and after months of court battles the marriage was ended in early 1980.The three albums were later adapted into classical music symphonies by American composer Philip Glass for his first, fourth and twelfth symphonies in 1992, 1997 and 2019, respectively.", "Glass praised Bowie's gift for creating \"fairly complex pieces of music, masquerading as simple pieces\".===1980–1988: New Romantic and pop era===''Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)'' (1980) produced the number one single \"Ashes to Ashes\", featuring the textural guitar-synthesiser work of Chuck Hammer and revisiting the character of Major Tom from \"Space Oddity\".", "The song gave international exposure to the underground New Romantic movement when Bowie visited the London club \"Blitz\"—the main New Romantic hangout—to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band Visage) to act in the accompanying video, renowned as one of the most innovative of all time.", "While ''Scary Monsters'' used principles established by the Berlin albums, it was considered by critics to be far more direct musically and lyrically.", "The album's hard rock edge included conspicuous guitar contributions from Fripp and Pete Townshend.", "Topping the UK Albums Chart for the first time since ''Diamond Dogs'', Buckley writes that with ''Scary Monsters'', Bowie achieved \"the perfect balance\" of creativity and mainstream success.Bowie paired with Queen in 1981 for a one-off single release, \"Under Pressure\".", "The duet was a hit, becoming Bowie's third UK number-one single.", "Bowie was given the lead role in the BBC's 1982 televised adaptation of Bertolt Brecht's play ''Baal''.", "Coinciding with its transmission, a five-track EP of songs from the play was released as ''Baal''.", "In March 1982, Bowie's title song for Paul Schrader's film ''Cat People'' was released as a single.", "A collaboration with Giorgio Moroder, it became a minor US hit and charted in the UK top 30.The same year, he departed RCA, having grown increasingly dissatisfied with them, and signed a new contract with EMI America Records for a reported $17 million.", "His 1975 severance settlement with Defries also ended in September.Serious Moonlight Tour, 1983Bowie reached his peak of popularity and commercial success in 1983 with ''Let's Dance''.", "Co-produced by Chic's Nile Rodgers, the album went platinum in both the UK and the US.", "Its three singles became top 20 hits in both countries, where its title track reached number one.", "\"Modern Love\" and \"China Girl\" each made number two in the UK, accompanied by a pair of \"absorbing\" music videos that Buckley said \"activated key archetypes in the pop world... 'Let's Dance', with its little narrative surrounding the young Aboriginal couple, targeted 'youth', and 'China Girl', with its bare-bummed (and later partially censored) beach lovemaking scene... was sufficiently sexually provocative to guarantee heavy rotation on MTV\".", "Then-unknown Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan guested on the album, featuring prominently on the title track.", "''Let's Dance'' was followed by the six-month Serious Moonlight Tour, which was extremely successful.", "At the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards Bowie received two awards including the inaugural Video Vanguard Award.", "''Tonight'' (1984), another dance-oriented album, found Bowie collaborating with Pop and Tina Turner.", "Co-produced by Hugh Padgham, it included a number of cover songs, including three Pop covers and the 1966 Beach Boys hit \"God Only Knows\".", "The album bore the transatlantic top 10 hit \"Blue Jean\", itself the inspiration for the Julien Temple-directed short film ''Jazzin' for Blue Jean'', in which Bowie played the dual roles of romantic protagonist Vic and arrogant rock star Screaming Lord Byron.", "The short won Bowie his only non-posthumous Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video.", "In early 1985, Bowie's collaboration with the Pat Metheny Group, \"This Is Not America\", for the soundtrack of ''The Falcon and the Snowman'', was released as a single and became a top 40 hit in the UK and US.", "In July that year, Bowie performed at Wembley Stadium for Live Aid, a multi-venue benefit concert for Ethiopian famine relief.", "Bowie and Mick Jagger duetted on a cover of Martha and the Vandellas' \"Dancing in the Street\" as a fundraising single, which went to number one in the UK and number seven in the US; its video premiered during Live Aid.", "Bowie performing during the Glass Spider Tour, 1987Bowie took an acting role in the 1986 film ''Absolute Beginners'', and his title song rose to number two in the UK charts.", "He also worked with composer Trevor Jones and wrote five original songs for the 1986 film ''Labyrinth'', which he starred in.", "His final solo album of the decade was 1987's ''Never Let Me Down'', where he ditched the light sound of his previous two albums, instead combining pop rock with a harder rock sound.", "Peaking at number six in the UK, the album yielded the hits \"Day-In Day-Out\", \"Time Will Crawl\" and \"Never Let Me Down\".", "Bowie later described it as his \"nadir\", calling it \"an awful album\".", "He supported the album on the 86-concert Glass Spider Tour.", "The backing band included Peter Frampton on lead guitar.", "Contemporary critics maligned the tour as overproduced, saying it pandered to the current stadium rock trends in its special effects and dancing, although in later years critics acknowledged the tour's strengths and influence on concert tours by other artists, such as Prince, Madonna and U2.===1989–1991: Tin Machine===Wanting to completely rejuvenate himself following the critical failures of ''Tonight'' and ''Never Let Me Down'', Bowie placed his solo career on hold after meeting guitarist Reeves Gabrels and formed the hard rock quartet Tin Machine.", "The line-up was completed by bassist and drummer Tony and Hunt Sales, who had played with Bowie on Iggy Pop's ''Lust for Life'' in 1977.Although he intended Tin Machine to operate as a democracy, Bowie dominated, both in songwriting and in decision-making.", "The band's 1989 self-titled debut album received mixed reviews and, according to author Paul Trynka, was quickly dismissed as \"pompous, dogmatic and dull\".", "EMI complained of \"lyrics that preach\" as well as \"repetitive tunes\" and \"minimalist or no production\".", "It reached number three in the UK and was supported by a twelve-date tour.The tour was a commercial success, but there was growing reluctance—among fans and critics alike—to accept Bowie's presentation as merely a band member.", "A series of Tin Machine singles failed to chart, and Bowie, after a disagreement with EMI, left the label.", "Like his audience and his critics, Bowie himself became increasingly disaffected with his role as just one member of a band.", "Tin Machine began work on a second album, but recording halted while Bowie conducted the seven-month Sound+Vision Tour, which brought him commercial success and acclaim.Bowie in Chile during the Sound+Vision Tour, 1990In October 1990, Bowie and Somali-born supermodel Iman were introduced by a mutual friend.", "He recalled, \"I was naming the children the night we met ... it was absolutely immediate.\"", "They married in 1992.Tin Machine resumed work the same month, but their audience and critics, ultimately left disappointed by the first album, showed little interest in a second.", "''Tin Machine II'' (1991) was Bowie's first album to miss the UK top 20 in nearly twenty years, and was controversial for its cover art.", "Depicting four ancient nude Kouroi statues, the new record label, Victory, deemed the cover \"a show of wrong, obscene images\" and airbrushed the statues' genitalia for the American release.", "Tin Machine toured again, but after the live album ''Tin Machine Live: Oy Vey, Baby'' (1992) failed commercially, Bowie dissolved the band and resumed his solo career.", "He continued to collaborate with Gabrels for the rest of the 1990s.===1992–1998: Electronic period===On 20 April 1992, Bowie appeared at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert, following the Queen singer's death the previous year.", "As well as performing \"Heroes\" and \"All the Young Dudes\", he was joined on \"Under Pressure\" by Annie Lennox, who took Mercury's vocal part; during his appearance, Bowie knelt and recited the Lord's Prayer at Wembley Stadium.", "Four days later, Bowie and Iman married in Switzerland.", "Intending to move to Los Angeles, they flew in to search for a suitable property, but found themselves confined to their hotel, under curfew: the 1992 Los Angeles riots began the day they arrived.", "They settled in New York instead.In 1993, Bowie released his first solo offering since his Tin Machine departure, the soul, jazz and hip-hop influenced ''Black Tie White Noise''.", "Making prominent use of electronic instruments, the album, which reunited Bowie with ''Let's Dance'' producer Nile Rodgers, confirmed Bowie's return to popularity, topping the UK chart and spawning three top 40 hits, including the top 10 single \"Jump They Say\".", "Bowie explored new directions on ''The Buddha of Suburbia'' (1993), which began as a soundtrack album for the BBC television adaptation of Hanif Kureishi's novel of the same name before turning into a full album; only the title track was used in the programme.", "Referencing his 1970s works with pop, jazz, ambient and experimental material, it received a low-key release, had almost no promotion and flopped commercially, reaching number 87 in the UK.", "Nevertheless, it later received critical praise as Bowie's \"lost great album\".Bowie performing in Turku, Finland, 1997Reuniting Bowie with Eno, the quasi-industrial ''Outside'' (1995) was originally conceived as the first volume in a non-linear narrative of art and murder.", "Featuring characters from a short story written by Bowie, the album achieved UK and US chart success and yielded three top 40 UK singles.", "In a move that provoked mixed reactions from both fans and critics, Bowie chose Nine Inch Nails as his tour partner for the Outside Tour.", "Visiting cities in Europe and North America between September 1995 and February 1996, the tour saw the return of Gabrels as Bowie's guitarist.", "On 7 January 1997, Bowie celebrated his half century with a 50th birthday concert at Madison Square Garden at which he was joined in playing his songs and those of his guests, Lou Reed, Dave Grohl and the Foo Fighters, Robert Smith of the Cure, Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins, Black Francis of the Pixies, and Sonic Youth.Incorporating experiments in jungle and drum 'n' bass, ''Earthling'' (1997) was a critical and commercial success in the UK and the US, and two singles from the album—\"Little Wonder\" and \"Dead Man Walking\"—became UK top 40 hits.", "The song \"I'm Afraid of Americans\" from the Paul Verhoeven film ''Showgirls'' was re-recorded for the album, and remixed by Trent Reznor for a single release.", "The heavy rotation of the accompanying video, also featuring Reznor, contributed to the song's 16-week stay in the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100.Bowie received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 12 February 1997.The Earthling Tour took place in Europe and North America between June and November.", "In November, Bowie performed on the BBC's Children in Need charity single \"Perfect Day\", which reached number one in the UK.", "Bowie reunited with Visconti in 1998 to record \"(Safe in This) Sky Life\" for ''The Rugrats Movie''.", "Although the track was edited out of the final cut, it was later re-recorded and released as \"Safe\" on the B-side of Bowie's 2002 single \"Everyone Says 'Hi'.", "The reunion led to other collaborations with his old producer, including a limited-edition single release version of Placebo's track \"Without You I'm Nothing\" with Bowie's harmonised vocal added to the original recording.===1999–2012: Neoclassicist era===Bowie on stage with Sterling Campbell during the Heathen Tour, 2002Bowie, with Gabrels, created the soundtrack for ''Omikron: The Nomad Soul'', a 1999 computer game in which he and Iman also voiced characters based on their likenesses.", "Released the same year and containing re-recorded tracks from ''Omikron'', his album ''Hours'' featured a song with lyrics by the winner of his \"Cyber Song Contest\" Internet competition, Alex Grant.", "Making extensive use of live instruments, the album was Bowie's exit from heavy electronica.", "''Hours'' and a performance on ''VH1 Storytellers'' in mid-1999 represented the end of Gabrels' association with Bowie as a performer and songwriter.", "Sessions for ''Toy'', a planned collection of remakes of tracks from Bowie's 1960s period, commenced in 2000, but was shelved due to EMI/Virgin's lack of faith in its commercial appeal.", "Bowie and Visconti continued their collaboration, producing a new album of completely original songs instead: the result of the sessions was the 2002 album ''Heathen''.On 25 June 2000, Bowie made his second appearance at the Glastonbury Festival in England, playing almost 30 years after his first.", "The performance was released as a live album in November 2018.On 27 June, he performed a concert at the BBC Radio Theatre in London, which was released on the compilation album ''Bowie at the Beeb''; this also featured BBC recording sessions from 1968 to 1972.Bowie and Iman's daughter, Alexandra, was born on 15 August.", "His interest in Buddhism led him to support the Tibetan cause by performing at the February 2001 and February 2003 concerts to support Tibet House US at Carnegie Hall in New York.Bowie performing in Dublin, Ireland, in November 2003 during the A Reality Tour—his final concert tourIn October 2001, Bowie opened the Concert for New York City, a charity event to benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks, with a minimalist performance of Simon & Garfunkel's \"America\", followed by a full band performance of \"Heroes\".", "2002 saw the release of ''Heathen'', and, during the second half of the year, the Heathen Tour.", "Taking place in Europe and North America, the tour opened at London's annual ''Meltdown'' festival, for which Bowie was that year appointed artistic director.", "Among the acts he selected for the festival were Philip Glass, Television and the Dandy Warhols.", "As well as songs from the new album, the tour featured material from Bowie's ''Low'' era.", "''Reality'' (2003) followed, and its accompanying world tour, the A Reality Tour, with an estimated attendance of 722,000, grossed more than any other in 2004.On 13 June, Bowie headlined the last night of the Isle of Wight Festival 2004.On 25 June, he experienced chest pain while performing at the Hurricane Festival in Scheeßel, Germany.", "Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, the pain was later diagnosed as an acutely blocked coronary artery, requiring an emergency angioplasty in Hamburg.", "The remaining fourteen dates of the tour were cancelled.In the years following his recuperation from the heart attack, Bowie reduced his musical output, making only one-off appearances on stage and in the studio.", "He sang in a duet of his 1971 song \"Changes\" with Butterfly Boucher for the 2004 animated film ''Shrek 2''.", "During a relatively quiet 2005, he recorded the vocals for the song \"(She Can) Do That\", co-written with Brian Transeau, for the film ''Stealth''.", "He returned to the stage on 8 September 2005, appearing with Arcade Fire for the US nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, and performed with the Canadian band for the second time a week later during the CMJ Music Marathon.", "He contributed backing vocals on TV on the Radio's song \"Province\" for their album ''Return to Cookie Mountain'', and joined with Lou Reed on Danish alt-rockers Kashmir's 2005 album ''No Balance Palace''.Bowie with his son Duncan Jones at the premiere of Jones's directorial debut ''Moon'', 2009Bowie was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award on 8 February 2006.In April, he announced, \"I'm taking a year off—no touring, no albums.\"", "He made a surprise guest appearance at David Gilmour's 29 May concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London.", "The event was recorded, and a selection of songs on which he had contributed joint vocals were subsequently released.", "He performed again in November, alongside Alicia Keys, at the Black Ball, a benefit event for Keep a Child Alive at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York.", "The performance marked the last time Bowie performed his music on stage.Bowie was chosen to curate the 2007 High Line Festival.", "The musicians and artists he selected for the Manhattan event included electronic pop duo AIR, surrealist photographer Claude Cahun and English comedian Ricky Gervais.", "Bowie performed on Scarlett Johansson's 2008 album of Tom Waits covers, ''Anywhere I Lay My Head''.", "In June 2008, a live album was released of a Ziggy Stardust-era concert from 1972.On the 40th anniversary of the July 1969 Moon landing—and Bowie's accompanying commercial breakthrough with \"Space Oddity\"—EMI released the individual tracks from the original eight-track studio recording of the song, in a 2009 contest inviting members of the public to create a remix.", "A live album from the A Reality Tour was released in January 2010.In late March 2011, ''Toy'', Bowie's previously unreleased album from 2001, was leaked onto the internet, containing material used for ''Heathen'' and most of its single B-sides, as well as unheard new versions of his early back catalogue.===2013–2016: Final years===On 8 January 2013, his 66th birthday, his website announced a new studio album—his first in a decade—to be titled ''The Next Day'' and scheduled for release in March; the announcement was accompanied by the immediate release of the single \"Where Are We Now?\".", "A music video for the single was released onto Vimeo the same day, directed by New York artist Tony Oursler.", "The single topped the UK iTunes Chart within hours of its release, and debuted in the UK Singles Chart at number six, his first single to enter the Top 10 for two decades (since \"Jump They Say\" in 1993).", "A second single and video, \"The Stars (Are Out Tonight)\", were released at the end of February.", "Directed by Floria Sigismondi, it stars Bowie and Tilda Swinton as a married couple.Recorded in secret between 2011 and 2012, 29 songs were recorded during the album's sessions, of which 22 saw official release in 2013, including fourteen on the standard album.", "Three bonus tracks were later packaged with seven outtakes and remixes on ''The Next Day Extra'', released in November.", "On 1 March, the album was made available to stream for free through iTunes.", "Debuting at number one on the UK Albums Chart, ''The Next Day'' was his first album to top the chart since ''Black Tie White Noise'', and was the fastest-selling album of 2013 at the time.", "The music video for the song \"The Next Day\" created some controversy due to its Christian themes and messages, initially being removed from YouTube for terms-of-service violation, then restored with a warning recommending viewing only by those 18 or over.According to ''The Times'', Bowie ruled out ever giving an interview again.", "Later in 2013, he was featured in a cameo vocal in the Arcade Fire song \"Reflektor\".", "A poll carried out by BBC History Magazine in October 2013 named Bowie as the best-dressed Briton in history.", "In mid-2014, Bowie was diagnosed with liver cancer, which he kept private.", "A new compilation album, ''Nothing Has Changed'', was released in November.", "The album featured rare tracks and old material from his catalogue in addition to a new song, \"Sue (Or in a Season of Crime)\".Bowie continued working throughout 2015, secretly recording his final album ''Blackstar'' in New York between January and May.", "In August, it was announced that he was writing songs for a Broadway musical based on the ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' cartoon series; the final production included a retooled version of \"No Control\" from ''Outside''.", "He also wrote and recorded the opening title song to the television series ''The Last Panthers'', which aired in November.", "The theme that was used for ''The Last Panthers'' was also the title track for ''Blackstar''.", "On 7 December, Bowie's musical ''Lazarus'' debuted in New York; he made his final public appearance at its opening night.", "''Blackstar'' was released on 8 January 2016, Bowie's 69th birthday, and was met with critical acclaim.", "He died two days later, after which Visconti revealed that Bowie had planned the album to be his swan song, and a \"parting gift\" for his fans before his death.", "Several reporters and critics subsequently noted that most of the lyrics on the album seem to revolve around his impending death, with CNN noting that the album \"reveals a man who appears to be grappling with his own mortality\".", "Visconti also said that he had been planning a follow-up album, and had written and recorded demos of five songs in his final weeks, suggesting he believed he had a few months left.", "The day following his death, online viewing of Bowie's music skyrocketed, breaking the record for Vevo's most viewed artist in a single day.", "''Blackstar'' debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart; nineteen of his albums were in the UK Top 100 Albums Chart, and thirteen singles were in the UK Top 100 Singles Chart.", "''Blackstar'' also debuted at number one on album charts around the world, including Australia, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand and the US ''Billboard'' 200.===Posthumous releases===In September 2016, a box set ''Who Can I Be Now?", "(1974–1976)'' was released covering Bowie's mid-1970s soul period; it included ''The Gouster'', a previously unreleased 1974 album.", "An EP, ''No Plan'', was released on 8 January 2017, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday.", "Apart from \"Lazarus\", the EP includes three songs that Bowie recorded during the ''Blackstar'' sessions, but were left off the album and appeared on the soundtrack album for the ''Lazarus'' musical in October 2016.A music video for the title track was also released.", "2017 and 2018 also saw the release of a series of posthumous live albums, ''Cracked Actor (Live Los Angeles '74)'', ''Live Nassau Coliseum '76'' and ''Welcome to the Blackout (Live London '78)''.", "In the two years following his death, Bowie sold five million records in the UK alone.", "In their top 10 list for the Global Recording Artist of the Year, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry named Bowie the second-bestselling artist worldwide in 2016, behind Drake.At the 59th Annual Grammy Awards in 2017, Bowie won all five nominated awards: Best Rock Performance; Best Alternative Music Album; Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical; Best Recording Package; and Best Rock Song.", "They were Bowie's first Grammy wins in musical categories.", "On 8 January 2020, on what would have been Bowie's 73rd birthday, a previously unreleased version of \"The Man Who Sold the World\" was released and two releases were announced: a streaming-only EP, ''Is It Any Wonder?", "'', and an album, ''ChangesNowBowie'', released in November 2020 for Record Store Day.", "In August, another series of live shows were released, including sets from Dallas in 1995 and Paris in 1999.These and other shows, part of a series of live concerts spanning his tours from 1995 to 1999, was released in late 2020 and early 2021 as part of the box set ''Brilliant Live Adventures''.", "In September 2021, Bowie's estate signed a distribution deal with Warner Music Group, beginning in 2023, covering Bowie's recordings from 2000 through 2016.Bowie's album ''Toy'', recorded in 2000, was released on what would have been Bowie's 75th birthday.", "On 3 January 2022, ''Variety'' reported that Bowie's estate had sold his publishing catalogue to Warner Chappell Music, \"for a price upwards of $250 million\"." ], [ "Acting career", "In addition to music, Bowie took acting roles throughout his career, appearing in over 30 films, television shows and theatrical productions.", "His acting career was \"productively selective\", largely eschewing starring roles for cameos and supporting parts; he once described his film career as \"splashing in the kids' pool\".", "He mostly chose projects with arthouse directors that he felt were outside the Hollywood mainstream, commenting in 2000: \"One cameo for Scorsese to me brings so much more satisfaction than, say, a James Bond.\"", "Critics have believed that, had he not chosen to pursue music, he could have found great success as an actor.", "Others have felt that, while his screen presence was singular, his best contributions to film were the use of his songs in films such as ''Lost Highway'', ''A Knight's Tale'', ''The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou'' and ''Inglourious Basterds''.=== 1960s and 1970s ===Bowie's acting career predated his commercial breakthrough as a musician.", "His first film was a short fourteen-minute black-and-white film called ''The Image'', shot in September 1967.Concerning a ghostly boy who emerges from a troubled artist's painting to haunt him, Bowie later called the film \"awful\".", "From December 1967 to March 1968, Bowie acted in mime Lindsay Kemp's theatrical production ''Pierrot in Turquoise'', during which he performed several songs from his self-titled debut album.", "The production was later adapted into the 1970 television film ''The Looking Glass Murders''.", "In late January 1968, Bowie filmed a walk-on role for the BBC drama series ''Theatre 625'' that aired in May.", "He also appeared as a walk-on extra in the 1969 film adaptation of Leslie Thomas's 1966 comic novel ''The Virgin Soldiers''.Bowie's first major film role was in Nicolas Roeg's ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'', in which he portrayed Thomas Jerome Newton, an alien from a dying planet.", "The actor's severe cocaine addiction at the time left him in such a fragile state of mind that he barely understood the film; he later said in 1993: \"My one snapshot of that film is not having to act.", "Just being me as I was, was perfectly adequate for the role.", "I wasn't of this earth at that particular time.\"", "Bowie's role was particularly singled out for praise by film critics both on release and in later decades; Pegg argues it stands as Bowie's most significant role.", "In 1978, Bowie had a starring role in ''Just a Gigolo'', directed by David Hemmings, portraying Prussian officer Paul von Przygodski, who, returning from World War I, discovers life has changed and becomes a gigolo employed by a Baroness, playing by Marlene Dietrich.", "The film was a critical and commercial failure, and Bowie expressed disappointment in the finished product.=== 1980s ===Bowie's costume from ''Labyrinth'' at the Museum of Pop Culture, SeattleFrom July 1980 to January 1981, Bowie played Joseph Merrick in the Broadway theatre production ''The Elephant Man'', which he undertook wearing no stage make-up, earning critical praise for his performance.", "''Christiane F.'', a 1981 biographical film focusing on a young girl's drug addiction in West Berlin, featured Bowie in a cameo appearance as himself at a concert in Germany.", "Its soundtrack album, ''Christiane F.'' (1981), featured much material from his Berlin albums.", "The following year, he starred in the titular role in a BBC adaptation of the Bertolt Brecht play ''Baal''.", "Bowie made three on-screen appearances in 1983, the first as a vampire in Tony Scott's erotic horror film ''The Hunger'', with Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon.", "Bowie later said that he felt \"very uncomfortable\" with the role, but was happy to work with Scott.", "The second was in Nagisa Ōshima's ''Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence'', based on Laurens van der Post's novel ''The Seed and the Sower'', in which he played Major Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp.", "While the film itself received mixed reviews, Bowie's performance was praised.", "Pegg places it amongst his finest acting performances.", "Bowie's third role in 1983 was a small cameo in Mel Damski's pirate comedy ''Yellowbeard'', heralded by several members of the Monty Python group.", "Bowie also filmed a 30-second introduction to the animated film ''The Snowman'', based on Raymond Briggs's book of the same name.In 1985, Bowie had a supporting role as hitman Colin in John Landis's ''Into the Night''.", "He declined to play the villain Max Zorin in the James Bond film ''A View to a Kill'' (1985).", "Bowie reteamed with Julian Temple for ''Absolute Beginners'', a rock musical film adapted from Colin MacInnes's book of the same name about life in late 1950s London, in a supporting role as ad man Vendice Partners.", "The same year, Jim Henson's dark musical fantasy ''Labyrinth'' cast him as Jareth, the villainous Goblin King.", "Despite initially performing poorly, the film grew in popularity and became a cult film.", "Two years later, he played Pontius Pilate in Martin Scorsese's critically acclaimed biblical epic ''The Last Temptation of Christ'' (1988).", "Despite only appearing for a three-minute sequence, Pegg writes that Bowie \"acquits himself well with a thoughtful, unshowy performance.", "\"=== 1990s ===In 1991, Bowie reteamed with Landis for an episode of the HBO sitcom ''Dream On'' and played a disgruntled restaurant employee opposite Rosanna Arquette in ''The Linguini Incident''.", "Bowie portrayed the mysterious FBI agent Phillip Jeffries in David Lynch's ''Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me'' (1992).", "The prequel to the television series was poorly received at the time of its release, but has since been critically reevaluated.", "He took a small but pivotal role as his friend Andy Warhol in ''Basquiat'', artist/director Julian Schnabel's 1996 biopic of Jean-Michel Basquiat, another artist he considered a friend and colleague.", "Bowie co-starred in Giovanni Veronesi's Spaghetti Western ''Il Mio West'' (1998, released as ''Gunslinger's Revenge'' in the US in 2005) as the most feared gunfighter in the region.", "He played the ageing gangster Bernie in Andrew Goth's ''Everybody Loves Sunshine'' (1999, released in the US as ''B.U.S.T.E.D.", "''), and appeared as the host in the second season of the television horror anthology series ''The Hunger''.", "Despite having several episodes which focus on vampires and Bowie's involvement, the show had no plot connection to the 1983 film of the same name.", "In 1999, Bowie voiced two characters in the Sega Dreamcast game ''Omikron: The Nomad Soul'', his only appearance in a video game.=== 2000s and posthumous notes ===In ''Mr.", "Rice's Secret'' (2000), Bowie played the title role as the neighbour of a terminally ill 12-year-old boy.", "Bowie appeared as himself in the 2001 Ben Stiller comedy ''Zoolander'', judging a \"walk-off\" between rival male models, and in Eric Idle's 2002 mockumentary ''The Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch''.", "In 2005, he filmed a commercial with Snoop Dogg for XM Satellite Radio.", "Bowie portrayed a fictionalised version of physicist and inventor Nikola Tesla in Christopher Nolan's film ''The Prestige'' (2006), which was about the bitter rivalry between two magicians in the late 19th century.", "Nolan later claimed that Bowie was his only preference to play Tesla, and that he personally appealed to Bowie to take the role after he initially passed.", "In the same year, he voice-acted in Luc Besson's animated film ''Arthur and the Invisibles'' as the powerful villain Maltazard, and appeared as himself in an episode of the Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant television series ''Extras''.", "In 2007, he voiced the character Lord Royal Highness in the ''SpongeBob's Atlantis SquarePantis'' television film.", "In the 2008 film ''August'', directed by Austin Chick, he played a supporting role as Ogilvie, a \"ruthless venture capitalist.\"", "Bowie's final film appearance was a cameo as himself in the 2009 teen comedy ''Bandslam''.In a 2017 interview with ''Consequence of Sound'', director Denis Villeneuve revealed his intention to cast Bowie in ''Blade Runner 2049'' as the lead villain, Niander Wallace, but when news broke of Bowie's death in January of the same year, Villeneuve was forced to look for talent with similar \"rock star\" qualities.", "He eventually cast actor and singer Jared Leto.", "Talking about the casting process, Villeneuve said: \"Our first thought for the character had been David Bowie, who had influenced ''Blade Runner'' in many ways.", "When we learned the sad news, we looked around for someone like that.", "He Bowie embodied the ''Blade Runner'' spirit.\"", "David Lynch also hoped to have Bowie reprise his ''Fire Walk With Me'' character for ''Twin Peaks: The Return'' but Bowie's illness prevented this.", "His character was portrayed via archival footage.", "At Bowie's request, Lynch overdubbed Bowie's original dialogue with a different actor's voice, as Bowie was unhappy with his Cajun accent in the original film." ], [ "Other works", "===Painter and art collector===Bowie was a painter and artist.", "He moved to Switzerland in 1976, purchasing a chalet in the hills north of Lake Geneva.", "In the new environment, his cocaine use decreased, and he devoted more time to his painting, producing a number of post-modernist pieces.", "When on tour, he took to sketching in a notebook, and photographing scenes for later reference.", "Visiting galleries in Geneva and the Brücke Museum in Berlin, Bowie became, in the words of Sandford, \"a prolific producer and collector of contemporary art. ...", "Not only did he become a well-known patron of expressionist art: locked in Clos des Mésanges he began an intensive self-improvement course in classical music and literature, and started work on an autobiography.", "\"One of Bowie's paintings sold at auction in late 1990 for $500, and the cover for his 1995 album ''Outside'' is a close-up of a self-portrait he painted that year.", "His first solo show, titled ''New Afro/Pagan and Work: 1975–1995'', was in 1995 at The Gallery in Cork Street, London.", "In 1997, he founded the publishing company 21 Publishing, whose first title was ''Blimey!", "– From Bohemia to Britpop: London Art World from Francis Bacon to Damien Hirst'' by Matthew Collings.", "A year later, Bowie was invited to join the editorial board of the journal ''Modern Painters'', and participated in the Nat Tate art hoax later that year.", "The same year, during an interview with Michael Kimmelman for ''The New York Times'', he said \"Art was, seriously, the only thing I'd ever wanted to own.\"", "Subsequently, in a 1999 interview for the BBC, he said \"The only thing I buy obsessively and addictively is art\".", "His art collection, which included works by Damien Hirst, Derek Boshier, Frank Auerbach, Henry Moore, and Jean-Michel Basquiat among others, was valued at over £10 million in mid-2016.After his death, his family decided to sell most of the collection because they \"didn't have the space\" to store it.", "On 10 and 11 November, three auctions were held at Sotheby's in London.", "The items on sale represented about 65 per cent of the collection.", "Exhibition of the works in the auction attracted 51,470 visitors, the auction itself was attended by 1,750 bidders, with over 1,000 more bidding online.", "The auctions has overall sale total £32.9 million (app.", "$41.5 million), while the highest-selling item, Basquiat's graffiti-inspired painting ''Air Power'', sold for £7.09 million.===Writings===Outside of music, Bowie dabbled in several forms of writings during his life.", "In the late 1990s, Bowie was commissioned for writings of various media, including an essay on Jean-Michel Basquiat for the 2001 anthology book ''Writers on Artists'' and forewords to Jo Levin's 2001 publication ''GQ Cool'', Mick Rock's 2001 photography portfolio ''Blood and Glitter'', his wife Iman's 2001 book ''I Am Iman'', ''Q'' magazine's 2002 special ''The 100 Greatest Rock 'n' Roll Photographs'' and Jonathan Barnbrook's artwork portfolio ''Barnbrook Bible: The Graphic Design of Jonathan Barnbrook''.", "He also heavily contributed to the 2002 Genesis Publications memoir of the Ziggy Stardust years, ''Moonage Daydream'', which was rereleased in 2022.Bowie also wrote liner notes for several albums, including ''Too Many Fish in the Sea'' by Robin Clark, the wife of his guitarist Carlos Alomar, Stevie Ray Vaughan's posthumous ''Live at Montreux 1982 & 1985'' (2002), The Spinners' compilation ''The Chrome Collection'' (2003), the tenth anniversary reissue of Placebo's debut album (2006) and Neu!", "'s ''Vinyl Box'' (2010).", "Bowie also wrote an appreciation piece in ''Rolling Stone'' for Nine Inch Nails in 2005 and an essay for the booklet accompanying Iggy Pop's ''A Million in Prizes: The Anthology'' the same year.===Bowie Bonds===\"Bowie Bonds\", the first modern example of celebrity bonds, were asset-backed securities of current and future revenues of the 25 albums that Bowie recorded before 1990.Issued in 1997, the bonds were bought for US$55 million by the Prudential Insurance Company of America.", "Royalties from the 25 albums generated the cash flow that secured the bonds' interest payments.", "By forfeiting 10 years worth of royalties, Bowie received a payment of US$55 million up front.", "Bowie used this income to buy songs owned by Defries.", "The bonds liquidated in 2007 and the rights to the income from the songs reverted to Bowie.===Websites===Bowie launched two personal websites during his lifetime.", "The first, an Internet service provider titled BowieNet, was developed in conjunction with Robert Goodale and Ron Roy and launched in September 1998.Subscribers to the dial-up service were offered exclusive content as well as a BowieNet email address and Internet access.", "The service was closed by 2006.The second, www.bowieart.com, allowed fans to view and purchase selected paintings, prints and sculptures from his private collection.", "The service, which ran from 2000 to 2008, also offered a showcase for young art students, in Bowie's words, \"to show and sell their work without having to go through a dealer.", "Therefore, they really make the money they deserve for their paintings.\"" ], [ "Musicianship", "Vox Mark VI guitar in the Hard Rock Cafe, Warsaw, PolandFrom the time of his earliest recordings in the 1960s, Bowie employed a wide variety of musical styles.", "His early compositions and performances were strongly influenced by rock and roll singers like Little Richard and Elvis Presley, and also the wider world of show business.", "He particularly strove to emulate the British musical theatre singer-songwriter and actor Anthony Newley, whose vocal style he frequently adopted, and made prominent use of for his 1967 debut release, ''David Bowie'' (to the disgust of Newley himself, who destroyed the copy he received from Bowie's publisher).", "Bowie's fascination with music hall continued to surface sporadically alongside such diverse styles as hard rock and heavy metal, soul, psychedelic folk and pop.Musicologist James E. Perone observes Bowie's use of octave switches for different repetitions of the same melody, exemplified in \"Space Oddity\", and later in \"Heroes\" to dramatic effect; the author writes that \"in the lowest part of his vocal register ... his voice has an almost crooner-like richness\".", "Voice instructor Jo Thompson describes Bowie's vocal vibrato technique as \"particularly deliberate and distinctive\".", "Authors Scott Schinder and Andy Schwartz call him \"a vocalist of extraordinary technical ability, able to pitch his singing to particular effect.\"", "Here, too, as in his stagecraft and songwriting, Bowie's roleplaying is evident: historiographer Michael Campbell says that Bowie's lyrics \"arrest our ear, without question.", "But Bowie continually shifts from person to person as he delivers them ... His voice changes dramatically from section to section.\"", "In addition to the guitar, Bowie also played a variety of keyboards, including piano, Mellotron, Chamberlin, and synthesisers; harmonica; alto and baritone saxophones; stylophone; viola; cello; koto (on the ''\"Heroes\"'' track \"Moss Garden\"); thumb piano; drums (on the ''Heathen'' track \"Cactus\"), and various percussion instruments." ], [ "Personal life", "===Family===Iman, 2009Bowie married his first wife, Mary Angela Barnett, on 19 March 1970 at Bromley Register Office in Bromley, London.", "Their son Duncan, born on 30 May 1971, was at first known as Zowie.", "They had an open marriage and dated other people during it: David had relationships with model Cyrinda Foxe and ''Young Americans'' backing singer Ava Cherry; Angie had encounters with Stooges members Ron Asheton and James Williamson, and Ziggy Stardust Tour bodyguard Anton Jones.", "Angie later described their union as a marriage of convenience.", "\"We got married so that I could get a permit to work.", "I didn't think it would last and David said, before we got married, 'I'm not really in love with you' and I thought that's probably a good thing\", she said.", "Bowie said about Angie that \"living with her is like living with a blow torch.\"", "The couple divorced on 8 February 1980; David received custody of Duncan.", "After the gag order that was part of their divorce agreement ended, Angie wrote a memoir of their turbulent marriage, titled ''Backstage Passes: Life on the Wild Side with David Bowie''.David met Somali-American model Iman in Los Angeles following the Sound+Vision Tour in October 1990.They married in a private ceremony in Lausanne on 24 April 1992.The wedding was solemnised on 6 June in Florence.", "The couple's marriage influenced the content of ''Black Tie White Noise'', particularly on tracks such as \"The Wedding\"/\"The Wedding Song\" and \"Miracle Goodnight\".", "They had one daughter, Alexandria \"Lexi\" Zahra Jones, born on 15 August 2000.The couple resided primarily in New York City and London as well as owning an apartment in Sydney's Elizabeth Bay and Britannia Bay House on the island of Mustique.", "Following Bowie's death, Iman expressed gratitude that the two were able to maintain separate identities during their marriage.===Other relationships===Bowie met dancer Lindsay Kemp in 1967 and enrolled in his dance class at the London Dance Centre.", "He commented in 1972 that meeting Kemp was when his interest in image \"really blossomed\".", "\"He lived on his emotions, he was a wonderful influence.", "His day-to-day life was the most theatrical thing I had ever seen, ever.", "It was everything I thought Bohemia probably was.", "I joined the circus.\"", "In January 1968, Kemp choreographed a dance scene for a BBC play, ''The Pistol Shot'', and used Bowie with a dancer, Hermione Farthingale; the pair began dating and moved into a London flat together.", "Bowie and Farthingale broke up in early 1969 when she went to Norway to take part in a film, ''Song of Norway''; this affected him, and several songs, such as \"Letter to Hermione\" and \"An Occasional Dream\", reference her; and, for the video accompanying \"Where Are We Now?", "\", he wore a T-shirt with the words \"m/s Song of Norway\".", "Bowie blamed himself for their break-up, saying in 2002 that he \"was totally unfaithful and couldn't for the life of me keep it zipped.\"", "Farthingale, who spoke of deep affection for him in an interview with Pegg, said they last saw each other in 1970.In 1983, Bowie briefly dated New Zealand model Geeling Ng, who had starred in the video for \"China Girl\".", "While filming ''The Hunger'' the same year, Bowie had a sexual relationship with his co-star Susan Sarandon, who stated in 2014 \"He's worth idolising.", "He's extraordinary.\"", "Between 1987 and 1990, Bowie dated Glass Spider Tour dancer Melissa Hurley.", "The two began their relationship at the end of the tour when she was only 22 years old.", "Bowie's Tin Machine collaborator Kevin Armstrong remembered her as \"a genuinely kind, sweet person\".", "They announced their engagement in May 1989 but never married; Bowie broke the relationship off during the latter half of the Sound+Vision Tour, primarily due to the age difference—he was 43 at the time.", "He later spoke of Hurley as \"such a wonderful, lovely, vibrant girl\".===Sexuality===Bowie's sexuality has been the subject of debate.", "While married to Angie, he famously declared himself gay in a 1972 interview with ''Melody Maker'' journalist Michael Watts, which generated publicity in both America and Britain; Bowie was adopted as a gay icon in both countries.", "According to Buckley, \"If Ziggy confused both his creator and his audience, a big part of that confusion centred on the topic of sexuality.\"", "He affirmed his stance in a 1976 interview with ''Playboy'', stating: \"It's true—I am a bisexual.", "But I can't deny that I've used that fact very well.", "I suppose it's the best thing that ever happened to me.\"", "His claim of bisexuality has been supported by Angie.In 1983, Bowie told ''Rolling Stone'' writer Kurt Loder that his public declaration of bisexuality was \"the biggest mistake I ever made\" and \"I was always a closet heterosexual\".", "On other occasions, he said his interest in homosexual and bisexual culture had been more a product of the times and the situation in which he found himself than of his own feelings.", "''Blender'' asked Bowie in 2002 whether he still believed his public declaration was his biggest mistake.", "After a long pause, he said, \"I don't think it was a mistake in Europe, but it was a lot tougher in America.", "I had no problem with people knowing I was bisexual.", "But I had no inclination to hold any banners nor be a representative of any group of people.\"", "Bowie said he wanted to be a songwriter and performer rather than a headline for his bisexuality, and in \"puritanical\" America, \"I think it stood in the way of so much I wanted to do.", "\"Buckley wrote that Bowie \"mined sexual intrigue for its ability to shock.\"", "According to Mary Finnigan—a brief girlfriend of Bowie's in 1969—David and Angie \"created their bisexual fantasy\".", "Sandford wrote that David \"made a positive fetish of repeating the quip that he and his wife had met while 'fucking the same bloke' ...", "Gay sex was always an anecdotal and laughing matter.\"", "The BBC's Mark Easton stated in 2016 that Britain was \"far more tolerant of difference\", and that gay rights and gender equality would not have \"enjoyed the broad support they do today without Bowie's androgynous challenge all those years ago\".===Spirituality and religion===Beginning in 1967 from the influence of his half-brother, Bowie became interested in Buddhism and, with commercial success eluding him, he considered becoming a Buddhist monk.", "Biographer Marc Spitz states that the religion reminded the young artist that other goals in life existed outside fame and material gain and one can learn about themselves through meditation and chanting.", "After a few months' study at Tibet House in London, he was told by his Lama, Chime Rinpoche, \"You don't want to be Buddhist.... You should follow music.\"", "By 1975, Bowie admitted, \"I felt totally, absolutely alone.", "And I probably was alone because I pretty much had abandoned God.\"", "In his will, Bowie stipulated that he be cremated and his ashes scattered in Bali \"in accordance with the Buddhist rituals\".After Bowie married Iman in a private ceremony in 1992, he said they knew that their \"real marriage, sanctified by God, had to happen in a church in Florence\".", "Earlier that year, he knelt on stage at The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert and recited the Lord's Prayer before a television audience.", "In 1993, Bowie said he had an \"undying\" belief in the \"unquestionable\" existence of God.", "In a separate 1993 interview, while describing the genesis of the music for his album ''Black Tie White Noise'', he said \"it was important for me to find something musically that also had no sort of representation of institutionalized and organized religion, of which I'm not a believer, I must make that clear.\"", "Interviewed in 2005, Bowie said whether God exists \"is not a question that can be answered....", "I'm not quite an atheist and it worries me.", "There's that little bit that holds on: 'Well, I'm ''almost'' an atheist.", "Give me a couple of months....", "I've nearly got it right.", "He had a tattoo of the Serenity Prayer in Japanese on his left calf.Bowie stated that \"questioning his spiritual life was always ... germane\" to his songwriting.", "The song \"Station to Station\" is \"very much concerned with the Stations of the Cross\"; the song also specifically references Kabbalah.", "Bowie called the album \"extremely dark... the nearest album to a magick treatise that I've written\".", "''Earthling'' showed \"the abiding need in me to vacillate between atheism or a kind of gnosticism... What I need is to find a balance, spiritually, with the way I live and my demise.\"", "''Hours'' boasted overtly Christian themes, with its artwork inspired by the Pietà.", "''Blackstar'' \"Lazarus\" began with the words, \"Look up here, I'm in Heaven\" while the rest of the album deals with other matters of mysticism and mortality.===Political views===As a seventeen-year-old still known as Davy Jones, he was a cofounder and spokesman for the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Long-Haired Men in response to members of the Manish Boys being asked to cut their hair before a BBC television appearance.", "He and his bandmates were interviewed on the network's 12 November 1964 instalment of ''Tonight'' to champion their cause.", "He stated on the programme, \"I think we all like long hair and we don't see why other people should persecute us because of it.", "\"In 1976, speaking as the Thin White Duke persona and \"at least partially tongue-in-cheek\", he made statements that expressed support for fascism and perceived admiration for Adolf Hitler in interviews with ''Playboy'', ''NME'' and a Swedish publication.", "Bowie was quoted as saying: \"Britain is ready for a fascist leader ...", "I think Britain could benefit from a fascist leader.", "After all, fascism is really nationalism...", "I believe very strongly in fascism, people have always responded with greater efficiency under a regimental leadership.\"", "He was also quoted as saying: \"Adolf Hitler was one of the first rock stars\" and \"You've got to have an extreme right front come up and sweep everything off its feet and tidy everything up.\"", "Bowie later retracted these comments in an interview with ''Melody Maker'' in October 1977, blaming them on mental instability caused by his drug problems, saying: \"I was out of my mind, totally, completely crazed.\"", "In the same interview, Bowie described himself as \"apolitical\", stating \"The more I travel and the less sure I am about exactly which political philosophies are commendable.", "The more government systems I see, the less enticed I am to give my allegiance to any set of people, so it would be disastrous for me to adopt a definitive point of view, or to adopt a party of people and say 'these are my people'.", "\"In the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie's public statements shifted sharply towards anti-racism and anti-fascism.", "In an interview with MTV anchor Mark Goodman in 1983, Bowie criticised the channel for not providing enough coverage of Black musicians, becoming visibly uncomfortable when Goodman suggested that the network's fear of backlash from the American Midwest was one reason for such a lack of coverage.", "The music videos for \"China Girl\" and \"Let's Dance\" were described by Bowie as a \"very simple, very direct\" statement against racism.", "The album ''Tin Machine'' took a more direct stance against fascism and neo-Nazism, and was criticised for being too preachy.", "In 1993 he released the single \"Black Tie White Noise\" which dealt with the 1992 LA riots.", "In 2007 Bowie donated 10,000 dollars to the defence fund for the Jena Six saying, \"there is clearly a separate and unequal judicial process going on in the town of Jena\".At the 2014 Brit Awards, Bowie became the oldest ever recipient of a Brit Award when he won the award for British Male Solo Artist, which was collected on his behalf by Kate Moss.", "His speech read: \"I'm completely delighted to have a Brit for being the best male – but I am, aren't I Kate?", "Yes.", "I think it's a great way to end the day.", "Thank you very, very much and Scotland stay with us.\"", "Bowie's reference to the forthcoming 2014 Scottish independence referendum garnered a significant reaction throughout the UK on social media.In 2016, filmmaker and activist Michael Moore said he had wanted to use \"Panic in Detroit\" for his 1998 documentary ''The Big One''.", "Denied at first, Moore was given the rights after calling Bowie personally, recalling: \"I've read stuff since his death saying that he wasn't that political and he stayed away from politics.", "But that wasn't the conversation that I had with him.", "\"===Philanthropy===Bowie was involved in philanthropic and charitable efforts for HIV/AIDS research in Africa, as well as other humanitarian projects helping disadvantaged children and developing nations, ending poverty and hunger, promoting human rights, and providing education and health care to children affected by war.", "A portion of the proceeds from the Pay-per-view showing of Bowie's 50th birthday concert in 1997 was donated to Save the Children." ], [ "Death", "A woman places flowers outside Bowie's apartment in New York on Lafayette Street the day after his death was announced.Bowie died of liver cancer in his New York City apartment on 10 January 2016.He had been diagnosed 18 months earlier, but he had not made his condition public.", "The Belgian theatre director Ivo van Hove, who had worked with Bowie on his off-Broadway musical ''Lazarus'', explained that he was unable to attend rehearsals due to the progression of the disease.", "He noted that Bowie had kept working during the illness.Tony Visconti wrote:Following Bowie's death, fans gathered at impromptu street shrines.", "At the mural of Bowie in his birthplace of Brixton, south London, which shows him in his ''Aladdin Sane'' character, fans laid flowers and sang his songs.", "Other memorial sites included Berlin, Los Angeles, and outside his apartment in New York.", "After news of his death, sales of his albums and singles soared.", "Bowie had insisted that he did not want a funeral, and according to his death certificate he was cremated in New Jersey on 12 January.", "As he wished in his will, his ashes were scattered in a Buddhist ceremony in Bali, Indonesia." ], [ "Legacy and influence", "Bowie's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameBerlin memorial plaque, Hauptstraße 155, in Schöneberg, GermanyBowie's songs and stagecraft brought a new dimension to popular music in the early 1970s, strongly influencing its immediate forms and subsequent development.", "Schinder and Schwartz credit Bowie and Marc Bolan as the founders of the glam rock genre.", "He also inspired the innovators of the punk rock movement; Buckley wrote that \"Bowie almost completely abandoned traditional rock instrumentation\".", "RCA promoted his status during the campaign for ''\"Heroes\"'' with the slogan, \"There's old wave, there's new wave, and there's David Bowie\".", "His work with Tin Machine, though critically maligned, was later acknowledged as featuring grunge and alternative rock before those styles became popular.", "He was dubbed the \"chameleon of rock\" due to his constant reinvention.Perone credited Bowie with having \"brought sophistication to rock music\", and critical reviews frequently acknowledged the intellectual depth of his work and influence.", "The BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz likened Bowie to Pablo Picasso, writing that he was \"an innovative, visionary, restless artist who synthesised complex avant garde concepts into beautifully coherent works that touched the hearts and minds of millions\".Broadcaster John Peel contrasted Bowie with his progressive rock contemporaries, arguing that Bowie was \"an interesting kind of fringe figure... on the outskirts of things\".", "Peel said he \"liked the idea of him reinventing himself... the one distinguishing feature about early-70s progressive rock was that it didn't progress.", "Before Bowie came along, people didn't want too much change\"; then Bowie \"subverted the whole notion of what it was to be a rock star\".", "Buckley called Bowie \"both star and icon.", "The vast body of work he has produced ... has created perhaps the biggest cult in popular culture. ...", "His influence has been unique in popular culture—he has permeated and altered more lives than any comparable figure.", "\"Through continual reinvention, his influence broadened and extended.", "Biographer Thomas Forget added, \"Because he has succeeded in so many different styles of music, it is almost impossible to find a popular artist today that has not been influenced by David Bowie.\"", "In 2000, Bowie was voted by other music stars as the \"most influential artist of all time\" in a poll by ''NME''.", "Alexis Petridis of ''The Guardian'' wrote that Bowie was confirmed by 1980 to be \"the most important and influential artist since the Beatles\".", "Neil McCormick of ''The Daily Telegraph'' stated that Bowie had \"one of the supreme careers in popular music, art and culture of the 20th century\" and \"he was too inventive, too mercurial, too strange for all but his most devoted fans to keep up with\".", "The BBC's Mark Easton argued that Bowie provided fuel for \"the creative powerhouse that Britain has become\" by challenging future generations \"to aim high, to be ambitious and provocative, to take risks\".", "Easton concluded that Bowie had \"changed the way the world sees Britain.", "And the way Britain sees itself\".", "In 2006, Bowie was voted the fourth greatest living British icon in a poll held by the BBC's ''Culture Show''.", "Annie Zaleski of ''Alternative Press'' wrote, \"Every band or solo artist who's decided to rip up their playbook and start again owes a debt to Bowie\".Numerous figures from the music industry whose careers Bowie had influenced paid tribute to him following his death; panegyrics on Twitter (tweets about him peaked at 20,000 a minute an hour after the announcement of his death) also came from outside the entertainment industry and pop culture, such as those from the Vatican, namely Cardinal Gianfranco Ravasi, who quoted \"Space Oddity\", and the German Federal Foreign Office, which thanked Bowie for his part in the fall of the Berlin Wall and referenced \"Heroes\".On 7 January 2017, the BBC broadcast the 90-minute documentary ''David Bowie: The Last Five Years''.", "A day later, which would have been Bowie's 70th birthday, a charity concert in his birthplace of Brixton was hosted by close friend and actor Gary Oldman.", "A David Bowie walking tour through Brixton was also launched, and other events marking his birthday weekend included concerts in New York, Los Angeles, Sydney, and Tokyo.On 6 February 2018, the maiden flight of the SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket carried Elon Musk's personal Tesla Roadster and a mannequin affectionately named Starman into space.", "\"Space Oddity\" and \"Life on Mars?\"", "were looping on the car's sound system during the launch.===''David Bowie Is''===An exhibition of Bowie artefacts, called ''David Bowie Is'', was organised by the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and shown there in 2013.The London exhibit was visited by over 300,000 people, making it one of the most successful exhibitions ever staged at the museum.", "Later that year the exhibition began a world tour which started in Toronto and included stops in Chicago, Paris, Melbourne, Groningen and New York where the exhibit ended in 2018 at the Brooklyn Museum.", "The exhibition hosted around 2,000,000 visitors over its run.=== ''Stardust'' biopic ===A biopic, ''Stardust'', was announced on 31 January 2019, with musician and actor Johnny Flynn as Bowie, Jena Malone as his wife Angie and Marc Maron as his publicist.", "The film follows Bowie on his first trip to the United States in 1971.The film was written by Christopher Bell and directed by Gabriel Range.", "Bowie's son Duncan Jones spoke out against the film, saying he was not consulted and that the film would not have permission to use Bowie's music.", "The film was set to premiere at the 2020 Tribeca Film Festival, but the festival was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "It received generally unfavourable reviews from critics.===''Moonage Daydream''===A film based on Bowie's musical journey throughout his career was announced on 23 May 2022.Titled ''Moonage Daydream'', after the song of the same name, the film is written and directed by Brett Morgen and features never-before-seen footage, performances and music framed by Bowie's own narration.", "Morgan stated that \"Bowie cannot be defined, he can be experienced... That is why we crafted 'Moonage Daydream' to be a unique cinematic experience.\"", "The documentary is the first posthumous film about Bowie to be approved by his estate.", "After spending five years in production, the film premiered at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival, and was released theatrically in the US in IMAX on 16 September.", "It received positive reviews." ], [ "Awards and achievements", "Variety of Bowie's outfits on display at the Rock and Roll Hall of FameBowie's 1969 commercial breakthrough, \"Space Oddity\", won him an Ivor Novello Special Award For Originality.", "For his performance in ''The Man Who Fell to Earth'', he won the Saturn Award for Best Actor.", "In the ensuing decades he received six Grammy Awards and four Brit Awards, including Best British Male Artist twice; the award for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 1996; and the Brits Icon award for his \"lasting impact on British culture\", given posthumously in 2016.Statue of Bowie in different guises in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, the town where he debuted Ziggy Stardust in 1972In 1999, Bowie was made a Commander of the by the French government, and received an honorary doctorate from Berklee College of Music.", "He declined the royal honour of Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2000, and turned down a knighthood in 2003.Bowie later stated \"I would never have any intention of accepting anything like that.", "I seriously don't know what it's for.", "It's not what I spent my life working for.", "\"During his lifetime, Bowie sold over 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists.", "In the UK, he was awarded nine platinum, eleven gold and eight silver albums, and in the US, five platinum and nine gold.", "Since 2015, Parlophone has remastered Bowie's catalogue through the \"Era\" box set series, starting with ''Five Years (1969–1973)''.", "Bowie was announced as the best-selling vinyl artist of the 21st century in 2022.The 2020 revision of ''Rolling Stone''s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list includes ''The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars'' at number 40, ''Station to Station'' at 52, ''Hunky Dory'' at 88, ''Low'' at 206, and ''Scary Monsters'' at 443.On the 2021 revision of the same magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, Bowie's songs include \"Heroes\" at number 23, \"Life on Mars?\"", "at 105, \"Space Oddity\" at 189, \"Changes\" at 200, \"Young Americans\" at 204, \"Station to Station\" at 400, and \"Under Pressure\" at 429.Four of his songs are included in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.Bowie's wax figure at Madame Tussauds, LondonIn the BBC's 2002 poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Bowie was ranked 29.In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked him 39th on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.", "Bowie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2005.He was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame in 2013.Days after Bowie's death, ''Rolling Stone'' contributor Rob Sheffield proclaimed him \"the greatest rock star ever\".", "The magazine also listed him as the 39th greatest songwriter of all time.", "In 2022, Sky Arts ranked him the most influential artist in Britain of the last 50 years \"owing to his transcendent influence on British culture\".", "He ranked 32nd on the 2023 ''Rolling Stone'' list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time." ], [ "Commemoration", "* In 2008, the spider ''Heteropoda davidbowie'' was named in Bowie's honour.", "* In 2011, his image was chosen by popular vote for the B£10m note of the local currency of his birthplace, the Brixton Pound.", "* On 5 January 2015, a main-belt asteroid was named 342843 Davidbowie.", "* On 13 January 2016, Belgian amateur astronomers at MIRA Public Observatory created a \"Bowie asterism\" of seven stars which had been in the vicinity of Mars at the time of Bowie's death; the \"constellation\" forms the lightning bolt on Bowie's face from the cover of his ''Aladdin Sane'' album.", "* In March 2017, Bowie featured on a series of UK postage stamps.", "* On 25 March 2018, a statue of Bowie was unveiled in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, the town where he debuted Ziggy Stardust.", "The statue features a likeness of Bowie in 2002 accompanied with various characters and looks from over his career, with Ziggy Stardust at the front.", "* Rue David Bowie in Paris is a short street near the Gare d'Austerlitz." ], [ "Discography", "* ''David Bowie'' (1967)* ''David Bowie'' (1969)* ''The Man Who Sold the World'' (1970)* ''Hunky Dory'' (1971)* ''The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars'' (1972)* ''Aladdin Sane'' (1973)* ''Pin Ups'' (1973)* ''Diamond Dogs'' (1974)* ''Young Americans'' (1975)* ''Station to Station'' (1976)* ''Low'' (1977)* ''\"Heroes\"'' (1977)* ''Lodger'' (1979)* ''Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)'' (1980)* ''Let's Dance'' (1983)* ''Tonight'' (1984)* ''Never Let Me Down'' (1987)* ''Black Tie White Noise'' (1993)* ''The Buddha of Suburbia'' (1993)* ''Outside'' (1995)* ''Earthling'' (1997)* ''Hours'' (1999)* ''Heathen'' (2002)* ''Reality'' (2003)* ''The Next Day'' (2013)* ''Blackstar'' (2016)" ], [ "Filmography" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * Waldrep, Shelton, \"Phenomenology of Performance\", ''The Aesthetics of Self-Invention: Oscar Wilde to David Bowie'', University of Minnesota Press, 2004.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dennis Hopper" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dennis Lee Hopper''' (May 17, 1936 – May 29, 2010) was an American actor and film director.", "He is known for his roles as mentally disturbed outsiders and rebels.", "He earned prizes from the Cannes Film Festival and Venice International Film Festival as well as nominations for two Academy Awards, a Primetime Emmy Award and two Golden Globe Awards.", "Hopper studied acting at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego and the Actors Studio in New York.", "Hopper also began a prolific and acclaimed photography career in the 1960s.Hopper made his first television appearance in 1954, and soon after appeared in two of the films that made James Dean famous, ''Rebel Without a Cause'' (1955) and ''Giant'' (1956).", "He then acted in ''Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral'' (1957), ''The Sons of Katie Elder'' (1965), ''Cool Hand Luke'' (1967), ''Hang 'Em High'' (1968) and ''True Grit'' (1969).", "Hopper made his directorial film debut with ''Easy Rider'' (1969), which he and co-star Peter Fonda wrote with Terry Southern.", "The film earned Hopper a Cannes Film Festival Award and a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.He became frequently typecast as mentally disturbed outsiders in such films as ''Mad Dog Morgan'' (1976), ''The American Friend'' (1977), ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979), ''Rumble Fish'' (1983), and ''Blue Velvet'' (1986).", "He received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination for his role in ''Hoosiers'' (1986).", "His later film roles included ''Super Mario Bros.'' (1993), ''Speed'' (1994), ''Waterworld'' (1995) and ''Elegy'' (2009).", "He appeared posthumously in the long-delayed ''The Other Side of the Wind'' (2018), which had previously been filmed in the early 1970s.Other directorial credits for Hopper include ''The Last Movie'' (1971), ''Out of the Blue'' (1980), ''Colors'' (1988), and ''The Hot Spot'' (1990).", "He received Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie nomination for his role in ''Paris Trout'' (1991).", "His other television roles include in the HBO film ''Doublecrossed'' (1991), ''24'' (2002), the NBC series ''E-Ring'' (2005–2006), and the Starz series ''Crash'' (2008–2009)." ], [ "Early life and education", "Hopper was born on May 17, 1936, in Dodge City, Kansas, to Marjorie Mae (née Davis; July 12, 1917 – January 12, 2007) and James Millard Hopper (June 23, 1916 – August 7, 1982).", "He had Scottish ancestors.", "Hopper had two younger brothers, Marvin and David.After World War II, the family moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where the young Hopper attended Saturday art classes at the Kansas City Art Institute.", "When he was 13, Hopper and his family moved to San Diego, where his mother worked as a lifeguard instructor and his father was a post office manager, having previously served in the Office of Strategic Services, the precursor to the Central Intelligence Agency, in World War II in the China Burma India Theater.", "Hopper was voted most likely to succeed at Helix High School, where he was active in the drama club, speech and choir.", "It was there that he developed an interest in acting, studying at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, and the Actors Studio in New York City (he studied with Lee Strasberg for five years).", "Hopper struck up a friendship with actor Vincent Price, whose passion for art influenced Hopper's interest in art.", "He was especially fond of the plays of William Shakespeare." ], [ "Career", "=== 1954–1966: Early roles ===Hopper, aged 20, with actress Karen Sharpe in an April 1957 promotional photograph for an episode of the ABC television series ''Conflict''Hopper was reported to have an uncredited role in ''Johnny Guitar'' in 1954, but he has stated that he was not in Hollywood when this film was made.", "Hopper made his debut on film in two roles with James Dean (whom he admired immensely) in ''Rebel Without a Cause'' (1955) and ''Giant'' (1956).", "Dean's death in a car accident in September 1955 affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterward that he got into a confrontation with veteran director Henry Hathaway on the film ''From Hell to Texas'' (1958).", "Hopper forced Hathaway to shoot more than 80 takes of a scene over several days before he acquiesced to Hathaway's direction.", "After filming was finally completed, Hathaway allegedly told Hopper that his career in Hollywood was finished.In his book ''Last Train to Memphis'', American popular music historian Peter Guralnick says that in 1956, when Elvis Presley was making his first film in Hollywood, Hopper was roommates with fellow actor Nick Adams and the three became friends and socialized together.", "In 1959 Hopper moved to New York to study Method acting under Lee Strasberg at the Actors Studio.", "In 1961, Hopper played his first lead role in ''Night Tide'', an atmospheric supernatural thriller involving a mermaid in an amusement park.", "In a December 1994 interview on the ''Charlie Rose Show'', Hopper credited John Wayne with saving his career, as Hopper acknowledged that because of his insolent behavior, he could not find work in Hollywood for seven years.", "Hopper stated that because he was the son-in-law of actress Margaret Sullavan, a friend of John Wayne, Wayne hired Hopper for a role in ''The Sons of Katie Elder'' (1965), also directed by Hathaway, which enabled Hopper to restart his film career.", "Hopper debuted in an episode of the Richard Boone television series ''Medic'' in 1955, portraying a young epileptic.", "He appeared in the first episode of the popular TV series \"The Rifleman\" (1958–1963) as protagonist Vernon Tippet.", "The series starred Chuck Connors and the premiere episode \"The Sharpshooter\" was written by Sam Peckinpah.", "He subsequently appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such as ''Gunsmoke'', ''Bonanza'', ''Petticoat Junction'', ''The Twilight Zone'', ''The Barbara Stanwyck Show'', ''The Defenders'', ''The Investigators'', ''The Legend of Jesse James'', ''Entourage'', ''The Big Valley'', ''The Time Tunnel'', and ''Combat!", "''.=== 1967–1986: Breakthrough and acclaim ===Hopper with second wife Michelle Phillips in 1970, during editing of ''The Last Movie''Hopper had a supporting role as the bet-taker, \"Babalugats\", in ''Cool Hand Luke'' (1967).", "In 1968, Hopper teamed with Peter Fonda, Terry Southern and Jack Nicholson to make ''Easy Rider'', which premiered in July 1969.With the release of ''True Grit'' a month earlier, Hopper had starring roles in two major box-office films that summer.", "Hopper won wide acclaim as the director for his improvisational methods and innovative editing for ''Easy Rider''.", "The production was plagued by creative differences and personal acrimony between Fonda and Hopper, the dissolution of Hopper's marriage to Brooke Hayward, his unwillingness to leave the editor's desk and his accelerating abuse of drugs and alcohol.", "Hopper said of ''Easy Rider'': \"The cocaine problem in the United States is really because of me.", "There was no cocaine before ''Easy Rider'' on the street.", "After ''Easy Rider'', it was everywhere\".Besides showing drug use on film, it was one of the first films to portray the hippie lifestyle.", "Hopper became a role model for some male youths who rejected traditional jobs and traditional American culture, partly exemplified by Fonda's long sideburns and Hopper wearing shoulder-length hair and a long mustache.", "They were denied rooms in motels and proper service in restaurants as a result of their radical looks.", "Their long hair became a point of contention in various scenes during the film.", "Journalist Ann Hornaday wrote: \"With its portrait of counterculture heroes raising their middle fingers to the uptight middle-class hypocrisies, ''Easy Rider'' became the cinematic symbol of the 1960s, a celluloid anthem to freedom, macho bravado and anti-establishment rebellion\".", "Film critic Matthew Hays wrote \"no other persona better signifies the lost idealism of the 1960s than that of Dennis Hopper\".Hopper in 1973Hopper was unable to capitalize on his ''Easy Rider'' success for several years.", "In 1970 he filmed ''The Last Movie'', cowritten by Stewart Stern and photographed by László Kovács in Peru, and completed production in 1971.It won the prestigious CIDALC Award at that year's Venice Film Festival, but Universal Studios leaders expected a blockbuster like ''Easy Rider'', and did not like the film or give it an enthusiastic release, while American film audiences found it confounding – as convoluted as an abstract painting.", "On viewing the first release print, fresh from the lab, in his screening room at Universal, MCA founder Jules C. Stein rose from his chair and said, \"I just don't understand this younger generation.\"", "During the tumultuous editing process, Hopper ensconced himself at the Mabel Dodge Luhan House in Taos, New Mexico, which he had purchased in 1970, for almost an entire year.", "In between contesting Fonda's rights to the majority of the residual profits from ''Easy Rider'', he married singer Michelle Phillips of The Mamas and the Papas on Halloween of 1970.The marriage lasted eight days.Hopper acted in another John Wayne film, ''True Grit'' (1969), and during its production, he became well acquainted with Wayne.", "In both of the films with Wayne, Hopper's character is killed in the presence of Wayne's character, to whom he utters his dying words.", "On 30 September 1970, Hopper appeared on the second episode of season 2 of \"The Johnny Cash Show\" where he sang a duet with Cash entitled \"Goin' Up Goin' Down\".", "Cash said the song was written by Kris Kristofferson about Hopper.", "Hopper added that Kristofferson had written some songs for his Peruvian-shot movie \"The Last Movie\", in which Kristofferson appeared in his debut role with Julie Adams.", "Hopper also recited Rudyard Kipling's famous poem If— during his appearance.", "Hopper was able to sustain his lifestyle and a measure of celebrity by acting in numerous low budget and European films throughout the 1970s as the archetypal \"tormented maniac\", including ''Mad Dog Morgan'' (1976), ''Tracks'' (1976), and ''The American Friend'' (1977).", "With Francis Ford Coppola's blockbuster ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979), Hopper returned to prominence as a hyper-manic Vietnam-era photojournalist.", "Stepping in for an overwhelmed director, Hopper won praise in 1980 for his directing and acting in ''Out of the Blue''.", "Immediately thereafter, Hopper starred as an addled short-order cook \"Cracker\" in the Neil Young/Dean Stockwell low-budget collaboration ''Human Highway''.", "Production was reportedly often delayed by his unreliable behavior.", "Peter Biskind states in the New Hollywood history ''Easy Riders, Raging Bulls'' that Hopper's cocaine intake had reached three grams a day by this time, complemented by 30 beers, and some marijuana and Cuba libres.After staging a \"suicide attempt\" (really more of a daredevil act) in a coffin using 17 sticks of dynamite during an \"art happening\" at the Rice University Media Center (filmed by professor and documentary filmmaker Brian Huberman), and later disappearing into the Mexican desert during a particularly extravagant bender, Hopper entered a drug rehabilitation program in 1983.Though Hopper gave critically acclaimed performances in Coppola's ''Rumble Fish'' (1983) and Sam Peckinpah's ''The Osterman Weekend'' (1983), it was not until he portrayed the gas-huffing, obscenity-screaming villain Frank Booth in David Lynch's ''Blue Velvet'' (1986) that his career truly revived.", "On reading the script Hopper said to Lynch: \"You have to let me play Frank Booth.", "Because I am Frank Booth!\"", "He won critical acclaim and several awards for this role, and in the same year received an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his role as an alcoholic assistant basketball coach in ''Hoosiers''.", "Also in 1986, Hopper portrayed Lt. Enright in the comedy horror ''The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2''.", "=== 1987–2009: Later work and final roles ===Hopper (left) with his friend and ''Easy Rider'' co-star Jack Nicholson in 1990In 1987 he acted in the neo-noir thriller ''Black Widow'' alongside Debra Winger, the action comedy ''Straight to Hell'', the adventure film ''Running Out of Luck'' starring Mick Jagger and the romantic comedy ''The Pick-up Artist'' starring Molly Ringwald and Robert Downey Jr.", "In 1988, he directed ''Colors'', a critically acclaimed police procedural about gang violence in Los Angeles starring Sean Penn and Robert Duvall.", "Hopper plays an aging hippie prankster in the 1990 comedy ''Flashback'', fleeing in a ''Furthur''-like old bus to the tune of Steppenwolf's \"Born to Be Wild\".", "Hopper teamed with Nike in the early 1990s to make a series of television commercials.", "He appeared as a \"crazed referee\" in those ads.", "Hopper appeared on the final two episodes of the cult 1991 television show ''Fishing with John'' with host ''John Lurie''.", "He was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited or Anthology Series or Movie for the 1991 HBO film ''Paris Trout''.", "Shortly thereafter, he played drug smuggler and DEA informant Barry Seal in the HBO film ''Doublecrossed''.", "He starred as King Koopa in ''Super Mario Bros.'', a 1993 critical and commercial failure loosely based on the video game of the same name.", "In 1993, he played Clifford Worley in ''True Romance''.", "He co-starred in the 1994 blockbuster ''Speed'' with Keanu Reeves and Sandra Bullock, and as magic-phobic H.P.", "Lovecraft in the TV movie ''Witch Hunt''.", "In 1995, Hopper played a greedy TV self-help guru, Dr. Luther Waxling in ''Search and Destroy''.", "The same year, he starred as Deacon, the one-eyed nemesis of Kevin Costner in ''Waterworld''.", "And in 1996 he starred in the science fiction comedy ''Space Truckers'' directed by Stuart Gordon.", "Also in 1996 he appeared as art dealer Bruno Bischofberger in Basquiat.", "Hopper was originally cast as Christof in the 1998 Peter Weir film, ''The Truman Show'', but left during the filming due to \"creative differences\"; he was replaced by Ed Harris.", "In 1999, he starred in ''The Prophet's Game'' (a dark thriller), directed by David Worth and also starring Stephanie Zimbalist, Robert Yocum, Sondra Locke, Joe Penny and Tracey Birdsall.", "In 2003, Hopper was in the running for the dual lead in the indie horror drama ''Firecracker'', but was ousted at the last minute in favor of Mike Patton.", "In 2005, Hopper played Paul Kaufman in George A. Romero's ''Land of the Dead''.", "He portrayed villain Victor Drazen in the first season of the popular action drama ''24''.", "Hopper starred as a U.S. Army colonel in the 2005 television series ''E-Ring'', a drama set at The Pentagon, but the series was canceled after 14 episodes aired.", "Hopper appeared in all 22 episodes that were filmed.", "He also played the part of record producer Ben Cendars in the Starz television series ''Crash'', which lasted two seasons (26 episodes).", "In 2008, Hopper starred in ''An American Carol''.", "In 2008 he also played The Death in Wim Wenders' ''Palermo Shooting''.", "His last major feature film appearance was in the 2008 film ''Elegy'' with Ben Kingsley, Penélope Cruz and Debbie Harry.", "For his last performance, he was the voice of Tony, the alpha-male of the Eastern wolf pack in the 2010 3D computer-animated film ''Alpha and Omega''.", "He died before the movie was released.", "This brought the directors to dedicate the film to his memory at the beginning of the movie credits.", "Hopper filmed scenes for ''The Other Side of the Wind'' in 1971, appearing as himself; after decades of legal, financial and technical delays, the film was finally released on Netflix in 2018." ], [ "Photography and art", "Hopper in June 2008Hopper had several artistic pursuits beyond film.", "He was a prolific photographer, painter, and sculptor.Hopper's fascination with art began with painting lessons at the Nelson-Atkins Museum while still a child in Kansas City, Missouri.", "Early in his career, he painted and wrote poetry, though many of his works were destroyed in the 1961 Bel Air Fire, which burned hundreds of homes, including his and his wife's, on Stone Canyon Road in Bel Air.", "His painting style ranges from abstract impressionism to photorealism and often includes references to his cinematic work and to other artists.Ostracized by the Hollywood film studios due to his reputation for being a \"difficult\" actor, Hopper turned to photography in 1961 with a camera bought for him by his first wife Brooke Hayward.", "During this period he created the cover art for the Ike & Tina Turner album ''River Deep – Mountain High'' (released in 1966).", "He became a prolific photographer, and noted writer Terry Southern profiled Hopper in ''Better Homes and Gardens'' as an up-and-coming photographer \"to watch\" in the mid-1960s.", "Hopper's early photography is known for portraits from the 1960s, and he began shooting portraits for ''Vogue'' and other magazines.", "His photographs of Martin Luther King, Jr.'s 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 civil-rights march in Selma, Alabama, were published.", "His intimate and unguarded images of Andy Warhol, Jane Fonda, The Byrds, Paul Newman, Jasper Johns, Claes Oldenburg, Robert Rauschenberg, James Brown, Peter Fonda, Ed Ruscha, the Grateful Dead, Michael McClure, and Timothy Leary, among others, became the subject of gallery and museum shows and were collected in several books, including \"1712 North Crescent Heights.\"", "The book, whose title refers to the house where he lived with Hayward in the Hollywood Hills in the 1960s, was edited by his daughter Marin Hopper.", "In 1960–67, before the making of ''Easy Rider'', Hopper created 18,000 images that chronicled the remarkable artists, musicians, actors, places, happenings, demonstrations, and concerts of that period.", "''Dennis Hopper: Photographs 1961–1967'' was published in February 2011, by Taschen.", "German film director Wim Wenders said of Hopper that if “he'd only been a photographer, he'd be one of the great photographers of the twentieth century.” In ''The New Yorker'', Hopper, as photographer, was described as \"a compelling, important, and weirdly omnipresent chronicler of his times.", "\"Hopper began working as a painter and a poet as well as a collector of art in the 1960s as well, particularly Pop Art.", "Over his lifetime he amassed a formidable array of 20th- and 21st-century art, including many of Julian Schnabel's works (such as a shattered-plate portrait of Hopper); numerous works from his early cohorts, such as Ed Ruscha, Edward Kienholz, Roy Lichtenstein (''Sinking Sun'', 1964), and Warhol (''Double Mona Lisa'', 1963); and pieces by contemporary artists such as Damien Hirst and Robin Rhode.", "He was involved in L.A.'s Ferus and Virginia Dwan galleries in the 1960s, and he was a longtime friend and supporter to New York dealer Tony Shafrazi.", "One of the first art works Hopper owned was an early print of Andy Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans bought for US$75.Hopper also once owned Warhol's ''Mao'', which he shot one evening in a fit of paranoia, the two bullet holes possibly adding to the print's value.", "The print sold at Christie's, New York, for US$302,500 in January 2011.During his lifetime, Hopper's own work as well as his collection was shown in monographic and group exhibitions around the world including the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; the State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; MAK Vienna: Austrian Museum of Applied Arts/Contemporary Art, Vienna; the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; and the Cinémathèque Française, Paris, and the Australian Centre for the Moving Image, Melbourne.", "In March 2010, it was announced that Hopper was on the \"short list\" for Jeffrey Deitch's inaugural show at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (MOCA).", "In April 2010, Deitch confirmed that Hopper's work, curated by Julian Schnabel, will indeed be the focus of his debut at MOCA.", "The title of the exhibition, ''Double Standard'', was taken from Hopper's iconic 1961 photograph of the two Standard Oil signs seen through an automobile windshield at the intersection of Santa Monica Boulevard, Melrose Avenue, and North Doheny Drive on historic Route 66 in Los Angeles.", "The image was reproduced on the invitation for Ed Ruscha's second solo exhibition at Ferus Gallery in 1964.In 2011, Barricade Books published film historian Peter L. Winkler's biography, ''Dennis Hopper: The Wild Ride of a Hollywood Rebel''.", "In 2013, Harper Collins published ''Hopper: A Journey into the American Dream'', a biography by American writer Tom Folsom.On the Gorillaz album ''Demon Days'', Hopper narrates the song \"Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head\".In the late 1980s, Hopper purchased a trio of nearly identical two-story, loft-style condominiums at 330 Indiana Avenue in Venice Beach, California – one made of concrete, one of plywood, and one of green roofing shingles – built by Frank Gehry and two artist friends of Hopper's, Chuck Arnoldi and Laddie John Dill, in 1981.In 1987, he commissioned an industrial-style main residence, with a corrugated metal exterior designed by Brian Murphy, as a place to display his artwork." ], [ "Personal life", "Hopper with Katherine LaNasa, his fourth wife, at the 62nd Academy Awards in 1990According to ''Rolling Stone'' magazine, Hopper was \"one of Hollywood's most notorious drug addicts\" for 20 years.", "He spent much of the 1970s and early 1980s living as an \"outcast\" in Taos, New Mexico, after the success of ''Easy Rider''.", "Hopper was also \"notorious for his troubled relationships with women\", including Michelle Phillips, who divorced him after eight days of marriage.", "Hopper was married five times:* Brooke Hayward, married 1961 – divorced 1969, 1 child, daughter Marin Hopper (b.", "1962);* Michelle Phillips, married October 31, 1970 – divorced November 8, 1970;* Daria Halprin, married 1972 – divorced 1976, 1 child, daughter Ruthanna Hopper (b.", "1972);* Katherine LaNasa, married June 17, 1989 – divorced April 1992, 1 child, son Henry Hopper (b.", "1990);* Victoria Duffy, married April 13, 1996 – separated January 12, 2010, 1 child, daughter Galen Grier Hopper (b.", "2003).Hopper has been widely reported to be the godfather of actress Amber Tamblyn; in a 2009 interview with ''Parade'', Tamblyn explained that \"godfather\" was \"just a loose term\" for Hopper, Dean Stockwell and Neil Young, three famous friends of her father's, who were always around the house when she was growing up, and who were big influences on her life.In 1994, Rip Torn filed a defamation lawsuit against Hopper over a story Hopper told on ''The Tonight Show with Jay Leno''.", "Hopper claimed that Torn pulled a knife on him during pre-production of the film ''Easy Rider''.", "According to Hopper, Torn was originally cast in the film but was replaced with Jack Nicholson after the incident.", "According to Torn's suit, it was actually Hopper who pulled the knife on him.", "A judge ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was ordered to pay US$475,000 in damages.", "Hopper then appealed but the judge again ruled in Torn's favor and Hopper was required to pay another US$475,000 in punitive damages.According to Newsmeat, Hopper donated US$2,000 to the Republican National Committee in 2004 and an equal amount in 2005.Hopper donated $600 to Irish political party Sinn Féin.Hopper was honored with the rank of commander of France's National Order of Arts and Letters, at a ceremony in Paris.Despite being a Republican, Hopper supported Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.", "Hopper confirmed this in an election day appearance on the ABC daytime show ''The View''.", "He said his reason for not voting Republican was the selection of Sarah Palin as the Republican vice presidential candidate.Hopper was a longtime friend of actress Sally Kirkland, who admitted in a 2021 Reelz documentary that they had a one-night stand early on in their friendship.===Divorce from Victoria Duffy===On January 14, 2010, Hopper filed for divorce from his fifth wife Victoria Duffy.", "After citing her \"outrageous conduct\" and stating she was \"insane\", \"inhuman\" and \"volatile\", Hopper was granted a restraining order against her on February 11, 2010, and as a result, she was forbidden to come within of him or contact him.", "On March 9, 2010, Duffy refused to move out of the Hopper home, despite the court's order that she do so by March 15.On April 5, 2010, a court ruled that Duffy could continue living on Hopper's property, and that he must pay US$12,000 per month spousal and child support for their daughter Galen.", "Hopper did not attend the hearing.", "On May 12, 2010, a hearing was held before Judge Amy Pellman in downtown Los Angeles Superior Court.", "Though Hopper died two weeks later, Duffy insisted at the hearing that he was well enough to be deposed.", "The hearing also dealt with who would be the beneficiary on Hopper's life insurance policy, which listed his wife as a beneficiary.", "A very ill Hopper did not appear in court though his estranged wife did.", "Despite Duffy's bid to be named the sole beneficiary of Hopper's million-dollar policy, the judge ruled against her and limited her claim to one-quarter of the policy.", "The remaining US$750,000 was to go to his estate." ], [ "Illness and death", "Hopper at a ceremony to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on March 26, 2010, two months before his deathOn September 28, 2009, Hopper, then 73, was reportedly taken by ambulance to an unidentified Manhattan hospital wearing an oxygen mask and \"with numerous tubes visible\".", "On October 2, he was discharged after receiving treatment for dehydration.On October 29, 2009, Hopper's manager Sam Maydew reported that he had been diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer.", "In January 2010, it was reported that Hopper's cancer had metastasized to his bones.On March 18, 2010, he was honored with the 2,403rd star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in front of Grauman's Egyptian Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard.", "Surrounded by family, fans, and friends—including Jack Nicholson, Viggo Mortensen, David Lynch, and Michael Madsen—he attended its addition to the sidewalk six days later.By March 2010, Hopper reportedly weighed only and was unable to carry on long conversations.", "According to papers filed in his divorce court case, Hopper was terminally ill and was unable to undergo chemotherapy to treat his prostate cancer.Hopper died at his home in the coastal Venice district of Los Angeles, on May 29, 2010, at age 74.His funeral took place on June 3, 2010, at San Francisco de Asis Mission Church in Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico.", "His body was buried at the Jesus Nazareno Cemetery in Ranchos de Taos.Hopper's grave in Ranchos de Taos, New MexicoThe film ''Alpha and Omega'', which was among his last film roles, was dedicated to him, as was the 2011 film ''Restless'', which starred his son Henry Hopper." ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Rebel Without a Cause'' (1955) as Goon* ''Giant'' (1956) as Jordan Benedict III* ''Gunfight at the O.K.", "Corral'' (1957) as Billy Clanton* ''Night Tide'' (1961) as Johnny Drake* ''The Sons of Katie Elder'' (1965) as Dave Hastings* ''Cool Hand Luke'' (1967) as Babalugats* ''Easy Rider'' (1969) as Billy – Also writer-director* ''True Grit'' (1969) as Moon* ''The Last Movie'' (1971) as Kansas – Also writer-director* ''Kid Blue'' (1973) as Bickford Warner* ''Mad Dog Morgan'' (1976) as Daniel Morgan* ''The American Friend'' (1977) as Tom Ripley* ''Apocalypse Now'' (1979) as The Photojournalist* ''Out of the Blue'' (1980) as Don – Also director* ''The Osterman Weekend'' (1983) as Richard Tremayne* ''Rumble Fish'' (1983) as Father* ''The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2'' (1986) as Lefty Enright* ''River's Edge'' (1986) as Feck* ''Blue Velvet'' (1986) as Frank Booth* ''Hoosiers'' (1986) as Shooter* ''Colors'' (1988) – Director only*''Flashback'' (1990) as Huey Walker * ''Catchfire'' (1990) as Milo – Also director* ''The Indian Runner'' (1991) as Caesar* ''Super Mario Bros.'' (1993) as King Koopa* ''True Romance'' (1993) as Clifford Worley* ''Red Rock West'' (1993) as Lyle from Dallas* ''Speed'' (1994) as Howard Payne* ''Waterworld'' (1995) as Deacon* ''Carried Away'' (1996) as Joseph Svenden* ''Basquiat'' (1996) as Bruno Bischofberger* ''EDtv'' (1999) as Hank Pekurny* ''Land of the Dead'' (2005) as Kaufman* ''Elegy'' (2008) as George O'Hearn* ''Palermo Shooting'' (2008) as Frank* ''The Other Side of the Wind'' (2018) as Himself" ], [ "Other works", "===Books===* ''Dennis Hopper: Out of the Sixties'', Twelvetrees Press (1986)* ''1712 North Crescent Heights'', Greybull Press (2001)* ''Dennis Hopper: A System of Moments'', Hartje Cantz (2001)* ''Dennis Hopper: Photographs, 1961–1967'', Taschen (2009)* ''Dennis Hopper: The Lost Album'', Prestel Verlag (2014)* ''Dennis Hopper: Drugstore Camera'', Damiani (2015)* ''Dennis Hopper: Colors, the Polaroids'', Damiani (2016)* ''Dennis Hopper: In Dreams: Scenes from the Archives'', Damiani (2019)* ''Dennis Hopper: Flashback'' (1990)===Exhibitions===* Solo exhibition of assemblages, Primus-Stuart Gallery, Los Angeles (1963)* ''Los Angeles Now'' group exhibition, Robert Fraser Gallery, London (1966)* ''Bomb Drop'', Pasadena Art Museum, Pasadena (1968)* ''Dennis Hopper: Black and White Photographs'', Fort Worth Museum of Art, Fort Worth (1970)* ''Dennis Hopper: Black and White Photographs'', Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC (1971)* ''Dennis Hopper and Ed Ruscha'', Tony Shafrazi Gallery, New York (1992)* ''Dennis Hopper: A System of Moments'', Museum für angewandte Kunst, Vienna (2001)* ''Dennis Hopper: Double Standard'', Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles (2010)* ''The Lost Album'', Gagosian, New York (2013)* ''The Lost Album'', Royal Academy of Arts, London (2014)" ], [ "Archive", "The moving image collection of Dennis Hopper is held at the Academy Film Archive.", "The Dennis Hopper Trust Collection represents Hopper's directorial efforts." ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Award Category Work Result 1969 Academy Awards Best Original Screenplay(shared with Peter Fonda and Terry Southern) ''Easy Rider'' Cannes Film Festival Best First Work Palme d'Or Directors Guild of America Awards Outstanding Directing – Feature Film National Society of Film Critics Awards Special Award(For his achievements as director, co-writer and co-star.)", "Writers Guild of America Awards Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen(shared with Peter Fonda and Terry Southern) 1971 Venice Film Festival CIDALC Award ''The Last Movie'' 1980 Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or ''Out of the Blue'' 1986 Boston Society of Film Critics Best Supporting Actor(tied with Ray Liotta for ''Something Wild'') ''Blue Velvet'' Independent Spirit Awards Best Male Lead Montreal World Film Festival Best Actor National Society of Film Critics Awards Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe Awards Best Supporting Actor ''Hoosiers'' Academy Awards Best Supporting Actor Los Angeles Film Critics Association Best Supporting Actor ''Hoosiers'' + ''Blue Velvet'' 1991 Emmy Awards Outstanding Lead Actor – Miniseries or a Movie ''Paris Trout'' CableACE Awards Outstanding Lead Actor – Movie or Miniseries ''Doublecrossed'' 1994 MTV Movie Awards Best Villain ''Speed'' 1995 Razzie Awards Worst Supporting Actor ''Waterworld''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* \"Dennis Hopper, Riding High\", ''Playboy'' (Chicago), Dec. 1969* Interview with G. O'Brien and M. Netter, in ''Inter/View'' (New York), Feb. 1972* Interview in ''Cahiers du Cinéma'' (Paris), July–August 1980* \"How Far to the Last Movie?", "\", ''Monthly Film Bulletin'' (London) Oct. 1982* \"Citizen Hopper\", interview with C. Hodenfield, in ''Film Comment'' (New York) Nov/Dec.", "1986* Interview with B. Kelly, in ''American Film'' (Los Angeles) March 1988* Interview with David Denicolo, in ''Interview'' (New York), Feb. 1990* \"Sean Penn\", interview with Julian Schnabel and Dennis Hopper, ''Interview'' (New York) Sept. 1991* \"Gary Oldman\", in ''Interview'' (New York), Jan. 1992" ], [ "Further reading", ";Books* Biskind, Peter.", "''Easy Riders, Raging Bulls: How the Sex-Drugs-and-Rock 'N' Roll Generation Saved Hollywood'', Simon and Schuster (1999)* Hoberman, J.", "''Dennis Hopper: From Method to Madness'', Walker Art Center (1988)* Krull, Craig.", "\"Photographing the LA Art Scene: 1955–1975\", Craig Krull Gallery (1996)* Rodriguez, Elean.", "''Dennis Hopper: A Madness to his Method'', St. Martin's Press (1988)* ''Dennis Hopper: Photographs 1961–1967'', Taschen (2011)* Winkler, Peter L. \"Dennis Hopper: The Wild Ride of a Hollywood Rebel\", Barricade Books (2011)* Folsom, Tom.", "\"Hopper: A Journey into the American Dream\", It Books/HarperCollins (2013)* Rozzo, Mark \"Everybody Thought We Were Crazy\" Harper Collins (2022);Articles* Algar, N., \"Hopper at Birmingham\", in ''Sight and Sound'' (London), Summer 1982* Burke, Tom, \"Dennis Hopper Saves the Movies\", in ''Esquire'' (New York), Dec. 1970* Burns, Dan E., \"Dennis Hopper's ''The Last Movie'': Beginning of the End\", in ''Literature/Film Quarterly'', 1979* Herring, H. D., \"Out of the Dream and into the Nightmare: Dennis Hopper's Apocalyptic Vision of America\", in ''Journal of Popular Film'' (Washington, D.C.), Winter 1983* * Macklin, F. A., \"Easy Rider: The Initiation of Dennis Hopper\", in ''Film Heritage'' (Dayton, Ohio), Fall 1969* Martin, A., \"Dennis Hopper: Out of the Blue and into the Black\", in ''Cinema Papers'' (Melbourne), July 1987* Scharres, B., \"From Out of the Blue: The Return of Dennis Hopper\" in ''Journal of the University Film and Video Assoc.''", "(Carbondale, IL), Spring 1983* Weber, Bruce, \"A Wild Man is Mellowing, Albeit Not on Screen\", in ''New York Times'', September 8, 1994" ], [ "External links", "* Dennis Hopper 1986 interview on KVUE about Colors from Texas Archive of the Moving Image* * * * * Dennis Hopper Exhibition History* Dennis Hopper: Life & Times – slideshow by ''Life''" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Detroit Red Wings" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Detroit Red Wings''' (colloquially referred to as the '''Wings''') are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit.", "The Red Wings compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference, and are one of the Original Six teams of the league.", "Founded in 1926, the team was known as the '''Detroit Cougars''' until 1930.For the next two seasons, the team was named the '''Detroit Falcons''', before changing their name to the Red Wings in 1932.The Red Wings have won the most Stanley Cup championships of any NHL franchise based in the United States (11), and are third overall amongst active teams in total Stanley Cup championships, behind the Montreal Canadiens (24) and Toronto Maple Leafs (13).", "The Wings played their home games at Joe Louis Arena from 1979 until 2017, after playing for 52 years at Olympia Stadium.", "They moved into Little Caesars Arena beginning with the 2017–18 season.", "The Red Wings are one of the most popular and successful franchises in the NHL; fans and sports commentators refer to the Detroit area as \"Hockeytown\", which has been a registered trademark owned by the franchise since 1996.Between the 1931–32 and 1965–66 seasons, the Red Wings missed the playoffs only four times.", "They struggled between the 1966–67 and 1982–83 seasons, only making the playoffs twice in that stretch.", "However, thereafter, from 1983–84 to 2015–16, they made the playoffs 30 times in 32 seasons, including 25-straight from 1990–91 to 2015–16 (not including the cancelled 2004–05 season); in 2006, this became the longest active streak of postseason appearances in all of North American professional sports and finished tied for the third-longest streak in NHL history.", "Since 1983–84, the Red Wings have tallied six regular season first-place finishes and have won the Stanley Cup four times (1997, 1998, 2002, and 2008)." ], [ "Franchise history", "===Early years (1926–1949)===1926–27).", "The franchise was known as the Detroit Cougars from 1926 to 1930.Following the 1926 Stanley Cup playoffs, during which the Western Hockey League (WHL) was widely reported to be on the verge of folding, the NHL held a meeting on April 17 to consider applications for expansion franchises, at which it was reported that five different groups sought a team for Detroit.", "During a subsequent meeting on May 15, the league approved a franchise to the Townsend-Seyburn group of Detroit and named Charles A. Hughes as governor.", "WHL owners Frank and Lester Patrick made a deal to sell the league's players to the NHL and cease league operations.", "The new Detroit franchise purchased the players of the WHL's Victoria Cougars, who had won the Stanley Cup in 1925 and had made the Finals the previous winter, to play for the team.", "The new Detroit franchise also adopted the Cougars' nickname in honor of the folded franchise.Since no arena in Detroit was ready at the time, the Cougars played their first season at the Border Cities Arena in Windsor, Ontario.", "For the 1927–28 season, the Cougars moved into the new Detroit Olympia, which would be their home rink until December 15, 1979.This was also the first season behind the bench for Jack Adams, who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager.The Cougars made the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 1929, with Carson Cooper leading the team in scoring.", "The Cougars were outscored 7–2 in the two-game series with the Toronto Maple Leafs.", "In 1930, the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, as they usually finished near the bottom of the standings, even though they made the playoffs again in 1932.In 1932, the NHL let grain merchant James E. Norris, who had made two previous unsuccessful bids to buy an NHL team, purchase the Falcons.", "Norris' first act was to rename the team; earlier in the century, Norris had been a member of the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association (MAAA), a multi-sport club whose winged-wheel emblem derived from its cycling roots, and whose hockey team won the first Stanley Cup in 1893.Norris decided that a red version of the MAAA \"Winged Wheelers\" logo would be perfect for a team playing in the \"Motor City\", and on October 5, 1932, the club was renamed the Detroit Red Wings.", "Norris also placed coach Jack Adams on a one-year probation for the 1932–33 NHL season.", "Adams managed to pass his probationary period by leading the Red Wings to their first-ever playoff series victory, over the Montreal Maroons.", "The team then lost in the semi-finals to the New York Rangers.In 1934, the Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with John Sorrell scoring 21 goals over 47 games and Larry Aurie leading the team in scoring.", "However, the Chicago Black Hawks defeated the Red Wings in the Finals, winning the best-of-five series in four games to claim their first title.", "Two seasons later, the Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in 1936, defeating Toronto in four games.", "Detroit repeated as Stanley Cup champions in 1937, winning over the Rangers in the full five games.", "In 1938, the Montreal Canadiens and the Red Wings became the first NHL teams to play in Europe, playing in Paris and London.", "The Wings played nine games against the Canadiens and went 3–5–1.They did not play in Europe again until the pre-season and start of the 2009–10 NHL season, in Sweden, against the St. Louis Blues.Making his NHL debut in 1946, Gordie Howe played alongside Sid Abel and Ted Lindsay from 1947 to 1951, forming the Production Line.The Red Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s.", "In 1941, they were swept by the Boston Bruins, and in 1942, they lost a seven-game series to Toronto after winning the first three games.", "However, in 1943, with Mud Bruneteau and Syd Howe scoring 23 and 20 goals, respectively, Detroit won their third Stanley Cup by sweeping the Bruins.", "Through the rest of the decade, the team made the playoffs every year, and reached the Finals three more times.In 1946, one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings.", "Gordie Howe, a right winger from Floral, Saskatchewan, only scored seven goals and 15 assists in his first season, and would not reach his prime for a few more years.", "It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager and was succeeded by minor league coach Tommy Ivan.", "By his second season, Howe was paired with Sid Abel and Ted Lindsay to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history: the \"Production Line\".", "Lindsay's 33 goals propelled the Red Wings to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the Maple Leafs.", "Detroit reached the Finals again the following season, only to be swept again by Toronto.===Gordie Howe era (1950–1966)===During the 1950 Stanley Cup semi-finals, Leo Reise Jr. scored the winning goal in overtime, which prevented the Maple Leafs from winning four straight championships.", "In the Finals, the Red Wings defeated the New York Rangers in seven games.", "In Game 7, Pete Babando scored the game winner in double overtime.", "After the game, Lindsay skated around the Olympia ice with the Stanley Cup.After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semi-finals, Detroit won its fifth Stanley Cup in 1952, sweeping both the Maple Leafs and the Canadiens, with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second-year goaltender Terry Sawchuk.", "Detroit became the first team in 17 years to go undefeated in the playoffs.", "They also scored 24 playoff goals, compared to Toronto and Montreal's combined total of 5.Abel left the Red Wings for Chicago during the off-season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by Alex Delvecchio.", "In December 1952, James E. Norris died.", "He was succeeded as team president by his daughter, Marguerite, which made her the first woman to head an NHL franchise.Team photo of the 1952 Detroit Red WingsFollowing another playoff upset in 1953 at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back-to-back Stanley Cups, beating the rival powerhouse Montreal Canadiens.", "Both of the Stanley Cup Finals played between the two teams were decided in seven games.", "The seventh game during the 1954 Stanley Cup Finals was won with one of the oddest cup winning goals ever, when the 5'7\" left winger Tony Leswick, known more for his relentless checking than scoring prowess, shot a puck towards the Montreal goal from the middle of the ice.", "Habs defenseman Doug Harvey tried to gain control of the wobbly puck with his glove but instead redirected it past Montreal goalie Gerry McNeil.", "The repeat of the series the season after was closely contested, as all seven games were won by the home team, with Detroit taking the seventh game.", "Montreal was sorely lacking its all-star Maurice Richard, who was suspended after hitting a linesman during the regular season, and the Red Wings' stars carried their team, as Lindsay scored four goals in a single game and Howe scored 20 points during the playoffs, 12 of which during the Finals, all new records in the league.The 1954–55 season ended a run of seven straight regular season titles, an NHL record.", "During the 1955 off-season, Marguerite Norris lost an intra-family power struggle, and was forced to turn over the Red Wings to her younger brother Bruce.", "Detroit and Montreal once again met, in the 1956 Stanley Cup Finals, but this time the Canadiens won the Stanley Cup, their first of five in a row.", "In 1957, Lindsay, who had scored 30 goals and led the league in assists with 55, teamed up with Harvey to help start the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA).", "As a result, he and goaltender Glenn Hall were promptly traded to Chicago.In 1959, the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years.", "However, within a couple of years, the franchise was able to rejuvenate itself.", "The Red Wings made the Finals in four of the next six years between 1961 and 1966.However, they came away empty-handed.===\"Dead Wings\" era (1967–1982)===On December 27, 1979, the Red Wings played their first game at Joe Louis Arena, moving from the Detroit Olympia.Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs.", "It was the beginning of a slump that they would not emerge from in almost 20 years.", "This period is derisively known as the \"Dead Wings\" era.One factor in the Red Wings' decline was the end of the old development system.", "Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season.", "A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two-way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant to change.", "They chafed under his rule in which he demanded short hair and no smoking, and put other rules in place regarding drinking and phone calls.", "Harkness was forced to resign in 1974, ending the period colloquially referred to as \"Darkness with Harkness\".During the expansion season of 1967–68, the Red Wings acquired longtime star left-winger Frank Mahovlich from the defending Cup champions in Toronto.", "Mahovlich would go on a line with Howe and Delvecchio, and in 1968–69, he scored a career-high 49 goals and had two All-Star seasons in Detroit.", "However, Mahovlich was traded to Montreal in 1971, while Howe announced his retirement the same year.", "Throughout the decade, the Red Wings were hampered due to a number of factors.On December 27, 1979, during the 1979–80 season, the Red Wings officially began playing at the Joe Louis Arena after leaving the Olympia, where they had played since 1927.In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to Mike Ilitch, founder of the pizza chain Little Caesars.===Steve Yzerman era (1983–2006)===In 1983, the Red Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from the Peterborough Petes, with their first-round pick.", "He led the team in scoring in his rookie year.", "That season, with John Ogrodnick, Ivan Boldirev, Ron Duguay, and Brad Park, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years, with Park ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy.", "He was later asked to coach the Red Wings after they fired Harry Neale 35 games into the 1985–86 season, however, he was sacked on June 3, 1986 after they finished last place with a 17–57–6 record for only 40 points, the worst record in the league.", "This was the same year that the Red Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the team during the 1980s and 1990s.Named team captain in 1986, Steve Yzerman captained the Red Wings until his retirement in 2006.In the 1986–87 season, with Yzerman, now the captain following the departure of Danny Gare, joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenseman Darren Veitch, and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Red Wings won a playoff series for only the second time in the modern era.", "They made it all the way to the conference finals against the powerful Edmonton Oilers, but lost to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in five games.", "In 1988, they won their first division title in 23 years.", "They did so, however, in a relatively weak division, as no other team in the Norris finished above .500.As was the case in the previous season, they made it to the conference finals only to lose again to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Oilers in five games.In 1989, Yzerman scored a career-best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Chicago Blackhawks.", "The following season, Yzerman scored 62 goals, but the team missed the playoffs.After the season, Demers was fired and was replaced by Bryan Murray as the new head coach.", "Murray was unable to get them back over .500, but they returned to the playoffs.", "Yzerman was joined by Sergei Fedorov, who would be an award-winner and frequent all-star for the team during the 1990s.", "In 1991, the team signed free agent Ray Sheppard, who would score a career-best 52 goals three years later.", "In 1993, the Red Wings acquired top defenseman Paul Coffey.", "Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks Vladimir Konstantinov, Nicklas Lidstrom, Vyacheslav Kozlov, Darren McCarty, and Chris Osgood.====The Russian Five and back-to-back Stanley Cups (1994–1998)====In 1993, former Montreal Canadiens coach Scotty Bowman was hired as the new head coach.", "In his second season, the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season, Bowman guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be swept by the New Jersey Devils.During the 1995–96 season, the Red Wings won a then NHL record 62 games.", "However, after defeating the St. Louis Blues in seven games, they would fall in the Western Conference finals to the eventual Stanley Cup champions, the Colorado Avalanche.The following season, the Red Wings acquired Brendan Shanahan and Larry Murphy.", "In the playoffs, they would defeat the St. Louis Blues, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Avalanche in the first three rounds.", "In the Finals, the Red Wings swept the Philadelphia Flyers.", "It was their first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought (42 years long) in the league at that time.", "Mike Vernon was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy.Misfortune befell the Red Wings six days after their championship; defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov, one of the members of the \"Russian Five\", suffered a brain injury in a limousine accident, and his career came to an abrupt end.", "As a result, the team dedicated the 1997–98 season to him.", "The Red Wings won the Stanley Cup in four games, this time over the Washington Capitals, and Konstantinov was brought onto the ice in his wheelchair so he could touch it.====Superstar acquisitions and more success (1999–2006)====The following season, the Red Wings appeared to be poised to win a third consecutive Stanley Cup when they acquired three-time top blueliner Chris Chelios from his hometown Chicago Blackhawks in March 1999.Also acquired at the trade deadline were defenseman Ulf Samuelsson, winger Wendel Clark, and goaltender Bill Ranford.", "Despite high aspirations, however, Detroit would end up losing in the Western Conference semi-finals to Colorado in six games.", "In 2000, the Red Wings would finish second in the Central Division.", "Just like the previous season, however, they would lose to the Avalanche in the Western Conference semi-finals.Stanley Cup.In 2001, Detroit, the NHL's second-best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings.", "During the ensuing off-season, the team acquired goaltender Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) and forwards Luc Robitaille and Brett Hull.", "Russian prospect Pavel Datsyuk also joined the team.", "Strengthened by the additions, the Red Wings posted the league's best record in the 2001–02 regular season and defeated Colorado in seven games in the Western Conference finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two.", "The Red Wings then went on to capture another Stanley Cup, in five games, over the Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs' MVP.", "Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season.The off-season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman's retirement.", "In the market for a new starting goaltender after Hasek's retirement, they signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three-year, $24 million deal.", "Also new to the lineup was highly touted Swedish prospect Henrik Zetterberg.", "The Red Wings finished the season second in the Western Conference, which pitted them in the 2003 playoffs against the seventh-seeded Mighty Ducks of Anaheim.", "The Mighty Ducks shocked the hockey world when they swept the Red Wings in four games en route to a Finals appearance.In the off-season, long time Red Wing Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent.", "Additionally, Hasek opted to come out of retirement and join the Red Wings for the 2003–04 season.", "Joseph, despite being one of the highest-paid players in the NHL, spent part of the season in the minor leagues.", "Hasek himself would be sidelined with a groin injury.", "Notwithstanding, the Red Wings would finish atop of the Central Division and the NHL standings.", "The Red Wings eliminated the Nashville Predators in six games in the first round of the 2004 playoffs, which led to a second round match-up with the Calgary Flames.", "The teams split the first four games, and headed to Detroit for a pivotal Game 5, which the Red Wings lost 1–0.They were then eliminated two nights later in Calgary by the same score in overtime.", "The Red Wings did not play in the 2004–05 season due to the lockout, which cancelled the entire NHL season.2005–06 season.", "The Red Wings would go on to win that season's Presidents' Trophy.On July 15, 2005, Mike Babcock, former head coach in Anaheim, became the new head coach for the Red Wings.", "On November 21, 2005, defenseman Jiri Fischer went into cardiac arrest and collapsed on the bench during a game against the Nashville Predators.", "The game was cancelled because of his injury and was made up on January 23, 2006.This was the first time in NHL history a game had been postponed due to an injury.", "While the game was played for the full 60 minutes, the Predators were allowed to maintain their 1–0 lead from the original game and won 3–2.The Red Wings won the Presidents' Trophy with a 58–16–8 record, earning them 124 points and secured home ice advantage for the entire playoffs.", "They opened the 2006 playoffs against the Edmonton Oilers with a 3–2 overtime victory at Joe Louis Arena, but the Oilers won four of the next five games to take the series.Continuing the shakeup of the Red Wings roster, the off-season saw the departure of Brendan Shanahan, the return of Dominik Hasek and the retirement of Steve Yzerman.", "Yzerman retired with the distinction of having been the longest-serving team captain in NHL history.===The \"Euro-Twins\" era (2006–2017)===The Red Wings opened the 2006–07 season with Nicklas Lidstrom as the new captain.", "The team retired Yzerman's jersey number 19 on January 2, 2007.The Red Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents' Trophy because they had more wins.", "Detroit advanced to the third round of the 2007 playoffs after defeating Calgary and the San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back to win three-straight after the Sharks had a 2–1 series lead.", "The Red Wings would then lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks in the Western Conference finals in six games.Niklas Kronwall handing over the Stanley Cup after defeating the Pittsburgh Penguins in the 2008 Stanley Cup Finals.To start the 2007–08 campaign, Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit's first 17 games, setting a club record.", "The Wings cruised to the playoffs, where they faced the Nashville Predators.", "After goaltender Dominik Hasek played poorly in Games 3 and 4 of the series, both losses, head coach Mike Babcock replaced him with Chris Osgood.", "Osgood never left the net for the remainder of the playoffs, as the Red Wings came back in that series on their way to winning their 11th Stanley Cup.", "The final victory came in Game 6 on June 4, 2008, against the Pittsburgh Penguins, 3–2.This was the Red Wings' fourth Stanley Cup in 11 years.", "Zetterberg scored the winning goal in the decisive game, and was also named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs.", "It was the first time a team captained by a non-North American player (Lidstrom) won the Stanley Cup.On July 2, 2008, the Red Wings announced the signing of Marian Hossa.", "On January 1, 2009, the Red Wings played the Chicago Blackhawks in the second NHL Winter Classic at Chicago's Wrigley Field, defeating them 6–4.Although they finished second in the conference to the San Jose Sharks, the Wings became the first team in NHL history to top 100 points in nine straight seasons.", "In the playoffs, the Red Wings swept the Columbus Blue Jackets, then defeated the eighth-seeded Anaheim Ducks in a hard-fought seven-game series.", "They took on the vastly improved Chicago Blackhawks in the conference finals, winning in five games.", "The Red Wings would face the Pittsburgh Penguins in the Finals for a second consecutive year, but this series would feature a different outcome as the Penguins defeated the Red Wings in seven games.", "The Red Wings became only the second NHL team to lose the Stanley Cup at home in Game 7.The Red Wings began the 2009–10 NHL season in Stockholm, losing both games to the St. Louis Blues 4–3 and 5–3, respectively.", "They were plagued by injuries throughout the season and lost the second most man games to injury, with only the last place Edmonton Oilers losing more.", "The beginning of the season was a struggle for the Red Wings, with key players out of the lineup, including Zetterberg, Tomas Holmstrom, Johan Franzen, Valtteri Filppula and Niklas Kronwall.", "After the Olympic break, Detroit posted a record of 13–3–2 and earned 28 points, the most by any team in the NHL.", "This run helped them secure the fifth playoff seed in the Western Conference.", "This, however, was the first time the Red Wings did not have home ice advantage in a playoff series in ten seasons.", "Detroit won their first-round playoff series over the Phoenix Coyotes in seven games.", "In the second round, they would be defeated by the San Jose Sharks in five games.Nicklas Lidstrom during the 2009–10 season.", "Named captain in 2006, he maintained the position until his retirement in 2012.A healthier Red Wings team finished the 2010–11 NHL season with a 47–25–10 record and 104 points to win the Central Division title.", "They once again faced the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round of the playoffs, this time sweeping them 4–0.The Red Wings then went on to face the Sharks in round two.", "After losing the first three games of the series, the Red Wings won three consecutive games to force a Game 7, becoming just the eighth team in NHL history to accomplish the feat.", "The Red Wings lost Game 7 to the Sharks by a score of 3–2 and were eliminated.During the 2011 off-season, Red Wings defenseman Brian Rafalski retired.", "Detroit soon signed free agent defenseman Ian White to take his place.", "Long-time Red Wings Chris Osgood and Kris Draper also announced their retirement from hockey, with both soon taking positions within the club.", "Detroit signed goaltender Ty Conklin for his second stint with the team.", "Tragedy struck the organization and the rest of the NHL with the 2011 Lokomotiv Yaroslavl plane crash, which killed former Red Wings assistant coach Brad McCrimmon and defenseman Ruslan Salei, who had joined the KHL team during the summer.", "Stefan Liv, a former Red Wings goaltending prospect, was also among the fatalities.", "The Red Wings then added a patch to the left arm of their uniforms with the trio's initials.During the season, the Red Wings won an NHL-record 23 consecutive home games.", "The Red Wings also made the NHL playoffs, extending their streak of 21-straight playoff appearances, as the fifth seed.", "They were defeated in five games by their opening round opponent, the Nashville Predators.", "On May 31, 2012, Nicklas Lidstrom retired.Zetterberg was named successor to Lidstrom as team captain.", "On July 1, 2012, the first day of the NHL free agency period, the Red Wings signed Swiss forward Damien Brunner to a one-year, entry-level contract; forward Jordin Tootoo to a three-year, $5.7 million contract; and goaltender Jonas Gustavsson to a two-year, $3 million deal.Ken Holland and Mike Babcock named Henrik Zetterberg as the team captain in 2013.The team won their final four games of the 2012–13 season to earn the seventh seed of the playoffs.", "The Red Wings' 3–0 victory over the Dallas Stars on April 27, 2013, preserved their streak of 22 consecutive playoff appearances.", "As the seventh seed in the 2013 playoffs, the Red Wings faced the second-seeded Anaheim Ducks.", "They survived a fierce battle that included four overtime games, winning the series 4–3 after a 3–2 Game 7 victory in Anaheim.", "The next round pitted the Red Wings against the top-seeded Chicago Blackhawks.", "Despite jumping out to a 3–1 series lead, the Red Wings would ultimately lose to the eventual Stanley Cup champions in seven games.On July 5, 2013, the Red Wings signed long time Ottawa Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson to a one-year contract and long time Florida Panther Stephen Weiss to a five-year contract.", "In the 2013–14 season, the Red Wings moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference as part of the NHL's realignment.", "The move to the Eastern Conference allowed them to play a majority of their games against teams in the Eastern Time Zone.", "On April 9, 2014, the Red Wings clinched their 23rd consecutive playoff appearance.", "They would be eliminated in the first round by the Boston Bruins.On April 9, 2015, the Red Wings clinched their 24th consecutive playoff appearance, thus extending their streak.", "The team was eliminated in the first round by the Tampa Bay Lightning.", "Petr Mrazek had earned the starting goaltender role from Jimmy Howard, and Kronwall was suspended for Game 7 as Tampa Bay erased a 3–2 deficit to win the series.", "Mike Babcock, concluding the final year of his contract, left the Red Wings to become the new head coach of the Toronto Maple Leafs.", "Jeff Blashill, head coach of the Red Wings' top minor league affiliate, the Grand Rapids Griffins, was named his successor on June 9.On April 9, 2016, despite the Red Wings losing 3–2 to the New York Rangers, the Ottawa Senators defeated the Boston Bruins 6–1 as the Red Wings narrowly made the playoffs and extended their streak to a 25th season.", "They would lose in the first round to the Lightning again, this time in five games.During the off-season, Datsyuk decided to return to Russia.", "On February 10, 2017, club owner Mike Ilitch died.", "The Red Wings' playoff streak ended after 25 seasons in the 2016–17 season.", "The Red Wings won their last game at Joe Louis Arena 4–1 on April 9, 2017, against the New Jersey Devils.===The opening of Little Caesars Arena and rebuilding (2017–present)===Interior of Little Caesars Arena in September 2017.The Red Wings played their first regular season game at the arena a month later.The Red Wings played their first regular season game at Little Caesars Arena on October 5, 2017, winning 4–2 over the Minnesota Wild.", "The Red Wings finished the 2017–18 season with a 30–39–13 record.", "They missed the playoffs for the second season in a row, marking the first time since the early 1980s the team missed the playoffs in consecutive years.", "The Red Wings finished the 2018–19 season with a 32–40–10 record, missing the playoffs for a third consecutive season.On April 19, 2019, the Red Wings announced that Steve Yzerman rejoined the team as general manager and executive vice president.", "On February 21, 2020, the Red Wings became the first team to be eliminated from playoff contention before the trade deadline since the 2003–04 Pittsburgh Penguins.", "On March 10, 2020, the Red Wings clinched the worst overall record in NHL for the first time since the 1985–86 season.", "On March 12, the 2019–20 season was suspended by the NHL due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "On May 26, 2020, the NHL announced that the rest of the season was over for the seven teams that did not qualify for the 24-team Stanley Cup playoffs, which included the Red Wings.", "With a record of 17–49–5, this was the first time since the 1985–86 season that the Red Wings finished with fewer than 20 wins.", "The Red Wings also became the second team since the 2004–05 NHL lockout, and the subsequent start of the salary cap era, to finish with a sub-.300 points percentage, along with the 2016–17 Colorado Avalanche.", "Their .275 points percentage was the worst for an NHL team since the 1999–2000 Atlanta Thrashers.Dylan Larkin was named the Red Wings captain on January 13, 2021, who succeeded Henrik Zetterberg following his retirement in 2018.On April 26, the Red Wings were eliminated from playoff contention for the fifth consecutive season.", "They would ultimately finish with a 19–27–10 record.", "The Red Wings finished the 2021–22 season at 32–40–10.They missed the playoff for the sixth consecutive season.", "On April 30, 2022, Jeff Blashill was fired as head coach.", "They then hired Derek Lalonde as their head coach on June 30, 2022.During 2022–23 season, the Red Wings would re-sign Dylan Larkin to an eight-year contract extension.", "The Red Wings finished the season at 35–37–10.They missed the playoffs for the seventh consecutive season." ], [ "Team information", "===Logo and uniforms===The Red Wings' jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as \"sweaters\") have been more or less the same since the 1930s – a white or red base with red or white piping.", "The only significant changes have been the replacement of the word ''Detroit'' with the \"winged wheel\" logo in 1932, and vertical arch lettering for the players' names and block letters in 1983.The Red Wings wear the vertical arched letters in the regular season and playoffs, but use straight serifed nameplates during the preseason.", "''The Hockey News'' voted the Red Wings' \"winged wheel\" logo the second best in the league in 2008.The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys to the new Rbk Edge standard for the 2007–08 NHL season.", "The Red Wings kept their design as close to original as possible, the exceptions being: On the road (white) jersey, there was more red on the sleeves as the color panel began closer to the shoulder, and the letters of the captain and alternate captains were moved to the right shoulder.When Adidas became the uniform outfitter starting with the 2017–18 season, the Red Wings kept the same basic look.The Red Wings have rarely used any alternate logos or uniforms since the trend became popular in the 1990s, the sole exceptions were select games of the 1991–92 season commemorating the league's 75th anniversary, and for a commemorative game on January 27, 1994, at Chicago Stadium.", "Those jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the team (then the Detroit Cougars) in 1927–28.The throwbacks are primarily white with five red horizontal stripes on the body, the broadest middle stripe bearing \"Detroit\" in bold letters, and three red stripes on the sleeves.", "This jersey served as the basis for the uniforms worn by Wayne Gretzky's team of NHLPA All-Stars, nicknamed the \"99ers\", for their exhibition tour in Europe during the 1994–95 NHL lockout.Stylized \"D\" logo used by the team during its inaugural season.", "The stylized \"D\" logo served as the basis for a \"retro\" alternate jerseys introduced in 2009.The Red Wings wore alternative \"retro\" jerseys for the 2009 NHL Winter Classic in Chicago.", "The jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the Detroit Cougars during their inaugural season of 1926–27.These jerseys were white, with a single bold red stripe on the sleeves and chest, and a uniquely styled white Old English ''D'' centered on the chest stripe.", "These jerseys were also worn for their final 2009 regular season home game, again against the Chicago Blackhawks.", "The Red Wings again used an alternate jersey mimicking throwback jerseys for the 2014 NHL Winter Classic against the Toronto Maple Leafs at Michigan Stadium.The Red Wings wore a specially designed one-time-only jersey for their Stadium Series game in Denver against the Colorado Avalanche on February 27, 2016.The majority of this jersey was the traditional red, decorated with a thick diagonal white stripe running from the player's right shoulder across the front towards the left hip.", "The bottom of each sleeve featured a thick white stripe from wrist to elbow.", "The crest on the front of the jersey was a stylized red ''D''.", "The words \"Red Wings\" were printed in all capital letters on the left side of the collar, and the phrase \"EST.", "1926\" was printed inside the back of the collar.", "These jerseys featured the current Red Wings logo on the left shoulder cap.", "The names and numbers were printed larger than traditional NHL jerseys to increase visibility and player identification for fans watching the game at Coors Field, a stadium traditionally used for Major League Baseball.The Red Wings unveiled a uniform patch on September 27, 2016, to honor Gordie Howe, who died on June 10, 2016.The patch was a depiction of Howe's jersey number 9 and was worn by the team above the logo on the front of the jersey on the left side of the chest for all 82 regular season games during the 2016–17 season.The Red Wings wore a specially designed one-time-only jersey for the Centennial Classic in Toronto against the Toronto Maple Leafs on January 1, 2017.It was a white jersey that had four stripes on the arms.", "Three of the stripes were red, while the fourth was silver.", "On the silver stripes were the years the Red Wings won the Stanley Cup.", "The logo and numbers were outlined in silver.For the 2020–21 season, the Red Wings would wear special \"Reverse Retro\" alternate jerseys designed by Adidas.", "The uniform featured a white base and white sleeves inspired by the Red Wings' road uniforms of the Original Six era.", "Silver stripes replaced red stripes in commemoration of the team's 11 Stanley Cup championships and the 2017 Centennial Classic.", "A second \"Reverse Retro\" uniform was unveiled in the 2022–23 season, using the 1991–92 throwback uniform based on the original Cougars' uniforms but with a red base and black stripes.The Red Wings' logo received significant media attention in August 2017 when it was discovered that a white supremacist group used a modified version of it, in which the wheel's spokes consisted of the occult SS symbol Black Sun; it was the aegis of their shields during the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia.", "As a result, the Red Wings condemned the group for the usage of the logo and threatened legal action.===Fan traditions===Al.", "This stems from a fan tradition.The \"Legend of the Octopus\" is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck.", "During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena was generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed \"Al\" after former head ice manager Al Sobotka.The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the octopus throw.", "The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice.", "The eight legs are symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time.", "The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship.", "The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day.Sobotka was responsible for removing the thrown creatures from the ice.", "When the Red Wings played at Joe Louis Arena, he was known for swinging the tossed octopuses above his head when walking off the ice.", "On April 19, 2008, the NHL sent a memo to the Red Wings that forbade this; they said that violating the mandate would result in a $10,000 fine.", "Instead, it was to up to the linesmen to remove the octopuses.", "In an email to the ''Detroit Free Press'', NHL spokesman Frank Brown justified the ban because matter flew off the octopus and got on the ice when Sobotka swung it above his head.", "This ban was later loosened to allow for the octopus twirling to take place at the Zamboni entrance.Typically during the last minute or two of games that the Red Wings are winning, especially around the end of the season and during the playoffs, fans are known to start singing along to Journey's \"Don't Stop Believin'.\"", "The song is played over the PA system and continues until it is muted while the crowd sings the words \"Born and raised in South Detroit,\" then the song resumes over the speakers in the arena." ], [ "Broadcasters", "The Red Wings' flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT-AM 1270 and WXYT-FM 97.1.Games are carried on both stations unless there is a conflict with Detroit Tigers baseball.", "There are several affiliate stations throughout Michigan and Southwestern Ontario.The Red Wings' exclusive local television rights are held by Bally Sports Detroit.Announcers:* Ken Daniels: Television play by play announcer.", "* Mickey Redmond: Television color commentator (home games and select away games).", "* Chris Osgood: Television color commentator (select away games that Redmond does not attend) and studio analyst (when not doing color commentating).", "* Larry Murphy: Studio analyst and television color commentator (select away games that Redmond and Osgood do not attend).", "* John Keating: Television pre-game and post-game host* Trevor Thompson: TV pre-game and post-game host and reporter.", "* Brooke Fletcher: Sideline reporter.", "* Ken Kal: Radio play by play announcer.", "* Paul Woods: Radio analyst.", "* Daniella Bruce: Alternate radio analyst.", "* Jeff Riger: Primary radio intermission and post-game host.===Honored broadcasters===Four members of the Red Wings organization have received the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award:* Budd Lynch: TV and radio play by play and color – 1949–1975 (awarded 1985)* Bruce Martyn: Radio play by play – 1964–1995 (awarded 1991)* Mickey Redmond: TV color commentary – 1979–1981, 1986–present (awarded 2011)* Dave Strader: TV play by play – 1985–1996 (awarded 2017)Lynch called the first locally televised game at Olympia for the original WWJ-TV in 1949.He remained with the organization for 63 years, serving as director of publicity from 1975 to 1982, and was the public address announcer from 1982 until his death in 2012.From 2008 to 2012, a second PA announcer was added to work alongside him, first John Fossen, then Erich Freiny.", "Freiny took over as the sole PA announcer following Lynch's death." ], [ "Season-by-season record", "''This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Detroit Red Wings.", "For the full season-by-season history, see List of Detroit Red Wings seasons''.", "'''''Note:''' GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime losses, ROW = Regulation + OT wins, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against'' Season GP W L OTL Pts GF GA Finish Playoffs 2018–19 82 32 40 10 74 227 277 7th, Atlantic Did not qualify 2019–20 71 17 49 5 39 145 267 8th, Atlantic Did not qualify 2020–21 56 19 27 10 48 127 171 7th, Central Did not qualify 2021–22 82 32 40 10 74 230 312 6th, Atlantic Did not qualify 2022–23 82 35 37 10 80 240 279 7th, Atlantic Did not qualify" ], [ "Players", "===Current roster======Hall of Fame===The Detroit Red Wings acknowledge an affiliation with many inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame, including 67 former players and 12 builders of the sport.", "The 12 individuals recognized as builders by the Hall of Fame include former Red Wings executives, general managers, head coaches, and owners.", "In addition to players and builders, several broadcasters have been awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award from the Hockey Hall of Fame.", "Budd Lynch, a radio play-by-play announcer, was the first Red Wings broadcaster to be awarded the Foster Hewitt Memorial Award.", "Lynch also served as Detroit's public address announcer from 1985 until his death in 2012.In addition to Lynch, Bruce Martyn, Mickey Redmond, and Dave Strader have also won the award.", "'''Players''''''Builders'''===Retired numbers===The banners of retired numbers hanging at Joe Louis Arena.Detroit Red Wings retired numbersNo.PlayerPositionCareerNumber retirement '''1''' Terry Sawchuk G 1949–19551957–19641968–1969 March 6, 1994 '''4''' Red Kelly D 1947–1960 February 1, 2019 '''5''' Nicklas Lidstrom D 1991–2012 March 6, 2014 '''7''' Ted Lindsay LW 1944–19571964–1965 November 10, 1991 '''9''' Gordie Howe RW 1946–1971 March 12, 1972 '''10''' Alex Delvecchio C 1950–1974 November 10, 1991 '''12''' Sid Abel C 1938–19431945–1952 April 29, 1995 '''19''' Steve Yzerman C 1983–2006 January 2, 2007The Red Wings have retired eight numbers.", "The first number the Red Wings retired was No.", "9 in 1972 in honor of Gordie Howe, who played right wing for the team from 1946 to 1971.Howe won both the Art Ross Trophy and the Hart Memorial Trophy six times each and won the Stanley Cup as a Red Wing four times.", "In 2007, the Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman's No.", "19.During Yzerman's career, he won the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, the Conn Smythe Trophy, the Frank J. Selke Trophy, the Lester Patrick Trophy, and the Ted Lindsay Award.", "Yzerman served as Detroit's captain for 19 seasons, an NHL record, and won the Stanley Cup three times as a player with the Red Wings.", "The most recent retired number is Red Kelly's No.", "4, which was retired on February 1, 2019.During Kelly's 13-year career with the Red Wings, he won four Stanley Cups, the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy three times, and the James Norris Memorial Trophy once.The Red Wings have also made the number 6 of Larry Aurie and the number 16 of Vladimir Konstantinov no longer available for issue.", "However, the numbers are not considered to be officially retired.", "Although Aurie's number was retired in 1938 by James E. Norris, current team owners do not consider the number to be retired.", "Konstantinov's number has not been issued to any player since he was permanently disabled in a vehicle accident after the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals.", "Number 99 is also unavailable as it was retired by the league in honor of Wayne Gretzky.===Team captains===All the players who have served as team captain with the Detroit franchise.", "* Art Duncan, 1926–1927* Reg Noble, 1927–1930* George Hay, 1930–1931* Carson Cooper, 1931–1932* Larry Aurie, 1932–1933* Herbie Lewis, 1933–1934* Ebbie Goodfellow, 1934–1935, 1938–1941* Doug Young, 1935–1938* Ebbie Goodfellow and Syd Howe, 1941–1942* Sid Abel, 1942–1943* Mud Bruneteau and Flash Hollett, 1943–1944* Flash Hollett, 1944–1945* Flash Hollett and Sid Abel, 1945–1946* Sid Abel, 1946–1952* Ted Lindsay, 1952–1956* Red Kelly, 1956–1958* Gordie Howe, 1958–1962* Alex Delvecchio, 1962–1973* Alex Delvecchio, Nick Libett, Red Berenson, Gary Bergman, Ted Harris, Mickey Redmond, and Larry Johnston, 1973–1974* Marcel Dionne, 1974–1975* Danny Grant and Terry Harper, 1975–1976* Danny Grant and Dennis Polonich, 1976–1977* Dan Maloney and Dennis Hextall, 1977–1978* Dennis Hextall, Nick Libett, and Paul Woods, 1978–1979* Dale McCourt, 1979–1980* Errol Thompson and Reed Larson, 1980–1981* Reed Larson, 1981–1982* Danny Gare, 1982–1986* Steve Yzerman, 1986–2006* Nicklas Lidstrom, 2006–2012* Henrik Zetterberg, 2013–2018* Dylan Larkin, 2021–present===First-round draft picks===* 1963: Peter Mahovlich (2nd overall)* 1964: Claude Gauthier (1st overall)* 1965: George Forgie (3rd overall)* 1966: Steve Atkinson (6th overall)* 1967: Ron Barkwell (9th overall)* 1968: Steve Andrascik (11th overall)* 1969: Jim Rutherford (10th overall)* 1970: Serge Lajeunesse (12th overall)* 1971: Marcel Dionne (2nd overall)* 1973: Terry Richardson (11th overall)* 1974: Bill Lochead (9th overall)* 1975: Rick Lapointe (5th overall)* 1976: Fred Williams (4th overall)* 1977: Dale McCourt (1st overall)* 1978: Willie Huber (9th overall)* 1979: Mike Foligno (3rd overall)* 1980: Mike Blaisdell (11th overall)* 1982: Murray Craven (17th overall)* 1983: Steve Yzerman (4th overall)* 1984: Shawn Burr (7th overall)* 1985: Brent Fedyk (8th overall)* 1986: Joe Murphy (1st overall)* 1987: Yves Racine (11th overall)* 1988: Kory Kocur (17th overall)* 1989: Mike Sillinger (11th overall)* 1990: Keith Primeau (3rd overall)* 1991: Martin Lapointe (10th overall)* 1992: Curtis Bowen (22nd overall)* 1993: Anders Eriksson (22nd overall)* 1994: Yan Golubovsky (23rd overall)* 1995: Maxim Kuznetsov (26th overall)* 1996: Jesse Wallin (26th overall)* 1998: Jiri Fischer (25th overall)* 2000: Niklas Kronwall (29th overall)* 2005: Jakub Kindl (19th overall)* 2007: Brendan Smith (27th overall)* 2008: Thomas McCollum (30th overall)* 2010: Riley Sheahan (21st overall)* 2013: Anthony Mantha (20th overall)* 2014: Dylan Larkin (15th overall)* 2015: Evgeny Svechnikov (19th overall)* 2016: Dennis Cholowski (20th overall)* 2017: Michael Rasmussen (9th overall)* 2018: Filip Zadina (6th overall)* 2018: Joe Veleno (30th overall)* 2019: Moritz Seider (6th overall)* 2020: Lucas Raymond (4th overall)* 2021: Simon Edvinsson (6th overall)* 2021: Sebastian Cossa (15th overall)* 2022: Marco Kasper (8th overall)* 2023: Nate Danielson (9th overall)* 2023: Axel Sandin Pellikka (17th overall)===Franchise leaders=======All-time leading scorers====These players rank in the top ten in franchise history in scoring as of the end of the 2022–23 season.", "Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.", "* – current Red Wings player'''''Note:''' Pos = Position; GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game''Points Player Pos GP G A Pts P/GGordie Howe RW 1,687 786 1,023 '''1,809''' 1.07Steve Yzerman C 1,514 692 1,063 '''1,755''' 1.16Alex Delvecchio C 1,550 456 825 '''1,281''' .83Nicklas Lidstrom D 1,564 264 878 '''1,142''' .73Henrik Zetterberg C 1,082 337 623 '''960''' .89Sergei Fedorov C 908 400 554 '''954''' 1.05Pavel Datsyuk C 953 314 604 '''918''' .96Norm Ullman C 875 324 434 '''758''' .87Ted Lindsay LW 862 335 393 '''728''' .85Brendan Shanahan LW 716 309 324 '''633''' .88Goals Player Pos GGordie Howe RW 786Steve Yzerman C 692Alex Delvecchio C 456Sergei Fedorov C 400Henrik Zetterberg C 337Ted Lindsay LW 335Norm Ullman C 324Pavel Datsyuk C 314Brendan Shanahan LW 309John Ogrodnick LW 265Assists Player Pos ASteve Yzerman C 1,063Gordie Howe RW 1,023Nicklas Lidstrom D 878Alex Delvecchio C 825Henrik Zetterberg C 623Pavel Datsyuk C 604Sergei Fedorov C 554Norm Ullman C 434Ted Lindsay LW 393Reed Larson D 382====All-time leading goaltenders====These players rank in the top ten in franchise history for wins as of the end of the 2018−19 season.", "Figures are updated after each completed NHL season.", "There is a four-way tie for ninth place in postseason wins, resulting in 12 players listed in that table.", "* – current Red Wings player'''''Note:''' GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OT = Overtime losses; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; * = current Red Wings player''Regular seasonPlayerGPWLTOTSOGAA 734 351 243 132 85 2.44 565 317 149 46 39 2.49 543 246 196 24 2.62 324 163 105 56 26 2.75 313 131 121 41 20 2.93 264 128 93 30 9 3.40 299 115 127 30 5 3.92 176 114 39 10 20 2.13 180 112 34 16 13 2.18 314 97 165 43 10 3.69PostseasonPlayerGPWLSOGAA 110 67 37 14 2.02 85 46 37 11 2.41 42 30 12 2 2.08 45 28 17 8 1.91 54 24 30 6 2.30 47 21 26 3 2.58 32 19 13 2 2.55 30 12 17 1 3.54 12 9 2 3 1.32 18 9 6 3 2.58 23 9 12 1 2.74 25 9 15 2 3.00===Franchise individual records===2002 playoffs, Dominik Hasek set the franchise record for the most shutouts in a single postseason.", "* Most goals in a season: 65, Steve Yzerman (1988–89)* Most assists in a season: 90, Steve Yzerman (1988–89)* Most points in a season: 155, Steve Yzerman (1988–89)* Most penalty minutes in a season: 398, Bob Probert (1987–88)* Most points in a season, defenseman: 80, Nicklas Lidstrom (2005–06)* Most points in a season, rookie: 87, Steve Yzerman (1983–84)* Most wins in a season: 44, Terry Sawchuk (1950–51 and 1951–52)* Most shutouts in a season: 12, Terry Sawchuk (1951–52, 1953–54, and 1954–55) and Glenn Hall (1955–56)* Most shutouts in postseason: 6, Dominik Hasek (2002)* Longest home win streak in NHL history: 23 games (November 5, 2011, to February 19, 2012)* Most wins in a season in NHL history: 62 (1995–96)" ], [ "See also", "* The Grind Line* List of NHL players* List of NHL seasons* List of Stanley Cup champions" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Demiurge" ], [ "Introduction", "In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the '''demiurge''' () (sometimes spelled as '''demiurg''') is an artisan-like figure responsible for fashioning and maintaining the physical universe.", "The Gnostics adopted the term ''demiurge''.", "Although a fashioner, the demiurge is not necessarily the same as the creator figure in the monotheistic sense, because the demiurge itself and the material from which the demiurge fashions the universe are both considered consequences of something else.", "Depending on the system, they may be considered either uncreated and eternal or the product of some other entity.The word ''demiurge'' is an English word derived from ''demiurgus'', a Latinised form of the Greek or .", "It was originally a common noun meaning \"craftsman\" or \"artisan\", but gradually came to mean \"producer\", and eventually \"creator\".", "The philosophical usage and the proper noun derive from Plato's ''Timaeus'', written  360 BC, where the demiurge is presented as the creator of the universe.", "The demiurge is also described as a creator in the Platonic ( 310–90 BC) and Middle Platonic ( 90 BC–AD 300) philosophical traditions.", "In the various branches of the Neoplatonic school (third century onwards), the demiurge is the fashioner of the real, perceptible world after the model of the Ideas, but (in most Neoplatonic systems) is still not itself \"the One\".", "In the arch-dualist ideology of the various Gnostic systems, the material universe is evil, while the non-material world is good.", "According to some strains of Gnosticism, the demiurge is malevolent, as it is linked to the material world.", "In others, including the teaching of Valentinus, the demiurge is simply ignorant or misguided." ], [ "Platonism and Neoplatonism", "===Plato and the ''Timaeus''===Plato, as the speaker Timaeus, refers to the Demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue ''Timaeus'' (28a ff.", "),  360 BC.", "The main character refers to the Demiurge as the entity who \"fashioned and shaped\" the material world.", "Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent, and so it desires a world as good as possible.", "The result of his work is a universe as a living god with lesser gods, such as the stars, planets, and gods of traditional religion, inside it.", "''Timaeus'' is a philosophical reconciliation of Hesiod's cosmology in his ''Theogony'', syncretically reconciling Hesiod to Homer, though other scholars have argued that Plato's theology 'invokes a broad cultural horizon without committing to any specific poetic or religious tradition'.===Middle Platonism===In Middle Platonist and Numenius's Neo-Pythagorean cosmogenies, the Demiurge is second God as the ''nous'' or thought of intelligibles and sensibles (Middle Platonism and Neo-Pythagoreanism overlapped: both originating in the early 1st century BC and extending through to the end of the 2nd century AD or even into the 3rd century).===Neoplatonism===The work of Plotinus and other later Platonists in the 3rd century AD to further clarify the Demiurge is known as Neoplatonism.", "To Plotinus, the second emanation represents an uncreated second cause (see Pythagoras' Dyad).", "Plotinus sought to reconcile Aristotle's ''energeia'' with Plato's Demiurge, which, as Demiurge and mind (''nous''), is a critical component in the ontological construct of human consciousness used to explain and clarify substance theory within Platonic realism (also called idealism).", "In order to reconcile Aristotelian with Platonian philosophy, Plotinus metaphorically identified the demiurge (or ''nous'') within the pantheon of the Greek Gods as Zeus.====Henology====The first and highest aspect of God is described by Plato as the One (Τὸ Ἕν, 'To Hen'), the source, or the Monad.", "This is the God above the Demiurge, and manifests through the actions of the Demiurge.", "The Monad emanated the demiurge or ''Nous'' (consciousness) from its \"indeterminate\" vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself, causing self-reflection.", "This self-reflection of the indeterminate vitality was referred to by Plotinus as the \"Demiurge\" or creator.", "The second principle is organization in its reflection of the nonsentient force or ''dynamis'', also called the one or the Monad.", "The dyad is ''energeia'' emanated by the one that is then the work, process or activity called ''nous'', Demiurge, mind, consciousness that organizes the indeterminate vitality into the experience called the material world, universe, cosmos.", "Plotinus also elucidates the equation of matter with nothing or non-being in ''The Enneads'' which more correctly is to express the concept of idealism or that there is not anything or anywhere outside of the \"mind\" or ''nous'' (c.f.", "pantheism).Plotinus' form of Platonic idealism is to treat the Demiurge, ''nous'', as the contemplative faculty (''ergon'') within man which orders the force (''dynamis'') into conscious reality.", "In this, he claimed to reveal Plato's true meaning: a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Plato's text.", "This tradition of creator God as ''nous'' (the manifestation of consciousness), can be validated in the works of pre-Plotinus philosophers such as Numenius, as well as a connection between Hebrew and Platonic cosmology (see also Philo).The Demiurge of Neoplatonism is the ''Nous'' (mind of God), and is one of the three ordering principles:* ''Arche'' (Gr.", "'beginning') – the source of all things,* ''Logos'' (Gr.", "'reason/cause') – the underlying order that is hidden beneath appearances,* ''Harmonia'' (Gr.", "'harmony') – numerical ratios in mathematics.Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus' ''Enneads'', no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Plato's ''Timaeus''.", "The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the Demiurge on the works of Numenius.====Iamblichus====Later, the Neoplatonist Iamblichus changed the role of the \"One\", effectively altering the role of the Demiurge as second cause or dyad, which was one of the reasons that Iamblichus and his teacher Porphyry came into conflict.The figure of the Demiurge emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, which conjoins the transcendent, incommunicable “One,” or Source.", "Here, at the summit of this system, the Source and Demiurge (material realm) coexist via the process of ''henosis''.Iamblichus describes the One as a monad whose first principle or emanation is intellect (''nous''), while among \"the many\" that follow it there is a second, super-existent \"One\" that is the producer of intellect or soul (''psyche'').The \"One\" is further separated into spheres of intelligence; the first and superior sphere is objects of thought, while the latter sphere is the domain of thought.", "Thus, a triad is formed of the intelligible ''nous'', the intellective ''nous'', and the ''psyche'' in order to reconcile further the various Hellenistic philosophical schools of Aristotle's ''actus'' and ''potentia'' (actuality and potentiality) of the unmoved mover and Plato's Demiurge.Then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge, identifying it with the perfect or Divine ''nous'' with the intellectual triad being promoted to a ''hebdomad'' (pure intellect).In the theoretic of Plotinus, ''nous'' produces nature through intellectual mediation, thus the intellectualizing gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods." ], [ "Gnosticism", "Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable God or Supreme Being and the demiurgic \"creator\" of the material, identified in some traditions with Yahweh, the God of the Hebrew Bible.", "Several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Being, with his creation initially having the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine ''in'' materiality.", "In other systems, the Demiurge is instead portrayed as \"merely\" incompetent or foolish: his creation is an unconscious attempt to replicate the divine world (the pleroma) based on faint recollections, and thus ends up fundamentally flawed.", "Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge is a proposed solution to the problem of evil: while the divine beings are omniscient and omnibenevolent, the Demiurge who rules over our own physical world is not.===Angels===Psalm 82 begins, \"God stands in the assembly of El , in the midst of the gods he renders judgment\", indicating a plurality of gods, although it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation.", "Philo had inferred from the expression \"Let us make man\" of the Book of Genesis that God had used other beings as assistants in the creation of man, and he explains in this way why man is capable of vice as well as virtue, ascribing the origin of the latter to God, of the former to his helpers in the work of creation.The earliest Gnostic sects ascribe the work of creation to angels, some of them using the same passage in Genesis.", "So Irenaeus tells of the system of Simon Magus, of the system of Menander, of the system of Saturninus, in which the number of these angels is reckoned as seven, and of the system of Carpocrates.", "In Basilides's system, he reports, the world was made by the angels who occupy the lowest heaven; but special mention is made of their chief, who is said to have been the God of the Jews, to have led that people out of the land of Egypt, and to have given them their law.", "The prophecies are ascribed not to the chief but to the other world-making angels.The Latin translation, confirmed by Hippolytus of Rome, makes Irenaeus state that according to Cerinthus (who shows Ebionite influence), creation was made by a power quite separate from the Supreme God and ignorant of him.", "Theodoret, who here copies Irenaeus, turns this into the plural number \"powers\", and so Epiphanius of Salamis represents Cerinthus as agreeing with Carpocrates in the doctrine that the world was made by angels.===Yaldabaoth===serpentine deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' may be a depiction of the Demiurge.In the Archontic, Sethian, and Ophite systems, which have many affinities with the doctrine of Valentinus, the making of the world is ascribed to a company of seven archons, whose names are given, but still more prominent is their chief, \"Yaldabaoth\" (also known as \"Yaltabaoth\" or \"Ialdabaoth\").In the ''Apocryphon of John''  AD 120–180, the demiurge declares that he has made the world by himself:Now the archon \"ruler\" who is weak has three names.", "The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas \"fool\", and the third is Samael \"blind god\".", "And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him.", "For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come.He is Demiurge and maker of man, but as a ray of light from above enters the body of man and gives him a soul, Yaldabaoth is filled with envy; he tries to limit man's knowledge by forbidding him the fruit of knowledge in paradise.", "At the consummation of all things, all light will return to the Pleroma.", "But Yaldabaoth, the Demiurge, with the material world, will be cast into the lower depths.Yaldabaoth is frequently called \"the Lion-faced\", ''leontoeides'', and is said to have the body of a serpent.", "The demiurge is also described as having a fiery nature, applying the words of Moses to him: \"the Lord our God is a burning and consuming fire\".", "Hippolytus claims that Simon used a similar description.In ''Pistis Sophia'', Yaldabaoth has already sunk from his high estate and resides in Chaos, where, with his forty-nine demons, he tortures wicked souls in boiling rivers of pitch, and with other punishments (pp.", "257, 382).", "He is an archon with the face of a lion, half flame, and half darkness.In the Nag Hammadi text ''On the Origin of the World'', the three sons of Yaldabaoth are listed as Yao, Eloai, and Astaphaios.Under the name of ''Nebro'' (rebel), Yaldabaoth is called an angel in the apocryphal ''Gospel of Judas''.", "He is first mentioned in \"The Cosmos, Chaos, and the Underworld\" as one of the twelve angels to come \"into being to rule over chaos and the underworld\".", "He comes from heaven, and it is said his \"face flashed with fire and his appearance was defiled with blood\".", "Nebro creates six angels in addition to the angel Saklas to be his assistants.", "These six, in turn, create another twelve angels \"with each one receiving a portion in the heavens\".====Names====Drawing of the lion-headed figure found at the Mithraeum of C. Valerius Heracles and sons, dedicated 190 CE at Ostia Antica, Italy (CIMRM 312).The etymology of the name ''Yaldabaoth'' has been subject to many speculative theories.", "Until 1974, etymologies deriving from the unattested Aramaic: בהותא, romanized: ''bāhūthā'', supposedly meaning \"chaos\", represented the majority view.", "Following an analysis by the Jewish historian of religion Gershom Scholem published in 1974, this etymology no longer enjoyed any notable support.", "His analysis showed the unattested Aramaic term to have been fabulated and attested only in a single corrupted text from 1859, with its claimed translation having been transposed from the reading of an earlier etymology, whose explanation seemingly equated \"darkness\" and \"chaos\" when translating an unattested supposed plural form of .", "\"Samael\" literally means \"Blind God\" or \"God of the Blind\" in Hebrew ().", "This being is considered not only blind, or ignorant of its own origins, but may, in addition, be evil; its name is also found in Judaism as the Angel of Death and in Christian demonology.", "This link to Judeo-Christian tradition leads to a further comparison with Satan.", "Another alternative title for the demiurge is \"Saklas\", Aramaic for \"fool\".", "In the ''Apocryphon of John'', Yaldabaoth is also known as both Sakla and Samael.The angelic name \"Ariel\" (Hebrew: 'the lion of God') has also been used to refer to the Demiurge and is called his \"perfect\" name; in some Gnostic lore, Ariel has been called an ancient or original name for Ialdabaoth.", "The name has also been inscribed on amulets as \"Ariel Ialdabaoth\", and the figure of the archon inscribed with \"Aariel\".===Marcion===According to Marcion, the title God was given to the Demiurge, who was to be sharply distinguished from the higher Good God.", "The former was ''díkaios'', severely just, the latter ''agathós'', or loving-kind; the former was the \"god of this world\", the God of the Old Testament, the latter the true God of the New Testament.", "Christ, in reality, is the Son of the Good God.", "The true believer in Christ entered into God's kingdom; the unbeliever remained forever the slave of the Demiurge.===Valentinus===It is in the system of Valentinus that the name ''Dēmiurgos'' is used, which occurs nowhere in Irenaeus except in connection with the Valentinian system.", "When it is employed by other Gnostics either it is not used in a technical sense, or its use has been borrowed from Valentinus.", "But it is only the name that can be said to be specially Valentinian; the personage intended by it corresponds more or less closely with the Yaldabaoth of the Ophites, the great Archon of Basilides, the Elohim of Justinus, etc.The Valentinian theory elaborates that from Achamoth (''he kátō sophía'' or lower wisdom) three kinds of substance take their origin, the spiritual (''pneumatikoí''), the animal (''psychikoí'') and the material (''hylikoí'').", "The Demiurge belongs to the second kind, as he was the offspring of a union of Achamoth with matter.", "And as Achamoth herself was only the daughter of ''Sophía'' the last of the thirty Aeons, the Demiurge was distant by many emanations from the Propatôr, or Supreme God.In creating this world out of Chaos the Demiurge was unconsciously influenced for good; and the universe, to the surprise even of its Maker, became almost perfect.", "The Demiurge regretted even its slight imperfection, and as he thought himself the Supreme God, he attempted to remedy this by sending a Messiah.", "To this Messiah, however, was actually united with Jesus the Saviour, Who redeemed men.", "These are either ''hylikoí'' or ''pneumatikoí''.The first, or material men, will return to the grossness of matter and finally be consumed by fire; the second, or animal men, together with the Demiurge, will enter a middle state, neither Pleroma nor ''hyle''; the purely spiritual men will be completely freed from the influence of the Demiurge and together with the Saviour and Achamoth, his spouse, will enter the Pleroma divested of body (''hyle'') and soul (''psyché'').", "In this most common form of Gnosticism the Demiurge had an inferior though not intrinsically evil function in the universe as the head of the animal, or psychic world.===The devil===Opinions on the devil, and his relationship to the Demiurge, varied.", "The Ophites held that he and his demons constantly oppose and thwart the human race, as it was on their account the devil was cast down into this world.", "According to one variant of the Valentinian system, the Demiurge is also the maker, out of the appropriate substance, of an order of ''spiritual'' beings, the devil, the prince of this world, and his angels.", "But the devil, as being a ''spirit'' of wickedness, is able to recognise the higher spiritual world, of which his maker the Demiurge, who is only animal, has no real knowledge.", "The devil resides in this lower world, of which he is the prince, the Demiurge in the heavens; his mother Sophia in the middle region, above the heavens and below the Pleroma.The Valentinian Heracleon interpreted the devil as the ''principle'' of evil, that of ''hyle'' (matter).", "As he writes in his commentary on John 4:21,The mountain represents the Devil, or his world, since the Devil was one part of the whole of matter, but the world is the total mountain of evil, a deserted dwelling place of beasts, to which all who lived before the law and all Gentiles render worship.", "But Jerusalem represents the creation or the Creator whom the Jews worship.", "... You then who are spiritual should worship neither the creation nor the Craftsman, but the Father of Truth.", "This vilification of the creator was held to be inimical to Christianity by the early fathers of the church.", "In refuting the beliefs of the gnostics, Irenaeus stated that \"Plato is proved to be more religious than these men, for he allowed that the same God was both just and good, having power over all things, and himself executing judgment.", "\"===Cathars===Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world from Gnosticism.", "Gilles Quispel writes, \"There is a direct link between ancient Gnosticism and Catharism.", "The Cathars held that the creator of the world, Satanael, had usurped the name of God, but that he had subsequently been unmasked and told that he was not really God.\"" ], [ "Neoplatonism and Gnosticism", "Gnosticism attributed falsehood or evil to the concept of the Demiurge or creator, though in some Gnostic traditions the creator is from a fallen, ignorant, or lesser—rather than evil—perspective, such as that of Valentinius.===Plotinus===The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus addressed within his works Gnosticism's conception of the Demiurge, which he saw as un-Hellenic and blasphemous to the Demiurge or creator of Plato.", "Plotinus, along with his teacher Ammonius Saccas, was the founder of Neoplatonism.", "In the ninth tractate of the second of his ''Enneads'', Plotinus criticizes his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato:Of note here is the remark concerning the second hypostasis or Creator and third hypostasis or World Soul.", "Plotinus criticizes his opponents for \"all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own\" which, he declares, \"have been picked up outside of the truth\"; they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments.", "Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato’s original intentions.Whereas Plato's Demiurge is good wishing good on his creation, Gnosticism contends that the Demiurge is not only the originator of evil but is evil as well.", "Hence the title of Plotinus' refutation: \"Against Those That Affirm the Creator of the Kosmos and the Kosmos Itself to be Evil\" (generally quoted as \"Against the Gnostics\").", "Plotinus argues of the disconnect or great barrier that is created between the ''nous'' or mind's noumenon (see Heraclitus) and the material world (phenomenon) by believing the material world is evil.The majority of scholars tend to understand Plotinus' opponents as being a Gnostic sect—certainly (specifically Sethian), several such groups were present in Alexandria and elsewhere about the Mediterranean during Plotinus' lifetime.", "Plotinus specifically points to the Gnostic doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge.Though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus' opponents as Gnostic is not without some contention.", "Christos Evangeliou has contended that Plotinus' opponents might be better described as simply \"Christian Gnostics\", arguing that several of Plotinus' criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as well.", "Also, considering the evidence from the time, Evangeliou thought the definition of the term \"Gnostics\" was unclear.", "Of note here is that while Plotinus' student Porphyry names Christianity specifically in Porphyry's own works, and Plotinus is to have been a known associate of the Christian Origen, none of Plotinus' works mention Christ or Christianity—whereas Plotinus specifically addresses his target in the ''Enneads'' as the Gnostics.A.", "H. Armstrong identified the so-called \"Gnostics\" that Plotinus was attacking as Jewish and Pagan, in his introduction to the tract in his translation of the ''Enneads''.", "Armstrong alluding to Gnosticism being a Hellenic philosophical heresy of sorts, which later engaged Christianity and Neoplatonism.John D. Turner, professor of religious studies at the University of Nebraska, and famed translator and editor of the Nag Hammadi library, stated that the text Plotinus and his students read was Sethian Gnosticism, which predates Christianity.", "It appears that Plotinus attempted to clarify how the philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same conclusions (such as dystheism or misotheism for the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil) as the targets of his criticism.Emil Cioran also wrote his ''Le mauvais démiurge'' (\"The Evil Demiurge\"), published in 1969, influenced by Gnosticism and Schopenhauerian interpretation of Platonic ontology, as well as that of Plotinus." ], [ "See also", "* Albinus (philosopher)* Azazil* Devil in Christianity* Problem of the creator of God* Tenth intellect (Isma'ilism)* Urizen" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===* ''' Demiurgus''' in ''A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects and Doctrines'' by William Smith and Henry Wace (1877), a publication now in the public domain.''" ], [ "External links", "* Dark Mirrors of Heaven: Gnostic Cosmogony* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Doubravka of Bohemia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Doubravka of Bohemia''', '''Dobrawa''' (, ; ca.", "940/45 – 977) was a Bohemian princess of the Přemyslid dynasty and by marriage Duchess of the Polans.She was the daughter of Boleslaus I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia, whose wife may have been the mysterious Biagota.According to earlier sources, Doubravka urged her husband Mieszko I of Poland to accept baptism in 966, the year after their marriage.", "Modern historians believe, however, that the change of religion by Mieszko was one of the points discussed in the Polish-Bohemian agreement concluded soon before his marriage with Doubravka.", "Her role in his conversion is not considered now to be as important as it is often represented in medieval chronicles." ], [ "Early life", "Doubravka of Bohemia (Dobrawa) according to Jan Matejko (1886)Doubravka's date of birth is not known.", "The only indication is communicated by the chronicler Cosmas of Prague, who stated that the Bohemian princess at the time of her marriage with Mieszko I was ''an old woman''.", "The passage is regarded as tendentious and of little reliability, and some researchers believe that the statement was made with malicious intent.", "It is possible that in the statement about Doubravka's age, Cosmas was making a reference to the age difference between her and her sister Mlada.", "That would give him a basis for determining Doubravka as \"old.\"", "(The word ''Mlada'' means ''Young'').", "It also found that Cosmas confuses Doubravka with Mieszko I's second wife Oda, who at the time of her marriage was around 19–25 years old, a relatively advanced age for a bride according to the customs of the Middle Ages.", "Some researchers have taken up speculative views, such as Jerzy Strzelczyk, who assumed that ''in the light of contemporary concepts and habits of marriage of that time (when as a rule marriages were contracted with teenage girls) is assumed that Doubravka had passed her early youth, so, it's probable that she was in her late teens or twenties''.Nothing is known about Doubravka's childhood and youth.", "In 1895 Oswald Balzer refuted reports that previous to her marriage with Mieszko I, Doubravka was married to Gunther, Margrave of Merseburg and they had a son, Gunzelin.", "This view is based on the fact that Thietmar of Merseburg in his chronicles named Gunzelin, Gunther's son, ''brother'' of Bolesław I the Brave, Doubravka's son.", "Currently, historians believed that Gunzelin and Bolesław I are in fact cousins or brothers-in-law." ], [ "Marriage and Christianization of Poland", "Dobrawa, Duchess of Poland.", "Painting by Jan MatejkoIn the second half of 964 an alliance between Boleslav I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia, and Mieszko I of Poland was concluded.", "In order to consolidate the agreement, in 965 Boleslav I's daughter Doubravka was married to Mieszko I.", "The marriage cemented the Polish-Bohemian alliance, which continued even after Doubravka's death.Two independent sources attribute to Doubravka an important role in the conversion to Christianity of Mieszko I and Poland.", "The first is the chronicles of Thietmar, who was born two years before the death of Doubravka.", "He wrote that the Bohemian princess tried to persuade her husband to accept Christianity (even at the cost of breaking their marriage and with it the Polish-Bohemian alliance).", "In the end, she finally obtained the conversion of Mieszko I and with him, of all Poland.", "In turn, the 12th-century chronicler Gallus Anonymus says that Doubravka came to Poland surrounded by secular and religious dignitaries.", "She agreed to marry Mieszko I providing that he was baptized.", "The Polish ruler accepted, and only then was able to marry the Bohemian princess.Modern historians agree that the baptism of Mieszko I was dictated by political benefits and should not be attributed to any action of Doubravka.", "She is held to have had virtually no role in the conversion of her husband.", "Historians note that the narrative of the conversion of Mieszko I thanks to Doubravka formed part of the tradition of the Church which stressed the conversion of Pagan rulers through the influence of women.Doubravka did have a significant role in the Christianization of the Poles.", "In her wedding procession, she arrived in Poland with Christian clergymen, among them possibly Jordan, ordained the first bishop of Poland in 968.Tradition attributes to Doubravka the establishment of the Holy Trinity and St. Wit Churches in Gniezno and the Church of the Virgin Mary in Ostrów Tumski, Poznań." ], [ "Children", "Doubravka and Mieszko I had at least one son, Bolesław the Brave (b.", "967 – d. 17 June 1025).", "A daughter, called Świętosława or Sigrid the Haughty, married first King Eric the Victorious of Sweden and later King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, by whom she was the mother of Canute the Great.", "Gunhilda of Poland, who married Swyen Forkbeard, is usually identified as this daughter.", "There is a hypothesis asserting the existence of another daughter of Mieszko I who was married to a Pomeranian Slavic prince.", "She could have been the daughter of either Doubravka or one of Mieszko's previous pagan wives.", "Also, a theory has been advanced (apparently recorded by Thietmar of Prague and supported by Oswald Balzer in 1895) that Vladivoj (c. 981 – January 1003), who ruled as duke of Bohemia from 1002 until 1003, was another son of Doubravka and Mieszko I.", "Although modern historians have rejected this hypothesis, Czech historiography has supported the notion of mixed Piast-Přemyslid parentage for Vladivoj." ], [ "Death and burial", "Doubravka died in 977.In his study of 1888, Józef Ignacy Kraszewski wrote that \"her tomb was discovered in Gniezno Cathedral.", "It was a simple stone marked with a cross.", "Purple robes and a weighty gold loincloth were the only objects found in her tomb.\"", "A similar view of Doubravka's burial place was expressed earlier, in 1843, by Edward Raczyński in his study ''Wspomnienia Wielkopolski to jest województw poznańskiego, kaliskiego i gnieźnieńskiego'' (Memories of the Greater Poland districts of Poznań, Kalisz and Gniezno).", "However, the burial place of the Bohemian princess is now considered to be unknown.Doubravka's death weakened the Polish-Bohemian alliance, which finally collapsed in the mid-980s." ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "D. B. Cooper" ], [ "Introduction", "'''D.", "B. Cooper''' is a media epithet for an unidentified man who hijacked Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 305, a Boeing 727 aircraft, in United States airspace on November 24, 1971.During the flight from Portland, Oregon, to Seattle, Washington, the hijacker told a flight attendant he was armed with a bomb, demanded $200,000 in ransom (equivalent to approximately $1,500,000 in 2024) and requested four parachutes upon landing in Seattle.", "After releasing the passengers in Seattle, the hijacker instructed the flight crew to refuel the aircraft and begin a second flight to Mexico City, with a refueling stop in Reno, Nevada.", "About 30 minutes after taking off from Seattle, the hijacker opened the aircraft's aft door, deployed the staircase, and parachuted into the night over southwestern Washington.", "The hijacker has never been found or conclusively identified.The hijacker had identified himself as '''Dan Cooper''' in order to buy his one-way ticket in Portland, Oregon, but a reporter confused his name with another suspect and the hijacker subsequently became known as \"D. B. Cooper\".In 1980, a small portion of the ransom money was found along the banks of the Columbia River near Vancouver, Washington.", "The discovery of the money renewed public interest in the mystery, but yielded no additional information about the hijacker's identity or fate, and the remaining money was never recovered.", "For 45 years after the hijacking, the Federal Bureau of Investigation maintained an active investigation and built an extensive case file, but ultimately did not reach any definitive conclusions.", "The crime remains the only unsolved case of air piracy in the history of commercial aviation.", "The FBI speculates Cooper did not survive his jump, for several reasons: the inclement weather on the night of the hijacking, Cooper's unsuitable clothing and lack of proper skydiving equipment, the heavily wooded area into which he jumped, his apparent lack of detailed knowledge of his landing area, and the disappearance of the remaining ransom money, suggesting it was never spent.", "In July 2016, the FBI officially suspended active investigation of the NORJAK (Northwest hijacking) case, although reporters, enthusiasts, professional investigators, and amateur sleuths continue to pursue numerous theories for Cooper's identity, success, and fate.Cooper's hijacking—and several imitators in the following year—immediately prompted major upgrades to security measures for airports and commercial aviation.", "Metal detectors were installed at airports, baggage inspection became mandatory, and passengers who paid cash for tickets on the day of departure were selected for additional scrutiny.", "Boeing 727s were retrofitted with eponymous \"Cooper vanes\", specifically designed to prevent the aft staircase from being lowered in-flight.", "By 1973, aircraft hijacking incidents had decreased, as the new security measures dissuaded would-be hijackers whose only motive was money." ], [ "Hijacking", "FBI wanted poster of D. B. CooperOn Thanksgiving Eve, November 24, 1971, a man carrying a black attaché case approached the flight counter of Northwest Orient Airlines at Portland International Airport.", "Using cash, the man bought a one-way ticket on , a thirty-minute trip north to \"Sea-Tac\" (Seattle–Tacoma International Airport).", "On his ticket, the man listed his name as \"Dan Cooper\".", "Eyewitnesses described Cooper as a white male in his mid-40s, with dark hair and brown eyes, wearing a black or brown business suit, a white shirt, a thin black tie, a black raincoat, and brown shoes.", "Carrying a briefcase and a brown paper bag, Cooper boarded Flight 305, a (FAA registration N467US).", "Cooper took seat 18-E in the last row and ordered a drink, a bourbon and 7-Up, from the flight attendant.With a crew of six (consisting of Captain William A. Scott, First Officer William \"Bill\" J. Rataczak, Flight Engineer Harold E. Anderson, and flight attendants Alice Hancock, Tina Mucklow and Florence Schaffner) and 36 passengers aboard, including the hijacker, Flight 305 left Portland on-schedule at 2:50 pm PST.", "Shortly after takeoff, Cooper handed a note to flight attendant Schaffner, who was sitting in the jump seat at the rear of the plane, directly behind Cooper.", "Assuming the note was a lonely businessman's phone number, Schaffner dropped the note unopened into her purse.", "Cooper then leaned toward her and whispered, \"Miss, you'd better look at that note.", "I have a bomb.", "\"Schaffner opened the note.", "In neat, all-capital letters printed with a felt-tip pen, Cooper had written, \"Miss—I have a bomb in my briefcase and want you to sit by me.\"", "Schaffner returned the note to Cooper, sat down as he requested, and quietly asked to see the bomb.", "He opened his briefcase, and she saw two rows of four red cylinders, which she assumed was dynamite.", "Attached to the cylinders were a wire and a large, cylindrical battery, which appeared to resemble a bomb.Cooper closed the briefcase, and told Schaffner his demands.", "She wrote a note with Cooper's demands, brought it to the cockpit, and informed the flight crew of the situation.", "Captain Scott directed her to remain in the cockpit for the remainder of the flight and take notes of events as they unfolded.", "He then contacted Northwest flight operations in Minnesota, and relayed the hijacker's demands: \"Cooper requests $200,000 in a knapsack by 5:00 pm.", "He wants two front parachutes, two back parachutes.", "He wants the money in negotiable American currency.\"", "By requesting two sets of parachutes, Cooper implied that he planned to take a hostage with him, thereby discouraging authorities from supplying non-functional equipment.With Schaffner in the cockpit, flight attendant Mucklow sat next to Cooper to act as a liaison between him and the flight crew in the cockpit.", "He then made additional demands: upon landing in Seattle, the fuel trucks must meet the plane and all passengers must remain seated while she brought the money aboard.", "He said he would release the passengers after he had the money.", "The last items brought aboard would be the four parachutes.Captain Scott informed Seattle–Tacoma Airport air traffic control (ATC) of the situation, who contacted local police and the FBI.", "The passengers were told their arrival in Seattle would be delayed because of a \"minor mechanical difficulty\".", "Donald Nyrop, the president of Northwest Orient, authorized payment of the ransom and ordered all employees to cooperate with the hijacker and comply with his demands.", "For approximately two hours, Flight 305 circled Puget Sound to give Seattle police and the FBI sufficient time to assemble Cooper's ransom money and parachutes, and to mobilize emergency personnel.During the flight from Portland to Seattle, Cooper demanded that Mucklow remain by his side at all times.", "She later said that he appeared familiar with the local terrain; while looking out the window, he remarked, \"Looks like Tacoma down there\", as the aircraft flew above it.", "He also correctly noted McChord Air Force Base was only a 20-minute drive from Sea-Tac Airport.", "She later described the hijacker's demeanor: \"Cooper was not nervous.", "He seemed rather nice and he was not cruel or nasty.", "\"While the plane circled Seattle, Mucklow chatted with Cooper and asked why he picked Northwest Airlines to hijack.", "He laughed and replied, \"It's not because I have a grudge against your airlines, it's just because I have a grudge,\" then explained that this flight simply suited his needs.", "He asked where she was from; she answered that she was originally from Pennsylvania, but was living in Minneapolis at the time.", "Cooper responded that Minnesota was \"very nice country.\"", "She asked where he was from, but he became upset and refused to answer.", "He asked if she smoked and offered her a cigarette.", "She replied that she had quit, but accepted the cigarette.FBI records note Cooper briefly spoke to an unidentified passenger while the plane maintained its holding pattern over Seattle.", "In his interview with FBI agents, passenger George Labissoniere said he visited the restroom directly behind Cooper on several occasions.", "After one visit, Labissoniere said the path to his seat was blocked by a passenger wearing a cowboy hat, questioning Mucklow about the supposed mechanical issue delaying them.", "Labissoniere said Cooper was initially amused by the interaction, then became irritated and told the man to return to his seat, but \"the cowboy\" ignored Cooper and continued to question her.", "Labissoniere claimed he eventually persuaded \"the cowboy\" to return to his seat.Mucklow's version of the interaction differed from Labissoniere's.", "She said a passenger approached her, and asked for a sports magazine to read because he was bored.", "She and the passenger moved to an area directly behind Cooper, where the passenger and she looked for magazines.", "The passenger took a copy of ''The New Yorker'' and returned to his seat.", "When Mucklow returned to sit with Cooper, he said, \"If that is a sky marshal, I don't want any more of that.\"", "Despite his brief interaction with Cooper, \"the cowboy\" was not interviewed by the FBI and was never identified.The $200,000 ransom was received from Seattle First National Bank in a bag weighing approximately nineteen pounds.", "The money—10,000 unmarked $20 bills, most of which had serial numbers beginning with \"L\" (indicating issuance by the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco)—was photographed on microfilm by the FBI.", "Seattle police obtained the two front (reserve) parachutes from a local skydiving school and the two back (main) parachutes from a local stunt pilot.===Passengers released===Boeing 727 with the aft airstair openAround 5:24 PST, Captain Scott was informed the parachutes had been delivered to the airport, and notified Cooper they would be landing soon.", "At 5:46 PST, Flight 305 landed at Seattle-Tacoma Airport.", "With Cooper's permission Scott parked the aircraft on a partially-lit runway, away from the main terminal.", "Cooper demanded that only one representative of the airline approach the plane with the parachutes and money, and the only entrance and exit would be through the aircraft's front door via the mobile air stairs.", "Northwest Orient's Seattle operations manager, Al Lee, was designated to be the courier.", "To avoid the possibility that Cooper might mistake Lee's airline uniform for that of a law enforcement officer, he changed into civilian clothes for the task.", "With the passengers remaining seated, a ground crew attached the mobile staircase.", "Per Cooper's directive, Mucklow exited the aircraft through the front door, and retrieved the ransom money.", "When she returned, she carried the money bag past the seated passengers to Cooper in the last row.Cooper then agreed to release the passengers.", "As they debarked, Cooper inspected the money.", "In an attempt to break the tension, Mucklow jokingly asked Cooper if she could have some of the money.", "Cooper readily agreed, and handed her a packet of bills, but she immediately returned the money and explained accepting gratuities was against company policy.", "She said Cooper had tried to tip her and the other two flight attendants earlier in the flight with money from his own pocket, but they had each declined, citing the policy.With the passengers safely debarked, only Cooper and the six crew members remained on board.", "In accordance with Cooper's demands, Mucklow made three trips outside the aircraft to retrieve the parachutes, which she brought to him in the rear of the plane.", "While Mucklow brought aboard the parachutes, Schaffner asked Cooper if she could retrieve her purse, stored in a compartment behind his seat.", "Cooper agreed and told her, \"I won't bite you.\"", "Flight attendant Hancock then asked Cooper if the flight attendants could leave, to which Cooper replied, \"Whatever you girls would like,\" so Hancock and Schaffner debarked.", "When Mucklow brought the final parachute to Cooper, she gave him printed instructions for using the parachutes, but Cooper said he didn't need them.A problem with the refueling process caused a delay, so a second truck and then a third were brought to the aircraft to complete the refueling.", "During the delay, Mucklow said Cooper complained the money was delivered in a cloth bag instead of a knapsack as he had directed, and he now had to improvise a new way to transport the money.", "Using a pocketknife, Cooper cut the canopy from one of the reserve parachutes, and stuffed some of the money into the empty parachute bag.An FAA official requested a face-to-face meeting with Cooper aboard the aircraft, but Cooper denied the request.", "Cooper became impatient, saying, \"This shouldn't take so long\", and, \"Let's get this show on the road.\"", "He then gave the cockpit crew his flight plan and directives: a southeast course toward Mexico City at the minimum airspeed possible without stalling the aircraft—approximately —at a maximum altitude.", "Cooper also specified the landing gear must remain deployed, the wing flaps must be lowered 15 degrees, and the cabin must remain unpressurized.First Officer Rataczak informed Cooper that this configuration limited the aircraft's range to about , so a second refueling would be necessary before entering Mexico.", "Cooper and the crew discussed options, and agreed on Reno–Tahoe International Airport as the refueling stop.", "Cooper further directed the aircraft take off with the rear exit door open and its airstair extended.", "Northwest's home office objected that this was unsafe.", "Cooper countered saying, \"It can be done, do it,\" but did not argue the point and said he would lower the staircase once they were airborne.", "He demanded Mucklow remain aboard to assist the operation.===Back in the air===Crew of Flight 305 upon landing in Reno: (left to right) Captain William Scott, Co-pilot Bill Rataczak, Flight Attendant Tina Mucklow, Flight Engineer Harold E. AndersonAround 7:40 pm, Flight 305 took off, with only Cooper, Mucklow, Captain Scott, First Officer Rataczak, and Flight Engineer Anderson aboard.", "Two F-106 fighters from McChord Air Force Base and a Lockheed T-33 trainer—diverted from an unrelated Air National Guard mission—followed the 727.All three jets maintained \"S\" flight patterns to stay behind the slow-moving 727 and out of Cooper's view.After takeoff, Cooper told Mucklow to lower the aft staircase.", "She told him and the flight crew she feared being sucked out of the aircraft.", "The flight crew suggested she come to the cockpit and retrieve an emergency rope with which she could tie herself to a seat.", "Cooper rejected the suggestion, stating he did not want her going up front or the flight crew coming back to the cabin.", "She continued to express her fear to him, and asked him to cut some cord from one of the parachutes to create a safety line for her.", "He said he would lower the stairs himself, instructed her to go to the cockpit, close the curtain partition between the Coach and First Class sections, and not return.Before she left, Mucklow begged Cooper, \"Please, please take the bomb with you.\"", "Cooper responded he would either disarm it or take it with him.", "As she walked to the cockpit and turned to close the curtain partition, she saw Cooper standing in the aisle tying what appeared to be the money bag around his waist.", "From takeoff to when Mucklow entered the cockpit, four to five minutes had elapsed.", "For the rest of the flight to Reno, Mucklow remained in the cockpit, and was the last person to see the hijacker.Around 8:00 pm, a cockpit warning light flashed, indicating the aft staircase had been deployed.", "The pilot used the cabin intercom to ask Cooper if he needed assistance, but Cooper's last message was a one-word reply: \"No.\"", "The crew's ears popped from the drop in cabin air pressure from the stairs being opened.", "At approximately 8:13 p.m., the aircraft's tail section suddenly pitched upward, forcing the pilots to trim and return the aircraft to level flight.", "In his interview with the FBI, Co-pilot Bill Rataczak said the sudden upward pitch occurred while the flight was near the suburbs north of Portland.With the aft cabin door open and the staircase deployed, the flight crew remained in the cockpit, unsure if Cooper was still aboard.", "Mucklow used the cabin intercom to inform Cooper they were approaching Reno, and he needed to raise the stairs so the plane could land safely.", "She repeated her requests as the pilots made the final approach to land, but neither Mucklow nor the flight crew received a reply from the hijacker.At 11:02 pm, with the aft staircase still deployed, Flight 305 landed at Reno–Tahoe International Airport.", "FBI agents, state troopers, sheriff's deputies, and Reno police established a perimeter around the aircraft, but fearing the hijacker and the bomb were still aboard, did not approach the plane.", "Captain Scott searched the cabin, confirmed Cooper was no longer aboard, and after a 30-minute search, an FBI bomb squad declared the cabin safe." ], [ "Investigation", "In addition to 66 latent fingerprints aboard the airliner, FBI agents recovered Cooper's black clip-on tie, tie clip, and two of the four parachutes, one of which had been opened and had three shroud lines cut from the canopy.", "FBI agents interviewed eyewitnesses in Portland, Seattle, and Reno, and developed a series of composite sketches.Local police and FBI agents immediately began questioning possible suspects.", "Acting on the possibility the hijacker may have used his real name (or the same alias in a previous crime), Portland police discovered and interviewed a Portland citizen named D. B. Cooper.", "The Portland Cooper had a minor police record, but was quickly eliminated as a suspect.", "In his rush to meet a deadline, reporter James Long confused the man with the name used by the hijacker.", "United Press International wire service reporter Clyde Jabin republished Long's error, and as other media sources repeated the error,* * the hijacker's pseudonym became \"D. B.", "Cooper.", "\"727's rear airstair deploying in flight, with Cooper jumping off: The gravity-operated apparatus remained open until the aircraft landed.Due to the number of variables and parameters, precisely defining the area to search was difficult.", "The jet's airspeed estimates varied, the environmental conditions along the flight path varied with the aircraft's location and altitude, and only Cooper knew how long he remained in free-fall before pulling his ripcord.", "The Air Force F-106 pilots neither saw anyone jumping from the airliner, nor did their radar detect a deployed parachute.", "Moreover, a black-clad individual jumping into the moonless night would be difficult to see, especially given the limited visibility, cloud cover, and lack of ground lighting.", "The T-33 pilots did not make visual contact with the 727.On December 6, 1971, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover approved the use of an Air Force SR-71 Blackbird to retrace and photograph Flight 305's flightpath, and attempt to locate the items Cooper carried during his jump.", "The SR-71 made five flights to retrace Flight 305's route, but due to poor visibility, the photography attempts were unsuccessful.In an experimental recreation, flying the same aircraft used in the hijacking in the same flight configuration, FBI agents pushed a sled out of the open airstair and were able to reproduce the upward motion of the tail section and brief change in cabin pressure described by the flight crew at 8:13 pm.", "Initial extrapolations placed Cooper's landing zone within an area on the southernmost outreach of Mount St. Helens, a few miles southeast of Ariel, Washington, near Lake Merwin, an artificial lake formed by a dam on the Lewis River.", "Search efforts focused on Clark and Cowlitz counties, encompassing the terrain immediately south and north of the Lewis River in southwest Washington.", "FBI agents and sheriff's deputies searched large areas of the heavily wooded terrain on foot and by helicopter.", "Door-to-door searches of local farmhouses were also carried out.", "Other search parties ran patrol boats along Lake Merwin and Yale Lake, the reservoir immediately to its east.", "Neither Cooper nor any of the equipment he presumably carried was found.Using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters from the Oregon Army National Guard, the FBI coordinated an aerial search along the entire flight path (known as Victor 23 in U.S. aviation terminology but \"Vector 23\" in most Cooper from Seattle to Reno.", "Although numerous broken treetops and several pieces of plastic and other objects resembling parachute canopies were sighted and investigated, nothing relevant to the hijacking was found.Shortly after the spring thaw in early 1972, teams of FBI agents aided by some 200 soldiers from Fort Lewis, along with United States Air Force personnel, National Guardsmen, and civilian volunteers, conducted another thorough ground search of Clark and Cowlitz Counties for 18 days in March, and then another 18 days in April.", "Electronic Explorations Company, a marine-salvage firm, used a submarine to search the depths of Lake Merwin.", "Two local women stumbled upon a skeleton in an abandoned structure in Clark County; it was later identified as the remains of Barbara Ann Derry, a teenaged girl who had been abducted and murdered several weeks before.", "Ultimately, the extensive search and recovery operation uncovered no significant material evidence related to the hijacking.Based on early computer projections produced for the FBI, Cooper's drop zone was first estimated to be between Ariel dam to the north and the town of Battle Ground, Washington, to the south.", "In March 1972, after a joint investigation with Northwest Orient Airlines and the Air Force, the FBI determined Cooper probably jumped over the town of La Center, Washington.In 2019, the FBI released a report detailing the burglary of a grocery store, about three hours after Cooper jumped, near Heisson, Washington.", "Heisson, an unincorporated community, was within the calculated drop zone Northwest Airlines presented to the FBI.", "In the report, the FBI noted the burglar took only survival items, such as beef jerky and gloves.===Search for ransom money===A month after the hijacking, the FBI distributed lists of the ransom serial numbers to financial institutions, casinos, racetracks, and other businesses that routinely conducted large cash transactions, and to law-enforcement agencies around the world.", "Northwest Orient offered a reward of 15% of the recovered money, to a maximum of $25,000.In early 1972, U.S. Attorney General John N. Mitchell released the serial numbers to the general public.", "Two men used counterfeit $20 bills printed with Cooper serial numbers to swindle $30,000 from a ''Newsweek'' reporter named Karl Fleming in exchange for an interview with a man they falsely claimed was the hijacker.In early 1973, with the ransom money still missing, ''The Oregon Journal'' republished the serial numbers and offered $1,000 to the first person to turn in a ransom bill to the newspaper or any FBI field office.", "In Seattle, the ''Post-Intelligencer'' made a similar offer with a $5,000 reward.", "The offers remained in effect until Thanksgiving 1974, and though several near matches were reported, no genuine bills were found.", "In 1975, Northwest Orient's insurer, Global Indemnity Co., complied with an order from the Minnesota Supreme Court and paid the airline's $180,000 () claim on the ransom money.===Later developments===Later analysis indicated that the original landing zone estimate was inaccurate; Captain Scott, who was flying the aircraft manually because of Cooper's speed and altitude demands, later determined his flight path was farther east than initially thought.", "Additional data from a variety of sources—in particular Continental Airlines pilot Tom Bohan, who was flying four minutes behind Flight 305—indicated the wind direction factored into drop-zone calculations had been wrong, possibly by as much as 80°.", "This and other supplemental data suggested the actual drop zone was south-southeast of the original estimate, in the drainage area of the Washougal River.In 1986 FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach wrote, \"I have to confess, if I were going to look for Cooper ...", "I would head for the Washougal.\"", "The Washougal Valley and its surroundings have been searched repeatedly in subsequent years; to date, no discoveries traceable to the hijacking have been reported.", "Some investigators have speculated that the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens could have obliterated any remaining physical clues.===Investigation suspended===On July 8, 2016, the FBI announced active investigation of the Cooper case was suspended, citing the need to focus investigative resources and manpower on issues of higher and more urgent priority.", "Local field offices would continue to accept any legitimate physical evidence, related specifically to the parachutes or to the ransom money, that may emerge in the future.", "The 66-volume case file compiled over the 45-year course of the investigation would be preserved for historical purposes at FBI headquarters in Washington, DC, and on the FBI website.", "All of the evidence is open to the public.", "The crime remains the only unsolved case of air piracy in commercial aviation history." ], [ "Physical evidence", "During their forensic search of the aircraft, FBI agents found four major pieces of evidence, each with a direct physical link to Cooper: a black clip-on tie, a mother-of-pearl tie clip, a hair from Cooper's headrest, and eight filter-tipped Raleigh cigarette butts from the armrest ashtray.===Clip-on necktie===FBI agents found a black clip-on necktie in seat 18-E, where Cooper had been seated.", "Attached to the tie was a gold tie-clip with a circular mother-of-pearl setting in the center of the clip.", "The FBI determined the tie had been sold exclusively at JCPenney department stores, but had been discontinued in 1968.By late 2007, the FBI had built a partial DNA profile from samples found on Cooper's tie in 2001.However, the FBI also acknowledged no evidence linked Cooper to the source of the DNA sample.", "Said FBI Special Agent Fred Gutt, \"The tie had two small DNA samples, and one large sample ... it's difficult to draw firm conclusions from these samples.\"", "The FBI also made public a file of previously unreleased evidence, including Cooper's plane ticket, composite sketches, fact sheets, and posted a request for information about Cooper's identification.In March 2009, a group of \"citizen sleuths\" using GPS, satellite imagery, and other technologies unavailable in 1971, began reinvestigating components of the case.", "Known as the Cooper Research Team (CRT), the group included paleontologist Tom Kaye from the Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture in Seattle, scientific illustrator Carol Abraczinskas, and metallurgist Alan Stone.", "Although the CRT obtained little new information about the buried ransom money or Cooper's landing zone, they found, analyzed, and identified hundreds of organic and metallic particles on Cooper's tie.Using electron microscopy, the CRT identified ''Lycopodium'' spores, the source of which was likely pharmaceutical.", "The team also found minute particles of unalloyed titanium on the tie, along with particles of bismuth, antimony, cerium, strontium sulfide, aluminum, and titanium-antimony alloys.", "The metal and rare-earth particles suggested Cooper may have worked for Boeing or another aeronautical engineering firm, at a chemical manufacturing plant, or at a metal fabrication and production facility.The material with the most significance, explained Kaye, was the unalloyed titanium.", "In the 1970s, the use of pure titanium was rare and would only be used in aircraft fabrication facilities, or at chemical companies combining titanium and aluminum to store extremely corrosive substances.", "The cerium and strontium sulfide were used by Boeing's supersonic transport development project, and by Portland factories in which cathode ray tubes were manufactured, such as Teledyne and Tektronix.", "Cooper researcher Eric Ulis has speculated the titanium-antimony alloys are linked to Rem-Cru Titanium Inc., a metals manufacturer and Boeing contractor.===Hair samples===FBI agents found two hair samples in Cooper's seat: a single strand of limb hair on the seat, and a single strand of brown Caucasian head hair on the headrest.", "The limb hair was destroyed after the FBI Crime Laboratory determined the sample lacked enough unique microscopic characteristics to be useful.", "However, the FBI Crime Laboratory determined the head hair was suitable for future comparison, and preserved the hair on a microscope slide.", "During their attempts to build Cooper's DNA profile in 2002, the FBI discovered the hair sample had been lost.===Cigarette butts===In the armrest ashtray of seat 18-E, FBI agents found eight Raleigh filter-tipped cigarette butts.", "These were sent to the FBI Crime Laboratory to search for fingerprints, but investigators were unable to find fingerprints and returned the butts to the Las Vegas field office.", "In 1998, the FBI sought to extract DNA from the cigarette butts, but discovered the butts had been destroyed while in the custody of the Las Vegas field office.===Recovered ransom money===Portion of Brian Ingram's 1980 discoveryOn February 10, 1980, eight-year-old Brian Ingram was vacationing with his family on the Columbia River at a beachfront known as Tina (or Tena) Bar, about downstream from Vancouver, Washington, and southwest of Ariel.", "As he raked the sandy riverbank to build a campfire, he uncovered three packets of the ransom cash, totaling around $5,800.The bills had disintegrated from lengthy exposure to the elements, but were still bundled in rubber bands.", "FBI technicians confirmed the money was indeed a portion of the ransom: two packets of 100 twenty-dollar bills each, and a third packet of 90, all arranged in the same order as when given to Cooper.The discovery launched several new rounds of conjecture, and ultimately raised more questions than it answered.", "Initial statements by investigators and scientific consultants were founded on the assumption the bundled bills washed freely into the Columbia River from one of its many connecting tributaries.", "An Army Corps of Engineers hydrologist noted the bills had disintegrated in a \"rounded\" fashion and were \"matted together\", indicating they \"had been deposited by river action\", as opposed to having been deliberately buried.", "The finding supported the hypothesis Cooper had landed near the Washougal River, which merges with the Columbia upstream from the discovery site, and not in or near Lake Merwin, the Lewis River, or any of its tributaries feeding the Columbia River downstream from Tina Bar.The \"free-floating\" hypothesis neither explained the ten bills missing from one packet, nor explained how the three packets remained together after separating from the rest of the money.", "Physical evidence was incompatible with geological evidence; Himmelsbach wrote free-floating bundles would have washed up on the bank \"within a couple of years\" of the hijacking; otherwise, the rubber bands would have long since deteriorated.", "Geological evidence suggested the bills arrived at Tina Bar after 1974, the year of a Corps of Engineers dredging operation on that stretch of the river.", "Geologist Leonard Palmer of Portland State University found two distinct layers of sand and sediment between the clay deposited on the riverbank by the dredge and the sand layer in which the bills were buried, indicating the bills arrived long after dredging had been completed.In late 2020, analysis of diatoms found on the bills suggests the bundles found at Tina Bar were not submerged in the river or buried dry at the time of the hijacking in November 1971.Only diatoms that bloom during springtime were found, indicating the money had entered the water at least several months after the hijacking.In 1986, after protracted negotiations, the recovered bills were divided equally between Brian Ingram and Northwest Orient's insurer Royal Globe Insurance; the FBI retained 14 examples as evidence.", "Ingram sold fifteen of his bills at auction in 2008 for about $37,000 ().The Columbia River ransom money remains the only confirmed physical evidence from the hijacking found outside the aircraft.===Parachutes===During the hijacking, Cooper demanded and received two main chutes and two reserve chutes.", "The two reserve (front) chutes were supplied by a local skydiving school and the two main (back) chutes were supplied by a local pilot, Norman Hayden.", "Earl Cossey, the parachute rigger who packed all four parachutes brought to Cooper, described the two main chutes as emergency bailout parachutes (as opposed to sporting parachutes that skydivers would use).", "Cossey further described the main chutes as being like military chutes because they were rigged to open immediately upon the ripcord being pulled and were incapable of being steered.", "When the plane landed in Reno, FBI agents discovered two parachutes that Cooper left behind: one reserve (front) chute and one main (back) chute.", "The reserve chute had been opened and three shroud lines had been cut out, but the main chute left behind was still intact.", "The unused main chute was described by FBI agents as a Model NB6 (Navy Backpack 6) and is on display at the Washington State Historical Society Museum.One of the two reserve (front) chutes Cooper was given was an unusable training chute intended to only be used for classroom demonstrations.", "According to Cossey, the reserve chute's internal canopy was sewn together so skydiving students could get the feel of pulling a ripcord on a packed parachute without the canopy actually deploying.", "This nonfunctional reserve parachute was not found in the aircraft when it landed in Reno, leading FBI agents to speculate Cooper was not an experienced parachutist because someone with experience would have realized this reserve chute was a \"dummy chute\".", "However, within days of the hijacking, it was revealed that neither of the parachute harnesses Cooper was given had the necessary D-rings required to attach reserve parachutes.", "Although Cooper lacked the ability to attach this \"dummy\" chute to his main harness as a reserve parachute, it was not found in the plane, so what he did with it is unknown.", "Cossey speculated that Cooper removed the sewn-together canopy and used the empty reserve container as an extra money bag.", "Tina Mucklow's testimony was in line with Cossey's speculation, stating that she recalled Cooper attempting to pack money inside a parachute container.In November 1978, a deer hunter found a 727's instruction placard for lowering the aft airstair.", "The placard was found near a logging road about east of Castle Rock, Washington, north of Lake Merwin, but within Flight 305's basic flight path." ], [ "{{Anchor|Theories and conjecture}}Theories, hypotheses and conjecture", "Over the 45-year span of its active investigation, the FBI periodically made public some of its working hypotheses and tentative conclusions, drawn from witness testimony and the scarce physical evidence.===Sketches===During the first year of the investigation, the FBI used eyewitness testimony from the passengers and flight crew to develop sketches of Cooper.", "The first sketch, officially titled Composite A, was completed a few days after the hijacking and was released on November 28, 1971.According to witnesses, the Composite A sketch—jokingly known as \"Bing Crosby\"—was not an accurate likeness of Cooper.", "The Composite A sketch, said witnesses, showed a young man with a narrow face, and did not resemble Cooper or capture his disinterested, “let's get this over with\" look.", "Flight attendant Florence Schaffner repeatedly told the FBI the Composite A sketch was a very poor likeness of Cooper.After multiple eyewitnesses said Composite A was not an accurate rendering, FBI artists developed a second composite sketch.", "Completed in late 1972, the second Composite B sketch was intended to more accurately depict Cooper's age, skin tone, and face shape.", "Eyewitnesses to whom Composite B was shown said the sketch was more accurate, but the Composite B Cooper looked too \"angry\" or \"nasty\".", "One flight attendant said the Composite B sketch looked like a \"hoodlum\" and remembered Cooper as \"more refined in appearance\".", "Moreover, said witnesses, the Composite B sketch depicted a man older than Cooper, with a lighter complexion.Using the criticisms of Composite B, FBI artists made adjustments and improvements to the Composite B sketch.", "On January 2, 1973, the FBI finalized revised Composite B, their third sketch of Cooper.", "Of the new sketch, one flight attendant said revised Composite B was, \"a very close resemblance\" to the hijacker.", "Opined another flight attendant, \"the hijacker would be easily recognized from this sketch.", "\"In April 1973, the FBI concluded the revised Composite B sketch was the best likeness of Cooper they could develop, and should be considered the definitive sketch of Cooper.===Suspect profiling===Flight attendants Schaffner and Mucklow, who spent the most time interacting with Cooper, were interviewed on the same night in separate cities, and gave nearly identical descriptions: around tall, mid-40s, short, black hair combed back, 170–180 lb, swarthy or olive skin tone, and with no discernible accent.", "The only person to recall his eye color was Schaffner, who described them as being brown.", "The FBI relied heavily on the testimony of University of Oregon student Bill Mitchell, who sat across from Cooper during the three hours between take off in Portland and landing in Seattle, repeatedly interviewing him for what would become known as Composite Sketch B.", "His descriptions of Cooper were mostly the same as those of the flight attendants, except that he described Cooper as being somewhat smaller, stating that he thought Cooper was to and that at he was \"way bigger\" than Cooper and even referring to him as \"slight\".", "Robert Gregory, one of the only other passengers besides Mitchell who provided the FBI with a full description of Cooper, also provided a shorter impression of Cooper, describing him as .", "Gregory stated that he believed Cooper to be of Mexican-American or American Indian descent.Cooper appeared to be familiar with the Seattle area and may have been an Air Force veteran, based on testimony that he recognized the city of Tacoma from the air as the jet circled Puget Sound, and his accurate comment to Mucklow that McChord Air Force Base was about 20-minutes' driving time from Seattle-Tacoma Airport—a detail most civilians would not know or comment upon.", "His financial situation was very likely desperate.", "According to the FBI's retired chief investigator, Ralph Himmelsbach, extortionists and other criminals who steal large amounts of money nearly always do so because they need it urgently; otherwise, the crime is not worth the considerable risk.", "Alternatively, Cooper may have been \"a thrill seeker\" who made the jump \"just to prove it could be done\".In May 1973, the FBI internally released an eight-page suspect profile.", "The profile speculated that Cooper was a military-trained parachutist and not a sports skydiver, because, in addition to his apparent comfort level with the military-style parachutes he was provided, his age would have made him an outlier in the sport-skydiving community, thereby increasing the likelihood that he would have been quickly recognized by a member of that community.", "The profile also speculated that Cooper was someone who exercised regularly due to comments by multiple eyewitnesses regarding Cooper's athletic-looking frame despite his age.", "They also felt he was not a heavy drinker or an alcoholic because the only drink he was served was quickly spilled and he never requested another.", "The profile determined that an alcoholic would have likely been incapable of turning down further alcoholic beverages throughout the stressful and lengthy hijacking.", "By calculating the number of cigarettes he smoked throughout the hijacking, the FBI believed that he smoked around one pack of cigarettes a day.", "Several of Cooper's mannerisms led the FBI to conclude that he was more intelligent than a common criminal such as his vocabulary level, his proper use of aviation-related terminology, complete lack of profane language, his calm demeanor, his style of dress, and the respect he showed for the female members of the crew.", "Cooper's ability to quickly and competently adapt to various situations as they arose indicated to profilers that he was likely the type of person who would commit a crime without the need or desire for an accomplice.Agents theorized that Cooper took his alias from a popular French-language Belgian comics series featuring the fictional hero Dan Cooper, a Royal Canadian Air Force test pilot who took part in numerous heroic adventures, including parachuting.", "(One cover from the series, reproduced on the FBI website, depicts test pilot Cooper skydiving.)", "Because the Dan Cooper comics were never translated into English, nor imported to the U.S., they speculated that he had encountered them during a tour of duty in Europe.=== Knowledge and planning ===Based on the evidence and Cooper's tactics, the FBI speculated Cooper carefully planned the hijacking and had detailed, specific knowledge of aviation, the local terrain, and the 727's capabilities.Cooper chose a seat in the last row of the rear cabin for three reasons: to observe and respond to any action in front of him, to minimize the possibility of being approached or attacked by someone behind him, and to make himself less conspicuous to the rest of the passengers.", "To ensure he would not be deliberately supplied with sabotaged equipment, Cooper demanded four parachutes to force the assumption he might compel one or more hostages to jump with him.", "FBI agent Ralph Himmelsbach noted Cooper's choice of a bomb—instead of other weapons previously used by hijackers—thwarted any multidirectional attempts to rush him.Cooper was also careful to avoid leaving evidence.", "Before he jumped, he demanded Mucklow return to him all notes either written by him, or on his behalf.", "Mucklow said she used the last match in his paper matchbook to light one of his cigarettes, and when she attempted to dispose of the empty matchbook, he demanded she return it to him.", "Although he was methodical in his attempts to retrieve evidence, he was unsuccessful; he left his clip-on tie in his seat.Although Cooper was clearly familiar with the 727's capabilities and confidential features, its design was the primary reason Cooper chose the aircraft.", "With its aft airstair and the placement of its three engines, the 727 was one of the only passenger jets from which a parachute jump could be easily made.", "Cooper also appeared to be familiar with the 727's typical refueling time, with Mucklow telling the FBI that Cooper \"seemed specifically well informed in refueling procedures\".By specifying a 15° flap setting, Cooper displayed specific knowledge of aviation tactics and the 727's capabilities; unlike most commercial jet airliners, the 727 could remain in slow, low-altitude flight without stalling.", "Cooper's specific flap setting also allowed him to control the 727's airspeed and altitude without entering the cockpit, where Cooper could have been overpowered by the three pilots.", "First Officer Bill Rataczak, who spoke with Cooper on the intercom during the hijacking, told the FBI, \"Cooper displayed a specific knowledge of flying and aircraft in general.", "\"The most significant knowledge Cooper displayed was a feature both secret and unique to the 727; the aft airstair could be operated during flight, and the single activation switch in the rear of the cabin could not be overridden from the cockpit.", "Cooper knew how to operate the aft staircase, and had clearly planned to use it for his escape.", "The FBI speculated Cooper knew the Central Intelligence Agency was using 727s to drop agents and supplies into enemy territory during the Vietnam War.", "Since no situation on a passenger flight would necessitate such an operation, civilian crews were neither informed the aft airstair could be lowered midflight, nor were they aware its operation could not be overridden from the cockpit.Cooper appeared to be familiar with parachutes, although his experience level is unknown.", "Mucklow said Cooper, \"appeared to be completely familiar with the parachutes which had been furnished to him\", and told a journalist, \"Cooper put on his parachute as though he did so every day\".", "Cooper's familiarity with the military-style parachutes he was given has led to speculation that Cooper was a military parachutist and not a civilian skydiver.Larry Carr, who led the investigative team from 2006 to 2009, does not believe Cooper was a paratrooper.", "Instead, Carr speculates Cooper had been an Air Force aircraft cargo loader.", "An aircraft cargo-loading assignment would provide him with aviation knowledge and experience: cargo loaders have basic jump training, wear emergency parachutes, and know how to dispatch items from planes in flight.", "As a cargo loader, Cooper would be familiar with parachutes, \"but not necessarily sufficient knowledge to survive the jump he made\".=== Cooper's fate ===From the beginning of their investigation, FBI agents did not believe Cooper survived his jump.", "The FBI provided several reasons and facts to support their conclusion: Cooper's apparent lack of skydiving experience, his apparent unfamiliarity with parachutes, his lack of proper equipment for his jump and survival, the temperature and inclement weather on the night of the hijacking, the wooded terrain into which Cooper jumped, his lack of knowledge of his landing area, and the unused ransom money.First, Cooper appeared to lack the necessary skydiving knowledge, skills, and experience for the type of jump he attempted.", "\"We originally thought Cooper was an experienced jumper, perhaps even a paratrooper,\" said Carr.", "\"We concluded after a few years this was simply not true.", "No experienced parachutist would have jumped in the pitch-black night, in the rain, with a wind in his face wearing loafers and a trench coat.", "It was simply too risky.\"", "Skydiving instructor Earl Cossey, who supplied the parachutes, testified Cooper did not need extensive experience to survive the jump and \"anyone who had six or seven practice jumps could accomplish this.\"", "However, Cossey also noted jumping at night drastically increased the risk of injury, and without jump boots, Cooper probably would have suffered severe ankle or leg injuries upon landing.Second, Cooper did not appear to have the equipment necessary for either his jump or his survival in the wilderness.", "Cooper failed to bring or request a helmet, and jumped into a 15 °F (−9 °C) wind at 10,000 feet (3,000 m) in November over Washington State without proper protection against the extreme wind chill.", "Although the contents of Cooper's paper bag are unknown, Cooper did not use any of the bag's contents to assist him during any part of the hijacking, so the FBI speculated the bag contained items Cooper needed for his jump, such as boots, gloves, and goggles.Third, Cooper did not appear to have an accomplice waiting on the ground to help him escape.", "Such an arrangement would have required both a precisely timed jump and the flight crew's cooperation to follow a predetermined flight path, but Cooper did not give the flight crew a specific path.", "Moreover, the flight crew proposed—and Cooper agreed—to alter the flight path, and fly from Seattle to Reno for refueling, and Cooper had no way of keeping an accomplice apprised of his changed plans.", "The low cloud cover and lack of visibility to the ground further complicated Cooper's ability to determine his location, establish a bearing, or see his landing zone.Finally, the ransom money was never spent, and the recovered portion was found unused.", "\"Diving into the wilderness without a plan, without the right equipment, in such terrible conditions, he probably never even got his chute open,\" said Carr.", "FBI agent Richard Tosaw theorized Cooper became incapacitated from hypothermia during his jump, landed in the Columbia River, and drowned.", "However, FBI agents were not unanimous in their assessments of Cooper's ultimate fate.", "A senior FBI agent anonymously opined in a 1976 article in ''The Seattle Times'', \"I think Cooper made it.", "I think he slept in his own bed that night.", "It was a clear night.", "A lot of the country is pretty flat ... he could have just walked out.", "Right down the road.", "Hell, they weren't even looking for him there at the time.", "They thought he was somewhere else.", "He could just walk down the road.", "\"Conclusive evidence of Cooper's death has not been found.", "In the months following the Cooper hijacking, five men attempted copycat hijackings, and all five survived their parachute escapes.", "The survival of the copycats—several of whom faced circumstances and conditions similar to Cooper's jump—forced FBI lead case agent Ralph Himmelsbach to reevaluate his opinions and theories regarding Cooper's chances for survival.", "Himmelsbach cited three examples of hijackers who survived jumps in conditions similar to Cooper's escape: Martin McNally, Frederick Hahneman, and Richard LaPoint.Hijacker Martin McNally jumped using only a reserve chute, without protective gear, at night, over Indiana.", "Unlike Cooper, who appeared to be familiar with parachutes, McNally had to be shown how to put on his parachute.", "Additionally, McNally's pilot increased the airspeed to 320 knots, nearly twice the airspeed of Flight 305 at the time of Cooper's jump.", "The increased windspeed caused a violent jump for McNally: The money bag was immediately torn from him, \"yet he had landed unharmed except for some superficial scratches and bruises\".49-year-old Frederick Hahneman hijacked a 727 in Pennsylvania and survived after jumping at night into a Honduran jungle.", "A third copycat, Richard LaPoint, hijacked a 727 in Nevada.", "Wearing only trousers, a shirt, and cowboy boots, LaPoint jumped into the freezing January wind over northern Colorado and landed in the snow.", "In 2008, Himmelsbach admitted he originally thought Cooper had only a fifty-percent chance of survival, but subsequently revised his assessment.By 1976, most published legal analyses concurred the impending expiration of the statute of limitations for prosecution of the hijacker would make little difference: Since the statute's interpretation varies from case to case, and from court to court, a prosecutor could argue Cooper had forfeited legal immunity on any of several valid technical grounds.", "In November 1976, a Portland grand jury returned an indictment ''in absentia'' against \"John Doe, ''a.k.a.''", "Dan Cooper\" for air piracy and violation of the Hobbs Act.", "The indictment formally enabled prosecution to be continued, should the hijacker be apprehended at any time in the future." ], [ "Suspects", "Between 1971 and 2016, the FBI processed more than a thousand \"serious suspects\", including assorted publicity seekers and deathbed confessors.=== Ted Braden ===Ted Braden's military IDTheodore Burdette Braden Jr. (1928–2007) was a Special Forces commando during the Vietnam War, a master skydiver, and a convicted felon.", "He was believed by many within the Special Forces community, both at the time of the hijacking and in subsequent years, to have been Cooper.", "Born in Ohio, Braden first joined the military at the age of 16 in 1944, serving with the 101st Airborne during World War II.", "He eventually became one of the military's leading parachutists, often representing the Army in international skydiving tournaments, and his military records list him as having made 911 jumps.", "During the 1960s, Braden was a team leader within the MACVSOG, a classified commando unit of Green Berets which conducted unconventional warfare operations during the Vietnam War.", "He also served as a military skydiving instructor, teaching HALO jumping techniques to members of Project Delta.", "Braden spent 23 months in Vietnam, conducting classified operations within both North and South Vietnam, as well as Laos and Cambodia.", "In December 1966, Braden deserted his unit in Vietnam and made his way to the Congo to serve as a mercenary, but only served there a short time before being arrested by CIA agents and taken back to the United States for a court-martial.", "Despite having committed a capital offense by deserting in wartime, Braden was given an honorable discharge and barred from re-enlisting in the military in exchange for his continued secrecy about the MACVSOG program.Braden was profiled in the October 1967 issue of ''Ramparts Magazine'', wherein he was described by fellow Special Forces veteran and journalist Don Duncan as being someone with a \"secret death wish\" who \"continually places himself in unnecessary danger but always seems to get away with it\", specifically referring to Braden's disregard for military skydiving safety regulations.", "Duncan also claimed that during Braden's time in Vietnam, he was \"continuously involved in shady deals to make money.\"", "Following his military discharge in 1967, the details of Braden's life are largely unknown, but at the time of the hijacking he was a truck driver for Consolidated Freightways, which was headquartered in Vancouver, Washington, just across the Columbia River from Portland and not far from the suspected dropzone of Ariel, Washington.", "It is also known that at some point in the early 1970s he was investigated by the FBI for stealing $250,000 during a trucking scam he had allegedly devised, but he was never charged for this supposed crime.", "In 1980, Braden was indicted by a Federal grand jury for driving an 18-wheeler full of stolen goods from Arizona to Massachusetts, but it is unknown whether there was a conviction in that case.", "Two years later Braden was arrested in Pennsylvania for driving a stolen vehicle with fictitious plates and for having no driver's license.", "Braden eventually ended up being sent to Federal prison at some point during the late 1980s, serving time in Pennsylvania, but the precise crime is unknown.Despite his ability as a soldier, he was not well liked personally and was described by a family member as \"the perfect combination of high intelligence and criminality\".", "From his time working covert operations in Vietnam, he likely would have possessed the then-classified knowledge about the ability and proper specifications for jumping from a 727, perhaps having done it himself on MACVSOG missions.", "Physically, Braden's military records list him at , which is shorter than the height description of at least given by the two flight attendants, but this military measurement would have been taken in his stocking feet and he may have appeared somewhat taller in shoes.", "However, he possessed a dark complexion from years of outdoor military service, had short dark hair, a medium athletic build, and was 43 years of age at the time of the hijacking, which are features all in line with the descriptions of Cooper.=== Kenneth Peter Christiansen ===In 2003, Minnesota resident Lyle Christiansen watched a television documentary about the Cooper hijacking and became convinced that his late brother Kenneth (1926–1994) was Cooper.", "After repeated futile attempts to convince the FBI and author and film director Nora Ephron (whom he hoped would make a movie about the case), he contacted private investigator Skipp Porteous in New York City.", "In 2010, Porteous published a book postulating that Christiansen was the hijacker.", "The following year, an episode of the History series ''Brad Meltzer's Decoded'' also summarized the circumstantial evidence linking Christiansen to the Cooper case.Christiansen enlisted in the Army in 1944 and was trained as a paratrooper.", "World War II had ended by the time he was deployed in 1945, but he made occasional training jumps while stationed in Japan with occupation forces in the late 1940s.", "After leaving the Army, he joined Northwest Orient in 1954 as a laborer stationed at Northwest Airlines' Far East stopover on Shemya Island in the Aleutians.", "He subsequently became a flight attendant, and then a purser, based in Seattle.", "Christiansen was 45 years old at the time of the hijacking, but he was shorter (5 ft 8 in or 173 cm), thinner (150 pounds or 68 kg), than eyewitness descriptions of Cooper.", "Christiansen smoked (as did the hijacker) and displayed a fondness for bourbon (the drink Cooper had requested).", "Stewardess Florence Schaffner told author Geoffrey Gray that photos of Christiansen fit her memory of the hijacker's appearance more closely than those of other suspects she had been shown but could not conclusively identify him.Despite the publicity generated by Porteous's book and the 2011 television documentary, the FBI stands by its position that Christiansen cannot be considered a prime suspect.", "It cites the poor match to eyewitness physical descriptions and a complete absence of direct incriminating evidence.===Jack Coffelt===Bryant \"Jack\" Coffelt (1917–1975) was a con man, ex-convict, and purported government informant who claimed to have been the chauffeur and confidant of Abraham Lincoln's last undisputed descendant, great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith.", "In 1972, he began claiming he was Cooper and attempted through an intermediary – a former cellmate named James Brown – to sell his story to a Hollywood production company.", "He said he landed near Mount Hood, about southeast of Ariel, injuring himself and losing the ransom money in the process.", "Photos of Coffelt bear a resemblance to the composite drawings, although he was in his mid-fifties in 1971.He was reportedly in Portland on the day of the hijacking and sustained leg injuries around that time which were consistent with a skydiving mishap.Coffelt's account was reviewed by the FBI, which concluded that it differed in several details from information that had not been made public and was therefore a fabrication.", "Brown continued peddling the story long after Coffelt died in 1975.Multiple media venues, including the CBS news program ''60 Minutes'', considered and rejected it.===Lynn Doyle Cooper===Lynn Doyle \"L. D.\" Cooper (1931–1999), a leather worker and Korean War veteran, was proposed as a suspect in July 2011 by his niece, Marla Cooper.", "As an eight-year-old, she recalled Cooper and another uncle planning something \"very mischievous\", involving the use of \"expensive walkie-talkies\", at her grandmother's house in Sisters, Oregon, southeast of Portland.", "The next day Flight 305 was hijacked; and though the uncles ostensibly were turkey hunting, L. D. Cooper came home wearing a bloody shirt—the result, he said, of an auto accident.", "Later, Marla claimed, her parents came to believe that L. D. was the hijacker.", "She also recalled that her uncle, who died in 1999, was obsessed with the Canadian comic book hero Dan Cooper and \"had one of his comic books thumbtacked to his wall\"—although he was not a skydiver or paratrooper.In August 2011, ''New York'' magazine published an alternative witness sketch, reportedly based on a description by Flight 305 eyewitness Robert Gregory, depicting horn-rimmed sunglasses, a \"russet\"-colored suit jacket with wide lapels, and marcelled hair.", "The article observed that L. D. Cooper had wavy hair that looked marcelled (as did Duane Weber, see below).", "The FBI announced that no fingerprints had been found on a guitar strap made by L. D. Cooper.", "One week later, they added that his DNA did not match the partial DNA profile obtained from the hijacker's tie, but acknowledged that there is no certainty that the hijacker was the source of the organic material obtained from the tie.===Barbara Dayton===Barbara Dayton (1926–2002), a recreational pilot and University of Washington librarian who was named Robert Dayton at birth, served in the U.S.", "Merchant Marine and then the Army during World War II.", "After discharge, Dayton worked with explosives in the construction field and aspired to a professional airline career, but could not obtain a commercial pilot's license.Dayton underwent gender reassignment surgery in 1969, and changed her name to Barbara; she is believed to be the first person to undergo this surgery in Washington State.", "She claimed to have staged the hijacking two years later, presenting as a man, in order to \"get back\" at the airline industry and the FAA, whose insurmountable rules and conditions had prevented her from becoming an airline pilot.", "Dayton said that the ransom money was hidden in a cistern near Woodburn, Oregon, a suburban area south of Portland.", "She eventually recanted the entire story, ostensibly after learning that hijacking charges could still be brought.", "She also did not match the physical description particularly closely.===William Gossett===William Pratt Gossett (1930–2003) was a Marine Corps, Army, and Army Air Forces veteran who had military service in Korea and Vietnam.", "His military experience included jump training and wilderness survival.", "Gossett was known to be obsessed with the Cooper hijacking.", "According to Galen Cook, a lawyer who has collected information related to Gossett for years, he once showed his sons a key to a Vancouver, British Columbia, safe deposit box which, he claimed, contained the long-missing ransom money.The FBI has no direct evidence implicating Gossett and cannot even reliably place him in the Pacific Northwest at the time of the hijacking.", "\"There is not one link to the D. B. Cooper case,\" said Special Agent Carr, \"other than the statements Gossett made to someone.", "\"=== Joe Lakich ===Joe Lakich (1921–2017) was a retired U.S. Army Major and Korean War veteran whose daughter Susan Giffe was killed less than two months before the hijacking, as a consequence of a botched hostage negotiation conducted by the FBI.", "The events culminating in the death of Lakich's daughter would be studied by hostage negotiators for decades as an example of what not to do during a hostage situation.", "He and his wife later sued the FBI, and ultimately an Appeals Court ruled in their favor, holding that the FBI acted negligently during the hostage negotiation.Lakich would become a Cooper suspect in large part due to the revelation that Cooper's tie contained microscopic particles of uncommon metals, such as unalloyed titanium.", "It is speculated that few people during that era would have contact with such materials, and that Cooper may have worked in a manufacturing environment working on electronics as engineer or manager.", "When the hijacking occurred, Lakich was working in Nashville as a production supervisor at an electronics capacitor factory and would have likely been exposed to the materials found on the tie.", "When Cooper was asked by Tina Mucklow why he was committing the hijacking, he replied: \"It's not because I have a grudge against your airlines, it's just because I have a grudge.\"", "It is believed by some that this \"grudge\" was Lakich's anger toward the FBI for their failed efforts at rescuing his daughter less than two months earlier.===John List===John Emil List (1925–2008) was an accountant and war veteran who murdered his wife, three teenage children, and 85-year-old mother in Westfield, New Jersey, fifteen days before the Cooper hijacking, withdrew $200,000 from his mother's bank account, and disappeared.", "He came to the attention of the Cooper task force due to the timing of his disappearance, multiple matches to the hijacker's description, and the reasoning that \"a fugitive accused of mass murder has nothing to lose\".", "After his capture in 1989, List denied any involvement in the Cooper hijacking: no substantial evidence implicates him, and the FBI no longer considers him a suspect.", "List died in prison in 2008.===Ted Mayfield===Theodore Ernest Mayfield (1935–2015) was a Special Forces veteran, pilot, competitive skydiver, and skydiving instructor.", "He served time in 1994 for negligent homicide after two of his students died when their parachutes failed to open and was later found indirectly responsible for thirteen additional skydiving deaths due to faulty equipment and training.", "In 2010, he was sentenced to three years' probation for piloting a plane 26 years after losing his pilot's license and rigging certificates.", "He was suggested repeatedly as a suspect early in the investigation, according to FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach, who knew Mayfield from a prior dispute at a local airport.", "He was ruled out, based partly on the fact that he called Himmelsbach less than two hours after Flight 305 landed in Reno to volunteer advice on standard skydiving practices and possible landing zones, as well as information on local skydivers.===Richard McCoy Jr.===Richard McCoy Jr.Richard McCoy (1942–1974) was an Army veteran who served two tours of duty in Vietnam, first as a demolition expert and later with the Green Berets as a helicopter pilot.", "After his military service, he became a warrant officer in the Utah National Guard and an avid recreational skydiver, with aspirations of becoming a Utah State Trooper.On April 7, 1972, McCoy staged the best-known of the so-called \"copycat\" hijackings (see below).", "He boarded United Airlines' (a with aft stairs) in Denver, Colorado, and, brandishing what later proved to be a paperweight resembling a hand grenade and an unloaded handgun, he demanded four parachutes and $500,000.After delivery of the money and parachutes at San Francisco International Airport, McCoy ordered the aircraft back into the sky and bailed out over Provo, Utah, leaving behind his handwritten hijacking instructions and his fingerprints on a magazine he had been reading.He was arrested on April 9 with the ransom cash in his possession and, after trial and conviction, received a 45-year sentence.", "Two years later, he escaped from Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary with several accomplices by crashing a garbage truck through the main gate.", "Tracked down three months later in Virginia Beach, McCoy was killed in a shootout with FBI agents.In their 1991 book, ''D.B.", "Cooper: The Real McCoy'', parole officer Bernie Rhodes and former FBI agent Russell Calame asserted that they had identified McCoy as Cooper.", "They cited obvious similarities in the two hijackings, claims by McCoy's family that the tie and mother-of-pearl tie clip left on the plane belonged to McCoy, and McCoy's own refusal to admit or deny that he was Cooper.", "A proponent of their claim was the FBI agent who killed McCoy.", "\"When I shot Richard McCoy,\" he said, \"I shot D. B. Cooper at the same time.", "\"Although there is no reasonable doubt that McCoy committed the Denver hijacking, the FBI does not consider him a suspect in the Cooper case because of mismatches in age and description, a level of skydiving skill well above that thought to be possessed by the hijacker, and credible evidence that McCoy was in Las Vegas on the day of the Portland hijacking, and at home in Utah the day after, having Thanksgiving dinner with his family.===Vincent C. Petersen===On November 11, 2022, independent researcher Eric Ulis held a press conference putting forward Vincent C. Petersen as a person of interest.", "While researching the spectrum analysis that was done on Cooper's tie, Ulis discovered 3 particles that appeared to be a very rare titanium antimony alloy.", "Petersen worked at a company named Rem-Cru, based in Midland, Pennsylvania, and later in metro Pittsburgh, that manufactured titanium-antimony alloys.===Sheridan Peterson===The 1971 sketch of Cooper's description, and photo of Peterson from around the same time.Sheridan Peterson (1926–2021) served in the Marine Corps during World War II and was later employed as a technical editor at Boeing, based in Seattle.", "Investigators took an interest in Peterson as a suspect soon after the skyjacking because of his experience as a smokejumper and love of taking physical risks, as well as his similar appearance and age (44) to the Cooper description.Peterson often teased the media about whether he was really Cooper.", "Entrepreneur Eric Ulis, who spent years investigating the crime, said he was \"98% convinced\" that Peterson was Cooper; when pressed by FBI agents, Peterson insisted he was in Nepal at the time of the hijacking.", "He died in 2021.In an episode of History Channel's ''History's Greatest Mysteries'', analysis of DNA found on the tie worn by Cooper indicated that Peterson was not a match for Cooper when compared to a DNA sample from one of Peterson's living daughters.", "Eric Ulis has since withdrawn his allegation that Peterson could have been Cooper.===Robert Rackstraw===FBI sketch of D. B. Cooper from 1972 compared to 1970 Army ID picture of Robert Rackstraw.Robert Wesley Rackstraw (1943–2019) was a retired pilot and ex-convict who served on an Army helicopter crew and other units during the Vietnam War.", "He came to the attention of the Cooper task force in February 1978, after he was arrested in Iran and deported to the U.S. to face explosives possession and check kiting charges.", "Several months later, while released on bail, Rackstraw attempted to fake his own death by radioing a false mayday call and telling controllers that he was bailing out of a rented plane over Monterey Bay.", "Police later arrested him in Fullerton, California, on an additional charge of forging federal pilot certificates; the plane he claimed to have ditched was found, repainted, in a nearby hangar.", "Cooper investigators noted his physical resemblance to Cooper composite sketches even though he was only 28 in 1971, military parachute training, and criminal record but eliminated him as a suspect in 1979 after no direct evidence of his involvement could be found.In 2016, Rackstraw re-emerged as a suspect in a History channel program, along with a book.", "On September 8, 2016, Thomas J. Colbert, the author of the book, and attorney Mark Zaid filed a lawsuit to compel the FBI to release its Cooper case file under the Freedom of Information Act.", "In 2017, Colbert and a group of volunteer investigators uncovered what they believed to be \"a decades-old parachute strap\" at an undisclosed location in the Pacific Northwest.", "This was followed later in 2017 with a piece of foam, which they suspected was part of Cooper's parachute backpack.", "In January 2018, Tom and Dawna Colbert reported that they had obtained a confession letter originally written in December 1971 containing codes that matched three units Rackstraw was a part of while in the Army.One of the Flight 305 flight attendants reportedly \"did not find any similarities\" between photos of Rackstraw from the 1970s and her recollection of Cooper's appearance.", "Rackstraw's attorney called the renewed allegations \"the stupidest thing I've ever heard\", and Rackstraw himself told ''People'' magazine, \"It's a lot of expletive, and they know it is.\"", "The FBI declined further comment.", "Rackstraw stated in a 2017 phone interview that he lost his job over the 2016 investigations.", "Rackstraw said to Colbert, \"I told everybody I was the hijacker\", before explaining the admission was a stunt.", "He died in 2019.=== Walter R. Reca ===Walter R. Reca (1933–2014) was a former military paratrooper and intelligence operative.", "He was proposed as a suspect by his friend Carl Laurin in 2018.In 2008, Reca told Laurin via a recorded phone call that he was the hijacker.Reca gave Laurin permission in a notarized letter to share his story after his death.", "He also allowed Laurin to tape their phone conversations about the crime over a six-week period in late 2008.In over three hours of recordings, Reca shared details about his version of the hijacking.", "He also confessed to his niece, Lisa Story.From Reca's description of the terrain on his way to the drop zone, Laurin concluded that he landed near Cle Elum, Washington.", "After Reca described an encounter with a dump truck driver at a roadside cafe after he landed, Laurin located Jeff Osiadacz, who was driving his dump truck near Cle Elum the night of the hijacking and met a stranger at the Teanaway Junction Café just outside of town.", "The man asked Osiadacz to give his friend directions to the café over the phone, presumably to be picked up, and he complied.", "Laurin convinced Joe Koenig, a former member of the Michigan State Police, of Reca's guilt.", "Koenig later published a book on Cooper, titled ''Getting the Truth: I Am D.B.", "Cooper''.These claims have aroused skepticism.", "Cle Elum is well north and east of Flight 305's known flight path, more than north of the drop zone assumed by most analysts, and even further from Tena Bar, where a portion of the ransom money was found.", "Reca was a military paratrooper and private skydiver with hundreds of jumps to his credit, in contradiction to the FBI's publicized profile of an amateur skydiver at best.", "Reca also did not resemble the composite portrait the FBI assembled, which Laurin and Osiadacz used to explain why Osiadacz's suspicions were not aroused at the time.", "In response to the allegations against Reca, the FBI said that it would be inappropriate to comment on specific tips provided to them, and that no evidence to date had proved the culpability of any suspect beyond a reasonable doubt.===William J. Smith===William J. Smith in 1985In November 2018, ''The Oregonian'' published an article proposing William J. Smith (1928–2018), of Bloomfield, New Jersey, as a suspect.", "The article was based on research conducted by an Army data analyst who sent his findings to the FBI in mid-2018.Smith, a New Jersey native, was a World War II veteran.", "After high school, he enlisted in the United States Navy and volunteered for combat air crew training.", "After his discharge, he worked for the Lehigh Valley Railroad and was affected by the Penn Central Transportation Company's bankruptcy in 1970, the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history at that time.", "The article proposed that the loss of his pension created a grudge against the corporate establishment and transportation field, as well as a sudden need for money.", "Smith was 43 at the time of the hijacking.", "In his high school yearbook, a list of alumni killed in World War II lists an Ira Daniel Cooper, possibly the source for the hijacker's pseudonym.", "The analyst claimed that Smith's naval aviation experience would have given him knowledge of planes and parachutes, and his railroad experience would have helped him find railroad tracks and hop on a train to escape the area after landing.According to the analyst, aluminum spiral chips found on the clip-on tie could have come from a locomotive maintenance facility.", "Smith's information about the Seattle area may have come from his close friend Dan Clair, who was stationed at Fort Lewis during the war.", "The analyst noted that the man who claimed to be Cooper in Max Gunther's 1985 book identified himself as \"Dan LeClair\".", "Smith and Clair worked together for Conrail at Newark's Oak Island Yard.", "Smith retired from that facility as a yardmaster.", "The article noted that a picture of Smith on the Lehigh Valley Railroad website showed a \"remarkable resemblance\" to Cooper FBI sketches.", "The FBI said that it would be inappropriate to comment on tips related to Smith.===Duane L. Weber===Duane L. Weber (1924–1995) was a World War II Army veteran who served time in at least six prisons from 1945 to 1968 for burglary and forgery.", "He was proposed as a suspect by his widow, Jo, based primarily on a deathbed confession: three days before he died in 1995, Weber told his wife, \"I am Dan Cooper.\"", "The name meant nothing to her, she said; but months later, a friend told her of its significance in the hijacking.", "She went to her local library to research Cooper, found Max Gunther's book, and discovered notations in the margins in her husband's handwriting.", "Like the hijacker, Weber drank bourbon and chain-smoked.", "Other circumstantial evidence included a 1979 trip to Seattle and the Columbia River, where his wife remembered him throwing a trash bag just upstream of Tina Bar.Himmelsbach said, \"Weber does fit the physical description (and) does have the criminal background that I have always felt was associated with the case\", but did not believe Weber was Cooper.", "The FBI eliminated Weber as an active suspect in July 1998 when his fingerprints did not match any of those processed in the hijacked plane, and no other direct evidence could be found to implicate him.", "Later, his DNA also failed to match the samples recovered from Cooper's tie." ], [ "Similar hijackings", "Cooper was among the first to attempt air piracy for personal gain, but merely eleven days prior to Cooper's hijack, Canadian Paul Joseph Cini hijacked an Air Canada DC-8 over Montana, but was overpowered by the crew when he put down his shotgun to strap on his parachute.", "Encouraged by Cooper's apparent success, fifteen similar hijackings—all unsuccessful—were attempted in 1972.Some notable examples from that year:* Richard Charles LaPoint, an Army veteran from Boston, boarded Hughes Airwest Flight 800 at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas on January 20.Brandishing what he claimed was a bomb while the DC-9 was on the taxiway, he demanded $50,000, two parachutes, and a helmet.", "After releasing the 51 passengers and two flight attendants, he ordered the plane on an eastward trajectory toward Denver, then bailed out over the treeless plains of northeastern Colorado.", "Authorities, tracking the locator-equipped parachute and his footprints in the snow and mud, apprehended him a few hours later.", "* Richard McCoy Jr., a former Army Green Beret, hijacked a United Airlines 727-100 on April 7 after it left Denver, diverted it to San Francisco, then bailed out over Utah with $500,000 in ransom money.", "He landed safely and was arrested two days later.", "* Frederick Hahneman used a handgun to hijack an Eastern Air Lines 727 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, on May 7, demanded $303,000, and eventually parachuted into his native Honduras.", "A month later, with the FBI in pursuit and a $25,000 bounty on his head, he surrendered at the American embassy in Tegucigalpa.", "After being given a life sentence in September 1972, he was paroled in 1984.", "* Robb Heady, a 22-year-old former Army paratrooper hijacked United Airlines Flight 239 from Reno to San Francisco on June 2, 1972.Carrying his own parachute and using a .357 revolver, he demanded $200,000 in ransom money.", "He jumped from the plane and was captured the next morning.", "* Martin McNally, an unemployed service-station attendant, used a submachine gun on June 23 to commandeer an American Airlines 727 en route from St. Louis, Missouri, to Tulsa, Oklahoma, then diverted it eastward to Indiana and bailed out with $500,000 in ransom.", "McNally lost the ransom money as he exited the aircraft, but landed safely near Peru, Indiana, and was apprehended a few days later in a Detroit suburb.", "When interviewed in a 2020 podcast retrospective, McNally said he had been inspired by Cooper.With the advent of universal luggage searches in 1973 (see Airport security), the general incidence of hijackings dropped dramatically.", "There were no further notable Cooper imitators until July 11, 1980, when Glenn K. Tripp seized Northwest Orient Flight 608 at Seattle-Tacoma Airport, demanding $600,000 ($100,000 by an independent account), two parachutes, and the assassination of his boss.", "A quick-thinking flight attendant drugged Tripp's alcoholic drink with Valium.", "After a ten-hour standoff, during which Tripp reduced his demands to three cheeseburgers and a ground vehicle in which to escape, he was apprehended.", "Tripp attempted to hijack the same Northwest flight on January 21, 1983, and this time demanded to be flown to Afghanistan.", "When the plane landed in Portland, he was shot and killed by FBI agents." ], [ "Aftermath", "===Airport security===Despite the initiation of the federal Sky Marshal Program the previous year, 31 hijackings were committed in U.S. airspace in 1972; 19 of them were for the specific purpose of extorting money.", "In 15 of the extortion cases, the hijackers also demanded parachutes.", "In early 1973, the FAA began requiring airlines to search all passengers and their bags.", "Amid multiple lawsuits charging that such searches violated Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure, federal courts ruled that they were acceptable when applied universally and when limited to searches for weapons and explosives.", "Only two hijackings were attempted in 1973, both by psychiatric patients; one hijacker, Samuel Byck, intended to crash the airliner into the White House to kill President Nixon.===Aircraft modifications===A Cooper vane in the unlocked positionDue to multiple \"copycat\" hijackings in 1972, the FAA required that the exterior of all aircraft be fitted with a spring-loaded device, later dubbed the \"Cooper vane\", that prevents lowering of the aft airstair during flight.", "The device consists of a flat blade of aluminum mounted on a pivot, which is spring-loaded to stay out of the way of the door when the craft is at rest, but aerodynamically rotates into position to prevent the door from being opened when the plane is traveling at flight speeds.", "Operation of the vane is automatic and cannot be overridden from within the aircraft.", "As a direct result of the hijacking, the installation of peepholes was mandated in all cockpit doors; this enables the cockpit crew to observe passengers without opening the cockpit door.===Subsequent history of N467US===Piedmont Airlines in 1979In 1978, the hijacked 727-100 aircraft was sold by Northwest Orient to Piedmont Airlines, where it was re-registered N838N and continued in domestic carrier service.", "In 1984, it was purchased by the charter company Key Airlines, re-registered N29KA, and incorporated into the Air Force's civilian charter fleet that shuttled workers between Nellis Air Force Base and the Tonopah Test Range during the F-117 Nighthawk development program.", "In 1996, the aircraft was scrapped for parts in a Memphis aircraft boneyard.===Death of Earl J. Cossey===On April 23, 2013, Earl J. Cossey, who packed the four parachutes that were given to Cooper, was found dead in his home in Woodinville, Washington, a suburb of Seattle.", "His death was ruled a homicide due to blunt-force trauma to the head.", "The perpetrator remains unknown.", "Some commenters alleged possible links to the Cooper case, but authorities responded that they had no reason to believe that any such link exists.", "Woodinville officials later announced that burglary was most likely the motive for the crime." ], [ "In popular culture", "Himmelsbach famously called Cooper a \"rotten sleazy crook\", but his bold and unusual crime inspired a cult following that was expressed in song, film, and literature.", "Novelty shops sold t-shirts emblazoned with \"D. B. Cooper, Where Are You?\"", "Restaurants and bowling alleys in the Pacific Northwest hold regular Cooper-themed promotions and sell tourist souvenirs.", "A \"Cooper Day\" celebration has been held at the Ariel General Store and Tavern each November since 1974 with the exception of 2015, the year its owner, Dona Elliot, died.Characters and situations inspired by Cooper have appeared in the story lines of the television series ''Prison Break'', ''Justified'', ''The Blacklist'', ''NewsRadio'', ''Leverage'', ''Journeyman'', ''Renegade'', ''Numb3rs'', ''Quincy, M.E.", "'', ''30 Rock'', ''Drunk History'', ''Breaking Bad'', and ''Loki'', as well as the 1981 film ''The Pursuit of D. B. Cooper'', the 2004 film ''Without a Paddle'', and a book titled ''The Vesuvius Prophecy'' by Greg Cox, based on ''The 4400'' TV series.An annual convention, known as CooperCon, is held every year in late November in Seattle, Washington.", "The event, founded by Cooper researcher Eric Ulis in 2018, is a multi-day gathering of Cooper researchers and enthusiasts.", "Originally held in Vancouver, Washington, it was moved to Seattle beginning in 2023.CooperCon took the place of the annual D. B. Cooper Days, which ended when the owner of the Ariel Store Pub died and the pub was forced to close." ], [ "See also", "* Cold case* Gentleman thief* List of aircraft hijackings* List of fugitives from justice who disappeared" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", " ===Bibliography===* * * * * — Disclaimer: Large amounts of Gunther's content based on alleged interviews with a woman known as \"Clara\", who claimed to have discovered an injured Cooper two days after the hijacking and lived with him until he died a decade later.", "This material is considered by the FBI and others as a hoax or fabrication, whether by Gunther or \"Clara\".", "For critical analysis, ''see'' * * (Himmelsbach was the FBI's chief investigator on the case until his retirement in 1980; \"Norjak\" is FBI shorthand for the Cooper hijacking.", ")* (Straightforward accounting of official information and evidence.)" ], [ "External links", "* FBI Reading Room Files of the D.B.", "Cooper Case" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Distributism" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Distributism''' is an economic theory asserting that the world's productive assets should be widely owned rather than concentrated.", "Developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, distributism was based upon Catholic social teaching principles, especially Pope Leo XIII's teachings in his encyclical ''Rerum novarum'' (1891) and Pope Pius XI in ''Quadragesimo anno'' (1931).", "It has influenced Anglo Christian Democratic movements, and has been recognized as one of many influences on the social market economy.Distributism views ''laissez-faire'' capitalism and state socialism as equally flawed and exploitative.", "Instead, it favours small independent craftsmen and producers; or, if that is not possible, economic mechanisms such as cooperatives and member-owned mutual organisations as well as small to medium enterprises and large-scale competition law reform such as antitrust regulations.", "Christian democratic political parties such as the American Solidarity Party have advocated distributism alongside social market economy in their economic policies and party platform." ], [ "Overview", "According to distributists, the right to property is a fundamental right, and the means of production should be spread as widely as possible rather than being centralised under the control of the state (statocracy), a few individuals (plutocracy), or corporations (corporatocracy).", "Therefore, distributism advocates a society marked by widespread property ownership.", "Cooperative economist Race Mathews argues that such a system is key to creating a just social order.Distributism has often been described in opposition to both ''laissez-faire'' capitalism and state socialism which distributists see as equally flawed and exploitative.", "Furthermore, some distributists argue that state capitalism and state socialism are the logical conclusion of capitalism as capitalism's concentrated powers eventually capture the state.", "Thomas Storck argues: \"Both socialism and capitalism are products of the European Enlightenment and are thus modernising and anti-traditional forces.", "In contrast, distributism seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our spiritual life, our intellectual life, our family life.\"", "A few distributists, including Dorothy Day, were influenced by the economic ideas of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and his mutualist economic theory.", "The lesser-known anarchist branch of distributism of Day and the Catholic Worker Movement can be considered a form of free-market libertarian socialism due to their opposition to state capitalism and state socialism.", "Some have seen it more as an aspiration, successfully realised in the short term by the commitment to the principles of subsidiarity and solidarity (built into financially independent local cooperatives and small family businesses).", "However, proponents also cite such periods as the Middle Ages as examples of the long-term historical viability of distributism.", "Particularly influential in the development of distributist theory were Catholic authors G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, two of distributism's earliest and strongest proponents.In the early 21st century, Arthur W. Hunt III in ''The American Conservative'' and Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry in ''First Things'' speculated on Pope Francis's position on distributism after he denounced unfettered capitalism in his apostolic exhortation ''Evangelii gaudium'', in which he stated: \"Just as the commandment 'Thou shalt not kill' sets a clear limit in order to safeguard the value of human life, today we also have to say 'thou shalt not' to an economy of exclusion and inequality.", "Such an economy kills.", "... A new tyranny is thus born, invisible and often virtual, which unilaterally and relentlessly imposes its own laws and rules.", "To all this we can add widespread corruption and self-serving tax evasion, which has taken on worldwide dimensions.", "The thirst for power and possessions knows no limits.\"" ], [ "Background", "The mid-to-late 19th century witnessed an increase in the popularity of political Catholicism across Europe.", "According to historian Michael A. Riff, a common feature of these movements was opposition to secularism, capitalism, and socialism.", "In 1891 Pope Leo XIII promulgated ''Rerum novarum'', in which he addressed the \"misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class\" and spoke of how \"a small number of very rich men\" had been able to \"lay upon the teeming masses of the laboring poor a yoke little better than that of slavery itself\".", "Affirmed in the encyclical was the right of all men to own property, the necessity of a system that allowed \"as many as possible of the people to become owners\", the duty of employers to provide safe working conditions and sufficient wages, and the right of workers to unionise.", "Common and government property ownership was expressly dismissed as a means of helping the poor.Around the start of the 20th century, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc drew together the disparate experiences of the various cooperatives and friendly societies in Northern England, Ireland, and Northern Europe into a coherent political theory which specifically advocated widespread private ownership of housing and control of industry through owner-operated small businesses and worker-controlled cooperatives.", "In the United States in the 1930s, distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in ''The American Review'', published and edited by Seward Collins.", "Pivotal among Belloc's and Chesterton's other works regarding distributism are ''The Servile State'' and ''Outline of Sanity''." ], [ "Economic theory", "=== Private property ===Self-portrait of Chesterton based on the distributist slogan \"Three acres and a cow\"In ''Rerum novarum'', Leo XIII states that people are likely to work harder and with greater commitment if they possess the land on which they labour, which in turn will benefit them and their families as workers will be able to provide for themselves and their household.", "He puts forward the idea that when men have the opportunity to possess property and work on it, they will \"learn to love the very soil which yields in response to the labor of their hands, not only food to eat, but an abundance of the good things for themselves and those that are dear to them\".", "He also states that owning property is beneficial for a person and their family and is, in fact, a right due to God having \"given the earth for the use and enjoyment of the whole human race\".G.", "K. Chesterton presents similar views in his 1910 book, ''What's Wrong with the World''.", "Chesterton believes that whilst God has limitless capabilities, man has limited abilities in terms of creation.", "Therefore, man is entitled to own property and treat it as he sees fit, stating: \"Property is merely the art of the democracy.", "It means that every man should have something that he can shape in his own image, as he is shaped in the image of heaven.", "But because he is not God, but only a graven image of God, his self-expression must deal with limits; properly with limits that are strict and even small.", "\"According to Belloc, the distributive state (the state which has implemented distributism) contains \"an agglomeration of families of varying wealth, but by far the greater number of owners of the means of production\".", "This broader distribution does not extend to all property but only to productive property; that is, that property which produces wealth, namely, the things needed for man to survive.", "It includes land, tools, and so on.", "Distributism allows society to have public goods such as parks and transit systems.", "Distributists accept that wage labour will remain a small part of the economy, with small business owners hiring employees, usually young, inexperienced people.=== Redistribution of wealth and productive assets ===Distributism requires either direct or indirect distribution of the means of production (productive assets)⁠—in some ideological circles including the redistribution of wealth—to a wide portion of society instead of concentrating it in the hands of a minority of wealthy elites (as seen in its criticism of certain varieties of capitalism) or the hands of the state (as seen in its criticism of certain varieties of communism and socialism).", "More capitalist-oriented supporters support distributism-influenced social capitalism (also known as a social market economy), while more socialist-oriented supporters support distributism-influenced libertarian socialism.", "Examples of methods of distributism include direct productive property redistribution, taxation of excessive property ownership, and small-business subsidization.=== Guild system ===Distributists advocate in favour of the return of a guild system to help regulate industries to promote moral standards of professional conduct and economic equality among members of a guild.", "Such moral standards of professional conduct would typically focus on business conduct, working conditions and other issues in relation to industry specific matters such as workplace training standards.=== Banks ===Distributism favours cooperative and mutual banking institutions such as credit unions, building societies and mutual banks.", "This is considered to be the preferred alternative to private banks." ], [ "Social theory", "=== Human family ===G.", "K. Chesterton considered one's home and family the centrepiece of society.", "He recognized the family unit and home as centrepieces of living and believed that every man should have their property and home to enable him to raise and support his family.", "Distributists recognize that strengthening and protecting the family requires that society be nurturing.=== Subsidiarity ===Distributism puts great emphasis on the principle of subsidiarity.", "This principle holds that no larger unit (whether social, economic, or political) should perform a function that a smaller unit can perform.", "In ''Quadragesimo anno'', Pope Pius XI provided the classical statement of the principle: \"Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do\".=== Social security ===The Democratic Labour Party of Australia espouses distributism and does not hold the view of favouring the elimination of social security who, for instance, wish to \"raise the level of student income support payments to the Henderson poverty line\".The American Solidarity Party has a platform of favouring an adequate social security system, stating: \"We advocate for social safety nets that adequately provide for the material needs of the most vulnerable in society\"." ], [ "Politics", "Distributism's relation to socialism and capitalismWilliam Cobbett's social views influenced G. K. ChestertonThe position of distributists, when compared to other political philosophies, is somewhat paradoxical and complicated (see triangulation).", "Firmly entrenched in an organic but very English Catholicism, advocating culturally traditionalist and agrarian values, directly challenging the precepts of Whig history—Belloc was nonetheless an MP for the Liberal Party, and Chesterton once stated, \"As much as I ever did, more than I ever did, I believe in Liberalism.", "But there was a rosy time of innocence when I believed in Liberals\".Distributism does not favour one political order over another (political accidentalism).", "While some distributists such as Dorothy Day have been anarchists, it should be remembered that most Chestertonian distributists are opposed to the mere concept of anarchism.", "Chesterton thought that distributism would benefit from the discipline that theoretical analysis imposes and that distributism is best seen as a widely encompassing concept inside of which any number of interpretations and perspectives can fit.", "This concept should fit a political system broadly characterized by widespread ownership of productive property.In the United States, the American Solidarity Party generally adheres to Distributist principles as its economic model.", "Ross Douthat and Reihan Salam view their ''Grand New Party'', a roadmap for revising the Republican Party in the United States, as \"a book written in the distributist tradition\".", "The Brazilian political party, Humanist Party of Solidarity, is a distributist party, alongside the National Distributist Party in England, and the Democratic Labour Party in Australia." ], [ "Influence", "=== E. F. Schumacher ===Distributism is known to have influenced the economist E. F. Schumacher, a convert to Catholicism.=== Mondragon Corporation ===The Mondragon Corporation, based in the Basque Country in a region of Spain and France, was founded by a Catholic priest, Father José María Arizmendiarrieta, who seems to have been influenced by the same Catholic social and economic teachings that inspired Belloc, Chesterton, Father Vincent McNabb, and the other founders of distributism.=== Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic ===Distributist ideas were put into practice by The Guild of St Joseph and St Dominic, a group of artists and craftsmen who established a community in Ditchling, Sussex, England, in 1920, with the motto \"Men rich in virtue studying beautifulness living in peace in their houses\".", "The guild sought to recreate an idealised medieval lifestyle in the manner of the Arts and Crafts Movement.", "It survived for almost 70 years until 1989.=== Big Society ===The Big Society was the flagship policy idea of the 2010 UK Conservative Party general election manifesto.", "Some distributists claim that the rhetorical marketing of this policy was influenced by aphorisms of the distributist ideology and promotes distributism.", "It purportedly formed a part of the legislative programme of the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition Agreement." ], [ "List of distributist parties", "=== Current ===* Australia – Democratic Labour Party* Romania – Pirate Party Romania* United Kingdom – National Distributist Party, British National Party, National Front* United States – American Solidarity Party* Mexico - Nationalist Front of Mexico=== Historical ===* United Kingdom – Distributist League (1926–1940), Third Way (1990–2006)" ], [ "Notable distributists", "=== Historical ===* Herbert Agar* Hilaire Belloc* L. Brent Bozell Jr.* Cecil Chesterton* G. K. Chesterton* Seward Collins* Dorothy Day* Adam Doboszyński* Peter Maurin* Horacio de la Costa* J. P. de Fonseka* Eric Gill* Douglas Hyde* Gustavo Corção * Saunders Lewis* Vincent McNabb* Arthur Penty* Hilary Pepler* Óscar Romero* William Purcell Witcutt* Dorothy L. Sayers* J. R. R. Tolkien=== Contemporary ===* Dale Ahlquist* Phillip Blond* Allan C. Carlson* Charles A. Coulombe* Sean Domencic* Bill Kauffman* Race Mathews* Joseph Pearce* * Douglas Rushkoff* John Sharpe* John C. Médaille* Richard Williamson" ], [ "Key texts", "* Rerum novarum (1891), papal encyclical by Pope Leo XIII.", "* Quadragesimo anno (1931), papal encyclical by Pope Pius XI.", "* Centesimus Annus (1991), papal encyclical by Pope John Paul II.", "* Evangelii gaudium (2013), apostolic exhortation by Pope Francis.", "* ''What's Wrong with the World'' (1910) by G. K. Chesterton – eText.", "* ''The Outline of Sanity'' (1927) by G. K.", "Chesterton.", "* ''Utopia of Usurers'' (1917) by G. K.", "Chesterton.", "* ''The Servile State'' (1912) by Hilaire Belloc.", "* ''An Essay on The Restoration of Property'' (1936) by Hilaire Belloc .", "* ''Jobs of Our Own'' (1999) by Race Mathews ." ], [ "See also", "; Related concepts* * * * * * * * * * ; Similar positions* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Boyle, David.", "to the Land: Distributism and the politics of life'' Steyning: The Real Press, 2019.", "* Cooney, Anthony.", "''Distributism''.", "* Kurland, Norman.", "''The Just Third Way: Basic Principles of Economic and Social Justice'', Center for Economic and Social Justice* Sagar, S. ''Distributism''.", "* '' Shaw v Chesterton: a Debate between George Bernard Shaw and G. K. Chesterton''.", "* \"Union Square Speech\" by Dorothy Day* '' Distributism as a means of achieving third way economics'', a paper for the Secular Party of Australia written by Richard Howard of the Humanist Society of New South Wales* Pabst, Adrian.", "\"Pope Benedict's call for a civil economy\".", "''The Guardian'', 20 July 2009." ], [ "External links", "* The Distributist Review" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dehydroepiandrosterone" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dehydroepiandrosterone''' ('''DHEA'''), also known as '''androstenolone''', is an endogenous steroid hormone precursor.", "It is one of the most abundant circulating steroids in humans.", "DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands, the gonads, and the brain.", "It functions as a metabolic intermediate in the biosynthesis of the androgen and estrogen sex steroids both in the gonads and in various other tissues.", "However, DHEA also has a variety of potential biological effects in its own right, binding to an array of nuclear and cell surface receptors, and acting as a neurosteroid and modulator of neurotrophic factor receptors.In the United States, DHEA is sold as an over-the-counter supplement, and medication called prasterone." ], [ "Biological function", "===As an androgen===DHEA and other adrenal androgens such as androstenedione, although relatively weak androgens, are responsible for the androgenic effects of adrenarche, such as early pubic and axillary hair growth, adult-type body odor, increased oiliness of hair and skin, and mild acne.", "DHEA is potentiated locally via conversion into testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in the skin and hair follicles.", "Women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), who have a non-functional androgen receptor (AR) and are immune to the androgenic effects of DHEA and other androgens, have absent or only sparse/scanty pubic and axillary hair and body hair in general, demonstrating the role of DHEA and other androgens in body hair development at both adrenarche and pubarche.===As an estrogen===DHEA is a weak estrogen.", "In addition, it is transformed into potent estrogens such as estradiol in certain tissues such as the vagina, and thereby produces estrogenic effects in such tissues.===As a neurosteroid===As a neurosteroid and neurotrophin, DHEA has important effects in the central nervous system." ], [ "Biological activity", "===Hormonal activity=======Androgen receptor====Although it functions as an endogenous precursor to more potent androgens such as testosterone and DHT, DHEA has been found to possess some degree of androgenic activity in its own right, acting as a low affinity (Ki = 1 μM), weak partial agonist of the androgen receptor (AR).", "However, its intrinsic activity at the receptor is quite weak, and on account of that, due to competition for binding with full agonists like testosterone, it can actually behave more like an antagonist depending on circulating testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels, and hence, like an antiandrogen.", "However, its affinity for the receptor is very low, and for that reason, is unlikely to be of much significance under normal circumstances.====Estrogen receptors====In addition to its affinity for the androgen receptor, DHEA has also been found to bind to (and activate) the ERα and ERβ estrogen receptors with Ki values of 1.1 μM and 0.5 μM, respectively, and EC50 values of >1 μM and 200 nM, respectively.", "Though it was found to be a partial agonist of the ERα with a maximal efficacy of 30–70%, the concentrations required for this degree of activation make it unlikely that the activity of DHEA at this receptor is physiologically meaningful.", "Remarkably however, DHEA acts as a full agonist of the ERβ with a maximal response similar to or actually slightly greater than that of estradiol, and its levels in circulation and local tissues in the human body are high enough to activate the receptor to the same degree as that seen with circulating estradiol levels at somewhat higher than their maximal, non-ovulatory concentrations; indeed, when combined with estradiol with both at levels equivalent to those of their physiological concentrations, overall activation of the ERβ was doubled.====Other nuclear receptors====DHEA does not bind to or activate the progesterone, glucocorticoid, or mineralocorticoid receptors.", "Other nuclear receptor targets of DHEA besides the androgen and estrogen receptors include the PPARα, PXR, and CAR.", "However, whereas DHEA is a ligand of the PPARα and PXR in rodents, it is not in humans.", "In addition to direct interactions, DHEA is thought to regulate a handful of other proteins via indirect, genomic mechanisms, including the enzymes CYP2C11 and 11β-HSD1 – the latter of which is essential for the biosynthesis of the glucocorticoids such as cortisol and has been suggested to be involved in the antiglucocorticoid effects of DHEA – and the carrier protein IGFBP1.===Neurosteroid activity=======Neurotransmitter receptors====DHEA has been found to directly act on several neurotransmitter receptors, including acting as a positive allosteric modulator of the NMDA receptor, as a negative allosteric modulator of the GABAA receptor, and as an agonist of the σ1 receptor.====Neurotrophin receptors====In 2011, the surprising discovery was made that DHEA, as well as its sulfate ester, DHEA-S, directly bind to and activate TrkA and p75NTR, receptors of neurotrophins like nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), with high affinity.", "DHEA was subsequently also found to bind to TrkB and TrkC with high affinity, though it only activated TrkC not TrkB.", "DHEA and DHEA-S bound to these receptors with affinities in the low nanomolar range (around 5 nM), which were nonetheless approximately two orders of magnitude lower relative to highly potent polypeptide neurotrophins like NGF (0.01–0.1 nM).", "In any case, DHEA and DHEA-S both circulate at requisite concentrations to activate these receptors and were thus identified as important endogenous neurotrophic factors.", "They have since been labeled \"steroidal microneurotrophins\", due to their small-molecule and steroidal nature relative to their polypeptide neurotrophin counterparts.", "Subsequent research has suggested that DHEA and/or DHEA-S may in fact be phylogenetically ancient \"ancestral\" ligands of the neurotrophin receptors from early on in the evolution of the nervous system.", "The findings that DHEA binds to and potently activates neurotrophin receptors may explain the positive association between decreased circulating DHEA levels with age and age-related neurodegenerative diseases.====Microtubule-associated protein 2====Similarly to pregnenolone, its synthetic derivative 3β-methoxypregnenolone (MAP-4343), and progesterone, DHEA has been found to bind to microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2), specifically the MAP2C subtype (Kd = 27 μM).", "However, it is unclear whether DHEA increases binding of MAP2 to tubulin like pregnenolone.====ADHD====Some research has shown that DHEA levels are too low in people with ADHD, and treatment with methylphenidate or bupropion (stimulant type of medications) normalizes DHEA levels.", "===Other activity=======G6PDH inhibitor====DHEA is an uncompetitive inhibitor of (Ki = 17 μM; IC50 = 18.7 μM), and is able to lower levels and reduce NADPH-dependent free radical production.", "It is thought that this action may possibly be responsible for much of the antiinflammatory, antihyperplastic, chemopreventative, antihyperlipidemic, antidiabetic, and antiobesic, as well as certain immunomodulating activities of DHEA (with some experimental evidence to support this notion available).", "However, it has also been said that inhibition of G6PDH activity by DHEA ''in vivo'' has not been observed and that the concentrations required for DHEA to inhibit G6PDH ''in vitro'' are very high, thus making the possible contribution of G6PDH inhibition to the effects of DHEA uncertain.====Cancer====DHEA supplements have been promoted in supplement form for its claimed cancer prevention properties; there is no scientific evidence to support these claims.====Miscellaneous====DHEA has been found to competitively inhibit TRPV1." ], [ "Biochemistry", "Comprehensive overview of steroidogenesis, showing DHEA at left among the androgens.===Biosynthesis===DHEA is produced in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex under the control of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and by the gonads under the control of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).", "It is also produced in the brain.", "DHEA is synthesized from cholesterol via the enzymes cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1; P450scc) and 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (CYP17A1), with pregnenolone and 17α-hydroxypregnenolone as intermediates.", "It is derived mostly from the adrenal cortex, with only about 10% being secreted from the gonads.", "Approximately 50 to 70% of circulating DHEA originates from desulfation of DHEA-S in peripheral tissues.", "DHEA-S itself originates almost exclusively from the adrenal cortex, with 95 to 100% being secreted from the adrenal cortex in women.====Increasing endogenous production====Regular exercise is known to increase DHEA production in the body.", "Calorie restriction has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates.", "Some theorize that the increase in endogenous DHEA brought about by calorie restriction is partially responsible for the longer life expectancy known to be associated with calorie restriction.===Distribution===In the circulation, DHEA is mainly bound to albumin, with a small amount bound to sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG).", "The small remainder of DHEA not associated with albumin or SHBG is unbound and free in the circulation.DHEA easily crosses the blood–brain barrier into the central nervous system.===Metabolism===DHEA is transformed into DHEA-S by sulfation at the C3β position via the sulfotransferase enzymes SULT2A1 and to a lesser extent SULT1E1.This occurs naturally in the adrenal cortex and during first-pass metabolism in the liver and intestines when exogenous DHEA is administered orally.", "Levels of DHEA-S in circulation are approximately 250 to 300 times those of DHEA.", "DHEA-S in turn can be converted back into DHEA in peripheral tissues via steroid sulfatase (STS).The terminal half-life of DHEA is short at only 15 to 30 minutes.", "In contrast, the terminal half-life of DHEA-S is far longer, at 7 to 10 hours.", "As DHEA-S can be converted back into DHEA, it serves as a circulating reservoir for DHEA, thereby extending the duration of DHEA.Metabolites of DHEA include DHEA-S, 7α-hydroxy-DHEA, 7β-hydroxy-DHEA, 7-keto-DHEA, 7α-hydroxyepiandrosterone, and 7β-hydroxyepiandrosterone, as well as androstenediol and androstenedione.====Pregnancy====During pregnancy, DHEA-S is metabolized into the sulfates of 16α-hydroxy-DHEA and 15α-hydroxy-DHEA in the fetal liver as intermediates in the production of the estrogens estriol and estetrol, respectively.===Levels===Prior to puberty in humans, DHEA and DHEA-S levels elevate upon differentiation of the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex.", "Peak levels of DHEA and DHEA-S are observed around age 20, which is followed by an age-dependent decline throughout life eventually back to prepubertal concentrations.", "Plasma levels of DHEA in adult men are 10 to 25 nM, in premenopausal women are 5 to 30 nM, and in postmenopausal women are 2 to 20 nM.", "Conversely, DHEA-S levels are an order of magnitude higher at 1–10 μM.", "Levels of DHEA and DHEA-S decline to the lower nanomolar and micromolar ranges in men and women aged 60 to 80 years.DHEA levels are as follows:* Adult men: 180–1250 ng/dL* Adult women: 130–980 ng/dL* Pregnant women: 135–810 ng/dL* Prepubertal children (<1 year): 26–585 ng/dL* Prepubertal children (1–5 years): 9–68 ng/dL* Prepubertal children (6–12 years): 11–186 ng/dL* Adolescent boys (Tanner II–III): 25–300 ng/dL* Adolescent girls (Tanner II–III): 69–605 ng/dL* Adolescent boys (Tanner IV–V): 100–400 ng/dL* Adolescent girls (Tanner IV–V): 165–690 ng/dL===Measurement===As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEA-S/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia.", "Women with polycystic ovary syndrome tend to have elevated levels of DHEA-S." ], [ "Chemistry", "DHEA, also known as androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one, is a naturally occurring androstane steroid and a 17-ketosteroid.", "It is closely related structurally to androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol), androstenedione (androst-4-ene-3,17-dione), and testosterone (androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one).", "DHEA is the 5-dehydro analogue of epiandrosterone (5α-androstan-3β-ol-17-one) and is also known as 5-dehydroepiandrosterone or as δ5-epiandrosterone.===Isomers===The term \"dehydroepiandrosterone\" is ambiguous chemically because it does not include the specific positions within epiandrosterone at which hydrogen atoms are missing.", "DHEA itself is 5,6-didehydroepiandrosterone or 5-dehydroepiandrosterone.", "A number of naturally occurring isomers also exist and may have similar activities.", "Some isomers of DHEA are 1-dehydroepiandrosterone (1-androsterone) and 4-dehydroepiandrosterone.", "These isomers are also technically \"DHEA\", since they are dehydroepiandrosterones in which hydrogens are removed from the epiandrosterone skeleton.Dehydroandrosterone (DHA) is the 3α-epimer of DHEA and is also an endogenous androgen." ], [ "History", "DHEA was first isolated from human urine in 1934 by Adolf Butenandt and Kurt Tscherning." ], [ "See also", "* Epigenetic clock" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Discrete Fourier transform" ], [ "Introduction", "Fig 1: Relationship between the (continuous) Fourier transform and the discrete Fourier transform.", "'''Left:''' A continuous function (top) and its Fourier transform (bottom).", "'''Center-left:''' Periodic summation of the original function (top).", "Fourier transform (bottom) is zero except at discrete points.", "The inverse transform is a sum of sinusoids called Fourier series.", "'''Center-right:''' Original function is discretized (multiplied by a Dirac comb) (top).", "Its Fourier transform (bottom) is a periodic summation (DTFT) of the original transform.", "'''Right:''' The DFT (bottom) computes discrete samples of the continuous DTFT.", "The inverse DFT (top) is a periodic summation of the original samples.", "The FFT algorithm computes one cycle of the DFT and its inverse is one cycle of the DFT inverse.Fig 2: Depiction of a Fourier transform (upper left) and its periodic summation (DTFT) in the lower left corner.", "The spectral sequences at (a) upper right and (b) lower right are respectively computed from (a) one cycle of the periodic summation of s(t) and (b) one cycle of the periodic summation of the s(nT) sequence.", "The respective formulas are (a) the Fourier series integral and (b) the '''DFT''' summation.", "Its similarities to the original transform, S(f), and its relative computational ease are often the motivation for computing a DFT sequence.In mathematics, the '''discrete Fourier transform''' ('''DFT''') converts a finite sequence of equally-spaced samples of a function into a same-length sequence of equally-spaced samples of the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which is a complex-valued function of frequency.", "The interval at which the DTFT is sampled is the reciprocal of the duration of the input sequence.", "An inverse DFT (IDFT) is a Fourier series, using the DTFT samples as coefficients of complex sinusoids at the corresponding DTFT frequencies.", "It has the same sample-values as the original input sequence.", "The DFT is therefore said to be a frequency domain representation of the original input sequence.", "If the original sequence spans all the non-zero values of a function, its DTFT is continuous (and periodic), and the DFT provides discrete samples of one cycle.", "If the original sequence is one cycle of a periodic function, the DFT provides all the non-zero values of one DTFT cycle.The DFT is the most important discrete transform, used to perform Fourier analysis in many practical applications.", "In digital signal processing, the function is any quantity or signal that varies over time, such as the pressure of a sound wave, a radio signal, or daily temperature readings, sampled over a finite time interval (often defined by a window function).", "In image processing, the samples can be the values of pixels along a row or column of a raster image.", "The DFT is also used to efficiently solve partial differential equations, and to perform other operations such as convolutions or multiplying large integers.Since it deals with a finite amount of data, it can be implemented in computers by numerical algorithms or even dedicated hardware.", "These implementations usually employ efficient fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms; so much so that the terms \"FFT\" and \"DFT\" are often used interchangeably.", "Prior to its current usage, the \"FFT\" initialism may have also been used for the ambiguous term \"finite Fourier transform\".The DFT has many applications, including purely mathematical ones with no physical interpretation.", "But physically it can be related to signal processing as a discrete version (i.e.", "samples) of the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which is a continuous and periodic function.", "The DFT computes N equally-spaced samples of one cycle of the DTFT.", "(see Fig.2 and )" ], [ "Definition", "The ''discrete Fourier transform'' transforms a sequence of ''N'' complex numbers into another sequence of complex numbers, which is defined by:The transform is sometimes denoted by the symbol , as in or or .", "can be interpreted or derived in various ways, for example: can also be evaluated outside the domain , and that extended sequence is -periodic.", "Accordingly, other sequences of indices are sometimes used, such as (if is even) and (if is odd), which amounts to swapping the left and right halves of the result of the transform.The inverse transform is given by:.", "is also -periodic (in index n).", "In , each is a complex number whose polar coordinates are the amplitude and phase of a complex sinusoidal component of function (see Discrete Fourier series) The sinusoid's frequency is cycles per samples.The normalization factor multiplying the DFT and IDFT (here 1 and ) and the signs of the exponents are the most common conventions.", "The only actual requirements of these conventions are that the DFT and IDFT have opposite-sign exponents and that the product of their normalization factors be An uncommon normalization of for both the DFT and IDFT makes the transform-pair unitary." ], [ "Example", "This example demonstrates how to apply the DFT to a sequence of length and the input vectorCalculating the DFT of using results in" ], [ "Properties", "===Linearity===The DFT is a linear transform, i.e.", "if and , then for any complex numbers ::===Time and frequency reversal===Reversing the time (i.e.", "replacing by ) in corresponds to reversing the frequency (i.e.", "by ).", "Mathematically, if represents the vector '''x''' then:if :then ===Conjugation in time===If then .===Real and imaginary part===This table shows some mathematical operations on in the time domain and the corresponding effects on its DFT in the frequency domain.", "Property Time domain Frequency domain Real part in time Imaginary part in time Real part in frequency Imaginary part in frequency === Orthogonality ===The vectors form an orthogonal basis over the set of ''N''-dimensional complex vectors::where is the Kronecker delta.", "(In the last step, the summation is trivial if , where it is and otherwise is a geometric series that can be explicitly summed to obtain zero.)", "This orthogonality condition can be used to derive the formula for the IDFT from the definition of the DFT, and is equivalent to the unitarity property below.=== The Plancherel theorem and Parseval's theorem ===If and are the DFTs of and respectively then the Parseval's theorem states::where the star denotes complex conjugation.", "Plancherel theorem is a special case of the Parseval's theorem and states::These theorems are also equivalent to the unitary condition below.===Periodicity===The periodicity can be shown directly from the definition:: Similarly, it can be shown that the IDFT formula leads to a periodic extension.===Shift theorem===Multiplying by a ''linear phase'' for some integer ''m'' corresponds to a ''circular shift'' of the output : is replaced by , where the subscript is interpreted modulo ''N'' (i.e., periodically).", "Similarly, a circular shift of the input corresponds to multiplying the output by a linear phase.", "Mathematically, if represents the vector '''x''' then:if :then :and ===Circular convolution theorem and cross-correlation theorem===The convolution theorem for the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) indicates that a convolution of two sequences can be obtained as the inverse transform of the product of the individual transforms.", "An important simplification occurs when one of sequences is N-periodic, denoted here by because is non-zero at only discrete frequencies (see ), and therefore so is its product with the continuous function   That leads to a considerable simplification of the inverse transform.", ":where is a periodic summation of the sequence''':''' Customarily, the DFT and inverse DFT summations are taken over the domain .", "Defining those DFTs as and , the result is''':''':In practice, the sequence is usually length ''N'' or less, and is a periodic extension of an N-length -sequence, which can also be expressed as a ''circular function''''':''':Then the convolution can be written as''':'''which gives rise to the interpretation as a ''circular'' convolution of and It is often used to efficiently compute their linear convolution.", "(see Circular convolution, Fast convolution algorithms, and Overlap-save)Similarly, the cross-correlation of and is given by''':''':=== Uniqueness of the Discrete Fourier Transform ===As seen above, the discrete Fourier transform has the fundamental property of carrying convolution into componentwise product.", "A natural question is whether it is the only one with this ability.", "It has been shown that any linear transform that turns convolution into pointwise product is the DFT up to a permutation of coefficients.", "Since the number of permutations of n elements equals n!, there exists exactly n!", "linear and invertible maps with the same fundamental property as the DFT with respect to convolution.=== Convolution theorem duality ===It can also be shown that''':'''::: which is the circular convolution of and .===Trigonometric interpolation polynomial===The trigonometric interpolation polynomial:where the coefficients ''X''''k'' are given by the DFT of ''x''''n'' above, satisfies the interpolation property for .For even ''N'', notice that the Nyquist component is handled specially.This interpolation is ''not unique'': aliasing implies that one could add ''N'' to any of the complex-sinusoid frequencies (e.g.", "changing to ) without changing the interpolation property, but giving ''different'' values in between the points.", "The choice above, however, is typical because it has two useful properties.", "First, it consists of sinusoids whose frequencies have the smallest possible magnitudes: the interpolation is bandlimited.", "Second, if the are real numbers, then is real as well.In contrast, the most obvious trigonometric interpolation polynomial is the one in which the frequencies range from 0 to (instead of roughly to as above), similar to the inverse DFT formula.", "This interpolation does ''not'' minimize the slope, and is ''not'' generally real-valued for real ; its use is a common mistake.=== The unitary DFT ===Another way of looking at the DFT is to note that in the above discussion, the DFT can be expressed as the DFT matrix, a Vandermonde matrix, introduced by Sylvester in 1867,:where is a primitive ''N''th root of unity.For example, in the case when , , and :(which is a Hadamard matrix) or when as in the above, , and :The inverse transform is then given by the inverse of the above matrix,:With unitary normalization constants , the DFT becomes a unitary transformation, defined by a unitary matrix::where is the determinant function.", "The determinant is the product of the eigenvalues, which are always or as described below.", "In a real vector space, a unitary transformation can be thought of as simply a rigid rotation of the coordinate system, and all of the properties of a rigid rotation can be found in the unitary DFT.The orthogonality of the DFT is now expressed as an orthonormality condition (which arises in many areas of mathematics as described in root of unity)::If '''X''' is defined as the unitary DFT of the vector '''x''', then:and the Parseval's theorem is expressed as:If we view the DFT as just a coordinate transformation which simply specifies the components of a vector in a new coordinate system, then the above is just the statement that the dot product of two vectors is preserved under a unitary DFT transformation.", "For the special case , this implies that the length of a vector is preserved as well — this is just Plancherel theorem,:A consequence of the circular convolution theorem is that the DFT matrix diagonalizes any circulant matrix.=== Expressing the inverse DFT in terms of the DFT ===A useful property of the DFT is that the inverse DFT can be easily expressed in terms of the (forward) DFT, via several well-known \"tricks\".", "(For example, in computations, it is often convenient to only implement a fast Fourier transform corresponding to one transform direction and then to get the other transform direction from the first.", ")First, we can compute the inverse DFT by reversing all but one of the inputs (Duhamel ''et al.", "'', 1988)::(As usual, the subscripts are interpreted modulo ''N''; thus, for , we have .", ")Second, one can also conjugate the inputs and outputs::Third, a variant of this conjugation trick, which is sometimes preferable because it requires no modification of the data values, involves swapping real and imaginary parts (which can be done on a computer simply by modifying pointers).", "Define as with its real and imaginary parts swapped—that is, if then is .", "Equivalently, equals .", "Then:That is, the inverse transform is the same as the forward transform with the real and imaginary parts swapped for both input and output, up to a normalization (Duhamel ''et al.", "'', 1988).The conjugation trick can also be used to define a new transform, closely related to the DFT, that is involutory—that is, which is its own inverse.", "In particular, is clearly its own inverse: .", "A closely related involutory transformation (by a factor of ) is , since the factors in cancel the 2.For real inputs , the real part of is none other than the discrete Hartley transform, which is also involutory.=== Eigenvalues and eigenvectors ===The eigenvalues of the DFT matrix are simple and well-known, whereas the eigenvectors are complicated, not unique, and are the subject of ongoing research.Consider the unitary form defined above for the DFT of length ''N'', where:This matrix satisfies the matrix polynomial equation::This can be seen from the inverse properties above: operating twice gives the original data in reverse order, so operating four times gives back the original data and is thus the identity matrix.", "This means that the eigenvalues satisfy the equation::Therefore, the eigenvalues of are the fourth roots of unity: is +1, −1, +''i'', or −''i''.Since there are only four distinct eigenvalues for this matrix, they have some multiplicity.", "The multiplicity gives the number of linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue.", "(There are ''N'' independent eigenvectors; a unitary matrix is never defective.", ")The problem of their multiplicity was solved by McClellan and Parks (1972), although it was later shown to have been equivalent to a problem solved by Gauss (Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982).", "The multiplicity depends on the value of ''N'' modulo 4, and is given by the following table: Multiplicities of the eigenvalues λ of the unitary DFT matrix '''U''' as a function of the transform size ''N'' (in terms of an integer ''m'').", "size ''N'' λ = +1 λ = −1 λ = −''i'' λ = +''i'' 4''m'' ''m'' + 1 ''m'' ''m'' ''m'' − 1 4''m'' + 1 ''m'' + 1 ''m'' ''m'' ''m'' 4''m'' + 2 ''m'' + 1 ''m'' + 1 ''m'' ''m'' 4''m'' + 3 ''m'' + 1 ''m'' + 1 ''m'' + 1 ''m''Otherwise stated, the characteristic polynomial of is::No simple analytical formula for general eigenvectors is known.", "Moreover, the eigenvectors are not unique because any linear combination of eigenvectors for the same eigenvalue is also an eigenvector for that eigenvalue.", "Various researchers have proposed different choices of eigenvectors, selected to satisfy useful properties like orthogonality and to have \"simple\" forms (e.g., McClellan and Parks, 1972; Dickinson and Steiglitz, 1982; Grünbaum, 1982; Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997; Candan ''et al.", "'', 2000; Hanna ''et al.", "'', 2004; Gurevich and Hadani, 2008).A straightforward approach is to discretize an eigenfunction of the continuous Fourier transform,of which the most famous is the Gaussian function.Since periodic summation of the function means discretizing its frequency spectrumand discretization means periodic summation of the spectrum,the discretized and periodically summed Gaussian function yields an eigenvector of the discrete transform:*The closed form expression for the series can be expressed by Jacobi theta functions as*Two other simple closed-form analytical eigenvectors for special DFT period ''N'' were found (Kong, 2008):For DFT period ''N'' = 2''L'' + 1 = 4''K'' + 1, where ''K'' is an integer, the following is an eigenvector of DFT:*For DFT period ''N'' = 2''L'' = 4''K'', where ''K'' is an integer, the following is an eigenvector of DFT:*The choice of eigenvectors of the DFT matrix has become important in recent years in order to define a discrete analogue of the fractional Fourier transform—the DFT matrix can be taken to fractional powers by exponentiating the eigenvalues (e.g., Rubio and Santhanam, 2005).", "For the continuous Fourier transform, the natural orthogonal eigenfunctions are the Hermite functions, so various discrete analogues of these have been employed as the eigenvectors of the DFT, such as the Kravchuk polynomials (Atakishiyev and Wolf, 1997).", "The \"best\" choice of eigenvectors to define a fractional discrete Fourier transform remains an open question, however.=== Uncertainty principles ======= Probabilistic uncertainty principle ====If the random variable is constrained by:then : may be considered to represent a discrete probability mass function of , with an associated probability mass function constructed from the transformed variable,:For the case of continuous functions and , the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that:where and are the variances of and respectively, with the equality attained in the case of a suitably normalized Gaussian distribution.", "Although the variances may be analogously defined for the DFT, an analogous uncertainty principle is not useful, because the uncertainty will not be shift-invariant.", "Still, a meaningful uncertainty principle has been introduced by Massar and Spindel.However, the Hirschman entropic uncertainty will have a useful analog for the case of the DFT.", "The Hirschman uncertainty principle is expressed in terms of the Shannon entropy of the two probability functions.In the discrete case, the Shannon entropies are defined as:and:and the entropic uncertainty principle becomes:The equality is obtained for equal to translations and modulations of a suitably normalized Kronecker comb of period where is any exact integer divisor of .", "The probability mass function will then be proportional to a suitably translated Kronecker comb of period .==== Deterministic uncertainty principle ====There is also a well-known deterministic uncertainty principle that uses signal sparsity (or the number of non-zero coefficients).", "Let and be the number of non-zero elements of the time and frequency sequences and , respectively.", "Then, :As an immediate consequence of the inequality of arithmetic and geometric means, one also has .", "Both uncertainty principles were shown to be tight for specifically-chosen \"picket-fence\" sequences (discrete impulse trains), and find practical use for signal recovery applications.=== DFT of real and purely imaginary signals ===*If are real numbers, as they often are in practical applications, then the DFT is even symmetric::, where denotes complex conjugation.It follows that for even and are real-valued, and the remainder of the DFT is completely specified by just complex numbers.", "*If are purely imaginary numbers, then the DFT is odd symmetric::, where denotes complex conjugation." ], [ "Generalized DFT (shifted and non-linear phase)", "It is possible to shift the transform sampling in time and/or frequency domain by some real shifts ''a'' and ''b'', respectively.", "This is sometimes known as a '''generalized DFT''' (or '''GDFT'''), also called the '''shifted DFT''' or '''offset DFT''', and has analogous properties to the ordinary DFT::Most often, shifts of (half a sample) are used.While the ordinary DFT corresponds to a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains, produces a signal that is anti-periodic in frequency domain () and vice versa for .Thus, the specific case of is known as an ''odd-time odd-frequency'' discrete Fourier transform (or O2 DFT).Such shifted transforms are most often used for symmetric data, to represent different boundary symmetries, and for real-symmetric data they correspond to different forms of the discrete cosine and sine transforms.Another interesting choice is , which is called the '''centered DFT''' (or '''CDFT''').", "The centered DFT has the useful property that, when ''N'' is a multiple of four, all four of its eigenvalues (see above) have equal multiplicities (Rubio and Santhanam, 2005)The term GDFT is also used for the non-linear phase extensions of DFT.", "Hence, GDFT method provides a generalization for constant amplitude orthogonal block transforms including linear and non-linear phase types.", "GDFT is a framework to improve time and frequency domain properties of the traditional DFT, e.g.", "auto/cross-correlations, by the addition of the properly designed phase shaping function (non-linear, in general) to the original linear phase functions (Akansu and Agirman-Tosun, 2010).The discrete Fourier transform can be viewed as a special case of the z-transform, evaluated on the unit circle in the complex plane; more general z-transforms correspond to ''complex'' shifts ''a'' and ''b'' above.==Multidimensional DFT==The ordinary DFT transforms a one-dimensional sequence or array that is a function of exactly one discrete variable ''n''.", "The multidimensional DFT of a multidimensional array that is a function of ''d'' discrete variables for in is defined by::where as above and the ''d'' output indices run from .", "This is more compactly expressed in vector notation, where we define and as ''d''-dimensional vectors of indices from 0 to , which we define as ::where the division is defined as to be performed element-wise, and the sum denotes the set of nested summations above.The inverse of the multi-dimensional DFT is, analogous to the one-dimensional case, given by::As the one-dimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of sinusoids, the multidimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of plane waves, or multidimensional sinusoids.", "The direction of oscillation in space is .", "The amplitudes are .", "This decomposition is of great importance for everything from digital image processing (two-dimensional) to solving partial differential equations.", "The solution is broken up into plane waves.The multidimensional DFT can be computed by the composition of a sequence of one-dimensional DFTs along each dimension.", "In the two-dimensional case the independent DFTs of the rows (i.e., along ) are computed first to form a new array .", "Then the independent DFTs of ''y'' along the columns (along ) are computed to form the final result .", "Alternatively the columns can be computed first and then the rows.", "The order is immaterial because the nested summations above commute.An algorithm to compute a one-dimensional DFT is thus sufficient to efficiently compute a multidimensional DFT.", "This approach is known as the ''row-column'' algorithm.", "There are also intrinsically multidimensional FFT algorithms.=== The real-input multidimensional DFT ===For input data consisting of real numbers, the DFT outputs have a conjugate symmetry similar to the one-dimensional case above::where the star again denotes complex conjugation and the -th subscript is again interpreted modulo (for )." ], [ "Applications", "The DFT has seen wide usage across a large number of fields; we only sketch a few examples below (see also the references at the end).", "All applications of the DFT depend crucially on the availability of a fast algorithm to compute discrete Fourier transforms and their inverses, a fast Fourier transform.=== Spectral analysis ===Discrete transforms embedded in time & space.When the DFT is used for signal spectral analysis, the sequence usually represents a finite set of uniformly spaced time-samples of some signal , where represents time.", "The conversion from continuous time to samples (discrete-time) changes the underlying Fourier transform of into a discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT), which generally entails a type of distortion called aliasing.", "Choice of an appropriate sample-rate (see ''Nyquist rate'') is the key to minimizing that distortion.", "Similarly, the conversion from a very long (or infinite) sequence to a manageable size entails a type of distortion called ''leakage'', which is manifested as a loss of detail (a.k.a.", "resolution) in the DTFT.", "Choice of an appropriate sub-sequence length is the primary key to minimizing that effect.", "When the available data (and time to process it) is more than the amount needed to attain the desired frequency resolution, a standard technique is to perform multiple DFTs, for example to create a spectrogram.", "If the desired result is a power spectrum and noise or randomness is present in the data, averaging the magnitude components of the multiple DFTs is a useful procedure to reduce the variance of the spectrum (also called a periodogram in this context); two examples of such techniques are the Welch method and the Bartlett method; the general subject of estimating the power spectrum of a noisy signal is called spectral estimation.A final source of distortion (or perhaps ''illusion'') is the DFT itself, because it is just a discrete sampling of the DTFT, which is a function of a continuous frequency domain.", "That can be mitigated by increasing the resolution of the DFT.", "That procedure is illustrated at .", "*The procedure is sometimes referred to as ''zero-padding'', which is a particular implementation used in conjunction with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm.", "The inefficiency of performing multiplications and additions with zero-valued \"samples\" is more than offset by the inherent efficiency of the FFT.", "*As already stated, leakage imposes a limit on the inherent resolution of the DTFT, so there is a practical limit to the benefit that can be obtained from a fine-grained DFT.=== Optics, diffraction, and tomography ===The discrete Fourier transform is widely used with spatial frequencies in modeling the way that light, electrons, and other probes travel through optical systems and scatter from objects in two and three dimensions.", "The dual (direct/reciprocal) vector space of three dimensional objects further makes available a three dimensional reciprocal lattice, whose construction from translucent object shadows (via the Fourier slice theorem) allows tomographic reconstruction of three dimensional objects with a wide range of applications e.g.", "in modern medicine.=== Filter bank ===See and .===Data compression===The field of digital signal processing relies heavily on operations in the frequency domain (i.e.", "on the Fourier transform).", "For example, several lossy image and sound compression methods employ the discrete Fourier transform: the signal is cut into short segments, each is transformed, and then the Fourier coefficients of high frequencies, which are assumed to be unnoticeable, are discarded.", "The decompressor computes the inverse transform based on this reduced number of Fourier coefficients.", "(Compression applications often use a specialized form of the DFT, the discrete cosine transform or sometimes the modified discrete cosine transform.", ")Some relatively recent compression algorithms, however, use wavelet transforms, which give a more uniform compromise between time and frequency domain than obtained by chopping data into segments and transforming each segment.", "In the case of JPEG2000, this avoids the spurious image features that appear when images are highly compressed with the original JPEG.===Partial differential equations===Discrete Fourier transforms are often used to solve partial differential equations, where again the DFT is used as an approximation for the Fourier series (which is recovered in the limit of infinite ''N'').", "The advantage of this approach is that it expands the signal in complex exponentials , which are eigenfunctions of differentiation: .", "Thus, in the Fourier representation, differentiation is simple—we just multiply by .", "(However, the choice of is not unique due to aliasing; for the method to be convergent, a choice similar to that in the trigonometric interpolation section above should be used.)", "A linear differential equation with constant coefficients is transformed into an easily solvable algebraic equation.", "One then uses the inverse DFT to transform the result back into the ordinary spatial representation.", "Such an approach is called a spectral method.===Polynomial multiplication===Suppose we wish to compute the polynomial product ''c''(''x'') = ''a''(''x'') · ''b''(''x'').", "The ordinary product expression for the coefficients of ''c'' involves a linear (acyclic) convolution, where indices do not \"wrap around.\"", "This can be rewritten as a cyclic convolution by taking the coefficient vectors for ''a''(''x'') and ''b''(''x'') with constant term first, then appending zeros so that the resultant coefficient vectors '''a''' and '''b''' have dimension .", "Then,:Where '''c''' is the vector of coefficients for ''c''(''x''), and the convolution operator is defined so:But convolution becomes multiplication under the DFT::Here the vector product is taken elementwise.", "Thus the coefficients of the product polynomial ''c''(''x'') are just the terms 0, ..., deg(''a''(''x'')) + deg(''b''(''x'')) of the coefficient vector:With a fast Fourier transform, the resulting algorithm takes ''O''(''N'' log ''N'') arithmetic operations.", "Due to its simplicity and speed, the Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm, which is limited to composite sizes, is often chosen for the transform operation.", "In this case, ''d'' should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g.", "2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation).====Multiplication of large integers====The fastest known algorithms for the multiplication of very large integers use the polynomial multiplication method outlined above.", "Integers can be treated as the value of a polynomial evaluated specifically at the number base, with the coefficients of the polynomial corresponding to the digits in that base (ex.", ").", "After polynomial multiplication, a relatively low-complexity carry-propagation step completes the multiplication.==== Convolution ====When data is convolved with a function with wide support, such as for downsampling by a large sampling ratio, because of the Convolution theorem and the FFT algorithm, it may be faster to transform it, multiply pointwise by the transform of the filter and then reverse transform it.", "Alternatively, a good filter is obtained by simply truncating the transformed data and re-transforming the shortened data set." ], [ "Some discrete Fourier transform pairs", "+ '''Some DFT pairs''' Note Frequency shift theorem Time shift theorem Real DFT from the geometric progression formula from the binomial theorem is a rectangular window function of ''W'' points centered on ''n''=0, where ''W'' is an odd integer, and is a sinc-like function (specifically, is a Dirichlet kernel) Discretization and periodic summation of the scaled Gaussian functions for .", "Since either or is larger than one and thus warrants fast convergence of one of the two series, for large you may choose to compute the frequency spectrum and convert to the time domain using the discrete Fourier transform." ], [ "Generalizations", "=== Representation theory ===The DFT can be interpreted as a complex-valued representation of the finite cyclic group.", "In other words, a sequence of complex numbers can be thought of as an element of -dimensional complex space or equivalently a function from the finite cyclic group of order to the complex numbers, .", "So is a class function on the finite cyclic group, and thus can be expressed as a linear combination of the irreducible characters of this group, which are the roots of unity.From this point of view, one may generalize the DFT to representation theory generally, or more narrowly to the representation theory of finite groups.More narrowly still, one may generalize the DFT by either changing the target (taking values in a field other than the complex numbers), or the domain (a group other than a finite cyclic group), as detailed in the sequel.=== Other fields ===Many of the properties of the DFT only depend on the fact that is a primitive root of unity, sometimes denoted or (so that ).", "Such properties include the completeness, orthogonality, Plancherel/Parseval, periodicity, shift, convolution, and unitarity properties above, as well as many FFT algorithms.", "For this reason, the discrete Fourier transform can be defined by using roots of unity in fields other than the complex numbers, and such generalizations are commonly called ''number-theoretic transforms'' (NTTs) in the case of finite fields.", "For more information, see number-theoretic transform and discrete Fourier transform (general).=== Other finite groups ===The standard DFT acts on a sequence ''x''0, ''x''1, ..., ''x''''N''−1 of complex numbers, which can be viewed as a function {0, 1, ..., ''N'' − 1} → '''C'''.", "The multidimensional DFT acts on multidimensional sequences, which can be viewed as functions:This suggests the generalization to Fourier transforms on arbitrary finite groups, which act on functions ''G'' → '''C''' where ''G'' is a finite group.", "In this framework, the standard DFT is seen as the Fourier transform on a cyclic group, while the multidimensional DFT is a Fourier transform on a direct sum of cyclic groups.Further, Fourier transform can be on cosets of a group." ], [ "Alternatives", " There are various alternatives to the DFT for various applications, prominent among which are wavelets.", "The analog of the DFT is the discrete wavelet transform (DWT).", "From the point of view of time–frequency analysis, a key limitation of the Fourier transform is that it does not include ''location'' information, only ''frequency'' information, and thus has difficulty in representing transients.", "As wavelets have location as well as frequency, they are better able to represent location, at the expense of greater difficulty representing frequency.", "For details, see comparison of the discrete wavelet transform with the discrete Fourier transform." ], [ "See also", "*Companion matrix*DFT matrix*Fast Fourier transform*FFTPACK*FFTW*Generalizations of Pauli matrices*Least-squares spectral analysis*List of Fourier-related transforms*Multidimensional transform*Zak transform*Quantum Fourier transform" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * esp.", "section 30.2: The DFT and FFT, pp. 830–838.", "* * * (Note that this paper has an apparent typo in its table of the eigenvalue multiplicities: the +''i''/−''i'' columns are interchanged.", "The correct table can be found in McClellan and Parks, 1972, and is easily confirmed numerically.", ")* * * * *** *" ], [ "External links", "* Interactive explanation of the DFT* Matlab tutorial on the Discrete Fourier Transformation * Interactive flash tutorial on the DFT* Mathematics of the Discrete Fourier Transform by Julius O. Smith III* FFTW: Fast implementation of the DFT - coded in C and under General Public License (GPL)* General Purpose FFT Package: Yet another fast DFT implementation in C & FORTRAN, permissive license* Explained: The Discrete Fourier Transform* Discrete Fourier Transform* Indexing and shifting of Discrete Fourier Transform* Discrete Fourier Transform Properties* Generalized Discrete Fourier Transform (GDFT) with Nonlinear Phase" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dual polyhedron" ], [ "Introduction", "The dual of a cube is an octahedron.", "Vertices of one correspond to faces of the other, and edges correspond to each other.In geometry, every polyhedron is associated with a second '''dual''' structure, where the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other.", "Such dual figures remain combinatorial or abstract polyhedra, but not all can also be constructed as geometric polyhedra.", "Starting with any given polyhedron, the dual of its dual is the original polyhedron.Duality preserves the symmetries of a polyhedron.", "Therefore, for many classes of polyhedra defined by their symmetries, the duals belong to a corresponding symmetry class.", "For example, the regular polyhedrathe (convex) Platonic solids and (star) Kepler–Poinsot polyhedraform dual pairs, where the regular tetrahedron is self-dual.", "The dual of an isogonal polyhedron (one in which any two vertices are equivalent under symmetries of the polyhedron) is an isohedral polyhedron (one in which any two faces are equivalent ...), and vice versa.", "The dual of an isotoxal polyhedron (one in which any two edges are equivalent ...) is also isotoxal.Duality is closely related to ''polar reciprocity'', a geometric transformation that, when applied to a convex polyhedron, realizes the dual polyhedron as another convex polyhedron." ], [ "Kinds of duality", "The dual of a Platonic solid can be constructed by connecting the face centers.", "In general this creates only a topological dual.Images from Kepler's Harmonices Mundi (1619)There are many kinds of duality.", "The kinds most relevant to elementary polyhedra are polar reciprocity and topological or abstract duality.===Polar reciprocation===In Euclidean space, the dual of a polyhedron is often defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a sphere.", "Here, each vertex (pole) is associated with a face plane (polar plane or just polar) so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius.When the sphere has radius and is centered at the origin (so that it is defined by the equation ), then the polar dual of a convex polyhedron is defined aswhere denotes the standard dot product of and .Typically when no sphere is specified in the construction of the dual, then the unit sphere is used, meaning in the above definitions.For each face plane of described by the linear equationthe corresponding vertex of the dual polyhedron will have coordinates .", "Similarly, each vertex of corresponds to a face plane of , and each edge line of corresponds to an edge line of .", "The correspondence between the vertices, edges, and faces of and reverses inclusion.", "For example, if an edge of contains a vertex, the corresponding edge of will be contained in the corresponding face.For a polyhedron with a center of symmetry, it is common to use a sphere centered on this point, as in the Dorman Luke construction (mentioned below).", "Failing that, for a polyhedron with a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents), this can be used.", "However, it is possible to reciprocate a polyhedron about any sphere, and the resulting form of the dual will depend on the size and position of the sphere; as the sphere is varied, so too is the dual form.", "The choice of center for the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity.If a polyhedron in Euclidean space has a face plane, edge line, or vertex lying on the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will go to infinity.", "Since Euclidean space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, may be formed by adding the required 'plane at infinity'.", "Some theorists prefer to stick to Euclidean space and say that there is no dual.", "Meanwhile, found a way to represent these infinite duals, in a manner suitable for making models (of some finite portion).The concept of ''duality'' here is closely related to the duality in projective geometry, where lines and edges are interchanged.", "Projective polarity works well enough for convex polyhedra.", "But for non-convex figures such as star polyhedra, when we seek to rigorously define this form of polyhedral duality in terms of projective polarity, various problems appear.Because of the definitional issues for geometric duality of non-convex polyhedra, argues that any proper definition of a non-convex polyhedron should include a notion of a dual polyhedron.====Canonical duals====Canonical dual compound of cuboctahedron (light) and rhombic dodecahedron (dark).", "Pairs of edges meet on their common midsphere.Any convex polyhedron can be distorted into a canonical form, in which a unit midsphere (or intersphere) exists tangent to every edge, and such that the average position of the points of tangency is the center of the sphere.", "This form is unique up to congruences.If we reciprocate such a canonical polyhedron about its midsphere, the dual polyhedron will share the same edge-tangency points, and thus will also be canonical.", "It is the canonical dual, and the two together form a canonical dual compound.====Dorman Luke construction====For a uniform polyhedron, each face of the dual polyhedron may be derived from the original polyhedron's corresponding vertex figure by using the Dorman Luke construction.===Topological duality===Even when a pair of polyhedra cannot be obtained by reciprocation from each other, they may be called duals of each other as long as the vertices of one correspond to the faces of the other, and the edges of one correspond to the edges of the other, in an incidence-preserving way.", "Such pairs of polyhedra are still topologically or abstractly dual.The vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron form a graph (the 1-skeleton of the polyhedron), embedded on the surface of the polyhedron (a topological sphere).", "This graph can be projected to form a Schlegel diagram on a flat plane.", "The graph formed by the vertices and edges of the dual polyhedron is the dual graph of the original graph.More generally, for any polyhedron whose faces form a closed surface, the vertices and edges of the polyhedron form a graph embedded on this surface, and the vertices and edges of the (abstract) dual polyhedron form the dual graph of the original graph.An abstract polyhedron is a certain kind of partially ordered set (poset) of elements, such that incidences, or connections, between elements of the set correspond to incidences between elements (faces, edges, vertices) of a polyhedron.", "Every such poset has a dual poset, formed by reversing all of the order relations.", "If the poset is visualized as a Hasse diagram, the dual poset can be visualized simply by turning the Hasse diagram upside down.Every geometric polyhedron corresponds to an abstract polyhedron in this way, and has an abstract dual polyhedron.", "However, for some types of non-convex geometric polyhedra, the dual polyhedra may not be realizable geometrically." ], [ "Self-dual polyhedra", "Topologically, a self-dual polyhedron is one whose dual has exactly the same connectivity between vertices, edges and faces.", "Abstractly, they have the same Hasse diagram.A geometrically '''self-dual polyhedron''' is not only topologically self-dual, but its polar reciprocal about a certain point, typically its centroid, is a similar figure.", "For example, the dual of a regular tetrahedron is another regular tetrahedron, reflected through the origin.Every polygon (that is, a two-dimensional polyhedron) is topologically self-dual, since it has the same number of vertices as edges, and these are switched by duality.", "But it is not necessarily self-dual (up to rigid motion, for instance).", "Every polygon has a regular form which is geometrically self-dual about its intersphere: all angles are congruent, as are all edges, so under duality these congruences swap.Similarly, every topologically self-dual convex polyhedron can be realized by an equivalent geometrically self-dual polyhedron, its canonical polyhedron, reciprocal about the center of the midsphere.There are infinitely many geometrically self-dual polyhedra.", "The simplest infinite family are the canonical pyramids of ''n'' sides.", "Another infinite family, elongated pyramids, consists of polyhedra that can be roughly described as a pyramid sitting on top of a prism (with the same number of sides).", "Adding a frustum (pyramid with the top cut off) below the prism generates another infinite family, and so on.There are many other convex, self-dual polyhedra.", "For example, there are 6 different ones with 7 vertices, and 16 with 8 vertices.A self-dual non-convex icosahedron with hexagonal faces was identified by Brückner in 1900.Other non-convex self-dual polyhedra have been found, under certain definitions of non-convex polyhedra and their duals.+ Family of pyramids100px3100px4100px5100px6+ Family of elongated pyramids100px3100px4100px5+ Family of diminished trapezohedra 80px3 80px4 80px5 80px6 80px7" ], [ "Dual polytopes and tessellations", "Duality can be generalized to ''n''-dimensional space and '''dual polytopes;''' in two dimension these are called dual polygons.The vertices of one polytope correspond to the (''n'' − 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the ''j'' points that define a (''j'' − 1)-dimensional element will correspond to ''j'' hyperplanes that intersect to give a (''n'' − ''j'')-dimensional element.", "The dual of an ''n''-dimensional tessellation or honeycomb can be defined similarly.In general, the facets of a polytope's dual will be the topological duals of the polytope's vertex figures.", "For the polar reciprocals of the regular and uniform polytopes, the dual facets will be polar reciprocals of the original's vertex figure.", "For example, in four dimensions, the vertex figure of the 600-cell is the icosahedron; the dual of the 600-cell is the 120-cell, whose facets are dodecahedra, which are the dual of the icosahedron.===Self-dual polytopes and tessellations===The square tiling, {4,4}, is self-dual, as shown by these red and blue tilingsThe Infinite-order apeirogonal tiling, {∞,∞} in red, and its dual position in blueThe primary class of self-dual polytopes are regular polytopes with palindromic Schläfli symbols.", "All regular polygons, {a} are self-dual, polyhedra of the form {a,a}, 4-polytopes of the form {a,b,a}, 5-polytopes of the form {a,b,b,a}, etc.The self-dual regular polytopes are:* All regular polygons, {a}.", "* Regular tetrahedron: {3,3}* In general, all regular ''n''-simplexes, {3,3,...,3}* The regular 24-cell in 4 dimensions, {3,4,3}.", "* The great 120-cell {5,5/2,5} and the grand stellated 120-cell {5/2,5,5/2}The self-dual (infinite) regular Euclidean honeycombs are:* Apeirogon: {∞}* Square tiling: {4,4}* Cubic honeycomb: {4,3,4}* In general, all regular ''n''-dimensional Euclidean hypercubic honeycombs: {4,3,...,3,4}.The self-dual (infinite) regular hyperbolic honeycombs are:* Compact hyperbolic tilings: {5,5}, {6,6}, ...", "{p,p}.", "* Paracompact hyperbolic tiling: {∞,∞}* Compact hyperbolic honeycombs: {3,5,3}, {5,3,5}, and {5,3,3,5}* Paracompact hyperbolic honeycombs: {3,6,3}, {6,3,6}, {4,4,4}, and {3,3,4,3,3}" ], [ "See also", "* Conway polyhedron notation* Dual polygon* Self-dual graph* Self-dual polygon" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===*.*.*.*.*.*.", "*." ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Double bass" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''double bass''' (), also known as the '''upright bass''', the '''acoustic bass''', or simply the '''bass''' (), is the largest and lowest-pitched chordophone, in the modern symphony orchestra (excluding rare additions such as the octobass).", "Similar in structure to the cello, it has four or five strings.The bass is a standard member of the orchestra's string section, along with violins, viola, and cello, as well as the concert band, and is featured in concertos, solo, and chamber music in Western classical music.", "The bass is used in a range of other genres, such as jazz, blues, rock and roll, rockabilly, country music, bluegrass, tango, folk music and certain types of film and video game soundtracks.Being a transposing instrument, the bass is typically notated one octave higher than tuned to avoid excessive ledger lines below the staff.", "The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a bass guitar, viol, or the first four strings of a standard guitar), rather than fifths, with strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2 and G2.The instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, with scholars divided on whether the bass is derived from the viol or the violin family.The double bass is played with a bow (arco), or by plucking the strings (pizzicato), or via a variety of extended techniques.", "In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed.", "In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm.", "Classical music and jazz use the natural sound produced acoustically by the instrument, as does traditional bluegrass.", "In funk, blues, reggae, and related genres, the double bass is often amplified." ], [ "Terminology", "Master bassist Ron Carter pictured playing with his Quartet at \"Altes Pfandhaus\" in CologneA person who plays this instrument is called a \"bassist\", \"double bassist\", \"double bass player\", \"contrabassist\", \"contrabass player\" or \"bass player\".", "The names '''contrabass''' and '''double bass''' refer (respectively) to the instrument's range, and to its use one octave lower than the cello (i.e.", "the cello part was the main bass line, and the \"double bass\" originally played a copy of the cello part; only later was it given an independent part).", "The terms for the instrument among classical performers are '''contrabass''' (which comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabbasso), '''string bass''' (to distinguish it from brass bass instruments in a concert band, such as tubas), or simply '''bass'''.In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres outside of classical music, this instrument is commonly called the '''upright bass''', '''standup bass''' or '''acoustic bass''' to distinguish it from the (usually electric) bass guitar.", "In folk and bluegrass music, the instrument is also referred to as a \"bass fiddle\" or \"bass violin\" (or more rarely as \"doghouse bass\" or \"bull fiddle\").", "As a member of the violin-family of instruments, the construction of the upright bass is quite different from that of the acoustic bass guitar, as the latter is a derivative of the electric bass guitar, and usually built like a larger and sturdier variant of an acoustic guitar.The double bass is sometimes confusingly called the '''violone''', '''bass violin''' or '''bass viol'''." ], [ "Description", "Ellen Andrea Wang performing at the Oslo Jazz FestivalA typical double bass stands around from scroll to endpin.", "Whereas the traditional \"full-size\" ( size) bass stands 74.8 inches, the more common size bass (which has become the most widely used size in the modern era, even among orchestral players) stands 71.6 inches from scroll to endpin.", "Other sizes are also available, such as a size or size, which serve to accommodate a player's height and hand size.", "These names of the sizes do not reflect the true size relative to a \"full size\" bass; a bass is not half the length of a bass, but is only about 15% smaller.Double basses are typically constructed from several types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard.", "It is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the violin family.", "While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family instruments, it also embodies features found in the older viol family.The notes of the open strings are E1, A1, D2, and G2, the same as an acoustic or electric bass guitar.", "However, the resonance of the wood, combined with the violin-like construction and long scale length gives the double bass a much richer tone than the bass guitar, in addition to the ability to use a bow, while the fretless fingerboard accommodates smooth glissandos and legatos." ], [ "Playing style", "Like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato).", "When employing a bow, the player can either use it traditionally or strike the wood of the bow against the string.", "In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed.", "In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos and occasional written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing.In classical pedagogy, almost all of the focus is on performing with the bow and producing a good bowed tone; there is little work done on developing significant pizzicato skills.", "Bowed notes in the lowest register of the instrument produce a dark, heavy, mighty, or even menacing effect, when played with a fortissimo dynamic; however, the same low pitches played with a delicate pianissimo can create a sonorous, mellow accompaniment line.", "Classical bass students learn all of the different bow articulations used by other string section players (e.g., violin and cello), such as détaché, legato, staccato, sforzato, martelé (\"hammered\"-style), sul ponticello, sul tasto, tremolo, spiccato and sautillé.", "Some of these articulations can be combined; for example, the combination of sul ponticello and tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds.", "Classical bass players do play pizzicato parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes (quarter notes, half notes, whole notes), rather than rapid passages.Double bass is a standard instrument in bluegrass groups.Classical players perform both bowed and pizz notes using vibrato, an effect created by rocking or quivering the left hand finger that is contacting the string, which then transfers an undulation in pitch to the tone.", "Vibrato is used to add expression to string playing.", "In general, very loud, low-register passages are played with little or no vibrato, as the main goal with low pitches is to provide a clear fundamental bass for the string section.", "Mid- and higher-register melodies are typically played with more vibrato.", "The speed and intensity of the vibrato is varied by the performer for an emotional and musical effect.In jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on playing pizzicato.", "In jazz and jump blues, bassists are required to play rapid pizzicato walking basslines for extended periods.", "Jazz and rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that enable them to play rapid solos that incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures.", "Pizzicato basslines performed by leading jazz professionals are much more difficult than the pizzicato basslines that classical bassists encounter in the standard orchestral literature, which are typically whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and occasional eighth note passages.", "In jazz and related styles, bassists often add semi-percussive \"ghost notes\" into basslines, to add to the rhythmic feel and to add fills to a bassline.The double bass player stands, or sits on a high stool, and leans the instrument against their body, turned slightly inward to put the strings comfortably in reach.", "This stance is a key reason for the bass's sloped shoulders, which mark it apart from the other members of the violin family—the narrower shoulders facilitate playing the strings in their higher registers." ], [ "History", "Some early basses were conversions of existing violones.", "This 1640 painting by Peter Lely, a painter of Dutch origin, shows a violone being played.The double bass is generally regarded as a modern descendant of ''bass Violin'', a member of the chordophone family that originated in Europe in the 15th century.", "Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the viol family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family.", "The double bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it is deeper (the distance from front to back is proportionally much greater than the violin).", "In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viol family.", "Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques.", "Before these modifications, the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like a viol), rather than fifths (see Tuning below).", "The instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viol family is one that has not been entirely resolved.In his ''A New History of the Double Bass'', Paul Brun asserts that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family.", "He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to instruments in the violin family, and very different from the internal structure of viols.Double bass professor Larry Hurst argues that the \"modern double bass is not a true member of either the violin or viol families\".", "He says that \"most likely its first general shape was that of a violone, the largest member of the viol family.", "Some of the earliest basses extant are violones, (including C-shaped sound holes) that have been fitted with modern trappings.\"", "Some existing instruments, such as those by Gasparo da Salò, were converted from 16th-century six-string contrabass violoni." ], [ "Design", "Example of a Busetto-shaped double bass: remake of a Matthias Klotz (1700) by Rumano SolanoPrincipal parts of the double bassThere are two major approaches to the design outline shape of the double bass: the ''violin form'' (shown in the labelled picture in the construction section); and the ''viola da gamba'' form (shown in the header picture of this article).", "A third less common design, called the ''busetto'' shape, can also be found, as can the even more rare ''guitar'' or ''pear'' shape.", "The back of the instrument can vary from being a round, carved back similar to that of the violin, to a flat and angled back similar to the viol family.The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the violin family, including a wooden, carved bridge to support the strings, two f-holes, a tailpiece into which the ball ends of the strings are inserted (with the tailpiece anchored around the endpin mount), an ornamental scroll near the pegbox, a nut with grooves for each string at the junction of the fingerboard and the pegbox and a sturdy, thick sound post, which transmits the vibrations from the top of the instrument to the hollow body and supports the pressure of the string tension.", "Unlike the rest of the violin family, the double bass still reflects influences, and can be considered partly derived, from the viol family of instruments, in particular the violone, the lowest-pitched and largest bass member of the viol family.", "For example, the bass is tuned in fourths, like a viol, rather than in fifths, which is the standard in the violin group.", "Also, notice that the 'shoulders' meet the neck in a curve, rather than the sharp angle seen among violins.", "As with the other violin and viol family instruments that are played with a bow (and unlike mainly plucked or picked instruments like guitar), the double bass's bridge has an arc-like, curved shape.", "This is done because with bowed instruments, the player must be able to play individual strings.", "If the double bass were to have a flat bridge, it would be impossible to bow the A and D strings individually.The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that the shoulders are typically sloped and the back is often angled (both to allow easier access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range).", "Machine tuners are always fitted, in contrast to the rest of the violin family, where traditional wooden friction pegs are still the primary means of tuning.", "Lack of standardization in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different from another.===Construction===The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but has some notable similarities to the violone (\"large viol\"), the largest and lowest-pitched member of the viol family.", "Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of the double bass is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or four).", "The fingerboard is made of ebony on high-quality instruments; on less expensive student instruments, other woods may be used and then painted or stained black (a process called \"ebonizing\").", "The fingerboard is radiused using a curve, for the same reason that the bridge is curved: if the fingerboard and bridge were to be flat, then a bassist would not be able to bow the inner two strings individually.", "By using a curved bridge and a curved fingerboard, the bassist can align the bow with any of the four strings and play them individually.", "Unlike the violin and viola, but like the cello, the bass fingerboard is somewhat flattened out underneath the E string (the C string on cello), this is commonly known as a Romberg bevel.", "The vast majority of fingerboards cannot be adjusted by the performer; any adjustments must be made by a luthier.", "A very small number of expensive basses for professionals have adjustable fingerboards, in which a screw mechanism can be used to raise or lower the fingerboard height.An important distinction between the double bass and other members of the violin family is the construction of the pegbox and the tuning mechanism.", "While the violin, viola, and cello all use friction pegs for tuning adjustments (tightening and loosening the string tension to raise or lower the string's pitch), the double bass has metal machine heads and gears.", "One of the challenges with tuning pegs is that the friction between the wood peg and the peg hole may become insufficient to hold the peg in place, particularly if the peg hole become worn and enlarged.", "The key on the tuning machine of a double bass turns a metal ''worm'', which drives a worm gear that winds the string.", "Turning the key in one direction tightens the string (thus raising its pitch); turning the key the opposite direction reduces the tension on the string (thus lowering its pitch).", "While this development makes fine tuners on the tailpiece (important for violin, viola and cello players, as their instruments use friction pegs for major pitch adjustments) unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use them nevertheless.", "One rationale for using fine tuners on bass is that for instruments with the low C extension, the pulley system for the long string may not effectively transfer turns of the key into changes of string tension/pitch.", "At the base of the double bass is a metal rod with a spiked or rubberized end called the endpin, which rests on the floor.", "This endpin is generally thicker and more robust than that of a cello, because of the greater mass of the instrument.The materials most often used in double bass construction for fully carved basses (the type used by professional orchestra bassists and soloists) are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece).", "The tailpiece may be made from other types of wood or non-wood materials.", "Less expensive basses are typically constructed with laminated (plywood) tops, backs, and ribs, or are hybrid models produced with laminated backs and sides and carved solid wood tops.", "Some 2010-era lower- to mid-priced basses are made of willow, student models constructed of Fiberglass were produced in the mid-20th century, and some (typically fairly expensive) basses have been constructed of carbon fiber.This photo shows the thick soundpost on a double bass (circled in green).Laminated (plywood) basses, which are widely used in music schools, youth orchestras, and in popular and folk music settings (including rockabilly, psychobilly, blues, etc.", "), are very resistant to humidity and heat, as well to the physical abuse they are apt to encounter in a school environment (or, for blues and folk musicians, to the hazards of touring and performing in bars).", "Another option is the hybrid body bass, which has a laminated back and a carved or solid wood top.", "It is less costly and somewhat less fragile (at least regarding its back) than a fully carved bass.The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction.", "All the parts of a double bass are glued together, except the soundpost, bridge, and tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension (although the soundpost usually remains in place when the instrument's strings are loosened or removed, as long as the bass is kept on its back.", "Some luthiers recommend changing only one string at a time to reduce the risk of the soundpost falling).", "If the soundpost falls, a luthier is needed to put the soundpost back into position, as this must be done with tools inserted into the f-holes; moreover, the exact placement of the soundpost under the bridge is essential for the instrument to sound its best.", "Basic bridges are carved from a single piece of wood, which is customized to match the shape of the top of each instrument.", "The least expensive bridges on student instruments may be customized just by sanding the feet to match the shape of the instrument's top.", "A bridge on a professional bassist's instrument may be ornately carved by a luthier.Professional bassists are more likely to have adjustable bridges, which have a metal screw mechanism.", "This enables the bassist to raise or lower the height of the strings to accommodate changing humidity or temperature conditions.", "The metal tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws.", "While tuning mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin.Famous double bass makers come from around the world and often represent varied national characteristics.", "The most highly sought (and expensive) instruments come from Italy and include basses made by Giovanni Paolo Maggini, Gasparo da Salò, the Testore family (Carlo Antonio, Carlo Giuseppe, Gennaro, Giovanni, Paulo Antonio), Celestino Puolotti, and Matteo Goffriller.", "French and English basses from famous makers are also sought out by players.====Travel instruments====Several manufacturers make travel instruments, which are double basses that have features which reduce the size of the instrument so that the instrument will meet airline travel requirements.", "Travel basses are designed for touring musicians.", "One type of travel bass has a much smaller body than normal, while still retaining all of the features needed for playing.", "While these smaller-body instruments appear similar to electric upright basses, the difference is that small-body travel basses still have a fairly large hollow acoustic sound chamber, while many EUBs are solid body, or only have a small hollow chamber.", "A second type of travel bass has a hinged or removable neck and a regular sized body.", "The hinged or removable neck makes the instrument smaller when it is packed for transportation.===Strings===Detail of the bridge and stringsGut stringsThe history of the double bass is tightly coupled to the development of string technology, as it was the advent of overwound gut strings, which first rendered the instrument more generally practicable, as wound or overwound strings attain low notes within a smaller overall string diameter than non-wound strings.", "Professor Larry Hurst argues that had \"it not been for the appearance of the overwound gut string in the 1650s, the double bass would surely have become extinct\", because thicknesses needed for regular gut strings made the lower-pitched strings almost unplayable and hindered the development of fluid, rapid playing in the lower register.Prior to the 20th century, double bass strings were usually made of catgut; however, steel has largely replaced it, because steel strings hold their pitch better and yield more volume when played with the bow.", "Gut strings are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and break more easily than steel strings.Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque ensembles, rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands.", "In some cases, the low E and A are wound in silver, to give them added mass.", "Gut strings provide the dark, \"thumpy\" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings.", "The late Jeff Sarli, a blues upright bassist, said that \"Starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the necks on basses for steel strings.\"", "Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the \"slapping\" upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings, because gut does not hurt the plucking fingers as much.", "A less expensive alternative to gut strings is nylon strings; the higher strings are pure nylon, and the lower strings are nylon wrapped in wire, to add more mass to the string, slowing the vibration, and thus facilitating lower pitches.The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique over the last hundred years.", "Steel strings can be set up closer to the fingerboard and, additionally, strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone.", "The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not use the low E string in higher positions because older gut strings, set up high over the fingerboard, could not produce clear tone in these higher positions.", "However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when they use modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings.===Bows===The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below).", "The \"French\" or \"overhand\" bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the \"German\" or \"Butler\" bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a \"hand shake\" (or \"hacksaw\") position.French (upper) and German bows comparedThese two bows provide different ways of moving the arm and distributing force and weight on the strings.", "Proponents of the French bow argue that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds the bow.", "Advocates of the German bow claim that it allows the player to apply more arm weight on the strings.", "The differences between the two, however, are minute for a proficient player, and modern players in major orchestras use both bows.====German bow====German-style bowThe German bow (sometimes called the Butler bow) is the older of the two designs.", "The design of the bow and the manner of holding it descend from the older viol instrument family.", "With older viols, before frogs had screw threads to tighten the bow, players held the bow with two fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain tension of the hair.", "Proponents of the use of German bow claim that the German bow is easier to use for heavy strokes that require a lot of power.Compared to the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog, and the player holds it with the palm angled upwards, as with the upright members of the viol family.", "When held in the traditionally correct manner, the thumb applies the necessary power to generate the desired sound.", "The index finger meets the bow at the point where the frog meets the stick.", "The index finger also applies an upward torque to the frog when tilting the bow.", "The little finger (or \"pinky\") supports the frog from underneath, while the ring finger and middle finger rest in the space between the hair and the shaft.====French bow====French-style bowThe French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by 19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini.", "This style is more similar to the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments.", "It is held as if the hand is resting by the side of the performer with the palm facing toward the bass.", "The thumb rests on the shaft of the bow, next to the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the bow.", "Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the style of piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is used for virtuoso or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and sturdier grip on the bow sacrifices some power for easier control in strokes such as detaché, spiccato, and staccato.A bassist holding a French bow; note how the thumb rests on the shaft of the bow next to the frog.====Bow construction and materials====Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from .", "In general, a bass bow is shorter and heavier than a cello bow.", "Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are increasingly being used.", "Inexpensive student bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, which makes the bow much lighter than a wooden bow (even too light to produce a good tone, in some cases).", "Student bows may also be made of the less valuable varieties of brazilwood.", "Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in bows of a variety of different qualities.", "The frog of the double bass bow is usually made out of ebony, although snakewood and buffalo horn are used by some luthiers.", "The frog is movable, as it can be tightened or loosened with a knob (like all violin family bows).", "The bow is loosened at the end of a practice session or performance.", "The bow is tightened before playing, until it reaches a tautness that is preferred by the player.", "The frog on a quality bow is decorated with mother of pearl inlay.Bows have a leather wrapping on the wooden part of the bow near the frog.", "Along with the leather wrapping, there is also a wire wrapping, made of gold or silver in quality bows.", "The hair is usually horsehair.", "Part of the regular maintenance of a bow is having the bow \"rehaired\" by a luthier with fresh horsehair and having the leather and wire wrapping replaced.", "The double bass bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a combination of the two (known as \"salt and pepper\"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments.", "Some bassists argue that the slightly rougher black hair \"grabs\" the heavier, lower strings better.", "As well, some bassists and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white variety.", "Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists.", "Some of the lowest-quality, lowest cost student bows are made with synthetic hair.", "Synthetic hair does not have the tiny \"barbs\" that real horsehair has, so it does not \"grip\" the string well or take rosin well.====Rosin====A variety of rosin typesString players apply rosin to the bow hair so it \"grips\" the string and makes it vibrate.", "Double bass rosin is generally softer and stickier than violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but players use a wide variety of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the humidity, and the preference of the player.", "The amount used generally depends on the type of music being performed as well as the personal preferences of the player.", "Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large orchestra (e.g., Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works.", "Some brands of rosin, such as Wiedoeft or Pop's double bass rosin, are softer and more prone to melting in hot weather.", "Other brands, such as Carlsson or Nyman Harts double bass rosin, are harder and less prone to melting." ], [ "Mechanism of sound production", "Owing to their relatively small diameters, the strings themselves do not move much air and therefore cannot produce much sound on their own.", "The vibrational energy of the strings must somehow be transferred to the surrounding air.", "To do this, the strings vibrate the bridge and this in turn vibrates the top surface.", "Very small amplitude but relatively large force variations (due to the cyclically varying tension in the vibrating string) at the bridge are transformed to larger amplitude ones by combination of bridge and body of the bass.", "The bridge transforms the high force, small amplitude vibrations to lower force higher amplitude vibrations on the top of the bass body.", "The top is connected to the back by means of a sound post, so the back also vibrates.", "Both the front and back transmit the vibrations to the air and act to match the impedance of the vibrating string to the acoustic impedance of the air." ], [ "Specific sound and tone production mechanism", "Because the acoustic bass is a non-fretted instrument, any string vibration due to plucking or bowing will cause an audible sound due to the strings vibrating against the fingerboard near to the fingered position.", "This buzzing sound gives the note its character." ], [ "Pitch", "The bass (or F) clef is used for most double bass music.The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at approximately 41 Hz or a C1 (≈33 Hz), or sometimes B0 (≈31 Hz), when five strings are used.", "This is within about an octave above the lowest frequency that the average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch.", "The top of the instrument's fingerboard range is typically near D5, two octaves and a fifth above the open pitch of the G string (G2), as shown in the range illustration found at the head of this article.", "Playing beyond the end of the fingerboard can be accomplished by pulling the string slightly to the side.Double bass symphony parts sometimes indicate that the performer should play harmonics (also called flageolet tones), in which the bassist lightly touches the string–without pressing it onto the fingerboard in the usual fashion–in the location of a note and then plucks or bows the note.", "Bowed harmonics are used in contemporary music for their \"glassy\" sound.", "Both natural harmonics and artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point, extend the instrument's range considerably.", "Natural and artificial harmonics are used in plenty of virtuoso concertos for the double bass.Orchestral parts from the standard Classical repertoire rarely demand the double bass exceed a two-octave and a minor third range, from E1 to G3, with occasional A3s appearing in the standard repertoire (an exception to this rule is Orff's ''Carmina Burana'', which calls for three octaves and a perfect fourth).", "The upper limit of this range is extended a great deal for 20th- and 21st-century orchestral parts (e.g., Prokofiev's ''Lieutenant Kijé Suite'' (1933) bass solo, which calls for notes as high as D4 and E4).", "The upper range a virtuoso solo player can achieve using natural and artificial harmonics is hard to define, as it depends on the skill of the particular player.", "The high harmonic in the range illustration found at the head of this article may be taken as representative rather than normative.Five-string instruments have an additional string, typically tuned to a low B below the E string (B0).", "On rare occasions, a higher string is added instead, tuned to the C above the G string (C3).", "Four-string instruments may feature the C extension extending the range of the E string downwards to C1 (sometimes B0).Traditionally, the double bass is a transposing instrument.", "Since much of the double bass's range lies below the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher than it sounds to avoid having to use excessive ledger lines below the staff.", "Thus, when double bass players and cellists are playing from a combined bass-cello part, as used in many Mozart and Haydn symphonies, they will play in octaves, with the basses one octave below the cellos.", "This transposition applies even when bass players are reading the tenor and treble clef (which are used in solo playing and some orchestral parts).", "The tenor clef is also used by composers for cello and low brass parts.", "The use of tenor or treble clef avoids excessive ledger lines above the staff when notating the instrument's upper range.", "Other notation traditions exist.", "Italian solo music is typically written at the sounding pitch, and the \"old\" German method sounded an octave below where notation except in the treble clef, where the music was written at pitch." ], [ "Tuning", "===Regular tuning===Double bass player Vivien Garry playing a show in New York City in 1947The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to other members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths (for example, the violin's four strings are, from lowest-pitched to highest-pitched: G–D–A–E).", "The standard tuning (lowest-pitched to highest-pitched) for bass is E–A–D–G, starting from E below second low C (concert pitch).", "This is the same as the standard tuning of a bass guitar and is one octave lower than the four lowest-pitched strings of standard guitar tuning.", "Prior to the 19th-century, many double basses had only three strings; \"Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) favored the three-stringed instrument popular in Italy at the time\", because \"the three-stringed instrument was viewed as being more sonorous\".", "Many cobla bands in Catalonia still have players using traditional three-string double basses tuned A–D–G.Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass.", "Notes below low E appear regularly in the double bass parts found in later arrangements and interpretations of Baroque music.", "In the Classical era, the double bass typically doubled the cello part an octave below, occasionally requiring descent to C below the E of the four-string double bass.", "In the Romantic era and the 20th century, composers such as Wagner, Mahler, Busoni and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E.There are several methods for making these notes available to the player.", "Players with standard double basses (E–A–D–G) may play the notes below \"E\" an octave higher or if this sounds awkward, the entire passage may be transposed up an octave.", "The player may tune the low E string down to the lowest note required in the piece: D or C. Four-string basses may be fitted with a \"low-C extension\" (see below).", "Or the player may employ a five-string instrument, with the additional lower string tuned to C, or (more commonly in modern times) B, three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Several major European orchestras use basses with a fifth string.===C extension===A low-C extension with wooden mechanical \"fingers\" that stop the string at C, D, E, or E. For orchestral passages which only go down to a low E, the \"finger\" at the nut is usually closed.Most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a ''C extension''.", "This is an extra section of fingerboard mounted on the head of the bass.", "It extends the fingerboard under the lowest string and gives an additional four semitones of downward range.", "The lowest string is typically tuned down to C1, an octave below the lowest note on the cello (as it is quite common for a bass part to double the cello part an octave lower).", "More rarely this string may be tuned to a low B0, as a few works in the orchestral repertoire call for such a B, such as Respighi's ''The Pines of Rome''.", "In rare cases, some players have a low B extension, which has B as its lowest note.", "There are several varieties of extensions:In the simplest mechanical extensions, there are no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard extension except a locking nut or \"gate\" for the E note.", "To play the extension notes, the player reaches back over the area under the scroll to press the string to the fingerboard.", "The advantage of this \"fingered\" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on the extension, and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers.", "The disadvantage of the \"fingered\" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline that quickly alternates between G1 and D1.The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden \"fingers\" or \"gates\" that can be closed to press the string down and fret the C, D, E, or E notes.", "This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such as a low D because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical finger the lowest string sounds a different note when played open.The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions is the mechanical lever system nicknamed the ''machine''.", "This lever system, which superficially resembles the keying mechanism of reed instruments such as the bassoon, mounts levers beside the regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the E-string side), which remotely activate metal \"fingers\" on the extension fingerboard.", "The most expensive metal lever systems also give the player the ability to \"lock\" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden \"finger\" system.", "One criticism of these devices is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises.Once a mechanical \"finger\" of the wooden \"finger\" extension or the metal \"finger\" machine extension is locked down or depressed, it is not easy to make microtonal pitch adjustments or glissando effects, as is possible with a hand-fingered extension.Five-string basses, in which the lowest string is normally B0, may use either a two semitone extension, providing a low A, or the very rare low G extension.===Other tuning variations===A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C1–G1–D2–A2 low to high).", "This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is used by some classical players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington.", "Advocates of tuning the bass in fifths point out that all of the other orchestral strings are tuned in fifths (violin, viola, and cello), so this puts the bass in the same tuning approach.", "Fifth tuning provides a bassist with a wider range of pitch than a standard E–A–D–G bass, as it ranges (without an extension) from C1 to A2.Some players who use fifths tuning who play a five-string bass use an additional high E3 string (thus, from lowest to highest: C–G–D–A–E).", "Some fifth tuning bassists who only have a four string instrument and who are mainly performing soloistic works use the G–D–A–E tuning, thus omitting the low C string but gaining a high E. Some fifth tuning bassists who use a five-string use a smaller scale instrument, thus making fingering somewhat easier.", "The Berlioz–Strauss Treatise on Instrumentation (first published in 1844) states that \"A good orchestra should have several four-string double-basses, some of them tuned in fifths and thirds.\"", "The book then shows a tuning of E1–G1–D2–A2) from bottom to top string.", "\"Together with the other double-basses tuned in fourths, a combination of open strings would be available, which would greatly increase the sonority of the orchestra.", "\"In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F1–B1–E2–A2).", "This higher tuning is called \"solo tuning\", whereas the regular tuning is known as \"orchestral tuning\".", "Solo tuning strings are generally thinner than regular strings.", "String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge.", "Strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning and published solo music is arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning.", "Some popular solos and concerti, such as the ''Koussevitsky Concerto'' are available in both solo and orchestral tuning arrangements.", "Solo tuning strings can be tuned down a tone to play in orchestra pitch, but the strings often lack projection in orchestral tuning and their pitch may be unstable.Some contemporary composers specify highly specialized scordatura (intentionally changing the tuning of the open strings).", "Changing the pitch of the open strings makes different notes available as pedal points and harmonics.Berio, for example, asks the player to tune their strings E1–G1–D2–G2 in ''Sequenza XIVb'' and Scelsi asks for both F1–A1–D2–E2 and F1–A1–F2–E2 in ''Nuits''.", "A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is (A1–D2–G2–C3), which omits the low E string from orchestral tuning and then adds a high C string.", "The tololoche in Mexico (a smaller variant of the double bass) also uses the A-D-G-C tuning.", "Some bassists with five-string basses use a high C3 string as the fifth string, instead of a low B0 string.", "Adding the high C string facilitates the performance of solo repertoire with a high tessitura (range).", "Another option is to utilize both a low C (or low B) extension and a high C string.====Five strings====When choosing a bass with a fifth string, the player may decide between adding a higher-pitched string (a high C string) or a lower-pitched string (typically a low B).", "To accommodate the additional fifth string, the fingerboard is usually slightly widened, and the top slightly thicker, to handle the increased tension.", "Most five-string basses are therefore larger in size than a standard four-string bass.", "Some five-stringed instruments are converted four-string instruments.", "Because these do not have wider fingerboards, some players find them more difficult to finger and bow.", "Converted four-string basses usually require either a new, thicker top, or lighter strings to compensate for the increased tension.====Six strings====The six-string double bass has both a high C and a low B, making it very useful, and it is becoming more practical after several updates.", "It is ideal for solo and orchestral playing because it has a more playable range.", "This can be achieved on a six-string violone in D by restringing it with double bass strings, making the tuning B0–E1–A1–D2–G2–C3." ], [ "Playing and performance considerations", "===Body and hand position===French double-bass player and composer Renaud Garcia-Fons during a performanceDouble bassists either stand or sit to play the instrument.", "The instrument height is set by adjusting the endpin such that the player can reach the desired playing zones of the strings with bow or plucking hand.", "Bassists who stand and bow sometimes set the endpin by aligning the first finger in either first or half position with eye level, although there is little standardization in this regard.", "Players who sit generally use a stool about the height of the player's trousers inseam length.Traditionally, double bassists stood to play solo and sat to play in the orchestra or opera pit.", "Now, it is unusual for a player to be equally proficient in both positions, so some soloists sit (as with Joel Quarrington, Jeff Bradetich, Thierry Barbé, and others) and some orchestral bassists stand.When playing in the instrument's upper range (above G3, the G below middle C), the player shifts the hand from behind the neck and flattens it out, using the side of the thumb to press down the string.", "This technique—also used on the cello—is called ''thumb position''.", "While playing in thumb position, few players use the fourth (little) finger, as it is usually too weak to produce reliable tone (this is also true for cellists), although some extreme chords or extended techniques, especially in contemporary music, may require its use.===Physical considerations===Rockabilly style can be very demanding on the plucking hand, due to rockabilly's use of \"slapping\" on the fingerboard.Performing on bass can be physically demanding, because the strings are under relatively high tension.", "Also, the space between notes on the fingerboard is large, due to scale length and string spacing, so players must hold their fingers apart for the notes in the lower positions and shift positions frequently to play basslines.", "As with all non-fretted string instruments, performers must learn to place their fingers precisely to produce the correct pitch.", "For bassists with shorter arms or smaller hands, the large spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge, especially in the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest.", "However, the increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument.Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in range.", "These parts are usually given to the cello section, since the cello is a smaller instrument on which these techniques are more easily performed.Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available, and the large size of the bass prevented children from playing the instrument until they grew to a height and hand size that allowed them to play a -size model (the most common size).", "Starting in the 1990s, smaller , , , and even -sized instruments became more widely available, so children could start younger.===Volume===Despite the size of the instrument, it is not as loud as many other instruments, due to its low musical pitch.", "In a large orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists play the same bassline in unison to produce enough volume.", "In the largest orchestras, bass sections may have as many as ten or twelve players, but modern budget constraints make bass sections this large unusual.When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers typically ensure the orchestration is light so it does not obscure the bass.", "While amplification is rarely used in classical music, in some cases where a bass soloist performs a concerto with a full orchestra, subtle amplification called acoustic enhancement may be used.", "The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical setting has led to debate within the classical community, as \"...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of Classical voices or instruments in a given hall should not be altered\".Psychobilly bassist Jimbo Wallace onstage with Reverend Horton Heat; note his large bass stack consisting of a 15-inch cabinet, a quadruple 10-inch cabinet, and an amplifier \"head\".In many genres, such as jazz and blues, players use amplification via a specialized amplifier and loudspeakers.", "A piezoelectric pickup connects to the amplifier with a -inch cable.", "Bluegrass and jazz players typically use less amplification than blues, psychobilly, or jam band players.", "In the latter cases, high overall volume from other amplifiers and instruments may cause unwanted acoustic feedback, a problem exacerbated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume.", "The feedback problem has led to technological fixes like electronic feedback eliminator devices (essentially an automated notch filter that identifies and reduces frequencies where feedback occurs) and instruments like the electric upright bass, which has playing characteristics like the double bass but usually little or no soundbox, which makes feedback less likely.", "Some bassists reduce the problem of feedback by lowering their onstage volume or playing further away from their bass amp speakers.In rockabilly and psychobilly, percussively slapping the strings against the fingerboard is an important part of the bass playing style.", "Since piezoelectric pickups are not good at reproducing the sounds of strings being slapped against the fingerboard, bassists in these genres often use both piezoelectric pickups (for the low bass tone) and a miniature condenser mic (to pick up the percussive slapping sounds).", "These two signals are blended together using a simple mixer before the signal is sent to the bass amp.===Transportation===The double bass's large size and relative fragility make it cumbersome to handle and transport.", "Most bassists use soft cases, referred to as gig bags, to protect the instrument during transport.", "These range from inexpensive, thin unpadded cases used by students (which only protect against scratches and rain) to thickly padded versions for professional players, which also protect against bumps and impacts.", "Some bassists carry their bow in a hard bow case; more expensive bass cases have a large pocket for a bow case.", "Players also may use a small cart and end pin-attached wheels to move the bass.", "Some higher-priced padded cases have wheels attached to the case.", "Another option found in higher-priced padded cases are backpack straps, to make it easier to carry the instrument.Hard flight cases for double bassesHard flight cases have cushioned interiors and tough exteriors of carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass, or Kevlar.", "The cost of good hard cases–several thousand US dollars–and the high airline fees for shipping them tend to limit their use to touring professionals.===Accessories===A wooden mute attached to the bass bridge to make the tone darker (a drawing from 1900)Double bass players use various accessories to help them to perform and rehearse.", "Three types of mutes are used in orchestral music: a wooden mute that slides onto the bridge, a rubber mute that attaches to the bridge and a wire device with brass weights that fits onto the bridge.", "The player uses the mute when the Italian instruction ''con sordino'' (\"with mute\") appears in the bass part, and removes it in response to the instruction ''senza sordino'' (\"without mute\").", "With the mute on, the tone of the bass is quieter, darker, and more somber.", "Bowed bass parts with a mute can have a nasal tone.", "Players use a third type of mute, a heavy rubber practice mute, to practice quietly without disturbing others (e.g., in a hotel room).A quiver is an accessory for holding the bow.", "It is often made of leather and it attaches to the bridge and tailpiece with ties or straps.", "It is used to hold the bow while a player plays pizzicato parts.A wolf tone eliminator is used to lessen unwanted sympathetic vibrations in the part of a string between the bridge and the tailpiece which can cause tone problems for certain notes.", "It is a rubber tube cut down the side that is used with a cylindrical metal sleeve which also has a slot on the side.", "The metal cylinder has a screw and a nut that fastens the device to the string.", "Different placements of the cylinder along the string influence or eliminate the frequency at which the wolf tone occurs.", "It is essentially an attenuator that slightly shifts the natural frequency of the string (and/or instrument body) cutting down on the reverberation.", "The wolf tone occurs because the strings below the bridge sometimes resonate at pitches close to notes on the playing part of the string.", "When the intended note makes the below-the-bridge string vibrate sympathetically, a dissonant \"wolf note\" or \"wolf tone\" can occur.", "In some cases, the wolf tone is strong enough to cause an audible \"beating\" sound.", "The wolf tone often occurs with the note G on the bass.In orchestra, instruments tune to an A played by the oboist.", "Due to the three-octave gap between the oboist's tuning A and the open A string on the bass (for example, in an orchestra that tunes to 440 Hz, the oboist plays an A4 at 440 Hz and the open A1 of the bass is 55 Hz) it can be difficult to tune the bass by ear during the short period that the oboist plays the tuning note.", "Violinists, on the other hand, tune their A string to the same frequency as the oboist's tuning note.", "There is a method commonly used to tune a double bass in this context by playing the A harmonic on the D string (which is only an octave below the oboe A) and then matching the harmonics of the other strings.", "However, this method is not foolproof, since some basses' harmonics are not perfectly in tune with the open strings.", "To ensure the bass is in tune, some bassists use an electronic tuner that indicates pitch on a small display.", "Bassists who play in styles that use a bass amp, such as blues, rockabilly, or jazz, may use a stompbox-format electronic tuner, which mutes the bass pickup during tuning.A double bass stand is used to hold the instrument in place and raise it a few inches off the ground.", "A wide variety of stands are available, and there is no one common design." ], [ "Classical repertoire", "===Solo works for double bass=======1700s====The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and many of the most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass.", "The double bass, then often referred to as the Violone, used different tunings from region to region.", "The \"Viennese tuning\" (A1–D2–F2–A2) was popular, and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added (F1–A1–D2–F2–A2).", "The popularity of the instrument is documented in Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschule, where he writes \"One can bring forth difficult passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful performances of concertos, trios, solos, etc.", "\"The Italian bass virtuoso Domenico Dragonetti helped to encourage composers to give more difficult parts for his instrument.The earliest known concerto for double bass was written by Joseph Haydn 1763, and is presumed lost in a fire at the Eisenstadt library.", "The earliest known existing concertos are by Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass.", "Other composers that have written concertos from this period include Johann Baptist Wanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos).", "While many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally unknown by contemporary audiences.", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, ''Per questa bella mano'', K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains impressive writing for solo double bass of that period.", "It remains popular among both singers and double bassists today.The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a louder sound.", "The leading double bassists from the mid-to-late 18th century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Mathias Sperger employed the \"Viennese\" tuning.", "Bassist Johann Hindle (1792–1862), who composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double bass and its role in solo works.", "Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven.", "His playing was known all the way from his homeland Italy to the Tsardom of Russia and he found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London.", "Beethoven's friendship with Dragonetti may have inspired him to write difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies, such as the impressive passages in the third movement of the Fifth Symphony, the second movement of the Seventh Symphony, and last movement of the Ninth Symphony.", "These parts do not double the cello part.Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and piano.", "During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of 1824, he composed his popular Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons.", "Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned G–D–A from top to bottom.", "The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and principal bassists in orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden top of the bass, which was thought to create a more resonant sound.", "As well, the low E-strings used during the 19th century were thick cords made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play.====1800s====The virtuoso nineteenth-century bassist and composer Giovanni Bottesini with his 1716 Carlo Antonio Testore bassIn the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni Bottesini was considered the \"Paganini of the double bass\" of his time, a reference to the violin virtuoso and composer.", "Bottesini's bass concertos were written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the double bass in a way that was not seen beforehand.", "They require virtuosic runs and great leaps to the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of natural and artificial harmonics.", "Many 19th century and early 20th century bassists considered these compositions unplayable, but in the 2000s, they are frequently performed.", "During the same time, a prominent school of bass players in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Mišek.", "Simandl and Hrabe were also pedagogues whose method books and studies remain in use in the 2000s.====1900s–present====The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument.", "Because of improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is now played at a more advanced level than ever before and more and more composers have written works for the double bass.", "In the mid-century and in the following decades, many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikos Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's Concertino (1957), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), Hans Werner Henze's Concerto (1966) and Frank Proto's Concerto No.", "1 (1968).The ''Solo For Contrabass'' is one of the parts of John Cage's ''Concert For Piano And Orchestra'' and can be played as a solo, or with any of the other parts both orchestral and/or piano.", "Similarly, his solo contrabass parts for the orchestral work ''Atlas Eclipticalis'' can also be performed as solos.", "Cage's indeterminate works such as ''Variations I'', ''Variations II'', ''Fontana Mix'', ''Cartridge Music'' et al.", "can be arranged for a solo contrabassist.", "His work ''26.1.1499 for a String Player'' is often realized by a solo contrabass player, although it can also be played by a violinist, violist, or cellist.From the 1960s through the end of the century Gary Karr was the leading proponent of the double bass as a solo instrument and was active in commissioning or having hundreds of new works and concerti written especially for him.", "Karr was given Koussevitzky's famous solo double bass by Olga Koussevitsky and played it in concerts around the world for 40 years before, in turn, giving the instrument to the International Society of Bassists for talented soloists to use in concert.", "Another important performer in this period, Bertram Turetzky, commissioned and premiered more than 300 double bass works.Serge Koussevitzky popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument.In the 1970s, 1980 and 1990s, new concerti included Nino Rota's ''Divertimento for Double Bass and Orchestra'' (1973), Alan Ridout's concerto for double bass and strings (1974), Jean Françaix's Concerto (1975), Frank Proto's Concerto No.", "2, Einojuhani Rautavaara's ''Angel of Dusk'' (1980), Gian Carlo Menotti's Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988) and Frank Proto's \"Carmen Fantasy for Double Bass and Orchestra\" (1991) and \"Four Scenes after Picasso\" Concerto No.", "3 (1997).", "Peter Maxwell Davies' lyrical Strathclyde Concerto No.", "7, for double bass and orchestra, dates from 1992.In the first decade of the 21st century, new concerti include Frank Proto's \"Nine Variants on Paganini\" (2002), Kalevi Aho's Concerto (2005), John Harbison's ''Concerto for Bass Viol'' (2006), André Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double bass, and orchestra (2007) and John Woolrich's ''To the Silver Bow'', for double bass, viola and strings (2014).Reinhold Glière wrote an Intermezzo and Tarantella for double bass and piano, Op.", "9, No.", "1 and No.", "2 and a Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op.", "32 No.", "1 and No.", "2.Paul Hindemith wrote a rhythmically challenging Double Bass Sonata in 1949.Frank Proto wrote his Sonata \"1963\" for Double Bass and Piano.", "In the Soviet Union, Mieczysław Weinberg wrote his Sonata No.", "1 for double bass solo in 1971.Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces called ''Nuits'' in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote ''Maknongan'', a piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as double bass, contrabassoon, or tuba.", "Vincent Persichetti wrote solo works—which he called \"Parables\"—for many instruments.", "He wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op.", "131 in 1974.Sofia Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975.In 1976 American minimalist composer Tom Johnson wrote \"Failing – a very difficult piece for solo string bass\" in which the player has to perform an extremely virtuosic solo on the bass whilst simultaneously reciting a text which says how very difficult the piece is and how unlikely he or she is to successfully complete the performance without making a mistake.In 1977 Dutch-Hungarian composer Geza Frid wrote a set of variations on The Elephant from Saint-Saëns' Le Carnaval des Animaux for scordatura Double Bass and string orchestra.", "In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and Piano Op.", "24.Fernando Grillo wrote the \"Suite No.", "1\" for double bass (1983/2005).", "Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled ''Valentine''.", "US double bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded more than 300 pieces written by and for him.", "He writes chamber music, baroque music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational music and world musicUS minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register that he scored for timpani and double bass.", "Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans from the 1930s to the first decade of the 21st century, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled ''Naked Angel Face per contrabbasso''.", "Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called ''Lem for contrabbasso'' in the same year.", "In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born 1955) wrote a solo piece called ''In et Out'' for double bass.", "In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed ''Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacrée'' (\"He who sleeps in the sacred shadows\") for Radio France's Presence Festival.", "Renaud Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French double bass player and composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings of his pieces like ''Oriental Bass'' (1997).Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms No.11 for double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass.", "The German composer Gerhard Stäbler wrote ''Co-wie Kobalt'' (1989–90), \"...a music for double bass solo and grand orchestra\".", "Charles Wuorinen added several important works to the repertoire, ''Spinoff'' trio for double bass, violin and conga drums, and ''Trio for Bass Instruments'' double bass, tuba and bass trombone, and in 2007 ''Synaxis'' for double bass, horn, oboe and clarinet with timpani and strings.", "The suite \"Seven Screen Shots\" for double bass and piano (2005) by Ukrainian composer Alexander Shchetynsky has a solo bass part that includes many unconventional methods of playing.", "The German composer Claus Kühnl wrote ''Offene Weite / Open Expanse'' (1998) and ''Nachtschwarzes Meer, ringsum…'' (2005) for double bass and piano.In 1997 Joel Quarrington commissioned the American / Canadian composer Raymond Luedeke to write his \"Concerto for Double Bass and Orchestra\", a piece he performed with The Toronto Symphony Orchestra, with the Saskatoon Symphony Orchestra, and, in a version for small orchestra, with The Nova Scotia Symphony Orchestra.", "Composer Raymond Luedeke also composed a work for double bass, flute, and viola with narration, \"The Book of Questions\", with text by Pablo Neruda.In 2004 Italian double bassist and composer Stefano Scodanibbio made a double bass arrangement of Luciano Berio's 2002 solo cello work ''Sequenza XIV'' with the new title ''Sequenza XIVb''.===Chamber music with double bass===Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in chamber music has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet or piano trio.", "Despite this, there is a substantial number of chamber works that incorporate the double bass in both small and large ensembles.There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass.", "The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as \"The Trout Quintet\" for its set of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's ''Die Forelle''.", "Other works for this instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz.", "Later composers who wrote chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank Proto, and John Woolrich.", "Slightly larger sextets written for piano, string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, Richard Wernick, and Charles Ives.In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass.", "Antonín Dvořák's String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 (\"Eine kleine Nachtmusik\") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Miguel del Aguila (''Nostalgica'' for string quartet and bass), Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith.", "Another example is Alistair Hinton's String Quintet (1969–77), which also includes a major part for solo soprano; at almost 170 minutes in duration, it is almost certainly the largest such work in the repertoire.Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioachino Rossini, for two violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in 1804.These remain his most famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet.", "Rossini and Dragonetti composed duos for cello and double bass, as did Johannes Matthias Sperger, a major soloist on the \"Viennese\" tuning instrument of the 18th century.", "Franz Anton Hoffmeister wrote four String Quartets for Solo Double Bass, Violin, Viola, and Cello in D Major.", "Frank Proto has written a Trio for Violin, Viola and Double Bass (1974), 2 Duos for Violin and Double Bass (1967 and 2005), and ''The Games of October'' for Oboe/English Horn and Double Bass (1991).Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E major, Op.", "20, one of his most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass.", "When the clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803.Paul Hindemith used the same instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet.", "In the realm of even larger works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his \"Gran Partita\" Serenade, K.361 and Martinů used the double bass in his nonet for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello and double bass.Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Sergei Prokofiev's Quintet in G minor, Op.", "39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Miguel del Aguila's ''Malambo'' for bass flute and piano and for string quartet, bass and bassoon; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo, viola, and double bass; Frank Proto's ''Afro-American Fragments'' for bass clarinet, cello, double bass and narrator and Sextet for clarinet and strings; Fred Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mohammed Fairouz's Litany for double bass and wind quartet; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello, and double bass.", "There are also new music ensembles that utilize the double bass such as Time for Three and PROJECT Trio.===Orchestral passages and solos===In the baroque and classical periods, composers typically had the double bass double the cello part in orchestral passages.", "A notable exception is Haydn, who composed solo passages for the double bass in his Symphonies No.", "6 ''Le Matin'', No.", "7 ''Le midi'', No.", "8 ''Le Soir'', No.", "31 ''Horn Signal'', and No.", "45 ''Farewell''—but who otherwise grouped bass and cello parts together.", "Beethoven paved the way for separate double bass parts, which became more common in the romantic era.", "The scherzo and trio from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are famous orchestral excerpts, as is the recitative at the beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.", "In many nineteenth century symphonies and concertos, the typical impact of separate bass and cello parts was that bass parts became simpler and cello parts got the melodic lines and rapid passage work.A double bass section of a modern orchestra typically uses eight double bassists, usually in unison.", "Smaller orchestras may have four double basses, and in exceptional cases, bass sections may have as many as ten members.", "If some double bassists have low C extensions, and some have regular (low E) basses, those with the low C extensions may play some passages an octave below the regular double basses.", "Also, some composers write divided (divisi) parts for the basses, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to \"outside\" (nearer the audience) and \"inside\" players.", "Composers writing divisi parts for bass often write perfect intervals, such as octaves and fifths, but in some cases use thirds and sixths.Where a composition calls for a solo bass part, the principal bass invariably plays that part.", "The section leader (or principal) also determines the bowings, often based on bowings set out by the concertmaster.", "In some cases, the principal bass may use a slightly different bowing than the concertmaster, to accommodate the requirements of playing bass.", "The principal bass also leads entrances for the bass section, typically by lifting the bow or plucking hand before the entrance or indicating the entrance with the head, to ensure the section starts together.", "Major professional orchestras typically have an assistant principal bass player, who plays solos and leads the bass section if the principal is absent.While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples.", "Johannes Brahms, whose father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double bass in his symphonies.", "Richard Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the instrument to its limits.", "\"The Elephant\" from Camille Saint-Saëns' ''The Carnival of the Animals'' is a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made his televised debut playing \"The Swan\" (originally written for the cello) with the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein.", "The third movement of Gustav Mahler's first symphony features a solo for the double bass that quotes the children's song ''Frere Jacques'', transposed into a minor key.", "Sergei Prokofiev's ''Lieutenant Kijé Suite'' features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the \"Romance\" movement.", "Benjamin Britten's ''The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' contains a prominent passage for the double bass section.===Double bass ensembles===Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several composers have written or arranged for such ensembles.", "Compositions for four double basses exist by Gunther Schuller, Jacob Druckman, James Tenney, Claus Kühnl, Robert Ceely, Jan Alm, Bernhard Alt, Norman Ludwin, Frank Proto, Joseph Lauber, Erich Hartmann, Colin Brumby, Miloslav Gajdos and Theodore Albin Findeisen.", "David A. Jaffe's \"Who's on First?", "\", commissioned by the Russian National Orchestra is scored for five double basses.", "Bertold Hummel wrote a ''Sinfonia piccola'' for eight double basses.", "Larger ensemble works include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No.", "2, \"Dies Irae\" (1973), for eight double basses, piano, and wooden cube, José Serebrier's \"George and Muriel\" (1986), for solo bass, double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's ''What of my music!''", "(1979), for soprano, percussion, and 30 double basses.Double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members), Bass Instinct (6 members), Bassiona Amorosa (6 members), the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members), Ludus Gravis founded by Daniele Roccato and Stefano Scodanibbio, The Bass Gang (4 members), the London Double Bass Ensemble (6 members) founded by members of the Philharmonia Orchestra of London who produced the LP Music Interludes by London Double Bass Ensemble on Bruton Music records, Brno Double Bass Orchestra (14 members) founded by the double bass professor at Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts and principal double bass player at Brno Philharmonic Orchestra – Miloslav Jelinek, and the ensembles of Ball State University (12 members), Shenandoah University, and the Hartt School of Music.", "The Amarillo Bass Base of Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists, and The London Double Bass Sound, who have released a CD on Cala Records, have 10 players.In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Lower Wacker Consort.", "There is an increasing number of published compositions and arrangements for double bass ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features double bass ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large \"mass bass\" ensembles) at its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition Competition, which includes a division for double bass ensemble works." ], [ "Use in jazz", "Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches, ragtime, and Dixieland) was initially a marching band with a tuba or sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone) supplying the bass line.", "As the music moved into bars and brothels, the upright bass gradually replaced these wind instruments around the 1920s.", "Many early bassists doubled on both the ''brass bass (tuba)'' and ''string bass'', as the instruments were then often referred to.", "Bassists played improvised \"walking\" bass lines—scale- and arpeggio-based lines that outlined the chord progression.Because an unamplified upright bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the ''slap style'', slapping and pulling the strings to produce a rhythmic \"slap\" sound against the fingerboard.", "The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and made the bass more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies.", "For more about the slap style, see ''Modern playing styles'', below.Jazz bassist Charles Mingus was also an influential bandleader and composer whose musical interests spanned from bebop to free jazz.Jazz bass players are expected to improvise an accompaniment line or solo for a given chord progression.", "They are also expected to know the rhythmic patterns that are appropriate for different styles (e.g., Afro-Cuban).", "Bassists playing in a big band must also be able to read written-out bass lines, as some arrangements have written bass parts.Many upright bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz.", "Examples include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop.", "Paul Chambers (who worked with Miles Davis on the famous ''Kind of Blue'' album) achieved renown for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos with the bow.", "Terry Plumeri furthered the development of arco (bowed) solos, achieving horn-like technical freedom and a clear, vocal bowed tone, while Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz.A number of other bassists, such as Ray Brown, Slam Stewart and Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, were central to the history of jazz.", "Stewart, who was popular with the beboppers, played his solos with a bow combined with octave humming.", "Notably, Charles Mingus was a highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his technical virtuosity and powerful sound.", "Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of musicians by liberating the bass from contrapuntal \"walking\" behind soloists instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies.", "Since the commercial availability of bass amplifiers in the 1950s, jazz bassists have used amplification to augment the natural volume of the instrument.While the electric bass guitar was used intermittently in jazz as early as 1951, beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to commonly substitute the bass guitar for the upright bass.", "Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz however, the upright bass is still the dominant bass instrument in jazz.", "The sound and tone of the plucked upright bass is distinct from that of the fretted bass guitar.", "The upright bass produces a different sound than the bass guitar, because its strings are not stopped by metal frets, instead having a continuous tonal range on the uninterrupted fingerboard.", "As well, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that their sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings, instead of the upright bass's acoustic reverberation.Demonstrative examples of the sound of a solo double bass and its technical use in jazz can be heard on the solo recordings ''Emerald Tears'' (1978) by Dave Holland or ''Emergence'' (1986) by Miroslav Vitous.", "Holland also recorded an album with the representative title ''Music from Two Basses'' (1971) on which he plays with Barre Phillips while he sometimes switches to cello.==Use in bluegrass and country==The string bass is the most commonly used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow.", "The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in , or time.", "The bass also maintains the chord progression and harmony.", "The Engelhardt-Link (formerly Kay) brands of plywood laminate basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists.", "Most bluegrass bassists use the size bass, but the full-size and size basses are also used.Upright bass used by a bluegrass group; the cable for a piezoelectric pickup can be seen extending from the bridge.Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello.", "The cellist Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find \"...old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands with cello\".", "However, \"The cello dropped out of sight in folk music, and became associated with the orchestra.\"", "The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century.", "Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it is easier to transport than the large and somewhat fragile upright bass.", "However, the bass guitar has a different musical sound.", "Many musicians feel the slower attack and percussive, woody tone of the upright bass gives it a more \"earthy\" or \"natural\" sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used.Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in time; beats 1 and 2 in time, and on the downbeat in time (waltz time).", "Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a song.", "There are two main exceptions to this rule.", "Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic ''walkup'' or ''walkdown,'' in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a chord change.", "In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline.Country music bassist \"Too Slim\" (Fred LaBour of Riders in the Sky) performing in Ponca City, Oklahoma, in 2008An early bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue Grass Boys beginning in 1944.The classical bassist Edgar Meyer has frequently branched out into newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other genres.", "\"My all-time favorite is Todd Phillips\", proclaimed Union Station bassist Barry Bales in April 2005.", "\"He brought a completely different way of thinking about and playing bluegrass.An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music.", "While the upright bass is still occasionally used in country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin in country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country.===Slap-style bass===Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing.", "When bluegrass bass players slap the string by pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched percussive \"clack\" or \"slap\" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap dancer.", "Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene.", "Even slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, \"Don't slap on every gig\", or in songs where it is not appropriate.", "As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on records.", "Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap bass on recordings.", "While bassists such as Jack Cook slap bass on the occasional faster \"Clinch Mountain Boys song\", bassists such as Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, and Barry Bales rarely slap bass.Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his ''Intermediate Bluegrass Bass'' DVD acknowledges that slap bass \"...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded\".", "He notes that \"Even in traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien).\"", "Schatz states that he would be \"... more likely to use it slap in a live situation than on a recording—for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be obliterating someone's solo\".", "Another bluegrass method, ''Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass'', by Earl Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique.", "German bassist Didi Beck plays rapid triplet slaps, as demonstrated in this video." ], [ "Use in popular music", "In the early 1950s, the upright bass was the standard bass instrument in the emerging style of rock and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets being but one example.", "In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing.", "Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured an upright bass in his group, the Tympany Five.The upright bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass.", "However, upright bass players using their instruments in these contexts faced inherent problems.", "They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear.", "The upright bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback ''howls''.", "As well, the upright bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands.", "In some groups, the slap bass was utilized as band percussion in lieu of a drummer; such was the case with Bill Haley & His Saddlemen (the forerunner group to the Comets), which did not use drummers on recordings and live performances until late 1952; prior to this the slap bass was relied on for percussion, including on recordings such as Haley's versions of \"Rock the Joint\" and \"Rocket 88\".In 1951, Leo Fender released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar.", "The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in magnetic pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune than an upright bass, thanks to the metal frets.", "In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues.", "The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the upright bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.The upright bass began making a comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of folk and country music, as part of the roots rock and Americana trends.", "In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument.", "Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass, such as the Barenaked Ladies.", "A trend for \"unplugged\" performances on MTV, in which rock bands performed with solely acoustic instruments, further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars.Jim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies, pictured at a 2009 showJim Creeggan of Barenaked Ladies primarily plays upright bass, although he has increasingly played bass guitar throughout the band's career.", "Chris Wyse of alternative rock group Owl uses a combination of electric and double bass.", "Athol Guy of the Australian folk/pop group The Seekers plays an upright bass.", "Shannon Birchall, of the Australian folk-rock group The John Butler Trio, makes extensive use of upright basses, performing extended live solos in songs such as Betterman.", "On the 2008 album ''In Ear Park'' by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed upright bass is featured quite prominently on the songs \"Teenagers\" and \"In Ear Park\".", "Norwegian ompa-rock band Kaizers Orchestra use the upright bass exclusively both live and on their recordings.French contemporary pop duet \"What a day\" uses double bass extended pizzicato technique with vocals and type writerHank Williams III's bass players (Jason Brown, Joe Buck and Zach Shedd, most notably) have used upright basses for recording as well as during the country and Hellbilly sets of Hank III's live performances before switching to electric bass for the Assjack set.The late 1970s rockabilly-punk genre of psychobilly continued and expanded upon the rockabilly tradition of slap bass.", "Bassists such as Kim Nekroman and Geoff Kresge have developed the ability to play rapid slap bass that in effect turns the bass into a percussion instrument." ], [ "Modern playing styles", "A mid-sized bass amp used to amplify a double bass at a small jazz gigIn popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with the fingers, ''pizzicato'' style.", "The pizzicato style varies between different players and genres.", "Some players perform with the sides of one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone.", "Some players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo passages or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes.", "The use of amplification allows the player to have more control over the tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls that allow the bassist to accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high frequencies, so that there is less finger noise).An unamplified acoustic bass's tone is limited by the frequency responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body, which means that the very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher pitches.", "With an amplifier and equalization devices, a bass player can boost the low frequencies, which changes the frequency response.", "In addition, the use of an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads and for melodic solos with held notes.In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is sometimes played in the ''slap style''.", "This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are \"slapped\" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive sound.", "The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch.", "Notable slap style bass players, whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line.", "\"Slap style\" may have influenced electric bass guitar players who, from the mid-sixties (particularly Larry Graham of Sly and the Family Stone), developed a technique called ''slap and pop'' that used the thumb of the plucking hand to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still letting the note ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking hand to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above.", "Motown bass player James Jamerson routinely used a double bass for enhancement of the electric bass in post-production (\"sweetening\") of recorded tracks and vice versa in many instances." ], [ "Double bassists", "===Historical===* Domenico Dragonetti (1763–1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor* Giovanni Bottesini (1821–1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor* Franz Simandl (1840–1912) Virtuoso, composer, pedagogue* Edouard Nanny (1872–1943) Virtuoso, composer* Serge Koussevitzky (1874–1951) Virtuoso, composer, conductor===Modern===* François Rabbath (1931–) Virtuoso, composer* Gary Karr (1941– ) Virtuoso* Edgar Meyer (1960– ) Virtuoso, composer, teacher===Contemporary (1900s)=======Classical====Double bass soloist Gary KarrSome of the most influential contemporary classical double bass players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy as for their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910–1987), known for his teaching at the Eastman School of Music and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan and French bassist François Rabbath (b.", "1931) who developed a new bass method that divided the entire fingerboard into six positions.", "Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include American pedagogue and performer Gary Karr (b.", "1941), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-Aho (b.", "1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer.", "For a longer list, see the ''List of contemporary classical double bass players''.====Jazz====Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942) whose short tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic and harmonic solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown (1926–2002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy Gillespie, Oscar Peterson, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937), who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including LPs by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and Paul Chambers (1935–1969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark modal jazz recording ''Kind of Blue'') and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known for his virtuosic improvisations.Christian McBride (born 1972), one of the new \"young lions\" in the jazz scene, has won four Grammy Awards.The experimental post 1960s era, and free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, produced several influential bassists.", "Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer and bandleader, produced music that fused hard bop with black gospel music, free jazz, and classical music.", "Free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden (1937–2014) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman, and for his role in the 1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group.", "Eddie Gómez and George Mraz, who played with Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson, respectively, and are both acknowledged to have furthered expectations of pizzicato fluency and melodic phrasing.", "Fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his dexterity on both the upright bass and the electric bass.", "Terry Plumeri is noted for his horn-like arco fluency and vocal-sounding tone.In the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century, one of the new \"young lions\" was Christian McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's ''Vertical Vision''.", "Another young bassist of note is Esperanza Spalding (born 1984) who, at 27 years of age, had already won a Grammy for Best New Artist.====Other popular genres====Scott Owen, double bass player for Australian rock band The Living EndIn addition to being a noted classical player, Edgar Meyer is well known in bluegrass and newgrass circles.", "Todd Phillips is another prominent bluegrass player.", "Well-known rockabilly bassists include Bill Black, Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the Stray Cats).Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century include Scott Owen (from the Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Patricia Day (HorrorPops), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI).", "Willie Dixon (1915–1992) was one of the most notable figures in the history of rhythm and blues.", "In addition to being an upright bassist, he wrote dozens of R&B hits and worked as a producer.", "He also plays bass on numerous Chuck Berry's rock and roll hits.", "Many other rockabilly bands like El Rio Trio (from the Netherlands) also use this instrument in their work.", "See also the List of double bassists in popular music." ], [ "Pedagogy and training", "The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and country.", "Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries, including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students to develop the endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing hand.", "Classical training methods vary by country: many of the major European countries are associated with specific methods (e.g., the Edouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany).", "In classical training, the majority of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of bowing tone; little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone.In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a great deal of time and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different styles of tempi.", "For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide range of pizzicato tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking basslines or solos, and performing a variety of percussive ''ghost notes'' by raking muted or partially muted strings.===Formal training===Jazz singer/bassist Esperanza Spalding performing on 10 December 2009 at the Nobel Peace Prize Concert of 2009Of all of the genres, classical and jazz have the most established and comprehensive systems of instruction and training.", "In the classical milieu, children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in children's or youth orchestras.", "Teens who aspire to becoming professional classical bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities.", "Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance.Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for double bass players.", "Universities offer a range of double bass programs, including bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees.", "As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as classical summer camps and orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of music.Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus.", "or B.M.)", "are four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education.", "Usually, bass performance students perform several recitals of solo double bass music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites.Master of music degrees (M.mus.)", "in double bass performance consist of private lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in playing orchestral double bass parts, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two solo recitals.", "A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus.", "or M.M.)", "is often a required credential for people who wish to become a professor of double bass at a university or conservatory.Manhattan School of Music professor Timothy Cobb teaching a bass lesson in the late 2000s.", "His bass has a low C extension with a metal \"machine\" with buttons for playing the pitches on the extension.Doctor of Musical Arts (referred to as D.M.A., DMA, D.Mus.A.", "or A.Mus.D.)", "degrees in double bass performance provide an opportunity for advanced study at the highest artistic and pedagogical level, requiring usually an additional 54+ credit hours beyond a master's degree (which is about 30+ credits beyond a bachelor's degree).", "For this reason, admission is highly selective.", "Examinations in music history, music theory, ear training/dictation, and an entrance examination-recital, are required.", "Students perform a number of recitals (around six), including a lecture-recital with an accompanying doctoral dissertation, advanced coursework, and a minimum B average are other typical requirements of a D.M.A.", "program.Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the instrument informally, or from getting classical training early on, as in the case of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus.", "In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce diplomas and degrees in jazz performance.", "Students in jazz diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass lessons, get experience in small jazz combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big bands.", "As with classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom courses in music history and music theory.", "In a jazz program, these courses focus on the different eras of jazz history.", "such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion.", "The theory courses focus on the musical skills used in jazz improvisation and in jazz comping (accompanying) and the composition of jazz tunes.", "There are also jazz summer camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the chance to learn new skills and styles.===Informal training===In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are not as formalized and institutionalized.", "There are not degrees in blues bass performance, or conservatories offering multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass.", "However, there are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style slap bass).", "As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a variety of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs.", "In some cases, blues or rockabilly bassists may have obtained some initial training through the classical or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g., youth orchestra or high school big band).", "In genres such as tango, which use a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines, the bassists tend to come from classical or jazz training routes." ], [ "Careers", "Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country.", "Most bassists earn their living from a mixture of performance and teaching jobs.", "The first step to getting most performance jobs is by playing at an audition.", "In some styles of music, such as jazz-oriented stage bands, bassists may be asked to sight read printed music or perform standard pieces (e.g., a jazz standard such as ''Now's the Time'') with an ensemble.", "Similarly, in a rock or blues band, auditionees may be asked to play various rock or blues standards.", "An upright bassist auditioning for a blues band might be asked to play in a Swing-style walking bassline, a rockabilly-style \"slapping\" bassline (in which the strings are percussively struck against the fingerboard) and a 1950s ballad with long held notes.", "A person auditioning for a role as a bassist in some styles of pop or rock music may be expected to demonstrate the ability to perform harmony vocals as a backup singer.", "In some pop and rock groups, the bassist may be asked to play other instruments from time to time, such as electric bass, keyboards or acoustic guitar.", "The ability to play electric bass is widely expected in country groups, in case the band is performing a classic rock or new country song.", "A German double bass section in 1952.The player to the left is using a German bow.===Classical music===In classical music, bassists audition for playing jobs in orchestras and for admission into university or Conservatory programs or degrees.", "At a classical bass audition, the performer typically plays a movement from a J.S.", "Bach suite for solo cello or a movement from a bass concerto and a variety of excerpts from the orchestral literature.", "The excerpts are typically the most technically challenging parts of bass parts and bass solos from the orchestral literature.", "Some of the most commonly requested orchestral excerpts at bass auditions are from Beethoven's Symphonies Nos.", "5, 7 and 9; Strauss's ''Ein Heldenleben'' and ''Don Juan''; Mozart's Symphonies Nos.", "35, 39 and 40; Brahms' Symphonies Nos.", "1 and 2; Stravinsky's Pulcinella; Shostakovich's Symphony No.", "5; Ginastera's ''Variaciones Concertante''; Tchaikovsky's Symphony No.", "4; Mahler's Symphony No.", "2; J. S. Bach's Suite No.", "2 in B; Berlioz's ''Symphonie Fantastique'', Mendelssohn's Symphony No.", "4; and the bass solos from Verdi's opera ''Otello'', Mahler's Symphony No.", "1, Britten's ''The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' and Prokofiev's ''Lieutenant Kije Suite''." ], [ "See also", "* ''Bach: Unaccompanied Cello Suites Performed on Double Bass''* Bogdon Box Bass* Double bass concerto* Electric upright bass* List of historical classical double bass players* Octobass* Piccolo bass* Tololoche* Triple contrabass viol" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * EarlyBass.com by Jerry Fuller * List of chamber music pieces with double bass* Polish folk music double basses" ], [ "Further reading", "===General===*Grodner, Murray, ''Comprehensive Catalog of books, recordings and videos for the double bass''.", "Bloomington IN, Murray Grodner, 2000.", "*Praetorius, Michael, ''Syntagma Musicum, Band II'', Kassel, Bärenreiter, 2001.", "(Reprint of the first edition of 1619).", "ISBN 978-3-76181527-4.===History===*Billė, Isaia, ''Gli strumenti ad arco e i loro culturi.''", "Rome, Ausonia.", "1928.Pdf available at: https://www.vitoliuzzi.com/news-for-a-new-and-authentic-history-of-the-classic-bass/ .", "*Boyden, David B., et al., ''The Violin Family'', The New Grove Musical Instruments Series, London, Macmillan, 1989..*Brun, Paul, ''A New History of the Double Bass'', Seillons source d'Argens, Paul Brun Productions, 2018..*Elgar, Raymond, ''Introduction to the Double Bass'', published by the author, St Leonards on Sea, 1960.", "*Elgar, Raymond, ''More About the Double Bass'', published by the author, St Leonards on Sea, 1963.", "*Elgar, Raymomd, ''Looking at the Double Bass'', published by the author, St Leonards on Sea, 1967.", "*Lohse, Jonas, ''Das Kontrabass-Buch'', Friedberg, Jonas Lohse Verlag, 2020..*Martin, Thomas, Martin Lawrence and George Martin, ''The English Double Bass ''.", "Banbury, Arpeggio Publishing, 2018.", "*Palmer, Fiona M. (1997).", "''Domenico Dragonetti in England (1794-1846) : the career of a double bass virtuoso''.", "Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997.ISBN 0-19-816591-9.", "*Planyavsky, Alfred, ''Geschichte des Kontrabasses'', Tutzing, Verlag Hans Schneider, 1984.", "*Stanton, David H., ''The String (Double) Bass''.", "Evanston IL, The Instrumentalist Company, 1982.", "*West, Chris, \"The Paganini of the Double Bass - Bottesini in Britain.\"", "Independently published, 2021.ISBN 979-8747194595.===Instruction methods and performance===* Billè, Isaia, ''Nuovo metodo per contrabbasso''.", "Milan: Ricordi, 1922* Bradetich, Jeff, ''Double Bass: The Ultimate Challenge''.", "Denton, TX: Music for All to Hear, 2016.", "* Cruft, Eugene, ''The Eugene Cruft School of Double Bass Playing: A Method with a Repertoire''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.", "* Goïlav, Yoan, ''La contrebasse: Une philosophie du jeu, histoire, pédagogie, technique / The Double Bass: A Philosophy of Playing, History, Pedagogy, Technique.''", "Lévis, Quebec: Doberman-Yppan, 2003.", "* Goldsby, John, ''The Jazz Bass Book: Technique and Tradition''.", "San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002.", "* O'Brien, Orin.", "''Double-Bass Notebook: Ideas, Tips, and Pointers for the Complete Professional.''", "New York: Carl Fisher, 2016..* Simandl, Franz, ''New Method for the Double Bass''.", "Carl Fischer, 1984.", "* Tambroni, Peter, ''An Introduction to Double Bass Playing''.", "Oak Park IL, www.MostlyBass.com, 2014.", "* Trebbi, Alfredo, \"Il Contrabbasso - novissimo manuale semiserio.\"", "Milan: Casa Musicale Sonzogno, 2007.ISBN 978-88-87318-40-1.", "* Turetzky, Bertram.", "''The Contemporary Contrabass''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Deicide (band)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deicide''' is an American death metal band formed in Tampa, Florida in 1987 by drummer/composer Steve Asheim and guitarist brothers Eric and Brian Hoffman as \"Carnage\", then hiring bassist/vocalist/lyricist Glen Benton and becoming \"Amon\".", "They would later change the band name to Deicide in 1989.The band rose to mainstream success in 1992 with their second album ''Legion'', and is credited as the second-best-selling death metal band of the Soundscan Era, after Cannibal Corpse.", "Since their debut album in 1990, Deicide has released twelve studio albums, one live album, two compilation albums and two live DVDs.", "In November 2003, their first two albums, ''Deicide'' and ''Legion'', were ranked second and third place respectively in best-selling death metal albums of the SoundScan era.", "Deicide is known for their lyrics, which cover topics such as Satanism, anti-Christianity and blasphemy.", "Their lyrics have resulted in bans, lawsuits and criticism from religious groups and the public." ], [ "History", "===Early days as Amon/Carnage (1987–1989)===Bassist and vocalist Glen Benton is one of the two constant members of Deicide.", "Deicide was formed in Tampa, Florida on July 21, 1987, after guitarist Brian Hoffman called Glen Benton, replying to an advertisement the latter had placed in a local music magazine.", "Hoffman and his brother, along with drummer Steve Asheim, had previously played together as the band \"Carnage\", which was in need of a bassist and vocalist.", "Carnage played cover songs by Slayer, Exodus, Celtic Frost and Dark Angel.The new band, called Amon, consisted of Benton (bass and vocals), Hoffman, Hoffman's brother Eric (guitars) and Steve Asheim (drums).", "Within a month, they had recorded the ''Feasting the Beast'' 8-track demo in Benton's garage and had started playing the occasional gig in the Tampa area.", "In 1989, Amon recorded their second demo, ''Sacrificial'', at Morrisound with producer Scott Burns.Malevolent Creation guitarist Phil Fasciana recalls an early Carnage show: \"It was like Slayer intensified a thousand times.\"", "\"I guess Carnage had hollowed out a mannequin and filled it with fuckin' blood and guts from a butcher shop... and then they threw the fuckin' thing on the floor.", "Morbid Angel had these pit bulls with them back then and they were just tearing the meat up.", "It was a really weird scene, man.", "There was blood and meat everywhere.", "\"===As Deicide (1989–2004)===Drummer Steve Asheim is one of the two constant members of Deicide.Benton reportedly stormed into Roadrunner Records' A&R man Monte Conner's office and presented him with the demo, saying, \"Sign us, you fucking asshole!\"", "The next day contracts were issued to the band.", "Although this version of events was later denied by Benton, who claimed he indeed visited the office but never used profanities.", "In 1989 the band's name was changed to Deicide at the request of Roadrunner Records.Deicide then released their self-titled debut album, also produced by Scott Burns at Morrisound, in 1990.Their debut featured re-recorded versions of all six of the ''Sacrificial'' tunes that had secured them their record deal.", "Both the Hoffman brothers tended to play technical solos at fast speeds and with overlapping riffs, which gave Deicide the definitive heavy sound and complex song structures.", "This lineup remained intact until November 25, 2004, in the wake of increasing animosity between Glen Benton and the Hoffmans allegedly in regards to royalties and publishing.", "The Hoffman brothers later went on to reform Amon.===Post-Hoffman brothers period (2004–present)===Guitarist Jack Owen joined Deicide in 2004, replacing the Hoffman brothers, and remained as a member of the band until 2016.Shortly after, the guitar roles were then filled by former Cannibal Corpse guitarist Jack Owen, and Vital Remains guitarist Dave Suzuki.", "Following the tour, Suzuki was replaced by guitarist Ralph Santolla.", "Santolla stated he was a Catholic, which had received a small amount of shock and ridicule from some metal fans.", "In spite of this, Deicide's eighth studio album ''The Stench of Redemption'', which was released on August 22, 2006, received rave reviews.In January 2007, Benton left the European tour and returned home to the United States as a result of legal issues at home.", "Asheim announced that Seth van Loo, from opening act Severe Torture, and Garbaty \"Yaha\", from the Polish death metal band Dissenter, would be replacing Benton starting on January 9 in the Netherlands, until Benton could rejoin the tour.", "Benton rejoined the band in Paris on January 13.On May 24, 2007, it was announced Ralph Santolla had left Deicide.", "Subsequently, he joined Florida's Obituary and appears on their album ''Xecutioner's Return'' as well as the tour.", "On July 20, 2007, guitarist Jack Owen announced that Deicide would be \"on hiatus\" and he had joined Ohio based death/thrash combo Estuary for touring purposes.", "The band embarked on a Balkan tour, dubbed \"Balkans AssassiNation Tour\", in October 2007 alongside Krisiun, Incantation and Inactive Messiah.By November 2007, Deicide began work on their ninth studio album at Florida's Morrisound Studios.", "Entitled ''Till Death Do Us Part'', the follow-up to ''The Stench of Redemption'', promised to be the band's \"most savage and aggressive offering to date\", according to a press release.", "Drummer Steve Asheim recorded drum tracks and Benton started recording vocals in December 2007.In April 2008, two songs off the album were posted online.", "It was finally released on April 28, 2008.As the record was coming out, Benton considered retiring from music, in the midst of personal matters including a custody battle.On January 6, 2009, Deicide posted a blog on their official Myspace page saying they had signed a worldwide record deal with Century Media, with Ralph Santolla returning to the band for a European tour.", "They were said to be working on material for a summer 2010 release.", "In early 2009, they toured with Vital Remains and Order of Ennead.", "Guitarist Kevin Quirion of Order of Ennead joined the band in the summer of 2009.In June 2010, Glen Benton revealed that the next Deicide album was to be titled ''To Hell with God''.", "It was produced by Mark Lewis at Audiohammer Studios in Sanford, Florida, and was released on February 15, 2011.Deicide released their eleventh studio album, ''In the Minds of Evil'', on November 26, 2013.In November 2016, it was apparent that guitarist Jack Owen had been replaced by Monstrosity guitarist Mark English without an official announcement made by the band.", "Owen went on to join Six Feet Under in February 2017.On October 9, 2014, The Village Voice reported that Deicide had started working on new material for their twelfth studio album.", "On March 10, 2017, Deicide announced a short U.S. tour which would begin in May and also issued an update on the album: \"the new record is almost completed, right now its down to scheduling, this run of shows were setting up is to introduce and work in our new guitarist Mark English, that and I need a break from this thing called Florida…\".", "The album, titled ''Overtures of Blasphemy'', was released on September 14, 2018.On June 6, 2018, former guitarist Ralph Santolla died due to complications following a heart attack and was taken off life support since being in a coma for a week.In February 2019, Deicide parted ways with guitarist Mark English and replaced him with Autumn's End vocalist/guitarist Chris Cannella.On April 17, 2021, the band performed in front of an audience of full capacity at The Verona in New Port Richey amid the COVID-19 pandemic, as all restrictions for businesses were lifted and mask mandate enforcements for local cities in Florida were removed as the state was moved into Stage 3 in late September 2020.A U.S. tour followed soon after, with Kataklysm, Internal Bleeding and Begat the Nephilim.On January 19, 2022, it was announced guitarist Chris Cannella had left the band and was replaced by Taylor Nordberg." ], [ "Controversy", "Guitarist Kevin Quirion has occasionally been a member of Deicide since 2008.Deicide has received considerable controversy relating to their albums and lyrics, which include vehement anti-Christian themes, such as \"Death to Jesus\", \"Fuck Your God\", \"Kill the Christian\", \"Behead the Prophet\" and \"Scars of the Crucifix\", among others.", "Drummer Asheim said, \"The whole point of Satanic music is to blaspheme against the Church\", \"I don't believe in or worship a devil.", "Life is short enough without having to waste it doing this whole organised praying, hoping, wishing-type thing on some superior being\".Most of the controversy surrounded frontman Benton for a rash of shocking interviews and wild statements.", "Benton has repeatedly branded an inverted cross into his forehead on at least 12 different occasions.", "During an interview with ''NME'' magazine, he shot and killed a squirrel with a pellet gun to prevent any further damage to his electrical system in the attic at the location the interview was held.", "This act garnered negative attention from critics and some animal rights activists.", "Benton had professed beliefs in theistic Satanism during Deicide's early years, claimed to slaughter rodents for fun, and that he held beliefs in demonic possession and that he was possessed.", "Such statements had eventually been concluded as tongue-in-cheek and little more than sensationalism by band members questioned alternatively.", "Additionally, Benton claimed in the early 1990s that he would commit suicide at the age of 33 to \"mirror\" a lifespan opposite that of Jesus Christ.", "However, he passed that age in 2000 and did not commit suicide, rebutting in 2006 that these statements had been \"asinine remarks\" and that \"only cowards and losers\" choose to kill themselves.Deicide has been banned from playing in several venues (such as Valparaiso, Chile over a promotional poster featuring Jesus Christ with a bullet hole in his forehead) and with various festivals such as Hellfest, after several graves had been spray-painted with \"When Satan Rules His World\", a reference to a song from Deicide's 1995 album ''Once upon the Cross''.", "In addition, their music video for \"Homage for Satan\", which features blood-splattered zombies on a rampaging mission to capture a priest, was banned from UK music TV channel Scuzz.In 1992, Deicide was on tour in Europe with Atrocity from Germany and Gorefest, a Dutch death metal band.", "In Stockholm, during the Gorefest set, a bomb was discovered on-stage.", "It exploded in the club in which they were playing.", "The bomb was located to the rear of the stage, behind a heavy, fireproof door.", "The explosion was big enough to deform the door and blow it off its hinges.", "Deicide managed to play three songs before the police decided to stop the concert and evacuate the club.", "At first, Benton blamed that attack on the Norwegian black metal scene, where Deicide's brand of death metal was despised.", "Many people blamed animal rights activists who were angered at Deicide's lyrical themes of animal sacrifice." ], [ "Band members", "===Current members===*Steve Asheim – drums , guitars *Glen Benton – bass, lead vocals *Kevin Quirion – guitars, backing vocals *Taylor Nordberg – guitars, backing vocals === Former members ===*Eric Hoffman – guitars *Brian Hoffman – guitars *Ralph Santolla – guitars *Jack Owen – guitars *Mark English – guitars *Chris Cannella – guitars, backing vocals === Live members ===*Dave Suzuki – guitars *Seth Van Loo – vocals *Dariusz \"Garbaty Yaha\" Kułpiński – bass, lead vocals ===Recording timeline=== Role Album ''Deicide''(1990) ''Legion''(1992) ''Once upon the Cross''(1995) ''Serpents of the Light''(1997) ''Insineratehymn''(2000) ''In Torment in Hell''(2001) ''Scars of the Crucifix''(2004) ''The Stench of Redemption''(2006) ''Till Death Do Us Part''(2008) ''To Hell with God''(2011) ''In the Minds of Evil''(2013) ''Overtures of Blasphemy''(2018)Bass/vocalsGlen BentonGuitarsEric HoffmanRalph SantollaKevin QuirionBrian HoffmanJack OwenMark EnglishDrumsSteve Asheim===Timeline===" ], [ "Discography", "*''Deicide'' (1990)*''Legion'' (1992)*''Once upon the Cross'' (1995)*''Serpents of the Light'' (1997)*''Insineratehymn'' (2000)*''In Torment in Hell'' (2001)*''Scars of the Crucifix'' (2004)*''The Stench of Redemption'' (2006)*''Till Death Do Us Part'' (2008)*''To Hell with God'' (2011)*''In the Minds of Evil'' (2013)*''Overtures of Blasphemy'' (2018)*''Banished by Sin'' (2024)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Mudrian, Albert (2004).", "''Choosing Death:The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore'', Feral House, ." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Division of labour" ], [ "Introduction", "''Visiting a Nail Factory'' by 266x266pxThe '''division of labour''' is the separation of the tasks in any economic system or organisation that participants may specialize (specialisation).", "Individuals, organizations, and nations are endowed with or acquire specialized capabilities, and either form combinations or trade to take advantage of the capabilities of others in addition to their own.", "Specialized capabilities may include equipment or natural resources as well as skills.", "Training and combinations of equipment and other assets acting together are often important.", "For example, an individual may specialize by acquiring tools and the skills to use them effectively just as an organization may specialize by acquiring specialized equipment and hiring or training skilled operators.", "The division of labour is the motive for trade and the source of economic interdependence.Division of labor CPU and GPUAn increasing division of labour is associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and the increasing complexity of industrialised processes.", "The concept and implementation of division of labour has been observed in ancient Sumerian (Mesopotamian) culture, where assignment of jobs in some cities coincided with an increase in trade and economic interdependence.", "Division of labour generally also increases both producer and individual worker productivity.After the Neolithic Revolution, pastoralism and agriculture led to more reliable and abundant food supplies, which increased the population and led to specialization of labour, including new classes of artisans, warriors, and the development of elites.", "This specialization was furthered by the process of industrialisation, and Industrial Revolution-era factories.", "Accordingly, many classical economists as well as some mechanical engineers, such as Charles Babbage, were proponents of division of labour.", "Also, having workers perform single or limited tasks eliminated the long training period required to train craftsmen, who were replaced with less-paid but more productive unskilled workers." ], [ "Pre-modern theories", "=== Plato ===In Plato's ''Republic'', the origin of the state lies in the natural inequality of humanity, which is embodied in the division of labour:Silvermintz (2010) noted that \"Historians of economic thought credit Plato, primarily on account of arguments advanced in his Republic, as an early proponent of the division of labour.\"", "Notwithstanding this, Silvermintz argues that \"While Plato recognises both the economic and political benefits of the division of labour, he ultimately critiques this form of economic arrangement insofar as it hinders the individual from ordering his own soul by cultivating acquisitive motives over prudence and reason.", "\"=== Xenophon ===Xenophon, in the 4th century BC, makes a passing reference to division of labour in his ''Cyropaedia'' (a.k.a.", "''Education of Cyrus'').=== Augustine of Hippo ===A simile used by Augustine of Hippo shows that the division of labour was practised and understood in late Imperial Rome.", "In a brief passage of his ''The City of God'', Augustine seems to be aware of the role of different social layers in the production of goods, like household (''familiae''), corporations (''collegia'') and the state.===Medieval Muslim scholars===The division of labour was discussed by multiple medieval Persian scholars.", "They considered the division of labour between members of a household, between members of society and between nations.", "For Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and al-Ghazali the division of labour was necessary and useful.", "The similarity of the examples provided by these scholars with those provided by Adam Smith (such as al-Ghazali's needle factory and Tusi's claim that exchange, and by extension the division of labour, are the consequences of the human reasoning capability and that no animals have been observed to exchange one bone for another) led some scholars to conjecture that Smith was influenced by the medieval Persian scholarship." ], [ "Modern theories", "=== William Petty ===163x163px195x195pxSir William Petty was the first modern writer to take note of the division of labour, showing its has worth in existence and usefulness in Dutch shipyards.", "Classically, the workers in a shipyard would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another.", "But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships.", "People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on political economy.Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland.", "His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training.=== Bernard de Mandeville ===141x141pxBernard de Mandeville discussed the matter in the second volume of ''The Fable of the Bees'' (1714).", "This elaborates many matters raised by the original poem about a 'Grumbling Hive'.", "He says:=== David Hume === - David Hume, A Treatise on Human Nature=== Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau ===Facsimile of the first page of du Monceau's introduction to ''Art de l'Épinglier'', with \"division de ce travail\" highlightedIn his introduction to ''The Art of the Pin-Maker'' (''Art de l'Épinglier'', 1761), Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau writes about the \"division of this work\":By \"division of this work,\" du Monceau is referring to the subdivisions of the text describing the various trades involved in the pin making activity; this can also be described as a division of labour.=== Adam Smith ===Adam Smith portraitIn the first sentence of ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' (1776), Adam Smith foresaw the essence of industrialism by determining that division of labour represents a substantial increase in productivity.", "Like du Monceau, his example was the making of pins.Unlike Plato, Smith famously argued that the difference between a street porter and a philosopher was as much a consequence of the division of labour as its cause.", "Therefore, while for Plato the level of specialisation determined by the division of labour was externally determined, for Smith it was the dynamic engine of economic progress.", "However, in a further chapter of the same book, Smith criticised the division of labour, saying that it makes man \"as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become\" and that it can lead to \"the almost entire corruption and degeneracy of the great body of the people.…unless the government takes some pains to prevent it.\"", "The contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour.", "Alexis de Tocqueville agreed with Smith: \"Nothing tends to materialize man, and to deprive his work of the faintest trace of mind, more than extreme division of labor.\"", "Adam Ferguson shared similar views to Smith, though was generally more negative.The specialization and concentration of the workers on their single subtasks often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task, in part due to increased quality of production, but more importantly because of increased efficiency of production, leading to a higher nominal output of units produced per time unit.", "Smith uses the example of a production capability of an individual pin maker compared to a manufacturing business that employed 10 men:One man draws out the wire; another straights it; a third cuts it; a fourth points it; a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; to make the head requires two or three distinct operations; to put it on is a peculiar business; to whiten the pins is another; it is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper; and the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations, which, in some manufactories, are all performed by distinct hands, though in others the same man will sometimes perform two or three of them.", "I have seen a small manufactory of this kind, where ten men only were employed, and where some of them consequently performed two or three distinct operations.", "But though they were very poor, and therefore but indifferently accommodated with the necessary machinery, they could, when they exerted themselves, make among them about twelve pounds of pins in a day.", "There are in a pound upwards of four thousand pins of a middling size.", "Those ten persons, therefore, could make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a day.", "Each person, therefore, making a tenth part of forty-eight thousand pins, might be considered as making four thousand eight hundred pins in a day.", "But if they had all wrought separately and independently, and without any of them having been educated to this peculiar business, they certainly could not each of them have made twenty, perhaps not one pin in a day.Smith saw the importance of matching skills with equipment—usually in the context of an organisation.", "For example, pin makers were organised with one making the head, another the body, each using different equipment.", "Similarly, he emphasised a large number of skills, used in cooperation and with suitable equipment, were required to build a ship.In the modern economic discussion, the term ''human capital'' would be used.", "Smith's insight suggests that the huge increases in productivity obtainable from technology or technological progress are possible because human and physical capital are matched, usually in an organisation.", "See also a short discussion of Adam Smith's theory in the context of business processes.", "Babbage wrote a seminal work \"On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures\" analysing perhaps for the first time the division of labour in factories.=== Immanuel Kant ===KantIn the ''Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals'' (1785), Immanuel Kant notes the value of the division of labour:All crafts, trades and arts have profited from the division of labour; for when each worker sticks to one particular kind of work that needs to be handled differently from all the others, he can do it better and more easily than when one person does everything.", "Where work is not thus differentiated and divided, where everyone is a jack-of-all-trades, the crafts remain at an utterly primitive level.=== Karl Marx ===Marx argued that increasing the specialisation may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work.", "He described the process as alienation: workers become more and more specialised and work becomes repetitive, eventually leading to complete alienation from the process of production.", "The worker then becomes \"depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine.", "\"Additionally, Marx argued that the division of labour creates less-skilled workers.", "As the work becomes more specialised, less training is needed for each specific job, and the workforce, overall, is less skilled than if one worker did one job entirely.Among Marx's theoretical contributions is his sharp distinction between the economic and the social division of labour.", "That is, some forms of labour co-operation are purely due to \"technical necessity\", but others are a result of a \"social control\" function related to a class and status hierarchy.", "If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by power relationships.", "He also argues that in a communist society, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do.=== Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson ===Henry David Thoreau criticised the division of labour in ''Walden'' (1854), on the basis that it removes people from a sense of connectedness with society and with the world at large, including nature.", "He claimed that the average man in a civilised society is less wealthy, in practice than one in \"savage\" society.", "The answer he gave was that self-sufficiency was enough to cover one's basic needs.Thoreau's friend and mentor, Ralph Waldo Emerson, criticised the division of labour in his \"The American Scholar\" speech: a widely informed, holistic citizenry is vital for the spiritual and physical health of the country.=== Émile Durkheim ===In his seminal work, ''The Division of Labor in Society'', Émile Durkheim observes that the division of labour appears in all societies and positively correlates with societal advancement because it increases as a society progresses.Durkheim arrived at the same conclusion regarding the positive effects of the division of labour as his theoretical predecessor, Adam Smith.", "In ''The Wealth of Nations'', Smith observes the division of labour results in \"a proportionable increase of the productive powers of labour.\"", "While they shared this belief, Durkheim believed the division of labour applied to all \"biological organisms generally,\" while Smith believed this law applied \"only to human societies.\"", "This difference may result from the influence of Charles Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'' on Durkheim's writings.", "For example, Durkheim observed an apparent relationship between \"the functional specialisation of the parts of an organism\" and \"the extent of that organism's evolutionary development,\" which he believed \"extended the scope of the division of labour so as to make its origins contemporaneous with the origins of life itself…implying that its conditions must be found in the essential properties of all organised matter.", "\"Since Durkheim's division of labour applied to all organisms, he considered it a \"natural law\" and worked to determine whether it should be embraced or resisted by first analysing its functions.", "Durkheim hypothesised that the division of labour fosters social solidarity, yielding \"a wholly moral phenomenon\" that ensures \"mutual relationships\" among individuals.Émile DurkheimAs social solidarity cannot be directly quantified, Durkheim indirectly studies solidarity by \"classifying the different types of law to find...the different types of social solidarity which correspond to it.\"", "Durkheim categorises:* criminal laws and their respective punishments as promoting '''mechanical solidarity''', a sense of unity resulting from individuals engaging in similar work who hold shared backgrounds, traditions, and values; and* civil laws as promoting '''organic solidarity''', a society in which individuals engage in different kinds of work that benefit society and other individuals.Durkheim believes that organic solidarity prevails in more advanced societies, while mechanical solidarity typifies less developed societies.", "He explains that in societies with more mechanical solidarity, the diversity and division of labour is much less, so individuals have a similar worldview.", "Similarly, Durkheim opines that in societies with more organic solidarity, the diversity of occupations is greater, and individuals depend on each other more, resulting in greater benefits to society as a whole.", "Durkheim's work enabled social science to progress more efficiently \"in…the understanding of human social behavior.", "\"=== Ludwig von Mises ===219x219pxMarx's theories, including his negative claims regarding the division of labour, have been criticised by the Austrian economists, notably Ludwig von Mises.", "The primary argument is that the economic gains accruing from the division of labour far outweigh the costs, thus developing on the thesis that division of labor leads to cost efficiencies.", "It is argued that it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within capitalism and alienation is downplayed as mere romantic fiction.According to Mises, the idea has led to the concept of mechanization in which a specific task is performed by a mechanical device, instead of an individual labourer.", "This method of production is significantly more effective in both yield and cost-effectiveness, and utilises the division of labour to the fullest extent possible.", "Mises saw the very idea of a task being performed by a specialised mechanical device as being the greatest achievement of division of labour.=== Friedrich A. Hayek ===In \"The Use of Knowledge in Society\", Friedrich A. Hayek states:200x200px" ], [ "Globalisation and global division of labour", "The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about globalisation, which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of international trade based on comparative advantage.", "This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do at the lowest relative cost measured in terms of the opportunity cost of not using resources for other work, compared to the opportunity costs experienced by countries.", "Critics, however, allege that international specialisation cannot be explained sufficiently in terms of \"the work nations do best\", rather that this specialisation is guided more by commercial criteria, which favour some countries over others.The OECD advised in June 2005 that:Few studies have taken place regarding the global division of labour.", "Information can be drawn from ILO and national statistical offices.", "In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2.474 billion people participated in the global non-domestic labour force in the mid-1990s.", "Of these:* around 15%, or 379 million people, worked in the industry;* a third, or 800 million worked in services and* over 40%, or 1,074 million, in agriculture.The majority of workers in industry and services were wage and salary earners—58 per cent of the industrial workforce and 65 per cent of the services workforce.", "But a large portion was self-employed or involved in family labour.", "Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about 880 million, compared with around a billion working on their own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on their own account in industry and services.", "The 2007 ILO Global Employment Trends Report indicated that services have surpassed agriculture for the first time in human history:In 2006 the service sector's share of global employment overtook agriculture for the first time, increasing from 39.5 to 40 per cent.", "Agriculture decreased from 39.7 per cent to 38.7 per cent.", "The industry sector accounted for 21.3 per cent of total employment." ], [ "Contemporary theories", "In the modern world, those specialists most preoccupied in their work with theorising about the division of labour are those involved in management and organisation.In general, in capitalist economies, such things are not decided consciously.", "Different people try different things, and that which is most effective cost-wise (produces the most and best output with the least input) will generally be adopted.", "Often, techniques that work in one place or time do not work as well in another.=== Styles of division of labour ===Two styles of management that are seen in modern organisations are control and commitment:# Control management, the style of the past, is based on the principles of job specialisation and the division of labour.", "This is the assembly-line style of job specialisation, where employees are given a very narrow set of tasks or one specific task.# Commitment division of labour, the style of the future, is oriented on including the employee and building a level of internal commitment towards accomplishing tasks.", "Tasks include more responsibility and are coordinated based on expertise rather than a formal position.Job specialisation is advantageous in developing employee expertise in a field and boosting organisational production.", "However, disadvantages of job specialisation included limited employee skill, dependence on entire department fluency, and employee discontent with repetitive tasks.=== Labour hierarchy ===It is widely accepted among economists and social theorists that the division of labour is, to a great extent, inevitable within capitalist societies, simply because no one can do all tasks at once.", "Labour hierarchy is a very common feature of the modern capitalist workplace structure, and the way these hierarchies are structured can be influenced by a variety of different factors, including:* '''Size''': as organisations increase in size, there is a correlation in the rise of the division of labour.", "* '''Cost''': cost limits small organisations from dividing their labour responsibilities.", "* '''Development of new technology''': technological developments have led to a decrease in the amount of job specialisation in organisations as new technology makes it easier for fewer employees to accomplish a variety of tasks and still enhance production.", "New technology has also been helpful in the flow of information between departments helping to reduce the feeling of department isolation.It is often argued that the most equitable principle in allocating people within hierarchies is that of true (or proven) competency or ability.", "This concept of meritocracy could be read as an explanation or as a justification of why a division of labour is the way it is.This claim, however, is often disputed by various sources, particularly: * Marxists claim hierarchy is created to support the power structures in capitalist societies which maintain the capitalist class as the owner of the labour of workers, in order to exploit it.", "Anarchists often add to this analysis by defending that the presence of coercive hierarchy in any form is contrary to the values of liberty and equality.", "*Anti-imperialists see the globalised labour hierarchy between first world and third world countries necessitated by companies (through unequal exchange) that create a labor aristocracy by exploiting the poverty of workers in the developing world, where wages are much lower.", "These increased profits enable these companies to pay higher wages and taxes in the developed world (which fund welfare in first world countries), thus creating a working class satisfied with their standard of living and not inclined to revolution.", "This concept is further explored in dependency theory, notably by Samir Amin and Zak Cope." ], [ "Limitations", "Adam Smith famously said in ''The Wealth of Nations'' that the division of labour is limited by the extent of the market.", "This is because it is by the exchange that each person can be specialised in their work and yet still have access to a wide range of goods and services.", "Hence, reductions in barriers to exchange lead to increases in the division of labour and so help to drive economic growth.", "Limitations to the division of labour have also been related to coordination and transportation costs.There can be motivational advantages to a reduced division of labour (which has been termed ‘job enlargement’ and 'job enrichment').", "Jobs that are too specialised in a narrow range of tasks are said to result in demotivation due to boredom and alienation.", "Hence, a Taylorist approach to work design contributed to worsened industrial relations.There are also limitations to the division of labour (and the division of work) that result from workflow variations and uncertainties.", "These help to explain issues in modern work organisation, such as task consolidations in business process re-engineering and the use of multi-skilled work teams.", "For instance, one stage of a production process may temporarily work at a slower pace, forcing other stages to slow down.", "One answer to this is to make some portion of resources mobile between stages so that those resources must be capable of undertaking a wider range of tasks.", "Another is to consolidate tasks so that they are undertaken one after another by the same workers and other resources.", "Stocks between stages can also help to reduce the problem to some extent but are costly and can hamper quality control.", "Modern flexible manufacturing systems require both flexible machines and flexible workers.In '''project-based work''', the coordination of resources is a difficult issue for the project manager as project schedules and resulting resource bookings are based on estimates of task durations and so are subject to subsequent revisions.", "Again, consolidating tasks so that they are undertaken consecutively by the same resources and having resources available that can be called on at short-notice from other tasks can help to reduce such problems, though at the cost of reduced specialisation.There are also advantages in a reduced division of labour where knowledge would otherwise have to be transferred between stages.", "For example, having a single person deal with a customer query means that only that one person has to be familiar with the customer's details.", "It is also likely to result in the query being handled faster due to the elimination of delays in passing the query between different people." ], [ "Gendered division of labour", "The clearest exposition of the principles of '''sexual division of labour''' across the full range of human societies can be summarised by a large number of logically complementary implicational constraints of the following form: if women of childbearing ages in a given community tend to do X (e.g., preparing soil for planting) they will also do Y (e.g., the planting); while for men the logical reversal in this example would be that if men plant, they will prepare the soil.White, Brudner, and Burton's (1977) \"Entailment Theory and Method: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor\", using statistical entailment analysis, shows that tasks more frequently chosen by women in these order relations are those more convenient in relation to child rearing.", "This type of finding has been replicated in a variety of studies, including those on modern industrial economies.", "These entailments do not restrict how much work for any given task could be done by men (e.g., in cooking) or by women (e.g., in clearing forests), but are only least-effort or role-consistent tendencies.", "To the extent that women clear forests for agriculture, for example, they tend to do the entire agricultural sequence of tasks on those clearings.", "In theory, these types of constraints could be removed by provisions of child care, but ethnographic examples are lacking." ], [ "Industrial organisational psychology", "Job satisfaction has been shown to improve as an employee is given the task of a specific job.", "Students who have received PhDs in a chosen field later report increased satisfaction compared to their previous jobs.", "This can be attributed to their high levels of specialisation.", "The higher the training needed for the specialised job position, the higher is the level of job satisfaction as well, although many highly specialised jobs can be monotonous and produce high rates of burnout periodically." ], [ "Division of work", "In contrast to the division of labour, a '''division of work''' refers to the division of a large task, contract, or project into smaller tasks—each with a separate schedule within the overall project schedule.Division of labour, instead, refers to the allocation of tasks to individuals or organisations according to the skills and/or equipment those people or organisations possess.", "Often division of labour and division of work are both part of the economic activity within an industrial nation or organisation." ], [ "Disaggregated work", "A job divided into elemental parts is sometimes called \"disaggregated work\".", "Workers specialising in particular parts of the job are called professionals.", "The workers doing a portion of a non-recurring work may be called contractors, freelancers, or temporary workers.", "Modern communication technologies, particularly the Internet, gave rise to the sharing economy, which is orchestrated by online marketplaces for various kinds of disaggregated work." ], [ "See also", "* Asset poverty* Complex society* Economic sector* Economies of scale* Family economy* Fordism* Identity performance* Industrialisation* Kyriarchy* Mechanization* New international division of labour* Newly industrialized country* Precariat* Precarious work* Productive and unproductive labour* Price system* Role suction* Surplus product* Temporary work* Urbanisation* Winner and loser culture" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Becker, Gary S.", "1991.", "\"Division of Labor in Households and Families.\"", "Ch.", "2 in ''A Treatise on the Family''.", "Harvard University Press, .", "* —— 1985.", "\"Human Capital, Effort, and the Sexual Division of Labor.\"", "''Journal of Labor Economics'' 3(1.2):S33–S58.", "*Braverman, Harry.", "1974.", "''Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century''.", "Monthly Review Press.", "* Coontz, Stephanie, and Peta Henderson.", "''Women's Work, Men's Property: The Origins of Gender and Class''.", "* * Durkheim, Émile.", "1893.", "''The Division of Labour in Society''.", "* Emerson, Ralph Waldo.", "\"The American Scholar.", "\"* Filmer, Deon.", "\"Estimating the World at Work\" (a background report).", "* Florida, Richard.", "2002.", "''The Rise of the Creative Class''.", "* —— ''The Flight of the Creative Class''.", "* Froebel, F., J. Heinrichs, and O. Krey.", "''The New International Division of Labour''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", "* Gintis, Herbert, Samuel Bowles, Robert T. Boyd, and Ernst Feghr.", "''Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life''.", "* Goodin, Robert E., James Mahmud Rice, Antti Parpo, and Lina Eriksson.", "2008.", "\"Household Regimes Matter.\"", "Pp.", "197–257 in ''Discretionary Time: A New Measure of Freedom''.", "Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "Cambridge ID: 9780521709514.", "* Gorz, André.", "''The Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism''.", "* Groenewegen, Peter.", "1987.", "\"division of labour.\"", "Pp.", "901–07 in ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'' 1.", "* Heartfield, James.", "2001.\"", "The Economy of Time.\"", "''Cultural Trends'' 43/44:155–59* Ollman, Bertell.", "''Sexual and Social Revolution''.", "* Rattansi, Ali.", "''Marx and the Division of Labour''.", "* Reisman, George.", "1990 1998.", "''Capitalism: A Treatise on Economics''.", "Laguna Hills, CA: TJS Books.", ".", "* Solow, Robert M., and Jean-Philippe Touffut, eds.", "2010.''", "The Shape of the Division of Labour: Nations, Industries and Households''.", "Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.", "** Contributors: Bina Agarwal, Martin Baily, Jean-Louis Beffa, Richard N. Cooper, Jan Fagerberg, Elhanan Helpman, Shelly Lundberg, Valentina Meliciani, and Peter Nunnenkamp.", "* Rothbard, Murray.", "19 March 2018.\"", "Freedom, Inequality, Primitivism and the Division of Labor.\"", "''Mises Institute''.", "Retrieved 2 July 2020.", "* von Mises, Ludwig. \"", "Human Society: The Division of Labor.\"", "Pp.", "157–58 in ''Human Action: A Treatise on Economics''''.", "''* —— \" Human Society: The Ricardian Law of Association.\"", "Pp.", "158–60 in ''Human Action: A Treatise on Economics''.", "* Stigler, George J.", "1951.", "\"The Division of Labor is Limited by the Extent of the Market.\"", "''Journal of Political Economy'' 59(3):185–93.", "*''World Development Report 1995''.", "Washington, DC: World Bank.", "1996." ], [ "External links", "* Summary of Smith's example of pin-making * Conference: \"The New International Division of Labour\".", "Speakers: Bina Agarwal, Martin Baily, Jean-Louis Beffa, Richard N. Cooper, Jan Fagerberg, Elhanan Helpman, Shelly Lundberg, Valentina Meliciani, Peter Nunnenkamp.", "Recorded in 2009." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Davy lamp" ], [ "Introduction", "Davy's first safety lantern, 1815 (at left)Diagram of a Davy lampThe '''Davy lamp''' is a safety lamp used in flammable atmospheres, invented in 1815 by Sir Humphry Davy.", "It consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen.", "It was created for use in coal mines, to reduce the danger of explosions due to the presence of methane and other flammable gases, called ''firedamp'' or ''minedamp.''" ], [ "History", "German polymath Alexander von Humboldt, working for the German Bureau of Mines, had concerns for the health and welfare of the miners and invented a kind of respirator and \"four lamps of different construction suitable for employment in various circumstances.", "The respirator was to prevent the inhaling of injurious gases, and to supply the miner with good air; the lamps were constructed to burn in the most inflammable kind of fire-damp without igniting the gas.", "They were the forerunners of Davy's later invention, and were frequently made use of by the miners.", "\"Davy's invention was preceded by that of William Reid Clanny, an Irish doctor at Bishopwearmouth, who had read a paper to the Royal Society in May 1813.The more cumbersome Clanny safety lamp was successfully tested at Herrington Mill, and he won medals, from the Royal Society of Arts.Despite his lack of scientific knowledge, engine-wright George Stephenson devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes, through which the flames of the lamp could not pass.", "A month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society, Stephenson demonstrated his own lamp to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth Colliery and holding it in front of a fissure from which firedamp was issuing.The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at Hebburn Colliery on 9 January 1816.A letter from Davy (which he intended to be kept private) describing his findings and various suggestions for a safety lamp was made public at a meeting in Newcastle on 3 November 1815, and a paper describing the lamp was formally presented at a Royal Society meeting in London on 9 November.", "For it, Davy was awarded the society's Rumford Medal.", "Davy's lamp differed from Stephenson's in that the flame was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson's prototype lamp had a perforated plate contained in a glass cylinder (a design mentioned in Davy's Royal Society paper as an alternative to his preferred solution).", "For his invention Davy was given £2,000 worth of silver (the money being raised by public subscription), whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy, because the fully developed 'Geordie lamp' had not been demonstrated by Stephenson until after Davy had presented his paper at the Royal Society, and (it was held) previous versions had not actually been safe.A local committee of enquiry gathered in support of Stephenson exonerated him, showing that he had been working separately to create the Geordie lamp, and raised a subscription for him of £1,000.Davy and his supporters refused to accept their findings, and would not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution he had: Stephenson himself freely admitted that he had arrived at a practical solution on the basis of an erroneous theory.", "In 1833, a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp.", "Davy went to his grave claiming that Stephenson had stolen his idea.", "The Stephenson lamp was used almost exclusively in North East England, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else.", "The experience gave Stephenson a lifelong distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts." ], [ "Design and theory", "A type of Davy lamp with apertures for gauging flame height The lamp consists of a wick lamp with the flame enclosed inside a mesh screen.", "The screen acts as a flame arrestor; air (and any firedamp present) can pass through the mesh freely enough to support combustion, but the holes are too fine to allow a flame to propagate through them and ignite any firedamp outside the mesh.", "It originally burned a heavy vegetable oil.The lamp also provided a test for the presence of gases.", "If flammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge.", "Lamps were equipped with a metal gauge to measure the height of the flame.", "Miners could place the safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as carbon dioxide, that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine; if the mine air was oxygen-poor (asphyxiant gas), the lamp flame would be extinguished (''black damp'' or ''chokedamp'').", "A methane-air flame is extinguished at about 17% oxygen content (which will still support life), so the lamp gave an early indication of an unhealthy atmosphere, allowing the miners to get out before they died of asphyxiation." ], [ "Impact", "In 1816, the Cumberland Pacquet reported a demonstration of the Davy lamp at William Pit, Whitehaven.", "Placed in a blower \"... the effect was grand beyond description.", "At first a blue flame was seen to cap the flame of the lamp, – then succeeded a lambent flame, playing in the cylinder; and shortly after, the flame of the firedamp expanded, so as to completely fill the wire gauze.", "For some time, the flame of the lamp was seen through that of the firedamp, which became ultimately extinguished without explosion.", "Results more satisfactory were not to be wished...\" Another correspondent to the paper commented \"The Lamp offers absolute security to the miner... With the excellent ventilation of the ''Whitehaven Collieries'' and the application of Sir HUMPHRY's valuable instrument, the accidents from the explosion of' (carburetted) 'hydrogene which have occurred (although comparatively few for such extensive works) will by this happy invention be avoided\".However, this prediction was not fulfilled: in the next thirty years, firedamp explosions in Whitehaven pits killed 137 people.", "More generally, the Select Committee on Accidents in Mines reported in 1835 that the introduction of the Davy lamp had led to an increase in mine accidents; the lamp encouraged the working of mines and parts of mines that had previously been closed for safety reasons.", "For example, in 1835, 102 men and boys were killed by a firedamp explosion in a Wallsend colliery working the Bensham seam, described at the subsequent inquest by John Buddle as \"a dangerous seam, which required the utmost care in keeping in a working state\", which could only be worked with the Davy lamp.", "The coroner noted that a previous firedamp explosion in 1821 had killed 52, but directed his jury that any finding on the wisdom of continuing to work the seam was outside their province.The lamps had to be provided by the miners themselves, not the owners, as traditionally the miners had bought their own candles from the company store.", "Miners still preferred the better illumination from a naked light, and mine regulations insisting that only safety lamps be used were draconian in principle, but in practice neither observed nor enforced.", "After two accidents in two years (1838–39) in Cumberland pits, both caused by safety checks being carried out by the light of a naked flame, the Royal Commission on Children's Employment commented both on the failure to learn from the first accident, and on the \"further absurdity\" of \"carrying a Davy lamp in one hand for the sake of safety, and a naked lighted candle in the other, as if for the sake of danger.", "Beyond this there can be no conceivable thoughtlessness and folly; and when such management is allowed in the mine of two of the most opulent coal-proprietors in the kingdom, we cease to wonder at anything that may take place in mines worked by men equally without capital and science\"Another reason for the increase in accidents was the unreliability of the lamps themselves.", "The bare gauze was easily damaged, and once just a single wire broke or rusted away, the lamp became unsafe.Work carried out by a scientific witness and reported by the committee showed that the Davy lamp became unsafe in airflows so low that a Davy lamp carried at normal walking pace against normal airflows in walkways was only safe if provided with a draught shield (not normally fitted), and the committee noted that accidents had happened when the lamp was \"in general and careful use; no one survived to tell the tale of how these occurrences took place; conjecture supplied the want of positive knowledge most unsatisfactorily; but incidents are recorded which prove what must follow unreasonable testing of the lamp; and your Committee are constrained to believe that ignorance and a false reliance upon its merits, in cases attended with unwarrantable risks, have led to disastrous consequences\" The \"South Shields Committee\", a body set up by a public meeting there (in response to an explosion at the St Hilda pit in 1839) to consider the prevention of accidents in mines had shown that mine ventilation in the North-East was generally deficient, with an insufficient supply of fresh air giving every opportunity for explosive mixtures of gas to accumulate.", "A subsequent select committee in 1852 concurred with this view; firedamp explosions could best be prevented by improving mine ventilation (by the use of steam ejectors: the committee specifically advised against fan ventilation), which had been neglected because of over-reliance on the safety of the Davy lamp.The practice of using a Davy lamp and a candle together was not entirely absurd, however, if the Davy lamp is understood to be not only a safe light in an explosive atmosphere, but also a gauge of firedamp levels.", "In practice, however, the warning from the lamp was not always noticed in time, especially in the working conditions of the era.The ''Regulation and Inspection of Mines Act'' of 1860 therefore required coal mines to have an adequate amount of ventilation, constantly produced, to dilute and render harmless noxious gases so that work areas were – under ordinary circumstances – in a fit state to be worked (areas where a normally safe atmosphere could not be ensured were to be fenced off \"as far as possible\"): it also required safety lamps to be examined and securely locked by a duly authorised person before use.Even when new and clean, illumination from the safety lamps was very poor, and the problem was not fully resolved until electric lamps became widely available in the late 19th century." ], [ "Successors", "A modern-day equivalent of the Davy lamp has been used in the Olympic flame torch relays.", "It was used in the relays for the Sydney, Athens, Turin, Beijing, Vancouver and Singapore Youth Olympic Games.", "It was also used for the Special Olympics Shanghai, Pan American and Central African games and for the London 2012 Summer Olympics relay.Lamps are still made in Eccles, Greater Manchester; in Aberdare, South Wales; and in Kolkata, India.A replica of a Davy lamp is located in front of the ticket office at the Stadium of Light (Sunderland AFC) which is built on a former coal mine.In 2015, the bicentenary of Davy's invention, the former Bersham Colliery, in Wrexham, Wales, now a mining museum, hosted an event for members of the public to bring in their Davy lamps for identifcation.", "The National Mining Museum Scotland at Newtongrange, Scotland, also celebrated the 200th anniversary of the invention.", "In 2016, the Royal Institution of Great Britain, where the Davy lamp prototype is displayed, decided to have the invention 3D scanned, reverse engineered and presented to the museum visitors in a more accessible digital format via a virtual reality cabinet.", "At first sight it appears to be a traditional display cabinet but has a touch screen with various options for visitors to view and reference the virtual exhibits inside." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Popular Science video showing an experiment that demonstrates the principle of the Davy lamp* Edwards, Eric The Miners' Safety Lamp at Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford University* Humphry Davy Brief bio at Spartacus Educational*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Docklands Light Railway" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Docklands Light Railway''' ('''DLR''') is an automated light metro system primarily serving the redeveloped Docklands area of London and providing a direct connection between London's two major financial districts, Canary Wharf and the City of London.", "First opened on 31 August 1987, the DLR has been extended multiple times, giving a total route length of .", "Lines now reach north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to and in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal.", "Further extensions are being considered.Normal operations are automated, so there is minimal staffing on the 149 trains (which have no driving cabs) and at major interchange stations; the four below-ground stations are staffed, to comply with underground station health and safety regulations.The DLR is currently operated by franchisee KeolisAmey Docklands for Transport for London (TfL).", "Passenger numbers have increased as the network has expanded since its launch.", "In the financial year 2022/23, there were 92.3million passenger journeys." ], [ "History", "===Background===In the 18th and 19th century, new docks were built east of the City of London to cater for the rapidly growing city.", "The last of these docks opened in 1921 in the Royal Docks.", "From the early 1960s, the docks began to decline as cargo was containerised and mechanised.", "The older docks did not have space to expand, and could not handle larger vessels.", "The docks had been connected to the national railway network via the London and Blackwall Railway (L&BR), which was closed in 1966 for lack of traffic.", "From the mid 1960s, the docks gradually closed down - leading to major job losses and economic deprivation.", "In the 1970s, the opening of new deep water Tilbury container docks located further east in Essex exacerbated the issue, with the Royal Docks closing in 1981.Tower Gateway DLR station was the DLR's original link to central London.=== Origins and development ===Throughout the 1970s, the government and the Greater London Council (GLC) put forward various plans to redevelop the Docklands area.", "The area was thought to have great potential for redevelopment, located close to the City of London with historic warehouses and large areas of water.In 1972, the London Docklands Study team commissioned Travis Morgan & Partners to propose redevelopment of the area.", "In 1973, they proposed, among other recommendations, that a \"minitram\" people-mover system capable of carrying up to 20 people in each unit should be constructed to connect the Docklands with the planned Fleet line tube railway terminus at Fenchurch Street railway station.", "The Greater London Council formed a Docklands Joint Committee with the Boroughs of Greenwich, Lewisham, Newham, Southwark and Tower Hamlets in 1974 to undertake the redevelopment of the area.", "A light railway system was envisaged, terminating either at Tower Hill tube station or at nearby Fenchurch Street, but both options were seen as too expensive.Nonetheless, in 1976 another report proposed a conventional tube railway for the area and London Transport obtained Parliamentary powers to build a line from Charing Cross station to Fenchurch Street, Surrey Docks (now Surrey Quays railway station), the Isle of Dogs, North Greenwich and Custom House to Woolwich Arsenal.", "This was intended to be the second stage of the Fleet line – which had been renamed the Jubilee line, the first stage of which opened in 1979 from to .", "This would have cost around £325million.", "However, when the Thatcher Government came to power, the plans to extend the Jubilee line were halted and the new government insisted that a lower-cost option should be pursued.In July 1981, the government established the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to coordinate the redevelopment of the Docklands.", "The need to provide a cheap public transport solution led to it commissioning London Transport to evaluate a number of exclusively light rail options, using trams or tram like vehicles.", "The cost of extending the Jubilee line to the area was now estimated to be around £450million.The core of the route ran alongside the Great Eastern line out of London and south along the former London & Blackwall Railway line through the Isle of Dogs.", "Three terminus options were proposed at the west end, at Tower Hill, Minories and Aldgate East.", "The Tower Hill option would have required a low-level interchange to be constructed alongside the existing Underground station, but this would have been a very costly venture.", "The Minories option, a high-level station virtually on the site of the old Minories railway station, was selected and became the current Tower Gateway DLR terminus.", "Aldgate East would have been perhaps the most ambitious of all of the options, as it originally envisaged a low-level connection with the District line that would have allowed DLR trains to run on London Underground tracks to a variety of central London destinations.", "However, it quickly became apparent that there was no capacity on the existing network for integrating the DLR into the Underground.Two southern terminus options were put forward, at Cubitt Town (today's Island Gardens station) and Tiller Road, on the west side of Millwall Dock, with two possible routes to reach them.", "A \"western\" route would have run from the Westferry station alongside West Ferry Road via Cuba Street, then either terminating at Tiller Road or continuing over Millwall Docks Cut to a terminus at Cubitt Town.", "The \"central\" option required the West India Docks to be infilled or bridged and would run down the middle of the peninsula, through what was at the time an area of derelict warehouses.", "Ultimately this latter option was chosen, though the 1981 London Transport report warned that without extensive development around Canary Wharf the area would be \"very isolated with poor traffic prospects\" – as indeed it was, for a number of years.The northern terminus was proposed at Mile End, with options including street running down Burdett Road towards Limehouse or along the Mile End Road to turn south before using an old railway alignment to reach Poplar.A final report - prepared by the GLC, LDDC, government departments and London Transport - was published in June 1982, proposing a north–south route from Mile End to the Isle of Dogs, and an east–west route linking the Isle of Dogs to the City of London.", "Even during the development of the line, proposals for future extensions were being envisaged and investigated.=== Parliamentary process and construction ===Following the publishing of the report, the Departments of the Environment and Transport agreed to provide £77million towards construction of the extension, with a deadline of 1987.The funding agreement also included conditions to maximise the use of modern technology, and that no ongoing subsidy would be available from government.During the Parliamentary process, the northern terminus of the line was changed to Stratford, as part of efforts to segregate the line from road and other railway traffic, as the LDDC were pushing for the line to use a \"high tech automated system\".", "In 1984, the contract for the initial system was awarded to a GEC / John Mowlem joint venture, which proposed fully automated operation using light rail vehicles.The two Acts of Parliament that authorised the line to be built were passed in 1984 and 1985.Construction of the system began shortly after in 1985, with the joint venture careful to minimise costs in light of the £77million budget.", "Two thirds of the route was built on underused or disused railway infrastructure, and station architecture used a kit-of-parts approach to save money.The railway was formally opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 30 July 1987, and passenger services began on 31 August.===Initial system (1987–1990)===A first generation DLR train crosses West India Dock in September 1987The initial system comprised two routes, from and Stratford to , with a total length of .", "It was mainly elevated on disused railway viaducts or new concrete viaducts, and adopted disused surface railway formations between Poplar and Stratford.", "The trains were fully automated, controlled by computer, and had no driver; a Passenger Service Agent (PSA) on each train, originally referred to as a \"Train Captain\", was responsible for patrolling the train, checking tickets, making announcements and controlling the doors.", "PSAs could take control of the train in circumstances including equipment failure and emergencies.", "A total of eleven units supplied by Linke-Hofmann-Busch comprised the first generation of the Docklands Light Railway rolling stock.The system was lightweight, with stations designed for trains of only a single articulated vehicle.", "The three branches totalled , had 15 stations, and were connected by a flat triangular junction near .", "Services ran from Tower Gateway to Island Gardens and from Stratford to Island Gardens; the north side of the junction was used only for access to the Poplar depot.", "The stations were mostly of a common design and constructed from standard components.", "A common feature was a short half-cylindrical glazed blue canopy.", "All stations were above ground and were generally unstaffed.===Extensions to the City and the Royal Docks (1991–1994)===The view from looking east prior to rebuilding shows approach tracks to the left and the DLR line in the centre.", "Just visible in the distance is a DLR train that has emerged from the tunnel to to the right.The initial system had a relatively low capacity, but the Docklands area very quickly developed into a major financial centre and employment zone, increasing traffic.", "In particular Tower Gateway, at the edge of the City of London, attracted criticism for its poor connections, as it did not connect directly with the nearby Tower Hill tube station or Fenchurch Street railway station.", "The criticism arose partly because the system usage was higher than expected.", "Plans were developed, before the system opened, to extend it to in the west and Beckton in the east.", "Stations and trains were extended to two-unit length, and the system was expanded into the heart of the City of London to through a tunnel, which opened in 1991 at a cost of £295million.", "This extension left on a stub.The original trains were not suitable for underground usage due to not meeting the fire safety laws for underground trains.", "They were operated for a time on the above-ground sections only, and were later sold.As the Canary Wharf office complex grew, Canary Wharf DLR station was redeveloped from a small wayside station to a large one with six platforms serving three tracks and a large overall roof, fully integrated into the malls below the office towers.The east of Docklands needed better transport connections to encourage development, and a fourth branch, towards Beckton, was planned, with several route options available.", "A route from via and the north side of the Royal Docks complex was chosen, and opened in March 1994 at a cost of £280million.", "Initially it was thought the line was likely to be underutilised, due to the sparse development in the area and for this reason two additional stations at Thames Wharf (not to be confused with the later Thames Wharf proposal on the Woolwich branch) and Connaught were omitted.", "As part of this extension, one side of the original flat triangular junction was replaced by a grade-separated junction west of Poplar.", "Poplar was rebuilt to give cross-platform interchange between the Stratford and Beckton lines, with a new grade-separated junction built east of the station at the divergence of the Stratford and Beckton lines.", "As part of the extension, a new, larger, depot was built at Beckton.===Extension to Greenwich & Lewisham (1996–1999)===Early on, Lewisham London Borough Council commissioned a feasibility study into extending the system under the River Thames.", "This led the council to advocate an extension via Greenwich and Deptford, terminating at Lewisham railway station.", "The ambitions of the operators were supported by politicians in Parliament, including the future Labour Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, and Lord Whitty; and by 1996 construction work had begun.The Lewisham extension opened on 20 November 1999, at a cost of £200million funded mostly by the private sector as a Private finance initiative.", "It left the Island Gardens route south of the Crossharbour turn-back sidings, and dropped gently to , where a street-level station replaced the high-level one on the former London & Blackwall Railway viaduct.", "The line then entered a tunnel, following the route of the viaduct to a shallow subsurface station at , accessible by stairs or a lift.", "It crossed under the Thames to in the centre of Greenwich, and surfaced at Greenwich railway station, with cross-platform interchange between the northbound track and the London-bound main line.", "The line snaked on a concrete viaduct to , before descending to at street level, close to Lewisham town centre, terminating in two platforms between and below the main-line platforms at Lewisham railway station, with buses stopping outside the station.", "The extension quickly proved profitable.===Extensions to London City Airport & Woolwich (2004–2009)===Route of Woolwich Arsenal extension.An extension to London City Airport from the existing Beckton branch was explored in the mid-90s, at first via travelator from Royal Albert, and then in 1998 via a proposed lift-bridge over the dock with an intermediate station at West Silvertown.", "The government initially supported this proposal, and in 1999 was developed to the route known today with a further extension to King George V. At this time, the further route to Woolwich Arsenal was developed with an intermediate station at Woolwich Reach, but was viewed as a longer term aspiration.", "The Woolwich Reach station (on the south bank of the Thames, at the site of the Marlborough Road ventilation and escape shaft), was descoped in 2000.The extension was aided by a five-year programme of investment for public transport across London that was unveiled by Mayor of London Ken Livingstone on 12 October 2004.On 2 December 2005, an eastward branch along the approximate route of the former Eastern Counties and Thames Junction Railway on the southern side of the Royal Docks complex opened from Canning Town to via .A further extension from to Woolwich Arsenal opened on 10 January 2009, providing interchange with the North Kent main line, close to the stop on the Elizabeth line to Abbey Wood via West India and Royal Docks, met by Private Finance Initiative funding.", "Construction began in June 2005, the same month that the contracts were finalised, and the tunnels were completed on 23 July 2007, and formally opened by Boris Johnson, Mayor of London on 12 January 2009.Following completion, the project was shortlisted for the 2009 Prime Minister's Better Public Building Award.The original station was closed in mid-2008 for complete reconstruction.", "The two terminal tracks either side of a narrow island platform were replaced by a single track between two platforms, one for arriving passengers and the other for departing (Spanish solution).", "It reopened on 2 March 2009.As part of an upgrade to allow three-car trains, strengthening work was necessary at the Delta Junction north of .", "It was decided to include this in a plan for further grade separation to eliminate the conflict between services to Stratford and from Bank.", "A new timetable was introduced, with improved frequencies at peak hours.", "The new grade-separated route from Bank to Canary Wharf is used throughout the day, bypassing West India Quay station until mid-evening.", "Work on this project proceeded concurrently with the three-car upgrade work and the 'diveunder' (sometimes referred to as a flyunder but DLR have coined the term in this instance 'diveunder'), and the improved timetable came into use on 24 August 2009.===Upgrade to three-car trains (2007–2011)===With the development of the eastern Docklands as part of the Thames Gateway initiative and London's staging of the 2012 Summer Olympics, several extensions and enhancements were undertaken.Capacity was increased by upgrading for trains with three cars, each with four doors per side.", "The alternative of more frequent trains was rejected as the signalling changes needed would have cost no less than upgrading to longer trains and with fewer benefits.", "The railway had been built for single-car operation, and the upgrade required both strengthening viaducts to take heavier trains and lengthening many platforms.", "The extra capacity was useful for the 2012 Summer Olympics, which increased the use of London's transport network.", "The main contractor for the expansion and alteration works was Taylor Woodrow.Elverson Road, Royal Albert, Gallions Reach and Cutty Sark have not been extended for three-car trains; such extension may be impossible in some cases.", "Selective door operation is used, with emergency walkways in case a door fails to remain shut.", "station is underground, and both costs and the risk to nearby historic buildings prevent platform extension.", "The tunnel has an emergency walkway.", "Additional work beyond that needed to take the three-car trains was also carried out at some stations.", "This included replacing canopies with more substantial ones along the full platform length.", "A new station has been built east of the former location as nearby curves precluded lengthening.", "now has a third platform.For this upgrade DLR purchased an additional 31 cars compatible with existing rolling stock.", "The works were originally planned as three phases: Bank-Lewisham, Poplar-Stratford, and the Beckton branch.", "The original £200million contract was awarded on 3 May 2007.Work started in 2007 and Bank-Lewisham was originally due to be completed in 2009.However, the work programme for the first two phases was merged and the infrastructure work was completed by the end of January 2010.The Lewisham-Bank route now runs three-car trains exclusively.", "They started running on the Beckton branch on 9 May 2011.Stratford to Lewisham and Bank to Woolwich Arsenal services sometimes operate as three-car trains; other routes run the longer trains when required.===Extension to Stratford International (2011)===The DLR forecourt, soon after opening in 2011In addition to the three-car station extensions, partly funded from the 2012 Olympics budget, a line was opened from Canning Town to Stratford and Stratford International railway station along the former North London Line of the national railway system, with additional stations.", "It parallels the London Underground Jubilee line for much of its length.Abbey Road under construction in April 2010.The extension to Stratford International, taking over the North London Line from Canning Town to Stratford, links the Docklands area with domestic high-speed services on High Speed 1.It was an important part of transport improvements for the 2012 Olympic Games, much of which were held on a site adjoining Stratford International.The first contract for construction work was awarded on 10 January 2007 and construction started in mid-2007.Originally scheduled to open in mid-2010, the line opened on 31 August 2011.On 11 November 2015 the Mayor of London announced that all stations on this line would be rezoned from zone 3 to zone 2/3.New stations were , , , , and Stratford International.", "Of these, Canning Town, West Ham and Stratford are former North London Line stations, and Stratford High Street was built on the site of railway station.From Canning Town to Stratford the extension runs parallel to the Jubilee line of the London Underground.", "As well as providing interchange with the adjacent Jubilee line stations, there are additional DLR stations at Star Lane, Abbey Road and Stratford High Street.At Stratford new platforms were built for the North London Line at the northern end of the station.", "The old platforms (formerly 1 and 2) adjacent to the Jubilee line were rebuilt for the DLR, renumbered 16 (towards Stratford International) and 17 (towards Beckton/Woolwich Arsenal).", "Interchange between the Stratford International branch and DLR trains via Poplar is possible although the platforms are widely separated and at different levels.", "There is no physical connection between the two branches.The resited features new, wider platforms===Relocation of Pudding Mill Lane station (2014)===One of the tunnel portals for Elizabeth line is on the original site of Pudding Mill Lane station.", "As a consequence, work was carried out to divert the DLR between City Mill River and the River Lea onto a new viaduct further south.", "This included a replacement station, which opened on 28 April 2014.The former station stood on the only significant section of single track on the system, between Bow Church and Stratford.", "The opportunity was taken to double the track in three stages, to improve capacity.", "There was originally no provision for works beyond the realigned section in the Crossrail Act." ], [ "Current system", "===Network===The DLR has of tracks, with 45 stations.", "There are six branches: to Lewisham in the south, and Stratford International in the north, and Woolwich Arsenal in the east, and Central London in the west, splitting to and .The London, Tilbury and Southend line (foreground), operated by c2c, runs alongside the DLR (behind the fence) from Limehouse to Tower Gateway.The northern, southern and south-eastern branches terminate at the National Rail stations at Stratford, Stratford International, Lewisham and Woolwich Arsenal.", "Other interchanges with National Rail are at Limehouse, Greenwich and West Ham, while out-of-station interchanges for Oyster card holders are available between Shadwell DLR station and London Overground's station of the same name, and between Fenchurch Street and the DLR's western termini of Tower Gateway and Bank.Between Limehouse and Tower Gateway, the DLR runs parallel to the London, Tilbury and Southend line.800x800px===Services===The following services are operated in normal off-peak service from 26 September 2022: Off-peak Service Route trains per hour Calling at – 12 , , ,  (Bank-bound only), , , , , , , , , , Bank – 6 Shadwell, Limehouse, Westferry, , , , , , , , – 6 Shadwell, Limehouse, Westferry, Poplar, Blackwall, East India, Canning Town, , Custom House for ExCeL, , , , , – Beckton 6 Royal Victoria, Custom House, Prince Regent, Royal Albert, Beckton Park, Cyprus, Gallions Reach – Canary Wharf 12 , , , , , Poplar, West India Quay – Woolwich Arsenal 6 , , , , , Canning Town, West Silvertown, Pontoon Dock, London City Airport, King George VAt peak times, these same services run, but with the frequency increased by 25 per cent.", "Additionally, in the morning peak, alternate StratfordCanary Wharf services extend to Lewisham.At terminal stations, trains reverse direction in the platforms, except at Bank where there is a reversing headshunt in the tunnel beyond the station.", "During service disruption or planned engineering work, trains can also turn back at and .", "There is also capability for an additional shuttle from Canning Town to Prince Regent when exhibitions are in progress at the ExCeL exhibition centre, although this is not supported by any additional turnback infrastructure.", "Trains serve every station on the route, but trains from Bank to Lewisham do not call at because they are routed along the diveunder track to avoid junction conflicts.", "When required, such as during engineering works or for special events, other routes may be operated, such as Beckton to Lewisham if the Bank and Tower Gateway branch is closed.====Future services====The new rolling stock to be introduced from 2024 onwards will support service improvements.===Stations===An eastbound train leaving Westferry Station.Most stations are elevated, with others at street level, in cutting or underground.", "Access to the platforms is mostly by staircase and lift, with escalators at some stations.", "From the outset the system has been fully accessible to wheelchairs; much attention was paid to quick and effective accessibility for all passengers.", "The stations have high platforms matching the floor height of the cars, allowing level access for passengers with wheelchairs or pushchairs.Most stations are of a modular design dating back to the initial system, extended and improved with two side platforms, each with separate access from the street, and platform canopies, although few examples remain of the original, distinctive rounded roof design.", "Stations are unstaffed, except the underground stations at , Stratford International and Woolwich Arsenal for safety reasons, a few of the busier interchange stations, Canning Town, West Ham, and City Airport, which has a ticket office for passengers unfamiliar with the system.", "Canning Town, Custom House and Prince Regent are normally staffed on the platform whenever there is a significant exhibition at the ExCeL exhibition centre.On 3 July 2007, DLR officially launched an art programme called DLR Art, similar to that on the London Underground, Art on the Underground.", "Alan Williams was appointed to produce the first temporary commission, called \"Sidetrack\", which portrays the ordinary and extraordinary sights, often unfamiliar to passengers, on the system and was displayed throughout the network.===Fares and ticketing===A train awaits departure from Woolwich Arsenal.The system is part of the London fare zone system, and Travelcards that cover the appropriate zones are valid.", "There are one-day and season DLR-only \"Rover\" tickets, plus a one-day DLR \"Rail and River Rover\" ticket for the DLR and City Cruises river boats.", "Tickets can be purchased from ticket machines at the entrances to platforms, and are required before accessing the platform.", "Passengers using Oyster pay-as-you-go and contactless bank-cards need to touch both in and out of the system using card readers on automatic gates and platforms.", "There are no ticket barriers at DLR-only stations: correct ticketing is enforced by random on-train inspections by PSAs.", "There are barriers at Bank, , Woolwich Arsenal, West Ham and , where the DLR platforms are within a London Underground or National Rail barrier line.", "Users of payment cards who have failed to touch in at the start of the journey, and other passengers without a correct ticket, may be liable to a £80 penalty fare or prosecution for fare evasion.===Rolling stock===DLR train at Poplar DLR stationThe DLR is operated by 149 high-floor bi-directional single-articulated electric multiple units (EMUs).", "Each car has four double doors on each side, and two or three cars make up a train.", "There are no cabs because normal operations are automated; a small driver's console is concealed behind a locked panel at each end, from which the PSA can drive the car.", "Consoles at each door opening allow the PSA to control door closure and make announcements whilst patrolling the train.", "With the absence of a driver's position, the fully glazed car ends provide a forward and rear view for passengers.", "The operational top speed is .Despite having high floors and being automated, the cars are derived from a German light-rail design intended for street running.", "All cars look similar but there have been several different types, some still in service, others sold to other operators.", "Units were purchased from Bombardier in 2005 and delivered between 2007 and 2010.====Future rolling stock====In 2017, TfL opened bidding for new full-length, walk-through trains, subsequently awarded to CAF in 2019 and expected in service between 2024 and 2026, following delivery and testing on the network of the initial units from January 2023.Fifty-four 5-car trains were ordered, 33 to replace the existing stock and the rest to increase service capacity.", "The design of the train increases internal capacity by 10%, which combined with service improvements will bring about a 65% increase in capacity from Stratford to Lewisham, and a doubling of capacity between Canning Town and Beckton/Woolwich Arsenal.", "The trains will feature charging points and air-conditioning.===Depots===The network has two depots, at Poplar and Beckton.", "Poplar was opened with the initial line in 1987.Due to the constrained site, a new, larger, depot at Beckton was opened in 1994 and is now the main maintenance depot and primary control centre for the network.", "Track maintenance, off-peak train stabling, as well as the Operating and Maintenance Centre (OMC for TfL Staff) and the Hilton, Ritz and Dorchester Buildings houses the KeolisAmey Docklands franchise staff and the secondary back-up control centre are based at Poplar.=== Electrification ===Support arm and short length of conductor railTraction power is provided at 750 V DC via an unusual bottom contact third rail system.===Signalling technology===Originally, the DLR used signalling based on a fixed-block technology developed by GEC-General Signal and General Railway Signal.", "This was replaced in 1994 with a moving-block TBTC (Transmission Based Train Control) system developed by Alcatel, called SelTrac.", "The SelTrac system was bought by Thales in 2007 and updates are provided by Thales Rail Signalling Solutions.", "The same technology is used by rapid transit systems including Vancouver's SkyTrain, Toronto's SRT, the San Francisco Municipal Railway and Hong Kong's MTR.", "The SelTrac S40 system has also been adopted by the London Underground Jubilee line and Northern line.", "Transmissions occur via an inductive loop cable between each train's Vehicle On-Board Controller (VOBC) and the control centre (VCC, SMC) at Beckton.", "If this link is broken and communication is lost between the VOBC and VCC, SMC, the train stops until it is authorised to move again.", "If the whole system fails the train can run in restricted manual at for safety until the system is restored and communication is re-established.", "Emergency brakes can be applied if the train breaks the speed limit during manual control or overshoots a fixed stopping point, or if it leaves the station when the route has not been set.", "A secondary control centre is based at Poplar, the location of the original control centre, which can operate immediately should there be any issues with the primary at Beckton." ], [ "Corporate affairs", "===Ownership and operators===Initially, DLR was a wholly owned subsidiary of London Regional Transport.", "In 1992, it was transferred to the London Docklands Development Corporation.The infrastructure is owned by Docklands Light Railway Ltd, part of the London Rail division of Transport for London (TfL), which also manages London Overground, London Trams, the IFS Cloud Cable Car and the Elizabeth line.From 1997, DLR has been operated under franchise by the private sector.", "The first franchise was awarded to Serco Docklands Limited for seven years; operations began in April 1997.A management buyout backed by Serco management later sold its shares to Serco.", "A two-year extension was granted in 2002.In February 2005 TfL announced that Balfour Beatty/Keolis, First Carillion, RATP/Transdev and Serco had been shortlisted to operate the franchise, and in November 2005 TfL announced that Serco had retained the franchise for seven years from May 2006.The Lewisham, City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal extensions were designed, financed, built and maintained by private companies (concessionnaires): City Greenwich Lewisham (CGL) Rail, City Airport Rail Enterprises (CARE), and Woolwich Arsenal Rail Enterprises (WARE).", "In 2011, Transport Trading Limited (a subsidiary of TfL) bought out the companies responsible for the City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal extensions, leaving only the Lewisham extension under private ownership until 31 March 2021.In July 2012, TfL called for expressions of interest in bidding for the next DLR franchise, and in January 2013 Serco's contract was extended until September 2014.In April 2013, TfL announced that Go-Ahead/Colas Rail, Keolis/Amey, Serco and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to bid for the next franchise.", "However, on 30 August, just before the bid submission date of 9 September 2013, Go-Ahead/Colas Rail pulled out.", "The franchise was awarded to KeolisAmey Docklands Limited, with a handover date of 7 December 2014, expiring in April 2021 with an option for extension without going to tender.", "The franchise was duly extended to 2025, with TfL beginning the process of finding the next franchise in 2023.===Performance===Within a year of launch, annual passenger numbers reached 17 million, increasing to 64 million in 2009, and more than 80 million in 2011.The most recent figures show 116.8 million annual passengers in the financial year to 31 March 2020.The first five years had unreliability and operational problems, but the system has since become highly reliable.", "Research in 2008 showed 87% of the population of North Woolwich were in favour of the DLR.The Parliamentary Transport Select Committee favourably reviewed light rail in 2005, and due to the success of the DLR, proposals for similar systems elsewhere emerged.", "The North and West London Light Railway was a plan for an orbital railway serving the other side of London.", "The DLR has been successful, as have other recent light rail systems, although it was earlier criticised for having been designed with insufficient capacity to meet the demand that quickly arose.Until 1 July 2013, the only bicycles that were allowed were folding ones.", "DLR stated that this is because if evacuation is required, they would slow down the process.", "DLR cars, especially older rolling stock, were not designed with bicycles in mind – if they were allowed, they might obstruct doors and emergency exits.", "Since January 2014, full-size bicycles have been allowed on DLR trains at off-peak hours and weekends (except Bank Station, where bicycles are not permitted for safety reasons).===Business trends===The key available trends in recent years for the Docklands Light Railway are (years ending 31 March): 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Passenger revenue (£m)74.988.8102.8122.1130.0146.2158.4166.5168.3171.6168.854.3104.9 Profit/ (£m) Number of passengers (m)69.478.386.1100.0101.6110.2116.9122.3119.6121.8116.839.970.0 Number of trains (at year end)149149149149149149149149149149149149149 ''Notes/sources''Activities in financial years 2020/21 and 2021/22 were severely reduced by the impact of the coronavirus pandemic." ], [ "Future developments", "===Thamesmead extension===Mooted throughout the 2010s, an extension across the River Thames to Thamesmead was first proposed in November 2019 as part of the Thamesmead and Abbey Wood OAPF (Opportunity Area Planning Framework).", "Technical and feasibility work began in late 2020.Stations would be located at Beckton Riverside and Thamesmead.", "Public consultation into the extension began in 2024.Estimated to cost around £1bn, the extension could open in the \"early 2030s\".===Thames Wharf station===As part of the construction of the London City Airport extension, a gap in the viaduct due west of the western end of Royal Victoria Dock, between and stations, was passively safeguarded for a future station when development came forward on the brownfield and industrial sites.", "A station was also initially proposed at Oriental Road; however this was discounted at an early stage and the site is now flanked by several developments.", "The potential of development on the land at Thames Wharf was on hold for until the late 2010s, as the area was being safeguarded for the route of the Silvertown Tunnel, a new Thames river crossing currently under construction on the site.As part of the 2018 budget, the Chancellor announced funding for the DLR to support development in the Royal Docks.", "Following completion of the Silvertown Tunnel in the mid 2020s, around 5,000 homes will be built on the site, and a new DLR station constructed.===Tower Gateway station to Tower Hill interchange===In July 2014, a Transport Supporting Paper from the London Infrastructure Plan 2050 by the Mayor of London considered the closure of Tower Gateway DLR station and the branch serving it, with a replacement interchange being provided via new platforms at Tower Hill Underground station.", "This would increase train frequencies to Bank by approximately 30 per cent, thereby unlocking more capacity on the Bank branch." ], [ "Extensions cancelled or not progressed", "=== Gallions Reach to Dagenham Dock ===The extension to Dagenham Dock in East London, via the Barking Riverside development was first proposed in 2003, and was anticipated that the project could be completed and open for use by 2017, at a cost of around £750million.", "In November 2008, the Mayor of London Boris Johnson announced that due to financial constraints the extension, along with a number of other transport projects, had been cancelled.", "The Barking Riverside development is instead served by an extension of the London Overground to the new Barking Riverside station, which opened in July 2022.===Bank to Charing Cross===In February 2006 a proposal to extend the DLR to station from DLR branch was revealed.", "The idea originates from a DLR \"Horizon Study\".While not confirmed, it is probable that the Charing Cross scheme would use the overrun tunnels between Charing Cross Jubilee platforms and slightly west of .", "These tunnels were intended to be incorporated into the abandoned Phase 2 of the ''Fleet Line'' (Phase 1 became the original Jubilee line, prior to the Jubilee line Extension).", "However they would need enlargement because the DLR loading gauge is larger than tube gauge and current safety regulations require an emergency walkway in the tunnel.Two reasons driving the proposal are capacity problems at Bank, having just one interchange between the DLR and the central portion of Underground, and the difficult journeys faced by passengers from Kent and South Coast between their rail termini and the DLR.", "Intermediate stations would be at City Thameslink/Ludgate Circus and Aldwych, which was intended for future connection with the proposed but now abandoned Cross River Tram.===City Thameslink to Euston and St Pancras===In 2011, strategy documents proposed a DLR extension to and .", "Transport for London have considered driving a line from via north to the rail termini.", "The main benefit of such an extension would be to broaden the available direct transport links to the Canary Wharf site.", "It would create a new artery in central London and help relieve the Northern and Circle lines and provide another metro line to serve the High Speed line into Euston.===Lewisham to Catford and Beckenham Junction===This possible extension was considered during the latest Horizon Study.", "The route would follow the Southeastern line and terminate between and stations.", "It has been seen as attractive to the district, as has the current terminus at Lewisham, built in an earlier extension.", "A map published in 2010 by Transport for London suggests that a further extension from Catford to has also been considered.However, early plans showed problems due to station being only marginally lower than the busy A20 road, which impedes any extension.", "The plan is however being revised.", "When the Lewisham extension was first completed there were proposals to continue further to Beckenham to link it up with the Tramlink system.", "However, the way in which Lewisham station was built impedes this possible extension and it would prove costly to redevelop.===Lewisham to Bromley North===Another proposal is to by taking over the Bromley North Line, a short National Rail branch line which has no direct services into Central London.", "The scheme being considered by Transport for London and the London Borough of Bromley would convert the branch line to DLR operation.", "Although Lewisham Council planned to re-route the A20 road and redevelop the area south of Lewisham DLR station, the plans published in 2012 have no safeguarded route for an extension, making one unlikely." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "The original Island Gardens DLR station at the end of a viaduct* On 10 March 1987, before the system opened, a test train crashed through buffer stops at the original high-level terminus and was left hanging from the end of the elevated track.", "The accident has largely been attributed to unauthorised tests being run before the correct installation of the wayside safety system had been verified; an omission in the wayside system allowed the train to travel too fast on the approach to the terminus.", "The train was being driven manually at the time.", "However, inside sources have stated these tests were being done to test the ATP if the train was entering the station too quickly, and after six successful tests, a software issue involving asynchronous computer systems caused the train to not receive the instructions to activate the ATP, cut off power from the motors, and apply the brakes soon enough to prevent the train from slowing down, causing the train to go through the buffers.", "Following this, the software was reworked and the braking distance was changed to ensure such incidents wouldn't happen in practice, and as a result may have possibly prevented a far more tragic incident from occurring.", "* On 22 April 1991, two trains collided at a junction on the bridge during morning rush hour, requiring a shutdown of the system and evacuation of passengers by ladder.", "One train was travelling automatically; the other was under manual control.", "* On 9 February 1996, the Provisional IRA blew up a lorry under a bridge near , killing two people and injuring many others.", "This caused £85 million of damage and marked an end to an IRA ceasefire in force at the time.", "Significant disruption was caused and a train was stranded at Island Gardens, unable to move until the track was rebuilt." ], [ "See also", "* List of Docklands Light Railway stations* List of tram and light rail transit systems* Rail transport in Great Britain* Transport in London (overview)* Crossings of the River Thames* Tunnels underneath the River Thames" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Further reading===* *" ], [ "External links", "* West: Crossings of the River Thames East: Jubilee linebetween and '''Lewisham branch''',between Island Gardensand Cutty Sark Greenwich Foot Tunnel Woolwich foot tunnel '''Woolwich branch''',between King George Vand Woolwich Arsenal Dartford Cable Tunnel" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dundee" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dundee''' (; ; or , ) is the fourth-largest city in Scotland.", "The mid-year population estimate for 2016 was , giving Dundee a population density of 2,478/km2 or 6,420/sq mi, the second-highest in Scotland.", "It lies within the eastern central Lowlands on the north bank of the Firth of Tay, which feeds into the North Sea.", "Under the name of '''Dundee City''', it forms one of the 32 council areas used for local government in Scotland.Within the boundaries of the historic county of Angus, the city developed into a burgh in the late 12th century and established itself as an important east coast trading port.", "Rapid expansion was brought on by the Industrial Revolution, particularly in the 19th century when Dundee was the centre of the global jute industry.", "This, along with its other major industries, gave Dundee its epithet as the city of \"jute, jam and journalism\".Today, Dundee is promoted as \"One City, Many Discoveries\" in honour of Dundee's history of scientific activities and of the RRS ''Discovery'', Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic exploration vessel, which was built in Dundee and is now berthed at Discovery Point.", "Biomedical and technological industries have arrived since the 1980s, and the city now accounts for 10% of the United Kingdom's digital entertainment industry, including mobile app development and gaming.", "Dundee has two universities – the University of Dundee and Abertay University.", "In 2014, Dundee was recognised by the United Nations as the UK's first UNESCO City of Design for its diverse contributions to fields including medical research, comics and video games.A unique feature of Dundee is that its two professional football clubs, Dundee F.C.", "and Dundee United F.C., have stadiums all but adjacent to each other.With the decline of traditional industry, the city has adopted a plan to regenerate and reinvent itself as a cultural centre.", "In pursuit of this, a £1 billion master plan to regenerate and to reconnect the Waterfront to the city centre started in 2001 and is expected to be completed within a 30-year period.", "The V&A Dundee – the first branch of the V&A to operate outside of London – is the main centre piece of the waterfront project.In recent years, Dundee's international profile has risen.", "''GQ'' magazine named Dundee the \"Coolest Little City in Britain\" in 2015 and ''The Wall Street Journal'' ranked Dundee at number 5 on its \"Worldwide Hot Destinations\" list for 2018." ], [ "History", "The name \"Dundee\" is made up of two parts: the common Celtic place-name element ''dun'', meaning fort; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element, cognate with the Gaelic ''dè'', meaning 'fire'.Dundee in 1693 by John SlezerWhile earlier evidence for human occupation is abundant, Dundee's success and growth as a seaport town arguably came as a result of William the Lion's charter, granting Dundee to his younger brother, David (later Earl of Huntingdon) in the late 12th century.", "The situation of the town and its promotion by Earl David as a trading centre led to a period of prosperity and growth.", "The earldom was passed down to David's descendants, amongst whom was John Balliol.", "The town became a Royal Burgh on John's coronation as king in 1292.The town and its castle were occupied by English forces for several years during the First War of Independence and recaptured by Robert the Bruce in early 1312.The original Burghal charters were lost during the occupation and subsequently renewed by Bruce in 1327.The burgh suffered considerably during the conflict known as the Rough Wooing of 1543 to 1550, and was occupied by the English forces of Andrew Dudley from 1547.In 1548, unable to defend the town against an advancing Scottish force, Dudley ordered that the town be burnt to the ground.", "In 1645, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Dundee was again besieged, this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose.", "The town was finally destroyed by Parliamentarian forces led by George Monck in 1651.The town played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Jacobite cause when John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on the Dundee Law in 1689.The town was held by the Jacobites in the 1715–16 rising, and on 6 January 1716 the Jacobite claimant to the throne, James VIII and III (the Old Pretender), made a public entry into the town.", "Many in Scotland, including many in Dundee, regarded him as the rightful king.A notable resident of Dundee was Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, Baron of Lundie (1 July 1731 to 4 August 1804).", "He was born in Dundee on 1 July 1731, the son of Alexander Duncan of Lundie, Provost of Dundee.", "Adam was educated in Dundee and later joined the Royal Navy on board the sloop Trial.", "He rose to be admiral and in October 1797 defeated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown (north of Haarlem).", "This was seen as one of the most significant actions in naval history.The economy of medieval Dundee centred on the export of raw wool, with the production of finished textiles being a reaction to recession in the 15th century.", "Two government Acts in the mid 18th century had a profound effect on Dundee's industrial success: the textile industry was revolutionised by the introduction of large four-storey mills, stimulated in part by the 1742 Bounty Act which provided a government-funded subsidy on Osnaburg linen produced for export.", "Expansion of the whaling industry was triggered by the second Bounty Act, introduced in 1750 to increase Britain's maritime and naval skill base.", "Dundee, and Scotland more generally, saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, with the city's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821.The phasing out of the linen export bounty between 1825 and 1832 stimulated demand for cheaper textiles, particularly for cheaper, tough fabrics.", "The discovery that the dry fibres of jute could be lubricated with whale oil (of which Dundee had a surfeit, following the opening of its gasworks) to allow it to be processed in mechanised mills resulted in the Dundee mills rapidly converting from linen to jute, which sold at a quarter of the price of flax.", "Interruption of Prussian flax imports during the Crimean War and of cotton during the American Civil War resulted in a period of inflated prosperity for Dundee and the jute industry dominated Dundee throughout the latter half of the 19th century.", "Unprecedented immigration, notably of Irish workers, led to accelerated urban expansion, and at the height of the industry's success, Dundee supported 62 jute mills, employing some 50,000 workers.", "Cox Brothers, who owned the massive Camperdown Works in Lochee, were one of the largest jute manufacturers in Europe and employed more than 5,000 workers.The rise of the textile industries brought with it an expansion of supporting industries, notably of the whaling, maritime and shipbuilding industries, and extensive development of the waterfront area started in 1815 to cope with increased demand for port capacity.", "At its height, 200 ships per year were built there, including Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic research vessel, the .", "This ship is now on display at Discovery Point in the city.", "A significant whaling industry was also based in Dundee, largely existing to supply the jute mills with whale oil.", "Whaling ceased in 1912 and shipbuilding ceased in 1981.Tay Bridge (from the south) the day after the disaster.", "The collapsed section can be seen near the northern end.While the city's economy was dominated by the jute industry, it also became known for smaller industries.", "Most notable among these were James Keiller's and Sons, established in 1795, which pioneered commercial marmalade production, and the publishing firm DC Thomson, which was founded in the city in 1905.Dundee was said to be built on the 'three Js': Jute, Jam and Journalism.The town was also the location of one of the worst rail disasters in British history, the Tay Bridge disaster.", "The first Tay Rail Bridge was opened in 1878.It collapsed some 18 months later during a storm, as a passenger train passed over it, resulting in the loss of 75 lives.", "The most destructive fire in the city's history came in 1906, reportedly sending \"rivers of burning whisky\" through the street.The jute industry fell into decline in the early 20th century, partly due to reduced demand for jute products and partly due to an inability to compete with the emerging industry in Calcutta.", "This gave rise to unemployment levels far in excess of the national average, peaking in the inter-war period, but major recovery was seen in the post-war period, thanks to the arrival first of American light engineering companies like Timex and NCR, and subsequent expansion into microelectronics.A £1 billion master plan to regenerate Dundee Waterfront is expected to last for a 30-year period between 2001 and 2031.The aims of the project are to reconnect the city centre to the waterfront; to improve facilities for walking, cyclists and buses; to replace the existing inner ring road with a pair of east/west tree-lined boulevards; and to provide a new civic square and a regenerated railway station and arrival space at the western edge.", "A new Victoria and Albert Museum opened on 15 September 2018." ], [ "Governance", "Coat of arms of the city of DundeeDundee was granted Royal Burgh status on the coronation of John Balliol as King of Scotland in 1292.The city has two mottos – (''Gift of God'') and ''Prudentia et Candore'' (With Thought and Purity) although usually only the latter is used for civic purposes.Prior to 1996, Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council.", "This was formed in 1975, implementing boundaries imposed in the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973.Under these boundaries, the Angus burgh and district of Monifieth, and the Perth electoral division of Longforgan (which included Invergowrie) were annexed to the county of the city of Dundee.", "In 1996, the Dundee City unitary authority was created following implementation of the Local Government etc.", "(Scotland) Act 1994.This placed Monifieth and Invergowrie in the unitary authorities of Angus and Perth and Kinross, largely reinstating the pre-1975 county boundaries.", "Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes, with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie.=== Local government ===Dundee City Chambers, where the city council meetsDundee is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, and is represented by the Dundee City Council – a local council composed of 29 elected councillors.", "Previously the city was a county of a city and later a district of the Tayside region.", "Council meetings take place in the City Chambers, which opened in 1933 in City Square.", "The civic head and chair of the council is known as the Lord Provost, a position similar to that of mayor in other cities.", "The political head of the council is known as the Leader of the council or Leader of the Administration.", "The Leader chairs the Policy & Resources Committee.", "Dundee House, the new headquarters for the city council on North Lindsay Street, opened in August 2011.This has replaced Tayside House which was demolished in 2013 as part of the Dundee Waterfront improvements.Elections to the council are normally on a four-year cycle.", "The most recent election took place on 5 May 2022.Since 2007, the Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004 has meant that there are eight multi-member wards which elect three or four councillors by single transferable vote, to produce a form of proportional representation.", "The 2012 elections gave the SNP overall control of the council with 16 seats.", "However, the 2017 contest saw the SNP lose their majority, although they remained the largest party with 14 councillors.", "Scotland's longest-serving councillor, Ian Borthwick, sits on the council.=== Westminster and Holyrood ===For elections to the British House of Commons at Westminster, the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided in two constituencies.", "The constituencies of Dundee East and Dundee West are represented by Stewart Hosie (Scottish National Party) and Chris Law (Scottish National Party), respectively, both of whom were re-elected at the 2019 General Election.", "For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, the city area is divided between three constituencies.", "The Dundee City East constituency and the Dundee City West constituency are entirely within the city area.", "The Angus South (Holyrood) constituency includes north-eastern and north-western portions of the city area.", "All three constituencies are within the North East Scotland electoral region: Shona Robison (SNP) is the Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Dundee East constituency; Joe Fitzpatrick (SNP) is the current MSP for the Dundee West constituency and Graeme Dey (SNP) is the current MSP for the Angus South constituency.Dundee was also part of the pan-Scotland European Parliament constituency until 31 January 2020 when the U.K. left the EU.", "Seven Members of the European Parliament (MEP)s were elected using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation.", "In the last European Election Scotland voted, it returned three SNP MEPs, one Liberal Democrat MEP, one Conservative and Unionist MEP and one Brexit Party MEP, to the European Parliament.Winston Churchill served as one of two MPs for Dundee from 1908 to 1922.==== 2014 Scottish independence referendum ====On 18 September 2014, Dundee was one of four council areas to vote \"Yes\" in the Scottish independence referendum, with 57.3% voting \"Yes\" on a 78.8% turnout.", "With the highest Yes vote for any local authority in Scotland, some in the Yes Scotland campaign nicknamed Dundee the 'Yes City', including former First Minister Alex Salmond." ], [ "Geography", "The Dundee LawDundee sits on the north bank of the Firth of Tay on the eastern, North Sea Coast of Scotland.", "The city lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London.", "The built-up area occupies a roughly rectangular shape long by wide, aligned in an east to west direction and occupies an area of .", "The town is bisected by a line of hills stretching from Balgay Hill (elevation of 143 m) in the west end of the city, through the Dundee Law (174 m) which occupies the centre of the built up area, to Gallow Hill (83 m), between Baxter Park and the Eastern Cemetery.", "North of this ridge lies a valley through which cuts the Dighty Water burn, the elevation falling to around 45 m. North of the Dighty valley lie the Sidlaw Hills, the most prominent hill being Craigowl Hill (455 m).A cityscape from the TayThe western and eastern boundaries of the city are marked by two burns that are tributaries of the River Tay.", "On the westernmost boundary of the city, the Lochee burn meets the Fowlis burn, forming the Invergowrie burn, which meets the Tay at Invergowrie basin.", "The Dighty Water enters Dundee from the village of Strathmartine and marks the boundaries of a number of northern districts of the city, joining the Tay between Barnhill and Monifieth.", "The Scouring burn in the west end of the city and Dens Burn in the east, both of which played important roles in the industrial development of the city, have now been culverted over.=== Geology ===The city lies within the Sidlaw-Ochil anticline, and the predominant bedrock type is Old Red Sandstone of the Arbuthnott-Garvock group.", "Differential weathering of a series of igneous intrusions has yielded a number of prominent hills in the landscape, most notably the Dundee Law (a late Silurian/early Devonian Mafic rock intrusion) and Balgay hill (a Felsic rock intrusion of similar age).", "In the east of the city, in Craigie and Broughty Ferry, the bedrock geology is of extrusive rocks, including mafic lava and tuff.The land surrounding Dundee, particularly that in the lower lying areas to the west and east of the city, bears high quality soil that is particularly suitable for arable farming.", "It is predominantly of a brown forest soil type with some gleying, the lower parts being formed from raised beach sands and gravels derived from Old Red Sandstone and lavas.=== Location ====== Urban environment ===leftVery little of pre-Reformation Dundee remains, the destruction suffered in the War of the Rough Wooing being almost total, with only scattered, roofless shells remaining.", "The area occupied by the medieval burgh of Dundee extends between East Port and West Port, which formerly held the gates to the walled city.", "The shoreline has been altered considerably since the early 19th century through development of the harbour area and land reclamation.", "Several areas on the periphery of the burgh saw industrial development with the building of textile mills from the end of the 18th century.", "Their placement was dictated by the need for a water supply for the modern steam powered machinery, and areas around the Lochee Burn (Lochee), Scouring Burn (Blackness) and Dens Burn (Dens Road area) saw particular concentrations of mills.", "The post war period saw expansion of industry to estates along the Kingsway.Working-class housing spread rapidly and without control throughout the Victorian era, particularly in the Hawkhill, Blackness Road, Dens Road and Hilltown areas.", "Despite the comparative wealth of Victorian Dundee as a whole, living standards for the working classes were very poor.", "A general lack of town planning coupled with the influx of labour during the expansion of the jute industry resulted in insanitary, squalid and cramped housing for much of the population.", "While gradual improvements and slum clearance began in the late 19th century, the building of the groundbreaking Logie housing estate marked the beginning of Dundee's expansion through the building of planned housing estates, under the vision of city architect James Thomson, whose legacy also includes the housing estate of Craigiebank and the beginnings of an improved transport infrastructure by planning the Kingsway bypass.Modernisation of the city centre continued in the post-war period.", "The medieval Overgate was demolished in the early 1960s to make way for a shopping centre, followed by construction of the inner ring road and the Wellgate Shopping Centre.", "The Tay Road Bridge, completed in 1966, had as its northern landfall the docklands of central Dundee, and the new associated road system resulted in the city centre being cut off from the river.", "An acute shortage of housing in the late 1940s was addressed by a series of large housing estates built in the northern environs, including the Fintry, Craigie, Charleston and Douglas areas in the 1950s and early 1960s.", "These were followed by increasingly cost-effective and sometimes poorly planned housing throughout the 1960s.", "Much of this, in particular the high-rise blocks of flats at Lochee, Kirkton, Trottick, Whitfield, Ardler and Menzieshill, and the prefabricated Skarne housing blocks at Whitfield, has been demolished since the 1990s or is scheduled for future demolition.=== Climate ===Haar (fog) travelling up the River Tay by advection|thumb|rightThe climate, like the rest of lowland Scotland, is Oceanic (Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb).", "Mean temperature and rainfall are typical for the east coast of Scotland, and with the city's sheltered estuarine position, mean daily maxima are slightly higher than coastal areas to the North, particularly in spring and summer.", "The summers are still chilly when compared with similar latitudes in continental Europe, something compensated for by the mild winters, similar to the rest of the British Isles.", "The nearest official Met Office weather station is Mylnefield, Invergowrie which is about west of the City Centre.A record high of was recorded in July 2013.The warmest month was July 2006, with an average temperature of (average high , average low ).", "In an 'average' year the warmest day should reach , and in total just 1.86 days should equal or exceed a temperature of per year, illustrating the rarity of such warmth.On average, 4.73 days should record a minimum temperature at or below -5 °C and there are 53.26 days of air frost on average.", "From 1991 to 2020, Mylnefield averaged 0.9 ice days, 50 days with precipitation of more than 5mm and 19.56 days with more than 10mm.", "The weather station is in plant hardiness zone 10a." ], [ "Demography", "Population pyramid of Dundee in 2020+ '''City of Dundee compared according to the 2011 UK census'''City of DundeeScotlandUnited KingdomTotal population 147,268 5,295,403 63,182,000Foreign born 9% 7% 12.7%Over 75 years old 8.3% 7.7% 7.9%Unemployed 5.7% 4.8% 7.4%Dundee's recorded population reached a peak of 182,204 at the 1971 census.", "According to the 2011 census, the City of Dundee had a population of 147,268.A more recent population estimate of the City of Dundee has been recorded at 149,680 in 2020.The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland.", "The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population (20%).", "The median age of males and females living in Dundee was 37 and 40 years, respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland.The place of birth of the town's residents was 94.16% United Kingdom (including 87.85% from Scotland), 0.42% Ireland, 1.33% from other European Union (EU) countries, and 3.09% from elsewhere in the world.", "The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 35.92% in full-time employment, 10.42% in part-time employment, 4.25% self-employed, 5.18% unemployed, 7.82% students with jobs, 4.73% students without jobs, 15.15% retired, 4.54% looking after home or family, 7.92% permanently sick or disabled, and 4.00% economically inactive for other reasons.", "Compared with the average demography of Scotland, Dundee has both low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and for people over 75 years old.Natives of Dundee are called Dundonians and are often recognisable by their distinctive dialect of Scots as well as their accent, which most noticeably substitutes the monophthong /ɛ/ (pronounced \"eh\") in place of the diphthong /aj/ (pronounced \"ai\").", "Dundee, and Scotland more generally, saw rapid population increase at end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, with the city's population increasing from 12,400 in 1751 to 30,500 in 1821.Of particular significance was an influx of Irish workers in the early to mid-19th century, attracted by the prospect of employment in the textiles industries.", "In 1851, 18.9% of people living in Dundee were of Irish birth.The city has also attracted immigrants from Italy, fleeing poverty and famine, in the 19th century Jews, fleeing from the Russia controlled portions of partitioned Poland and from German occupation in the 20th.", "Today, Dundee has a sizeable ethnic minority population, and has around 4,000 Asian residents which is the fourth-largest Asian community in Scotland.", "The city also has 1.0% of residents from a Black/African/Caribbean background.Dundee has a higher proportion of university students – one in seven of the population – than any other town in Europe, except Heidelberg.", "The 14.2% come from all around the world to attend the local universities and colleges.", "Dundee is a major attraction for Northern Irish students who make up 5% of the total student population.", "The city's universities are believed to hold the highest percentage of Northern Irish students outside of Northern Ireland and have a big impact on the local economy and culture.", "However, this has declined in recent years due to the increase of tuition fees for students elsewhere in the UK.", "Dundee also has a lot of students from abroad, mostly from the Republic of Ireland and other EU countries but with an increasing number from countries from the Far East and Nigeria.=== Ethnicity ===Ethnic Group1981 estimations199120012011Number%Number%Number%Number%White: Total172,16298.6%162,63098%140,33096.31%138,46094%White: Scottish–– – –128,50788.22%123,82784.08%White: Other British–– – –7,8225.36%7,7835.28%White: Irish––1,1670.7%1,4701%1,369White: Gypsy/Traveller–– – – – –98White: Polish–– – – – –1,990White: Other–– – –2,5311.73%3,393Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Total––2,5731.55%4,0942.81%5,8383.96%Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Indian––6281,0231,417Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Pakistani––1,1570.69%1,7232,047Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Bangladeshi––119233310Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Chinese––3986991,274Asian, Asian Scottish or Asian British: Asian Other––271416790Black, Black Scottish or Black British––2540.15%35–––African: Total––––2880.19%1,1700.79%African: African, African Scottish or African British–– – –2880.19%1,163African: Other African–– – – – –7Caribbean or Black: Total––--60-2690.18%Caribbean–– – –60167Black–– – – – –66Caribbean or Black: Other–– – – – –36Mixed or multiple ethnic groups: Total––––3950.27%6850.46%Other: Total––4160.25%4610.31%8460.57%Other: Arab–– – – – –693Other: Any other ethnic group4160.25%4610.31%153Non-White: Total2,4751.4%3,2432%5,3333.6%8,8086%Total:174,637100%165,873100%145,663100%147,268100%" ], [ "Economy", "Cox's Stack, a chimney from the former Camperdown Works jute mill.", "The chimney takes its name from jute baron James Cox who later became Provost of the city.In 1911 40% of the city were employed in the jute industry.", "By 1951 this had dropped to 20%, and now is effectively zero.The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city's economy.", "While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population, new industries were attracted and encouraged.", "NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945, primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war, good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine.", "Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947.A fortnight after the tenth anniversary of the plant the 250,000th cash register was produced.By the 1960s, NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers, and later ATMs, at several of its Dundee plants.", "The firm developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers.", "Astral, a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people.", "The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry, particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969.Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards, cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade.", "To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions, Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984.In 1983, the first ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex.", "In the same year the company broke production records, despite a sit-in by workers protesting against job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket.", "Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six-month industrial dispute.", "The Michelin Tyre factory closed in June 2020, with the loss of 850 jobs.=== Modern day ===Ninewells Hospital, one of the largest employers in the Dundee areaDundee is a regional employment and education centre, with around 325,000 people within 30 minutes' drive of the city centre and 860,000 people within one hour.", "Many people from North East Fife, Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city.", "As of 2015, there were 395 employers who employed 250 or more staff; over a five-year period (2011–2015) the number of registered enterprises in Dundee increased by 20.9% from 2,655 to 3,210.The largest employers in the city are NHS Tayside, Dundee City Council, University of Dundee, Tayside Contracts, Tesco, D. C. Thomson & Co and BT.Several government agencies and public sector organisations are based in Dundee, such as the Care Inspectorate (Scotland), the Scottish Social Services Council and Social Security Scotland.Other employers include limited and private companies such as NCR, Michelin, Alliance Trust, Aviva, Royal Bank of Scotland, Asda, Stagecoach Strathtay, Tokheim, Scottish Citylink, Rochen Limited, C J Lang & Son (SPAR Scotland), Joinery and Timber Creations, Xplore Dundee, and W. L. Gore and Associates.", "Between 2009 and 2014 the hardest-hit sectors, in terms of jobs, were Information and Communication, Construction and Manufacturing which each lost around 500 full-time jobs.", "By contrast, the Professional, Scientific and Technical sector saw an upsurge in jobs in addition to the Business Administration and Support Service sector which increased by approximately 1,000 full-time and 300 part-time jobs in the same six-year period.", "Gross median weekly earnings of full-time employees in Dundee in 2015 was £523.50; men received £563.40 and women £451.80.Gross weekly pay for all employees in Dundee has increased from £325.00 in 2000 to £380.00 in 2015.The biomedical and biotechnology sectors, including start-up biomedical companies arising from university research, employ just under 1,000 people directly and nearly 2,000 indirectly.", "Information technology and video game development have been important industries in the city for more than 20 years.", "Rockstar North, developer of ''Lemmings'' and the ''Grand Theft Auto'' series was founded in Dundee as DMA Design by David Jones; an undergraduate of the Abertay University.", "Rockstar Games returned to Dundee in 2020 when they acquired Ruffian Games to form Rockstar Dundee.", "Other game development studios in Dundee include Denki, Dynamo Games, 4J Studios and Outplay Entertainment, among others.NCR DundeeDundee is also a key retail destination for North East Scotland and has been ranked fourth in Retail Rankings in Scotland.", "The city centre offers a wide variety of retailers, department stores and independent/specialist stores.", "The Murraygate and High Street forms the main pedestrian area and is home to a number of main anchors such as Marks and Spencer, Accessorise.", "The main pedestrian area also connects the two large shopping centres; the Overgate Centre which is anchored by Primark, H&M, Next, Argos, and The Perfume Shop and the Wellgate Centre by Home Bargains, T. J. Hughes, B&M, Superdrug, Iceland, Holland & Barrett, Poundland, Savers, The Works, Hydro Electric, Other retail areas in the city include Gallagher Retail Park, Kingsway East Retail Park and Kingsway West Retail Park.", "The new Myrekirk Retail Park opened in 2022." ], [ "Landmarks", "St Mary's Tower, oldest building in Dundee, dating to late 15th centuryThe city and its landscape are dominated by The Law and the Firth of Tay.", "The Law, a large hill to the north of the City Centre was the site of an Iron Age Hill Fort, upon which the Law War Memorial, designed by Thomas Braddock, was erected in 1921 to commemorate the fallen of World War I.", "The waterfront, much altered by reclamation in the 19th century, retains several of the docks that once were the hub of the jute and whaling industries, including the Camperdown and Victoria Docks.", "The Victoria Dock is the home of the frigate HMS ''Unicorn'' and the North Carr Lightship, while Captain Scott's RRS ''Discovery'' occupies Craig Pier, from where the ferries to Fife once sailed.The oldest building in the city is St Mary's Tower, which dates from the late 15th century.", "This forms part of the City Churches, which consist of St Clement's Church, dating to 1787–8 and built by Samuel Bell, Old St Paul's and St David's Church, built in 1841–42 by William Burn, and St Mary's Church, rebuilt in 1843–44, also by Burn, following a fire.", "Other significant churches in the city include the Gothic Revival St Paul's Episcopal Cathedral, built by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1853 on the former site of Dundee Castle in the High Street, and the Catholic St. Andrew's Cathedral, built in 1835 by George Mathewson in Nethergate.As a result of the destruction suffered during the Rough Wooing, little of the mediaeval city (aside from St Mary's Tower) remains and the earliest surviving domestic structures date from the Early Modern Era.", "A notable example is the Wishart Arch (or East Port) in Cowgate.", "It is the last surviving portion of the city walls.", "Dating from prior to 1548, it owes its continued existence to its association with the Protestant martyr George Wishart, who is said to have preached to plague victims from the East Port in 1544.Another is the building complex on the High Street known as Gardyne's Land, parts of which date from around 1560.The Howff burial ground in the northern part of the City Centre also dates from this time; it was given to the city by Mary Queen of Scots in 1564, having previously served as the grounds of a Franciscan abbey.Claypotts Castle, dating from the late 16th centurySeveral castles can be found in Dundee, mostly from the Early Modern Era.", "The earliest parts of Mains Castle in Caird Park were built by David Graham in 1562 on the site of a hunting lodge of 1460.Dudhope Castle, originally the seat of the Scrymgeour family, dates to the late 16th century and was built on the site of a keep of 1460.Claypotts Castle, a striking Z plan castle in West Ferry, was built by John Strachan and dates from 1569 to 1588.In 1495 Broughty Castle was built and remained in use as a major defensive structure until 1932, playing a role in the Anglo-Scottish Wars and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "The castle stands on a shallow tip projecting into the Firth, alongside two beaches, one of sand, the other of pebbles.", "The ruins of Powrie Castle, north of Fintry, date from the 16th-century castle north.North of the City Churches, at the end of Reform Street, lies the High School of Dundee, built in 1829–34 by George Angus in a Greek Revival style.", "Another school building of note is Morgan Academy on Forfar Road, built in 1863, designed by John Dick Peddie in a Dutch Gothic style.Dundee's industrial history as a centre for textile production is apparent throughout the city.", "Numerous former jute mills remain standing and while some lay derelict, many have been converted for other uses.", "Of particular note are the Tay Works, built by the Gilroy Brothers –1865, Camperdown Works in Lochee, which built and owned by Cox Brothers, one of Europe's largest jute manufacturing companies, and begun in 1849, and Upper Dens Mill and Lower Dens Works, built by the Baxter Brothers in the mid-19th century.James Duncan Mitchell, died on the Lusitania in 1915, interred at Western Cemetery, DundeeA more recent landmark is the Tower Building of the University of Dundee built between 1959 and 1961.At the time of its construction only the Old Steeple was taller in the city.", "The Tower was built to replace the original college buildings which stood on the site.", "The building houses the university's main administration and includes galleries and the university's Archive, Records Management and Museum Services.Many 1960s landmark multi-storey housing buildings were demolished in the late 2000s.", "The former Tayside House block, nicknamed 'Faulty Towers' by many local people, was demolished in 2013 as part of the waterfront redevelopment program.", "According to the architectural historian Charles McKean and his co-authors of Lost Dundee, the best views in the city were from Tayside House, because these were the only views from which the building itself could not be seen." ], [ "Transport", "===Road===Dundee is served by the A90 road, which connects the city to the M90 and Perth in the west with Forfar and Aberdeen in the north.", "The part of the road that is in the city is a dual carriageway and forms the city's main bypass on its north side, known as the Kingsway.", "East of the A90's Forfar Road junction, the Kingsway East continues as the A972 and meets the A92 at the Scott Fyffe roundabout.", "Travelling east, the A92 connects the city to Arbroath and Montrose and to the south with Fife, via the Tay Road Bridge.The A930 links the city with coastal settlements to the east, including Monifieth and Carnoustie.", "Progressing westward from where the A92 meets the Tay Road Bridge at the Riverside Roundabout, the A85 follows the southern boundary of the city along Riverside Drive and towards the A90 at the Swallow Roundabout.", "The A85 multiplexes with the A90 and diverges again at Perth.Also meeting the A92 and A85 at the Riverside Roundabout is the A991 Inner Ring Road, which surrounds the perimeter of the city centre, returning to the A92 on the east side of the Tay Road Bridge.", "The A923 Dundee to Dunkeld road meets the A991 at the Dudhope Roundabout, and the A929 links the A991 to the A90 via Forfar Road.===Buses===Dundee bus stationDundee has an extensive network of bus routes.", "The Seagate bus station is the city's main terminus for journeys out of town.", "Xplore Dundee operates most of the intra-city services, with other more rural services operated by Stagecoach Strathtay and Moffat & Williamson.", "The city's two railway stations are the main Dundee station, near the waterfront, which has now finished re-construction as part of the waterfront re-development programme and the much smaller Broughty Ferry station at the eastern end of the city.There are also many inter-city bus services offered by Megabus, Citylink and National Express.===Rail===External view of the rebuilt entrance to Dundee railway station after its 2018 reopeningPassenger services at Dundee are provided by ScotRail, CrossCountry, Caledonian Sleeper and London North Eastern Railway.", "There are other nearby stations at Invergowrie, Balmossie and Monifieth.No freight trains have served the city since the Freightliner terminal in Dundee was closed in the 1980s.===Airport===Dundee Airport offers commercial flights to Heathrow Airport, Belfast City, Kirkwall Airport, and Sumburgh (Shetland) by Loganair.", "The airport is capable of serving small aircraft and is located west of the city centre, adjacent to the River Tay.Airport 2020The nearest major international airport is Edinburgh Airport, to the south.===Seaport===The cargo port of Dundee is one of the largest economic generators in the city and is operated by Forth Ports.", "Seafarers arriving at the port are offered welfare and pastoral assistance by seafarers charity Apostleship of the Sea." ], [ "Education", "=== Colleges and universities ===The University of DundeeDundee is home to two universities and a student population of approximately 20,000.The University of Dundee became an independent entity in 1967, after 70 years of being incorporated into the University of St Andrews.", "It was founded in 1881 by Mary Ann Baxter and her distant cousin John Boyd Baxter as University College, Dundee, and teaching began in 1883.It fully merged with the University of St Andrews in 1897 and was reorganised as Queen's College, Dundee in 1954.Significant research in biomedical fields is carried out in the School of Life Sciences.", "The university is also home to Dundee Law School, situated in the Scrymgeour Building on the main campus and the School of Medicine, based at the city's Ninewells Hospital.", "The university also incorporates the Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design and the teacher training college.Abertay University was founded as Dundee Institute of Technology in 1888.Previously, the buildings formed Bell Street Technical College, a further education college.", "It was granted university status in 1994 under the Further and Higher Education Act, 1992.The university is noted for its computing and creative technology courses, particularly in the fields of computer games technology and cyber-security.", "Notable alumni include David Jones, founder of DMA Design (now known as Rockstar North), Sir Brian Souter, founder of Stagecoach, and Lord Iain McNicol, former General Secretary of the Labour Party.Dundee College is the city's umbrella further education college, which was established in 1985 as an institution of higher education and vocational training.", "As of 2013, it merged with Angus College in Arbroath, to become Dundee and Angus College (D&A College).The Al-Maktoum College of Higher Education was established in Dundee in Blackness Road in 2002.It is a research-led institution of higher education which are currently offering programmes accredited by SQA in the study of Islam and Muslims, Arabic language and Islamic Economics and Finance.", "It is an independent institution.", "It is named after its patron, Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum.=== Schools ===Morgan Academy DundeeSchools in Dundee have a pupil enrolment of over 20,300.There are 37 primary state schools and 8 secondary state schools in the city.", "There are 11 primary and 2 secondary Roman Catholic denominational schools which, as in the rest of Scotland, are open to children of all denominations.", "The remainder are non-denominational.", "There is also one specialist school that caters for pupils with learning difficulties aged between five and 18 from Dundee and the surrounding area.Dundee has one independent school, the High School of Dundee, which was founded in the 13th century by the Abbot and monks of Lindores Abbey.", "The current building was designed by George Angus in a Greek Revival style and built in 1832–34.Notable students in the early modern period included Thomas Thomson, Hector Boece, and the brothers James, John and Robert Wedderburn who were the authors of ''The Gude and Godlie Ballatis'', used early in the Scottish Reformation as a vehicle to spread Protestant theology.", "According to Blind Harry's largely apocryphal work ''The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace'', William Wallace was also educated in Dundee." ], [ "Religious sites", "=== Christian groups ===Dundee Parish Church, St Mary's is one of three of the Dundee's ''City Churches'' which are joined; only two function as places of worship: St. Mary's and St. Clement's (the Old Steeple) which can be seen in the background.The Church of Scotland Presbytery of Dundee is responsible for overseeing the worship of 37 congregations in and around the Dundee area, although changing population patterns have led to some of the churches becoming linked charges.", "Due to their city centre location, the City Churches, Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) and the Steeple Church, are the most prominent Church of Scotland buildings in Dundee.", "They are on the site of the medieval parish kirk of St Mary, of which only the 15th-century west tower survives.", "The attached church was once the largest parish church in medieval Scotland.Dundee was unusual among Scottish medieval burghs in having two parish kirks; the second, dedicated to St Clement, has disappeared, but its site was approximately that of the present City Square.", "Other presbyterian groups include the Free Church which meet at St. Peters (the historic church of Robert Murray M'Cheyne) where prominent theologians David Robertson and Sinclair B. Ferguson regularly preach.In the Middle Ages Dundee was also the site of houses of the Dominicans (Blackfriars), and Franciscans (Greyfriars), and had a number of hospitals and chapels.", "These establishments were sacked during the Scottish Reformation, in the mid-16th century, and were reduced to burial grounds, now Barrack Street (also referred to as the Dek-tarn street) and The Howff burial ground, respectively.St.", "Paul's Cathedral is the seat of the Scottish Episcopal Diocese of Brechin.", "It is charged with overseeing the worship of 9 congregations in the city, as well as a further 17 in Angus, the Carse of Gowrie and parts of Aberdeenshire.", "Since 2018 the diocese has been led by Bishop Andrew Swift.", "St. Andrew's Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dunkeld, led by Bishop Stephen Robson.", "The diocese is responsible for overseeing 15 congregations in Dundee and 37 in the surrounding area, including St Mary, Our Lady of Victories Church in the city.There are Methodist, Baptist, Congregationalist, Pentecostal and Salvation Army churches in the city, and non-mainstream Christian groups are also well represented, including the Unitarians, the Society of Friends, the Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, Christadelphians, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.=== Other religious communities ===Muslims are served by the Dundee Central Mosque, built in 2000 to replace their former premises on the Hilltown.", "There are three other mosques in the city including Jamia Masjid Tajdare Madina on Victoria Road, Jame Masjid Bilal on Dura Street and Al Maktoum Mosque on Wilkie's Lane.", "Alongside these there is an Islamic Society on the University of Dundee campus.The Sikh community is served by the Guru Nanak Gurdwara on Victoria Road, which serves its community in Dundee.A recorded Jewish community has existed in the city since the early 19th century.", "There is a small Orthodox synagogue at Dudhope Park which was built in the 1960s, with the Hebrew Burial Grounds located to the east.", "Dundee Buddhist Group is a Buddhist Temple based in Reform Street.", "There is also a Hindu mandir in Taylor's Lane, situated in the West End of the city." ], [ "Culture", "Dundee made a bid to be named the 2017 UK City of Culture, and on 19 June 2013 was named as one of the four short-listed cities alongside Hull, Leicester and Swansea Bay.", "Ultimately, Dundee's bid was unsuccessful, with Hull winning the contest.", "Dundee came in fifth place in a newspaper survey regarding numbers of cultural venues in the United Kingdom, ahead of other Scottish cities.In August 2021, Dundee made a joint bid with Perth and Kinross, Angus and Fife for the UK City of Culture again in 2025 under the title of 'Tay Cities'.Dundee also went to bid to become the European Capital of Culture in 2023 but due to the United Kingdom voting to leave the European Union in June 2016, Dundee's bid, along with those of other British cities submitting bids, was discontinued by the European Commission.===Museums and galleries===The McManus Galleries in the city's Albert Square\"The Riders of the Sidhe\" John Duncan 1911 McManus Galleries, DundeeThe city's main museum and art gallery, McManus Galleries, is in Albert Square.", "The exhibits include work by James McIntosh Patrick, Alberto Morrocco and David McClure amongst the collection of fine and decorative art, items from Dundee's history and natural history artefacts.Dundee Contemporary Arts (abbreviated DCA) opened in 1999 is an international art centre in the Nethergate close to Dundee Rep, which houses two contemporary art galleries, a two-screen arthouse cinema, a print studio, a visual research centre and a café bar.Britain's only full-time public observatory, Mills Observatory at the summit of the city's Balgay Hill, was given to the city by linen manufacturer and keen amateur scientist John Mills in 1935.Sensation Science Centre in the Greenmarket is a science centre based on the five senses with a series of interactive shows and exhibits.", "Verdant Works is a museum dedicated to the once dominant jute industry in Dundee and is based in a former jute mill.The University of Dundee also runs several public museums and galleries, including the D'Arcy Thompson Zoology Museum and the Tayside Medical History Museum.", "The university, through Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design also offers the Cooper Gallery for contemporary art, and its archives including: the abcD (artists' books collection Dundee); the REWIND Archive (video art collection); and the Richard Demarco Digital Archive.The V&A Dundee Museum of Design opened in September 2018 and is built south of Craig Harbour onto the River Tay in a building designed by Kengo Kuma.", "It was officially opened by the Earl and Countess of Strathearn in 2019.It is the centrepiece of the city's waterfront redevelopment.", "The new museum may bring another 500,000 extra visitors to the city and create up to 900 jobs.The city's archival records are mostly kept by two archives: Dundee City Archives, operated by Dundee City Council and the University of Dundee's Archive Services.Dundee City Archives holds the official records of the city and of the former Tayside Regional Council.", "The archive also holds the records of various people, groups and organisations connected to the city.", "The university's Archive Services hold a wide range of material relating to the university and its predecessor institutions and to individuals associated with the university, such as D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson.", "Archive Services also holds the archives of several individuals, businesses and organisations based in Dundee and the surrounding area.", "The records held include a substantial number of business archives relating to the jute and linen industry in Dundee; records of other businesses including the archives of the Alliance Trust and the department store G. L. Wilson; the records of the Brechin Diocese of the Scottish Episcopal Church; and the NHS Tayside Archive.", "The same archive also holds the Michael Peto collection which includes thousands of the photojournalist's photographs, negatives, slides, publications and papers.===Literature===Dundee has a strong literary heritage, with several authors having been born, lived or studied in the city.", "These include A. L. Kennedy, Rosamunde Pilcher, Kate Atkinson, Thomas Dick, Mary Shelley, Mick McCluskey, John Burnside and Neil Forsyth.", "The Dundee International Book Prize is a biennial competition open to new authors, offering a prize of £10,000 and publication by Polygon Books.", "Past winners have included: Andrew Murray Scott, Claire-Marie Watson and Malcolm Archibald.", "William McGonagall, regularly cited as the \"world's worst poet\", worked and wrote in the city, often giving performances of his work in pubs and bars.", "Many of his poems are about the city and events therein, such as his work ''The Tay Bridge Disaster''.Dundee's poetic heritage is represented by the 2013 poetry anthology ''Whaleback City'' edited by W. N. Herbert and Andy Jackson (Dundee University Press) containing poems by McGonagall, Don Paterson, Douglas Dunn, John Burnside and many others.", "City of Recovery Press was founded in Dundee, and has become a controversial figure in documenting the darker side of the city.=== Cinema ===The Dundee Mountain Film Festival (DMFF), held in the last weekend of November, presents the best presenters and films of the year in mountaineering, mountain culture and adventure sport, along with an art and trade exhibition.", "DMFF is also one of the members of International Alliance for Mountain Film (IAMF) among other important international mountain film festivals.Dundee Contemporary Arts hosts an annual horror film festival called ''Dundead'', which started in 2011.It also hosts the Discovery Film Festival, an international film festival targeted for young audiences.The city also has two Multiplex cinemas, Odeon and Cineworld.=== Theatre, drama, dance ===Dundee is home to a full-time repertory ensemble, which originated in 1939.One of its alumni, Hollywood actor Brian Cox, is a native of the city.", "The Dundee Repertory Theatre, built in 1982, is also the base for the Scottish Dance Theatre company.The Whitehall Theatre opened in 1969.The Little Theatre at the foot of the Hilltown is home to and maintained by Dundee Dramatic Society.=== Music ===Dundee's principal concert auditorium, the Caird Hall (named after its benefactor, the jute baron James Key Caird) in the City Square regularly hosts the Royal Scottish National Orchestra.", "Various smaller venues host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual Jazz, Guitar and Blues Festivals.Dundee has hosted the National Mod a number of times – 1902, 1913, 1937, 1959 and 1974.Dundee also hosted BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend back in 2006 and was due to host for a second time in 2020 but it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Dundee hosted the event again on 26th-28 May 2023 at Camperdown Park in the north-west of the city.Popular music groups such as the 1970s soul-funk outfit Average White Band, the Associates, the band Spare Snare, Danny Wilson, the Hazey Janes, and the Indie rock bands the View and the Law are from Dundee.", "Musician, songwriter and performer Michael Marra was born and raised in Dundee.", "Ricky Ross of Deacon Blue and singer-songwriter KT Tunstall are former pupils of the High School of Dundee, although Tunstall is not a native of the city.", "The Northern Irish indie rock band Snow Patrol was formed by students at the University of Dundee.", "Brian Molko, lead singer of Placebo, grew up in the city as did Ian Cussick, singer of Lake.", "At the end of June, Dundee hosts an annual blues festival known as the ''Dundee Blues Bonanza''.=== Media ===Dundee Headquarters of DC Thomson & Co.Dundee is home to DC Thomson & Son Ltd, established in 1905, which produces over 200 million magazines, newspapers and comics every year; these include ''The Beano'', ''The Dandy'' and ''The Press and Journal''.Dundee is home to one of eleven BBC Scotland broadcasting centres, located within the Nethergate Centre.", "STV North's Tayside news and advertising operations are based in the Seabraes area of the city, from where an ''STV News Tayside'' opt-out bulletin is broadcast, (though not on Digital Satellite), within the nightly regional news programme, ''STV News at Six''.", "The city also had a community internet TV station called The Dundee Channel which was launched on 1 September 2009.The city has three local radio stations.", "Radio Tay was launched on 17 October 1980.The station split frequencies in January 1995 launching Tay FM for a younger audience and Tay 2 playing classic hits (now called Greatest Hits Radio Tayside & Fife).", "In 1999, Discovery 102 was launched, later to be renamed Wave 102 following a claim by The Discovery Channel that the station could mistakenly be linked to its brand." ], [ "Sport and recreation", "=== Football ===Dens Park and Tannadice ParkDundee has two professional football clubs: Dundee, founded in 1893, and Dundee United, founded in 1909 as Dundee Hibernian.", "Dundee FC currently play in the Scottish Premiership and Dundee United currently play in the Scottish Championship.", "Their grounds the ScotFoam Stadium and Tannadice Park are just 100 metres apart, closer together than any other football stadiums in the UK.", "The Dundee derby is one of the most highly anticipated fixtures in Scottish football.Dundee is one of four British cities to have produced two European Cup semi-finalists.", "Dundee lost to A.C. Milan in 1963 and Dundee United lost to A.S. Roma in 1984.Dundee also reached the semi-finals of the forerunner to the UEFA Cup in 1968 and Dundee United were runners-up in the UEFA Cup in 1987.There are also seven junior football teams in the area: Dundee North End, East Craigie, Lochee Harp, Lochee United, Dundee Violet, Broughty Athletic and Downfield.=== Ice hockey ===Dundee Stars, the main ice hockey team, play at the Dundee Ice Arena.", "The team joined the Elite League in the 2010/2011 season.", "They are one of three professional ice hockey teams in Scotland, and play against teams from England, Wales and Northern Ireland in the Elite League.", "In the 2013/2014 season, Dundee Stars won the Gardiner Conference trophy, their only one to date.", "The majority of the players are from Canada and the United States.", "Marc LeFebvre is the current head coach and general manager of the Dundee Stars.", "There are also two amateur ice hockey teams, Dundee Tigers and Dundee Comets, who both play in the Scottish National League.=== Rugby ===The city is also home to six rugby union teams.", "Dundee High School Former Pupils play in Scottish National League Division One, the second tier of Scottish club rugby.", "The remainder of the teams compete in the Caledonia Regional League – Harris Academy FP play in Caledonia Division One, Morgan Academy FP and Panmure in Caledonia Division Two Midlands, Dundee University Medics and Stobswell in Caledonia Division Three Midlands.=== Athletics ===Liz McColgan and Eilish McColgan both hail from Dundee and have been members of the Dundee Hawkhill Harriers athletics club.=== Other sports ===Local sports clubs include Dundee Handball Club, Grove Menzieshill Hockey Club; Dundee Wanderers Hockey Club, Dundee Volleyball Club, Dundee Northern Lights Floorball Club, Dundee Hawkhill Harriers, Dundee City Aquatics, Dundee Hurricanes and Dundee & Angus Radio Controlled Car Klub (DARCCK).The Olympia Leisure Centre, opened in 2013, has a swimming pool.There is a velodrome, Caird Park Velodrome." ], [ "Public services", "thumbDundee and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water.", "Dundee, along with parts of Perthshire and Angus is supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla.", "Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group.Waste management is handled by Dundee City Council.", "There is a kerbside recycling scheme that currently only serves 15,500 households in Dundee.", "Cans, glass and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis.", "Compostable material and non-recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks.", "Paper is collected for recycling on a four-weekly basis.Recycling centres and points are at a number of locations in Dundee.", "Items accepted include steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and freezers, garden waste, gas bottles, glass, liquid food and drinks cartons, plastic bottles, plastic carrier bags, rubble, scrap metal, shoes and handbags, spectacles, textiles, tin foil, wood and yellow pages.", "Recent figures taken in 2008, suggest the city council has a recycling rate of 36.1%.Law enforcement is provided by Police Scotland.", "The headquarters of the Dundee Branch of Police Scotland is situated in West Bell Street.", "There are also four police stations which serve the city: Maryfield, Lochee, Downfield and Longhaugh.Healthcare is supplied in the area by NHS Tayside.", "Ninewells Hospital, is the only hospital with an accident and emergency department in the area.", "Dundee is also served by the East Central Region of the Scottish Ambulance Service which covers the city, Tayside and Kingdom of Fife.", "There is one ambulance station for the city; on West School Road.The Scottish Fire and Rescue Service operate three fire stations, covering the city and surrounding villages.", "The main station is at Blackness Road and there is a control room at Macalpine Road fire station." ], [ "Sister cities", "Chronologically:* Orléans, France (1946)* Zadar, Croatia (1959)* Alexandria, United States (1962)* Würzburg, Germany (1962)* Nablus, Palestine (1980)* Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2004)* West Dundee, United States (2013)" ], [ "Freedom of the City", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Dundee.", "===Individuals===* Sir John Leng: 1902.", "* Whitelaw Reid: 1906.", "* H. H. Asquith: October 1912.", "* Emma Grace Marryat: 1918.", "* Thomas Johnston: 1947.", "* Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother: 1954.", "* Maurice McManus: 1981.", "* Nelson Mandela: 9 October 1993.", "* Ramsay MacDonald * Stanley Baldwin * Rev.", "William Macmillan* James McLean===Military units===* The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment): 1954." ], [ "See also", "* Brittle Bone Society, a UK charity established in 1968 in Dundee* Dundee Museum of Transport* History of Dundee#Notable Dundonians and people associated with Dundee* Alexander C. Lamb and references to the Lamb Collection, which is held in the City Museum and the Local History Centre of Dundee Central Library" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== News ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Websites ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Maps ===* * * * * * === Listed building reports ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * === Bibliography ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * Dundee City Council* National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE (selection of archive films about Dundee)" ] ]
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[ [ "Do Not Adjust Your Set" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Do Not Adjust Your Set''''' ('''''DNAYS''''') is a British television series produced originally by Rediffusion, London, then, by the fledgling Thames Television for British commercial television channel ITV from 26 December 1967 to 14 May 1969.The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) that was displayed when there was a problem with transmission or technical difficulties.It helped launch the careers of Denise Coffey, David Jason, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin; the last three became members of the Monty Python comedy troupe soon afterward.", "Although originally conceived as a children's programme, it quickly acquired a fandom amongst adults, including future Python members John Cleese and Graham Chapman.The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band, a satirical comedy/art/pop group, also performed songs in each programme and frequently appeared as extras in sketches.", "The programme itself comprised a series of satirical sketches, often presented in a surreal, absurd and discontinuous style – anticipating ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'', which began five months after the last episode of ''DNAYS''.", "Several surreal animations between sketches were crafted for the second series by Terry Gilliam, who soon graduated to ''Python'' along with Palin, Jones and Idle.One recurring feature of the show was ''Captain Fantastic'', a superhero parody featuring David Jason in farcical and morbid adventures against villainess Mrs. Black (Coffey).", "These segments were shot entirely on location in London.", "The feature was so popular with the young audience that after ''DNAYS'' itself ended, ''Captain Fantastic'' briefly continued in its own capacity in the children's magazine show ''Magpie''." ], [ "Awards", "In June 1968, an episode of ''DNAYS'' was submitted to the 1968 Prix Jeunesse International Television Festival in Munich.", "It won first prize in the 12–15 years category." ], [ "Home media", "Nine of the 14 episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series were released on DVD in the UK and the US in 25 August 2005.Both releases use the same NTSC Region 0 discs made from telerecordings of the original videotapes.", "In this DVD release, the episodes are numbered 1 to 9, although, in fact, they are episodes 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 from series 1 (a similar fault was made on the release of ''At Last the 1948 Show'').", "The sole surviving episode from series 2 and ''Do Not Adjust Your Stocking'' were not included.", "Contrary to claims on the packaging, Terry Gilliam's animations also do not appear on this release, although Gilliam does appear as one of the additional writers in the credits for episodes 3 and 4.The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band was seen playing their song \"Death Cab for Cutie\" (also performed in the Beatles' film ''Magical Mystery Tour'') on the DVD in episode 7.On 16 September 2019, the British Film Institute released a comprehensive DVD set of the surviving videos and animations from both series.", "It includes the previously missing fourth episode of the first series, which was rediscovered (but only after the earlier DVD release) when it was noticed that a copy had been sent to the jury of the Prix de Jeunesse award.", "This edition survives as a domestic recording on a Phillips 1500 cassette made by Thames Television in 1976, which was discovered by Kaleidoscope in 2015, when a copy was returned from Munich.", "It is thus the only series 1 episode with magnetic rather than optical sound quality.", "The BFI release features episodes with their original numbering.", "They include the Christmas special and some Terry Gilliam animations (restored from his own masters) that appeared in otherwise lost episodes." ], [ "Episodes", "===Christmas Special (1967)===The very first episode, an introductory special meant for Boxing Day 1967, was accidentally switched with the first regular episode in all regions except for London.===Series 1 (1968)===The first series was produced by Rediffusion, thirteen episodes were broadcast between 26 December 1967 to 28 March 1968, Thursdays at 17:25.Three episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, nine episodes survive as telerecordings and a further edition ''(Episode 4)'' surives on a domestic tape recording.", "Several cast changes occurred over the course of this series, Tim Brooke-Taylor filled in for Michael Palin for the studio recording for Episode 9, as the latter was having his appendix removed.", "The following edition, Neil Innes was absent from the taping since he had the flu, so Eric Idle filled in for him when performing the vocals/ piano parts for the Bonzo's musical number '''Love is a Cylindrical Piano'''.", "===Specials (1968)===A summer special was broadcast on the 29 July 1968, it was the last episode to be produced by Rediffusion, since it was transmitted on their final day of broadcasting before Thames Television took over as the franchise holder for the London region (weekdays only) the following day.", "The Christmas special was the first episode to be produced by Thames.", "For a 1986 repeat, David Jason demanded to be removed from the show, thus creating an abridged version of 25 minutes.", "This edition was also notable for featuring the first animated sketch by Terry Gilliam, who would go on to contribute further material for the subsequent series.", "===Series 2 (1969)===The second and final series, thirteen episodes were broadcast between 19 February 1969 to 14 May 1969, Wednesdays at 17:20.Most of the episodes from this series are currently missing from the archives, although audio recordings survive from several missing episodes Only Episode 2 survives intact, it's also the only episode from the entire series run to exist on its original 2\" master videotape.", "Animated sequences by Terry Gilliam including '''Beware of the Elephants''' and '''Learning to Live with an Elephant''' also exist on b&w 35mm film." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "**" ], [ "External links", "* BFI Screenonline Article* A Review of DNAYS!", "* * ''Do Not Adjust Your Set'' at British Comedy Guide" ] ]
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[ [ "West Memphis Three" ], [ "Introduction", "The West Memphis Three photographed after their arrest in June 1993The '''West Memphis Three''' are three men convicted as teenagers in 1994 of the 1993 murders of three boys in West Memphis, Arkansas, United States.", "'''Damien Echols''' was sentenced to death, '''Jessie Misskelley Jr.''' to life imprisonment plus two 20-year sentences, and '''Jason Baldwin''' to life imprisonment.", "During the trial, the prosecution asserted that the juveniles killed the children as part of a Satanic ritual.Due to the dubious nature of the evidence as well as the suspected presence of emotional bias in court, the case generated widespread controversy and was the subject of several documentaries.", "Celebrities and musicians held fundraisers to support efforts to free the men.In July 2007, new forensic evidence was presented.", "A report jointly issued by the state and the defense team stated, \"Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants.", "\"Following a 2010 decision by the Arkansas Supreme Court regarding newly produced DNA evidence and potential juror misconduct, the West Memphis Three negotiated a plea bargain with prosecutors.", "On August 19, 2011, they entered Alford pleas, which allowed them to assert their innocence while acknowledging that prosecutors have enough evidence to convict them.", "Judge David Laser accepted the pleas and sentenced the three to time served.", "They were released with 10-year suspended sentences, having served 18 years." ], [ "The crime", "On May 5, 1993, three eight-year-old boys (Steve Branch, Michael Moore, and Christopher Byers) were reported missing in West Memphis, Arkansas.", "The first report to the police was made by Byers's adoptive father, John Mark Byers, around 7:00 pm.", "The boys were allegedly last seen together by three neighbors, who in affidavits told of seeing them playing together around 6:30 pm the evening they disappeared and seeing Terry Hobbs, Steve Branch's stepfather, calling them to come home.", "Initial police searches made that night were limited.", "Friends and neighbors also conducted a search that night, which included a cursory visit to the location where the bodies were later found.A more thorough police search for the children began around 8:00 am on May 6, led by the Crittenden County Search and Rescue personnel.", "Searchers canvassed all of West Memphis but focused primarily on Robin Hood Hills, where the boys were reported last seen.", "Despite a shoulder-to-shoulder search of Robin Hood Hills by a human chain, searchers found no sign of the missing boys.Around 1:45 pm, juvenile Parole Officer Steve Jones spotted a boy's black shoe floating in a muddy creek that led to a major drainage canal in Robin Hood Hills.", "A subsequent search of the ditch revealed the bodies of three boys.", "They had been stripped naked and were hogtied with their own shoelaces, their right ankles tied to their right wrists behind their backs, the same with their left arms and legs.", "Their clothing was found in the creek, some of it twisted around sticks that had been thrust into the muddy ditch bed.", "The clothing was mostly turned inside-out; two pairs of the boys' underwear were never recovered.", "Christopher Byers had lacerations to various parts of his body and mutilation of his scrotum and penis.The autopsies by forensic pathologist Frank J. Peretti indicated that Byers died of \"multiple injuries\", while Moore and Branch died of \"multiple injuries with drowning\".Police initially suspected the boys had been raped; however, later expert testimony disputed this finding.", "Trace amounts of sperm DNA were found on a pair of pants recovered from the scene.", "Prosecution experts claim Byers's wounds were the results of a knife attack and that he had been purposely castrated by the murderer; defense experts claim the injuries were most likely the result of post-mortem animal predation.", "Police believed the boys were assaulted and killed at the location where they were found; critics argued that the assault, at least, was unlikely to have occurred at the creek.Byers was the only victim with drugs in his system; he was prescribed Ritalin (methylphenidate) in January 1993 as part of treatment of an attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.", "The initial autopsy report describes the drug as Carbamazepine and the dosage at a sub-therapeutic level.", "His father said Byers may not have taken his prescription on May 5, 1993." ], [ "Victims", "Grave of Steve BranchGrave of Christopher ByersGrave of Michael MooreMemorial for the West Memphis Three victimsSteve Edward Branch, Christopher Byers and Michael Moore were all second graders at Weaver Elementary School.", "Each had achieved the rank of \"Wolf\" in the local Cub Scout pack and were best friends.===Steve Edward Branch===Steve Branch was the son of Steven and Pamela Branch, who divorced when he was an infant.", "His mother was awarded custody and later married Terry Hobbs.", "Branch was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 65 lbs, and had blond hair.", "He was last seen wearing blue jeans and a white T-shirt, and riding a black and red bicycle.", "He was an honor student.", "He lived with his mother, Pamela Hobbs, his stepfather, Terry Hobbs, and a four-year-old half-sister, Amanda.", "Steve Edward Branch is buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Steele, Missouri.===Christopher Mark Byers===Christopher Byers was born to Melissa DeFir and Ricky Murray.", "His parents divorced when he was four years old & shortly afterward his mother married John Mark Byers, who adopted the boy.", "Byers was eight years old, 4 ft. tall, weighed 52 lbs, and had light brown hair.", "He was last seen wearing blue jeans, dark shoes, and a white long-sleeved shirt.", "He lived with his mother, Sharon Melissa Byers, his adoptive father, John Mark Byers, and his stepbrother, Shawn Ryan Clark, aged 13.According to his mother, Christopher was a typical eight-year-old.", "\"He still believed in the Easter Bunny and Santa Claus\".", "Christopher Mark Byers is buried in Forest Hill Cemetery East in Memphis, Tennessee.===James Michael Moore===Michael Moore was the son of Todd and Dana Moore.", "He was eight years old, 4 ft. 2 tall, weighed 55 lbs, and had brown hair.", "He was last seen wearing blue pants, a blue Boy Scouts of America shirt, and an orange and blue Boy Scout hat, and riding a light green bicycle.", "Moore enjoyed wearing his scout uniform even when he was not at meetings.", "He was considered the leader of the three.", "He lived with his parents and his nine-year-old sister, Dawn.", "James Michael Moore is buried in Crittenden Memorial Park Cemetery in Marion, Arkansas.===Victims memorial===In 1994, a memorial was erected for the three murder victims.", "The memorial is located in the playground of Weaver Elementary School in West Memphis, where all three victims were second graders at the time of the crime.", "In May 2013, for the 20th anniversary of the slayings, Weaver Elementary School principal Sheila Grissom raised funds to refurbish the memorial." ], [ "Suspects", "===Baldwin, Echols, and Misskelley===At the time of their arrests, Jessie Misskelley, Jr. was 17 years old, Jason Baldwin was 16 years old, and Damien Echols was 18 years old.Baldwin and Echols had been previously arrested for vandalism and shoplifting respectively, and Misskelley had a reputation for his temper and for engaging in fistfights with other teenagers at school.", "Misskelley and Echols had dropped out of high school; however, Baldwin earned high grades and demonstrated a talent for drawing and sketching, and was encouraged by one of his teachers to study graphic design in college.", "Echols and Baldwin were close friends, and bonded over their similar tastes in music and fiction, and over their shared distaste for the prevailing cultural climate of West Memphis, situated in the Bible Belt.", "Baldwin and Echols were acquainted with Misskelley from school, but were not close friends with him.Echols' family was poor, received frequent visits from social workers and he rarely attended school.", "He and a girlfriend had run off and later broken into a trailer during a rain storm; they were arrested, though only Echols was charged with burglary.Echols spent several months in a mental institution in Arkansas and afterward received \"full disability\" status from the Social Security Administration.", "During Echols' trial, Dr. George W. Woods testified (for the defense) that Echols suffered from:serious mental illness characterized by grandiose and persecutory delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, disordered thought processes, substantial lack of insight, and chronic, incapacitating mood swings.At his death penalty sentencing hearing, Echols' psychologist reported that months before the murders, Echols had claimed that he obtained super powers by drinking human blood.", "At the time of his arrest, Echols was working part-time with a roofing company and expecting a child with his girlfriend, Domini Teer.===Chris Morgan and Brian Holland===Early in the investigation, the WMPD briefly regarded two West Memphis teenagers as suspects.", "Chris Morgan and Brian Holland, both with drug offense histories, had abruptly departed for Oceanside, California, four days after the bodies were discovered.", "Morgan was presumed to be at least casually familiar with all three murdered boys, having previously driven an ice cream truck route in their neighborhood.Arrested in Oceanside on May 17, 1993, Morgan and Holland both took polygraph exams administered by California police.", "Examiners reported that both men's charts indicated deception when they denied involvement in the murders.", "During subsequent questioning, Morgan claimed a long history of drug and alcohol use, along with blackouts and memory lapses.", "He claimed that he \"might have\" killed the victims but quickly recanted this part of his statement.California police sent blood and urine samples from Morgan and Holland to the WMPD, but there is no indication WMPD investigated Morgan or Holland as suspects following their arrest in California.", "The relevance of Morgan's recanted statement would later be debated in trial, but it was eventually barred from admission as evidence.===\"Mr. Bojangles\"===The citing of a black male as a possible alternate suspect was implied during the beginning of the Misskelley trial.", "According to local West Memphis police officers, on the evening of May 5, 1993, at 8:42 pm, workers in the Bojangles' restaurant located about a mile from the crime scene in Robin Hood Hills reported seeing a black male who seemed \"mentally disoriented\" inside the restaurant's ladies' room.", "The man was bleeding and had brushed against the restroom walls.", "Officer Regina Meeks responded to the call, taking the restaurant manager's report through the eatery's drive-through window.", "By then, the man had left, and police did not enter the restroom on that date.The day after the victims' bodies were found, Bojangles' manager Marty King, thinking there was a possible connection to the bleeding man found in the bathroom, reported the incident to police officers who then inspected the ladies' room.", "The man reportedly wore a \"blue cast type brace on his arm that had white Velcro on it\", which would have made it difficult to tie up and murder three young boys.", "King gave the officers a pair of sunglasses he thought the man had left behind, and the detectives took some blood samples from the walls and tiles of the restroom.", "Police detective Bryn Ridge testified that he later lost those blood scrapings.", "A hair identified as belonging to a black male was later recovered from a sheet wrapped around one of the victims." ], [ "Investigation", "===Evidence and interviews===Police officers James Sudbury and Steve Jones felt that the crime had \"cult\" overtones, and that Damien Echols might be a suspect because he had an interest in occultism, and Jones felt Echols was capable of murdering children.", "The police interviewed Echols on May 7, two days after the bodies were discovered.", "During a polygraph examination, he denied any involvement.", "The polygraph examiner claimed that Echols' chart indicated deception.", "On May 9, during a formal interview by Detective Bryn Ridge, Echols mentioned that one of the victims had wounds to the genitals; law enforcement viewed this knowledge as incriminating.After a month had passed with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him more frequently than any other person.", "Nonetheless, they claimed he was not regarded as a direct suspect but a source of information.On June 3, the police interrogated Jessie Misskelley, Jr.", "Despite his reported IQ of 72 (categorizing him as borderline intellectual functioning) and his status as a minor, Miskelley was questioned alone; his parents were not present during the interrogation.", "Misskelley's father gave permission for Misskelley to go with police but did not explicitly give permission for his son to be questioned or interrogated.", "Misskelley was questioned for roughly 12 hours.", "Only two segments, totaling 46 minutes, were recorded.", "Misskelley quickly recanted his confession, citing intimidation, coercion, fatigue, and veiled threats from police.", "Misskelley specifically said he was \"scared of the police\" during this confession.Though he was informed of his Miranda rights, Misskelley later claimed he did not fully understand them.", "In 1996, the Arkansas Supreme Court ruled that Misskelley's confession was voluntary and that he did, in fact, understand the Miranda warning and its consequences.", "Portions of Misskelley's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on the front page of the Memphis ''Commercial Appeal'' before any of the trials began.Shortly after Misskelley's first confession, police arrested Echols and his close friend Baldwin.", "Eight months after his original confession, on February 17, 1994, Misskelley made another statement to police.", "His lawyer, Dan Stidham, remained in the room and continually advised Misskelley not to say anything.", "Misskelley ignored this advice and went on to detail how the boys were abused and murdered.", "Stidham, who was later elected to a municipal judgeship, has written a detailed critique of what he asserts are major police errors and misconceptions during their investigation.", "Stidham made similar comments during a radio show interview in May 2010.===Vicki Hutcheson===Vicki Hutcheson, a new resident of West Memphis, would play an important role in the investigation, though she would later recant her testimony, claiming her statements were fabricated due in part to coercion from police.On May 6, 1993 (before the victims were found later the same day), Hutcheson took a polygraph exam by Detective Don Bray at the Marion Police Department, to determine whether or not she had stolen money from her West Memphis employer.", "Hutcheson's young son, Aaron, was also present, and proved such a distraction that Bray was unable to administer the polygraph.", "Aaron, a playmate of the murdered boys', mentioned to Bray that the boys had been killed at \"the playhouse.\"", "When the bodies proved to have been discovered near where Aaron indicated, Bray asked Aaron for further details, and Aaron claimed that he had witnessed the murders committed by Satanists who spoke Spanish.", "Aaron's further statements were wildly inconsistent, and he was unable to identify Baldwin, Echols, or Misskelley from photo line-ups, and there was no \"playhouse\" at the location Aaron indicated.", "A police officer leaked portions of Aaron's statements to the press contributing to the growing belief that the murders were part of a Satanic rite.On or about June 1, 1993, Hutcheson agreed to police suggestions to place hidden microphones in her home during an encounter with Echols.", "Misskelley agreed to introduce Hutcheson to Echols.", "During their conversation, Hutcheson reported that Echols made no incriminating statements.", "Police said the recording was \"inaudible\", but Hutcheson claimed the recording was audible.", "On June 2, 1993, Hutcheson told police that about two weeks after the murders were committed, she, Echols, and Misskelley attended a Wiccan meeting in Turrell, Arkansas.", "Hutcheson claimed that, at the Wiccan meeting, a drunken Echols openly bragged about killing the three boys.", "Misskelley was first questioned on June 3, 1993, a day after Hutcheson's purported confession.", "Hutcheson was unable to recall the Wiccan meeting location and did not name any other participants in the purported meeting.", "Hutcheson was never charged with theft.", "She claimed she had implicated Echols and Misskelley to avoid facing criminal charges, and to obtain a reward for the discovery of the murderers." ], [ "Trials", "Misskelley was tried separately, and Echols and Baldwin were tried together in 1994.Under the \"''Bruton'' rule\", Misskelley's confession could not be admitted against his co-defendants; thus he was tried separately.", "All three defendants pleaded not guilty.===Misskelley's trial===During Misskelley's trial, Richard Ofshe, an expert on false confessions and police coercion, and Professor of Sociology at UC Berkeley, testified that the brief recording of Misskelley's interrogation was a \"classic example\" of police coercion.", "Critics have also stated that Misskelley's various \"confessions\" were in many respects inconsistent with each other, as well as with the particulars of the crime scene and murder victims, including (for example) an \"admission\" that Misskelley watched Damien rape one of the boys.", "Police had initially suspected that the victims had been raped because their anuses were dilated.", "However, there was no forensic evidence indicating that the murdered boys had been raped.", "Dilation of the anus is a normal post-mortem condition.On February 5, 1994, Misskelley was convicted by a jury of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder.", "The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison.", "His conviction was appealed, but the Arkansas Supreme Court affirmed the conviction.===Echols' and Baldwin's trial===Three weeks later, Echols and Baldwin went on trial.", "The prosecution accused the three young men of committing a Satanic murder.", "The prosecution called Dale W. Griffis, a graduate of the unaccredited Columbia Pacific University, as an expert in the occult to testify the murders were a Satanic ritual.", "On March 19, 1994, Echols and Baldwin were found guilty on three counts of murder.", "The court sentenced Echols to death and Baldwin to life in prison.At trial, the defense team argued that news articles from the time could have been the source for Echols' knowledge about the genital mutilation, and Echols said his knowledge was limited to what was \"on TV\".The prosecution claimed that Echols' knowledge was nonetheless too close to the facts, since there was no public reporting of drowning or that one victim had been mutilated more than the others.", "Echols testified that Detective Ridge's description of their earlier conversation (which was not recorded) regarding those particular details was inaccurate (and indeed that some other claims by Ridge were \"lies\").", "Mara Leveritt, an investigative journalist and the author of ''Devil's Knot'', argues that Echols' information may have come from police leaks, such as Detective Gitchell's comments to Mark Byers, that circulated amongst the local public.", "The defense team objected when the prosecution attempted to question Echols about his past violent behaviors, but the defense objections were overruled." ], [ "Aftermath", "===Criticism of the investigation===There has been widespread criticism of the handling of the crime scene by the police.", "Misskelley's former attorney Dan Stidham cites multiple substantial police errors at the crime scene, characterizing it as \"literally trampled, especially the creek bed.\"", "The bodies, he said, had been removed from the water before the coroner arrived to examine the scene and determine the state of rigor mortis, allowing the bodies to decay on the creek bank and to be exposed to sunlight and insects.", "The police did not telephone the coroner until almost two hours after the discovery of the floating shoe, resulting in a late appearance by the coroner.", "Officials failed to drain the creek in a timely manner and secure possible evidence in the water (the creek was sandbagged after the bodies were pulled from the water).Stidham has called the coroner's investigation \"extremely substandard.\"", "There was a small amount of blood found at the scene that was never tested.", "According to HBO's documentaries ''Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills'' (1996) and ''Paradise Lost 2: Revelations'' (2000), no blood was found at the crime scene, indicating that the location where the bodies were found was not necessarily the location where the murders actually happened.", "After the initial investigation, the police failed to control disclosure of information and speculation about the crime scene.According to Leveritt, \"Police records were a mess.", "To call them disorderly would be putting it mildly.\"", "Leveritt speculated that the small local police force was overwhelmed by the crime, which was unlike any they had ever investigated.", "Police refused an unsolicited offer of aid and consultation from the violent crimes experts of the Arkansas State Police, and critics suggested this was due to the WMPD's being under investigation by the Arkansas State Police for suspected theft from the Crittenden County drug task force.", "Leveritt further noted that some of the physical evidence was stored in paper sacks obtained from a supermarket (with the supermarket's name printed on the bags) rather than in containers of known and controlled origin.When police speculated about the assailant, the juvenile probation officer assisting at the scene of the murders speculated that Echols was \"capable\" of committing the murders,\" stating: \"it looks like Damien Echols finally killed someone.", "\"Brent Turvey, a forensic scientist and criminal profiler, stated in the film ''Paradise Lost 2'' that human bite marks could have been left on at least one of the victims.", "However, these potential bite marks were first noticed in photographs years after the trials and were not inspected by a board-certified medical examiner until four years after the murders.", "The defense's expert testified that the mark in question was not an adult bite mark, while experts put on by the State concluded that there was no bite mark at all.", "The State's experts had examined the actual bodies for any marks, and others conducted expert photo analysis of injuries.", "Upon further examination, it was concluded that if these marks were bite marks, they did not match the teeth of any of the three convicted." ], [ "Appeals and new evidence", "In May 1994, the three defendants appealed their convictions; the convictions were upheld on direct appeal.", "In June 1996, Misskelley's lawyer, Dan Stidham, was preparing an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court.In 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial, based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted.", "The petition failed when the original trial judge, Judge David Burnett, disallowed presentation of this information in his court.", "This ruling was in turn thrown out by the Arkansas Supreme Court as to all three defendants on November 4, 2010.===John Mark Byers' knife (1993)===John Mark Byers, the adoptive father of victim Christopher Byers, gave a knife to cameraman Doug Cooper, who was working with documentary makers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky while filming the first ''Paradise Lost'' feature.", "The knife was a folding hunting knife manufactured by Kershaw.", "According to the statements given by Berlinger and Sinofsky, Cooper informed them of his receipt of the knife on December 19, 1993.After the documentary crew returned to New York, Berlinger and Sinofsky were reported to have discovered what appeared to be blood on the knife.", "HBO executives ordered them to return the knife to the West Memphis Police Department.", "The knife was not received at the West Memphis Police Department until January 8, 1994.Byers initially claimed the knife had never been used.", "However, after blood was found on the knife, Byers stated that he had used it only once, to cut deer meat.", "When told the blood matched both his and Chris' blood type, Byers said he had no idea how that blood might have gotten on the knife.", "During interrogation, West Memphis police suggested to Byers that he might have left the knife out accidentally, and Byers agreed with this.", "Byers later stated that he may have cut his thumb.", "Further testing of the knife produced inconclusive results about the source of the blood.", "Uncertainty remained due to the small amount of blood and because both John Mark Byers and Chris Byers had the same HLA-DQα genotype.Byers agreed to and passed a polygraph test about the murders during the filming of ''Paradise Lost 2: Revelations'', but the documentary indicated that Byers was under the influence of several psychoactive prescription medications that could have affected the test results.===Possible teeth imprints (1996–1997)===Following their convictions, Echols, Misskelley, and Baldwin submitted imprints of their teeth.", "These were compared to the alleged bite marks on Stevie Branch's forehead that had not been mentioned in the original autopsy or trial.", "No matches were found.", "John Mark Byers had his teeth removed in 1997, after the first trial but before an imprint could be made.", "His stated reasons for the removal are apparently contradictory.", "He has claimed both that the seizure medication he was taking caused periodontal disease, and that he planned the removal because of other kinds of dental problems which had troubled him for years.After an expert examined autopsy photos and noted what he thought might be the imprint of a belt buckle on Byers' corpse, the elder Byers revealed to the police that he had spanked his stepson shortly before the boy disappeared.===Vicki Hutcheson's recantation (2003)===In October 2003, Vicki Hutcheson, who had played a part in the arrests of Misskelley, Echols, and Baldwin, gave an interview to the ''Arkansas Times'' in which she stated that every word she had given to the police was a fabrication.", "She further asserted that the police had implied that if she did not cooperate with them they would take away her child.", "She said that when she visited the police station, employees had photographs of Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley on the wall and were using them as dart targets.", "She also claims that an audiotape the police said was \"unintelligible\" (and that they eventually lost) was perfectly clear and contained no incriminating statements.===DNA testing and new physical evidence (2007)===In 2007, DNA collected from the crime scene was tested.", "None was found to match DNA from Echols, Baldwin, or Misskelley.", "A hair \"not inconsistent with\" Stevie Branch's stepfather, Terry Hobbs, was found tied into the knots used to bind one of the victims.", "The prosecutors, while conceding that no DNA evidence tied the accused to the crime scene, said: \"The State stands behind its convictions of Echols and his codefendants.\"", "Pamela Hobbs' May 5, 2009 declaration in the United States District Court, Eastern District of Arkansas, Western Division indicates that \"one hair was consistent with the hair of Terry's friend, David Jacoby\" (Point 16), and:In 2013, written statements from two men, Billy Wayne Stewart and Bennie Guy, were introduced in the court.", "They both claimed to have had information on the case linking Terry Hobbs to the murders, but were ignored by police initially.===Foreman and jury misconduct (2008)===In July 2008, it was revealed that Kent Arnold, the jury foreman on the Echols-Baldwin trial, had discussed the case with an attorney prior to the beginning of deliberations.", "Arnold was accused of advocating for the guilt of the West Memphis Three and sharing knowledge of inadmissible evidence, like the Jessie Misskelley statements, with other jurors.", "At the time, legal experts agreed that this issue could result in the reversal of the convictions of Jason Baldwin and Damien Echols.In September 2008, attorney (now judge) Daniel Stidham, who represented Misskelley in 1994, testified at a postconviction relief hearing.", "Stidham testified under oath that during the trial, Judge David Burnett erred by making an improper communication with the jury during its deliberations.", "Stidham overheard Judge Burnett discuss taking a lunch break with the jury foreman and heard the foreman reply that the jury was almost finished.", "He testified that Judge Burnett responded, \"You'll need food for when you come back for sentencing,\" and that the foreman asked in return what would happen if the defendant was acquitted.", "Stidham said the judge closed the door without answering.", "He testified that his own failure to put this incident on the court record and his failure to meet the minimum requirements in state law to represent a defendant in a capital murder case was evidence of ineffective assistance of counsel and that Misskelley's conviction should therefore be vacated.===Request for retrial (2007–2010)===On October 29, 2007, papers were filed in federal court by Echols's defense lawyers seeking a retrial or his immediate release from prison.", "The filing cited DNA evidence linking Terry Hobbs (stepfather of one of the victims) to the crime scene, and new statements from Hobbs' now ex-wife.", "Also presented in the filing was new expert testimony that the supposed knife marks on the victims, including the injuries to Byers' genitals, were in fact the result of animal predation after the bodies had been dumped.On September 10, 2008, Circuit Court Judge David Burnett denied the request for a retrial, citing the DNA tests as inconclusive.", "That ruling was appealed to the Arkansas Supreme Court, which heard oral arguments in the case on September 30, 2010.===Arkansas Supreme Court ruling (2010)===On November 4, 2010, the Arkansas Supreme Court ordered a lower judge to consider whether newly analyzed DNA evidence might exonerate the three.", "The justices also instructed the lower court to examine claims of misconduct by the jurors who sentenced Damien Echols to death and Jessie Misskelley and Jason Baldwin to life in prison.In early December 2010, David Burnett was elected to the Arkansas State Senate.", "Circuit Court Judge David Laser was selected to replace David Burnett and preside in the evidentiary hearings mandated by the successful appeal.===Plea deal and release (2011)===After weeks of negotiations, on August 19, 2011, Echols, Baldwin and Misskelley were released from prison as part of a plea deal, making the hearings ordered by the Arkansas Supreme Court unnecessary.", "The three entered into Alford plea deals.", "Stephen Braga, an attorney with Ropes & Gray who took up Echols's defense on a ''pro bono'' basis beginning in 2009, negotiated the plea agreement with prosecutors.Under the deal, Judge David Laser vacated the previous convictions, including the capital murder convictions for Echols and Baldwin, and ordered a new trial.", "Each man then entered an Alford plea to lesser charges of first- and second-degree murder while verbally stating their innocence.", "Judge Laser then sentenced them to time served, a total of 18 years and 78 days, and they were each given a suspended imposition of sentence for 10 years.", "If they re-offend they can be sent back to prison for 21 years.Factors cited by prosecutor Scott Ellington for agreeing to the plea deal included that two of the victims' families had joined the cause of the defense, that the mother of a witness who testified about Echols's confession had questioned her daughter's truthfulness, and that the State Crime Lab employee who collected fiber evidence at the Echols and Baldwin homes after their arrests had died.", "As part of the plea deal, the three men cannot pursue civil action against the state for wrongful imprisonment.Many of the men's supporters, and opponents who still believe them guilty, were unhappy with the unusual plea deal.", "In 2011, supporters pushed Arkansas Governor Mike Beebe to pardon Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley based on their innocence.", "Beebe said he would deny the request unless there was evidence showing someone else committed the murders.", "Prosecutor Scott Ellington said the Arkansas state crime laboratory would help seek other suspects by running searches on any DNA evidence produced in private laboratory tests during the defense team's investigation.", "This would include running the results through the FBI's Combined DNA Index System database.", "Ellington said that, although he still considered the men guilty, the three would likely be acquitted if a new trial were held because of the powerful legal counsel representing them now, the loss of evidence over time, and the change of heart among some of the witnesses." ], [ "Family and law enforcement opinions", "The families of the three victims are divided in their opinions as to the guilt or innocence of the West Memphis Three.", "In 2000, the biological father of Christopher Byers, Rick Murray, expressed his doubts about the guilty verdicts on the West Memphis Three website.", "In 2007, Pamela Hobbs, the mother of victim Stevie Branch, joined those who have publicly questioned the verdicts, calling for a reopening of the verdicts and further investigation of the evidence.", "In late 2007, John Mark Byers—who was previously vehement in his belief that Echols, Misskelley, and Baldwin were guilty—also announced that he now believes that they are innocent.", "\"I had made the comment if it were ever proven the three were innocent, I'd be the first to lead the charge for their freedom,\" said Byers, and take \"every opportunity that I have to voice that the West Memphis Three are innocent and the evidence and proof prove they're innocent.\"", "Byers has spoken to the media on behalf of the convicted, and has expressed his desire for justice for the families of both the victims and the three accused.In 2010, district Judge Brian S. Miller ordered Terry Hobbs, the stepfather of victim Stevie Branch, to pay $17,590 to Dixie Chicks singer Natalie Maines for legal costs stemming from a defamation lawsuit he filed against the band.", "Miller dismissed a suit Hobbs filed over Maines' remarks and writings implying that he was involved in killing his stepson.", "The judge said Hobbs had chosen to involve himself in public discussion over whether the convictions were just.John E. Douglas, a former longtime FBI agent and current criminal profiler, said that the murders were more indicative of a single murderer intent on degrading and punishing the victims, than of a trio of \"unsophisticated\" teenagers.", "Douglas believed that the perpetrator had a violent history and was familiar with the victims and with local geography.", "Douglas served as FBI Unit Chief of the Investigative Support Unit of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime for 25 years.", "He stated in his report for Echols's legal team that there was no evidence the murders were linked to satanic rituals and that post-mortem animal predation could explain the alleged knife injuries.", "He said that the victims had died from a combination of blunt force trauma and drowning, in a crime which he believed was driven by personal cause." ], [ "Documentaries, publications and studies", "Three films, ''Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills'', ''Paradise Lost 2: Revelations'', and ''Paradise Lost 3: Purgatory'', directed by Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky, have documented this case and are strongly critical of the verdict.", "The films marked the first time Metallica allowed their music to be used in a movie, which drew attention to the case.There have been a number of books about the case, also arguing that the suspects were wrongly convicted: ''Devil's Knot'' by Mara Leveritt; ''Blood of Innocents'' by Guy Reel; and ''The Last Pentacle of the Sun: Writings in Support of the West Memphis Three'', edited by Brett Alexander Savory & M. W. Anderson, and featuring dark fiction and non-fiction by well-known writers of speculative fiction.", "In 2005, Damien Echols completed his memoir, ''Almost Home, Vol 1'', offering his perspective of the case.", "A biography of John Mark Byers by Greg Day named ''Untying the Knot: John Mark Byers and the West Memphis Three'' was published in May 2012.Many songs were written about the case, and two albums released in support of the defendants.", "In 2000, The album ''Free the West Memphis 3'' was released by KOCH Records.", "Organized by Eddie Spaghetti of the band Supersuckers, the album featured a number of original songs about the case and other recordings by artists such as Steve Earle, Tom Waits, L7, and Joe Strummer.", "In 2002, Henry Rollins worked with other vocalists from various rock, hip hop, punk and metal groups and members of Black Flag and the Rollins Band on the compilation album ''Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three''.", "All money raised from sales of the album are donated to the legal funds of the West Memphis Three.", "Metalcore band Zao's 2002 album ''Parade of Chaos'' included a track inspired by the case named \"Free The Three\".", "On April 28, 2011, the band Disturbed released a song entitled \"3\" as a download on their website.", "The song is about the West Memphis Three, with 100% of the proceeds going to their benefit foundation for their release.A website by Martin David Hill, containing approximately 160,000 words and intending to be a \"thorough investigation\", collates and discusses many details surrounding the murders and investigation, including some anecdotal information.Investigative journalist Aphrodite Jones undertook an exploration of the case on her Discovery Network show ''True Crime with Aphrodite Jones'' following the DNA discoveries.", "The episode premiered May 5, 2011, with extensive background information included on the show's page at the Investigation Discovery site.", "In August 2011, White Light Productions announced that the West Memphis Three would be featured on their new program ''Wrongfully Convicted''.In January 2010, the CBS television news journal ''48 Hours'' aired \"The Memphis 3\", an in-depth coverage of the history of the case including interviews with Echols and supporters.", "On September 17, 2011, ''48 Hours'' re-aired the episode with the update of their release and interviews from Echols and his wife, and Baldwin.", "''Piers Morgan Tonight'' aired an episode on September 29, 2011, about the three's plans for the future and continued investigations on the case.", "''West of Memphis'', directed and written by Amy J. Berg, and produced by Peter Jackson, as well as by Echols himself, premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival.", "Actor Johnny Depp, a longtime supporter of the West Memphis Three and personal friend of Damien Echols, was on hand to support the film in its premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2012.Atom Egoyan directed a dramatized feature film of the case, titled ''Devil's Knot'', released in U.S. theaters on May 9, 2014.The film stars Reese Witherspoon and Colin Firth." ], [ "Defendants", "===Jessie Misskelley===Jessie Misskelley Jr. (born July 10, 1975) was arrested in connection to the murders of May 5, 1993.After a reported 12 hours of interrogation by police, Misskelley, who has an IQ of 72, confessed to the murders, and implicated Baldwin and Echols.", "However, the confession was at odds with facts known by police, such as the time of the murders.", "Under the ''Bruton'' rule, his confession could not be admitted against his co-defendants and thus he was tried separately.", "Misskelley was convicted by a jury of one count of first-degree murder and two counts of second-degree murder.", "The court sentenced him to life plus 40 years in prison.", "His conviction was appealed and affirmed by the Arkansas Supreme Court.On August 19, 2011, Misskelley, along with Baldwin and Echols, entered an Alford plea.", "Judge David Laser then sentenced them to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and also levied a suspended sentence of 10 years.", "All three were released from prison that same day.", "Since his release, Misskelley has become engaged to his high school girlfriend and enrolled in a community college to train as an auto mechanic.===Charles Jason Baldwin===Charles Jason Baldwin (born April 11, 1977) along with Misskelley and Echols, entered an Alford plea on August 19, 2011.Baldwin pleaded guilty to three counts of first degree murder while still asserting his actual innocence.", "The judge then sentenced the three men to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and also levied a suspended sentence of 10 years.Baldwin was initially resistant to agree to this deal, insisting as a matter of principle that he would not plead guilty to something he did not do.", "He then realized, he has said, that his refusal would have meant that Echols stayed on death row.", "\"This was not justice,\" he said of the deal.", "\"However, they're trying to kill Damien.\"", "Since his release, Baldwin has moved to Seattle to live with friends.", "He is in a relationship with a woman who befriended him while he was in prison.", "He has stated that he plans on enrolling in college to become a lawyer in order to help wrongfully convicted persons prove their innocence.", "Baldwin said in a 2011 interview with Piers Morgan that he worked for a construction company and he was learning how to drive.===Damien Wayne Echols===Damien Wayne Echols (born Michael Wayne Hutchison, December 11, 1974) was on death row, locked-down 23 hours per day at the Varner Unit Supermax.", "Echols, ADC# 000931, entered the system on March 19, 1994.From prison in 1999, he married landscape architect Lorri Davis.On August 19, 2011, Echols, along with Baldwin and Misskelley, was released from prison after their attorneys and the judge handling the upcoming retrial agreed to a deal.", "Under the terms of the Alford guilty plea, Echols and his co-defendants accepted the sufficiency of evidence supporting the three counts of first degree murder while maintaining their innocence.", "DNA evidence at the scene was not found to include any from Echols or his co-defendants.", "He moved to New York City after his release.====Appeal====Echols' mental stability during the years immediately prior to the murders and during his trial was the focus of his appellate legal team in their appeal attempts.", "In his efforts to win a new trial, Echols, 27 at the time of the appeal, claimed he was incompetent to stand trial because of a history of mental illness.", "The record on appeal spells out a long history of Echols' mental health problems, including a May 5, 1992, Arkansas Department of Youth Services referral for possible mental illness, a year to the day before the murders.", "Hospital records for his treatment in Little Rock 11 months before the killings show a history of self-mutilation and assertions to hospital staff that he gained power by drinking blood, that he had inside him the spirit of a woman who had killed her husband, and that he was having hallucinations.", "He also told mental health workers that he was \"going to influence the world.", "\"The appellate legal team argued that Echols did not waive his assertion that he was not mentally competent before his 1994 trial because he was not competent to waive it.", "To assist in the appeals process, Echols' appellate legal team retained a Berkeley, California-based forensic psychiatrist, Dr. George Woods, to make their case.Echols' lawyers claimed that his condition worsened during the trial, when he developed a \"psychotic euphoria that caused him to believe he would evolve into a superior entity\" and eventually be transported to a different world.", "His psychosis dominated his perceptions of everything going on in court, Woods wrote.", "Echols's mental state while in prison awaiting trial was also called into question by his appellate team.====Retrial request====While in prison, Echols wrote letters to Gloria Shettles, an investigator for his defense team.", "Echols sought to overturn his conviction based on trial error, including juror misconduct, as well as the results of a DNA Status Report filed on July 17, 2007, which concluded \"none of the genetic material recovered at the scene of the crimes was attributable to Mr. Echols, Echols' co-defendant, Jason Baldwin, or defendant Jessie Misskelley ....", "Although most of the genetic material recovered from the scene was attributable to the victims of the offenses, some of it cannot be attributed to either the victims or the defendants.\"", "Advanced DNA and other scientific evidence – combined with additional evidence from several different witnesses and experts – released in October 2007 had cast strong doubts on the original convictions.", "A hearing on Echols' petition for a writ of habeas corpus was held in the Federal District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas.====Release====On August 19, 2011, Echols, along with Baldwin and Misskelley, entered an Alford plea, while asserting their innocence.", "The judge sentenced them to 18 years and 78 days, the amount of time they had served, and levied a suspended sentence of 10 years.", "Echols' sentence was reduced to three counts of first degree murder.", "Lawyers representing the West Memphis Three reached the plea deal that allowed the men to be released from prison.", "They were transferred to the hearing with their possessions.", "The plea deal did not technically result in a full exoneration; some of the convictions would stand, but the men would not admit guilt.", "The counsel representing the men said they would continue to pursue full exoneration.====Aftermath====Damien Echols at the 2012 Texas Book FestivalEchols relocated to Salem, Massachusetts, with his wife and has no intentions of returning to Arkansas.", "In a 2013 interview with Piers Morgan, he said that he would like to have a career in writing and visual arts.Echols self-published the memoir, ''Almost Home: My Life Story Vol.", "1'' (2005), while still in prison.", "After his release, he has worked on a number of additional media projects.", ";:Music::*Echols co-wrote the lyrics to the song \"Army Reserve\", on Pearl Jam's self-titled album (2006).", "::*Echols and punk musician Michale Graves, the latter a former vocalist for Misfits, released an album titled ''Illusions'' in October 2007.;:Art::*Echols began creating art while on death row as a \"side effect of my spiritual, magical practice.\"", "The Copro Gallery in Los Angeles exhibited Echols' artwork (March 19 – April 16, 2016).", "The focus of the exhibit, titled 'SALEM,' draws attention to the comparison between the historical U.S. Salem witch trials and Echols' own experience during a modern-day U.S. witch-hunt known for false accusations of Satanic ritual abuse.", "::*On March 23, 2016, Echols gave a presentation about his art processes at the Rubin Museum of Art.", ";:Spoken word::*The transcript of Echols' spoken word performance in ''The Moth'' is included in a written compilation of 50 stories from the show's archives, published in 2013.;:Written works::*Echols' poetry has appeared in the ''Porcupine Literary Arts'' magazine (Volume 8, Issue 2).", "::* He has written non-fiction for the ''Arkansas Literary Forum''.", "::*Since his release, he has published a non-fiction book about both his childhood and incarceration, ''Life After Death'' (2012), which includes material from his 2005 memoir.", "::* He and Lorri Davis, a NYC landscape architect who initiated a correspondence with Echols in 1999 and ultimately became his wife, co-authored ''Yours for Eternity: A Love Story on Death Row'' (2014);:Television::*Echols provided the voice of Darryl, a fish man (i.e., a fish situated on a robot body), in episode 3 of the animated Netflix series ''The Midnight Gospel'' (2020).In August 2021, ten years after release from prison, Echols reiterated that he would not give up seeking any evidence that remained, so it could be retested to exonerate the three and lead to those actually responsible.", "In response to Echols' requests since early 2020 that remaining evidence undergo specialized DNA testing, officials told his legal team that such evidence had been lost or destroyed years ago in a fire, of which there is no public record.", "A FOIA request was submitted and the receiving attorney said any evidence testing would have to be ordered by a judge.", "Echols attorneys filed a Motion for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief in the Circuit Court of Crittendon County First Division, and asked for an expedited hearing.", "In December 2021, Echols' team was able to review remaining evidence and planned to move forward with new testing.", "In June 2022, a judge rejected a January request for DNA testing of the evidence.", "Echols' lawyers appealed the case to the Arkansas Supreme Court in January 2023.The state said in February that the appeal should be dismissed because the case was initially filed in the wrong county – Crittenden rather than Craighead County, where Echols' conviction was entered.", "In March, Echols' team responded that such a dismissal reason is irrelevant because both counties are within Arkansas' 2nd Judicial Circuit.", "In April 2023, the state supreme court ruled in favor of Echols' appeal for DNA testing." ], [ "See also", "* 1991 Austin yogurt shop murders* Central Park Five* False confession* Moral panic* Norfolk Four* Witch-hunt (metaphorical usage)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", ";Article*\" WM3 – Jason Baldwin.\"", "''Arkansas Times''.", "January 14, 2011.;Video*\" WM3: Life after Prison (Complete Series).\"", "''KATV-TV'' (Channel 7).", "Ran on October 30 – November 1, 2011, video posted to YouTube on February 7, 2012." ], [ "External links", "* The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture entry (The Butler Center for Arkansas Studies)* West Memphis Three at the Court TV Crime Library** Archive of West Memphis Three reports from ''Memphis Commercial Appeal''*Chen, Stephanie. \"", "Echols of West Memphis 3 talks about appeal, death row .\"", "CNN.", "September 29, 2010.", "* Investigation Collection Archive" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Donald Dewar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Donald Campbell Dewar''' (21 August 1937 – 11 October 2000) was a Scottish statesman and politician who served as the inaugural first minister of Scotland and leader of the Labour Party in Scotland from 1999 until his death in 2000.He previously served as Secretary of State for Scotland from 1997 to 1999.He was Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Anniesland (formerly Glasgow Garscadden) from 1978 to 2000.Dewar was also Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the equivalent seat from 1999 to 2000.Born in Glasgow, Dewar studied history, and later law, at the University of Glasgow.", "Before entering politics, he worked as a solicitor in Glasgow.", "At the age of 28, he was elected to the British House of Commons, representing Aberdeen South from 1966 to 1970.After losing his seat, he returned to law and hosted his own Friday evening talk show on Radio Clyde.", "Dewar was re-elected in the 1978 Glasgow Garscadden by-election and served as the MP until his death in 2000.Following Labour's landslide victory in 1997, he was appointed Secretary of State for Scotland by Prime Minister Tony Blair.", "As the Scottish secretary, he was an advocate of Scottish devolution, and campaigned for a Scottish Parliament in the 1997 Scottish devolution referendum.", "Following a successful campaign, Dewar worked on creating the Scotland Act 1998.Dewar led the Labour campaign through the first Scottish Parliament election and was elected a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Glasgow Anniesland.", "On 7 May 1999, he was appointed Leader of the Labour Party in Scotland and he led coalition talks with the Scottish Liberal Democrats.", "Following successful talks, the Labour-Liberal Democrat coalition was announced.", "Dewar was elected as first minister on 13 May 1999, by a vote of the parliament, and formed the first Scottish Executive cabinet.", "As first minister, he set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure; and a bill to establish national parks in Scotland.On 10 October 2000, Dewar sustained a fall, and the following day he died of a brain hemorrhage at the age of 63 while still in office.", "Deputy First Minister Jim Wallace served as the acting first minister, until Henry McLeish was announced to succeed Dewar.", "Often regarded as the \"Father of the Nation\", Dewar is known for his work and commitment to the re-establishment of the Scottish Parliament and being the inaugural first minister of Scotland." ], [ "Early life and education", "Dewar attended The Glasgow Academy, which at the time, was an all boys independent school in Hillhead.", "Donald Campbell Dewar was born on Saturday, 21 August 1937 in Glasgow.", "He grew up in a middle-class household in Kelvingrove as the only child of Dr. Alasdair Dewar, a consultant dermatologist, and Mary Howat Dewar ('''' Bennett).", "Both of Dewar's parents had ill health during his childhood; his father contracted tuberculosis and his mother suffered from a benign brain tumour when he was young.Dewar attended a small school in the Scottish Borders during the Second World War.", "From the age of nine, he was educated at Mosspark Primary School and then The Glasgow Academy.", "He made few friends at school and blamed his \"shyness and gauche manner\" on his experience as being an only child.", "A year before his death, Dewar admitted that he had been an \"isolated misfit\" in his youth, which is a reasoning for his public image of being awkward.", "In 1957, Dewar attended the University of Glasgow where his father, mother, two uncles and aunt also attended.", "He met several future politicians at the university Dialectic Society, including John Smith, who would later become leader of the Labour Party, Sir Menzies Campbell, who would later become leader of the Liberal Democrats, and Lord Irvine of Lairg, who would serve as Lord Chancellor.", "He met Alison McNair at Glasgow University, who he would later marry in 1964.Dewar was an editor of the ''Glasgow University Guardian'' and sales manager for ''Glasgow University Magazine'' in 1960.He served as chairman of the University Labour Club from 1961 from 1962 and president of the Glasgow University Union.", "Dewar was an Honorary Secretary of the Students' Representative Council.", "In 1962, he campaigned for Albert Luthuli, the banned African National Congress leader, as University Rector.In 1961, Dewar gained a Master of Arts degree in History and in 1964 a second-class Bachelor of Law degree.", "After graduating, he worked as a solicitor in Glasgow." ], [ "Early political career", "===Member of Parliament===Dewar was a member of the Labour Party, and soon turned his sights towards being elected to parliament.", "In 1962, he was selected as the Labour candidate for the Aberdeen South constituency.", "In the 1964 general election, he failed to win the seat, but won it at the 1966 general election at the age of 28 defeating Priscilla Tweedsmuir by 1,799 votes.In his maiden speech to the House of Commons on 4 May 1966, Dewar spoke against a proposed increase on potato tax.", "His speech became his first political success: as the tax was repealed the following year.", "Also in 1967, Dewar was made a Parliamentary Private Secretary to the President of the Board of Trade, Anthony Crosland.Dewar remained in that position at the Department of Education until 1969, in which year he opposed a visit to Aberdeen by the Springbok rugby team and staged a silent vigil near the team's ground.", "In April 1968, he was proposed for a Minister of State position by Roy Jenkins, but was not appointed.", "Dewar lost his constituency seat to the Conservative candidate Iain Sproat at the 1970 general election by over 1,000 votes.===Out of parliament===Dewar spent much of the 1970s looking for another parliamentary seat.", "He hosted a Friday evening talk show on Radio Clyde, and in June 1971 was beaten by Dennis Canavan when he applied for the seat of West Stirlingshire.", "He worked as a solicitor for much of that decade and became a reporter on children's panels and was involved with the Lanarkshire local authority.", "Dewar became a partner in Ross Harper Murphy, in 1975.===Return to Westminster===Donald Dewar was selected for the seat of Glasgow Garscadden by a majority of three, after Dewar's friend in the Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers, MP Willie Small, died unexpectedly.", "He was returned to parliament at a by-election on 13 April 1978, a crucial victory which was seen as halting the rise of the Scottish National Party.", "In Scotland's first referendum on devolution, held in March 1979, he campaigned for a \"Yes\" vote alongside the Conservative Alick Buchanan-Smith and the Liberal Russell Johnston.", "Though they won a narrow majority, it fell short of the 40% required, contributing to the downfall of the Callaghan Government, in May 1979.===Opposition===Dewar gained a parliamentary platform as chairman of the Scottish Affairs Select Committee.", "After a year honing his inquisitorial skills, he joined the front bench in November 1980 as a Scottish affairs spokesman when Michael Foot became party leader.", "In 1981, as the Labour Party divided itself further due to internal disagreement, Dewar was almost deselected in his constituency by hard left activists, but he successfully defended himself against this threat.He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming Shadow Scottish Secretary in November 1983.On 21 December 1988, Dewar was in Lockerbie after the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, as the member of the Shadow Cabinet in charge of Scottish affairs.", "In 1992, John Smith made him Shadow Social security Secretary and three years later, Dewar was made a Chief Whip for the Labour Party by Tony Blair.=== Secretary of State for Scotland; 1997–1999 ===At the 1997 general election, he became MP for Glasgow Anniesland, which was mostly the same constituency with minor boundary changes.", "Labour won this election by a landslide, and Dewar was given the post of Secretary of State for Scotland.", "He was able to start the devolution process he dreamt of years earlier, and worked on creating the Scotland Act, popularly referred to as \"Smith's unfinished business\".", "When ratified, this was to give Scotland its first Parliament for nearly 300 years.=== 1999 Scottish Parliament election ===In January 1998, he confirmed that he would stand for a seat in the Scottish Parliament.", "The first elections to the Scottish Parliament were held on 6 May 1999, with Dewar leading the Scottish Labour Party against their main opponents, the Scottish National Party led by Alex Salmond.", "He was elected as the Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Glasgow Anniesland, having the unusual distinction of being both an MP and MSP for the same constituency." ], [ "First Minister of Scotland", "cabinet outside Bute HouseOn 13 May 1999, Dewar was elected by the Scottish Parliament for the nominee for First Minister of Scotland, after receiving 71 votes by MSPs.", "On 17 May, he received the Royal Warrant of Appointment by Her Majesty the Queen at Holyroodhouse and was officially sworn in at the Court of Session.", "=== Entering government ===Dewar (left) with Queen Elizabeth II and Presiding Officer David Steel (right) at the opening of the Scottish Parliament, July 1999Although Scottish Labour won more seats than any other party, they did not have a majority in Parliament to allow them to form an Executive without the help of a smaller party.", "A deal was agreed with the Scottish Liberal Democrats to form a coalition, with Dewar agreeing to their demand for the abolition of up front tuition fees for university students.On 13 May 1999, Dewar was nominated as first minister, and was officially appointed by the Queen on 17 May at a ceremony in the Palace of Holyroodhouse.", "He later travelled to the Court of Session to be sworn in by the lord president and receive the Great Seal of Scotland.=== Legislation proposals ===Dewar chairs the first reconvened Scottish Cabinet as First Minister On 16 June, Dewar set out the legislative programme for the Executive which included: an Education bill to improve standards in Scottish schools; land reform to give right of access to the countryside, a bill to abolish the feudal system of land tenure; and a bill to establish national parks in Scotland.=== Lobbygate scandal ===One of the first scandals to hit the new Scottish Parliament occurred when allegations that the lobbying arm of public relations company Beattie Media had privileged access to ministers were published, prompting Dewar to ask the standards committee to investigate the reports.", "The minister for finance, Jack McConnell, was called to appear before the standards committee during the investigation although he was later cleared of any wrongdoing and the committee declared there was no evidence he had been influenced from lobbying by Beattie Media.Dewar also threatened to sack any minister or aide who briefed the media against another member of the Scottish Executive, following public rows between Jack McConnell and Health Minister Susan Deacon over the budget allocated to health .=== 2000 SQA examinations controversy ===The introduction in Scotland of the reformed examinations system in 2000 was criticised in the press and by the Government after a series of administrative and computer errors led to several thousand incorrect Higher and Intermediate certificates being sent out by post.", "The crisis took several months to resolve, and several management figures including the Chief Executive, Ron Tuck, resigned or lost their jobs as a result.===International affairs=======Foreign visits and trips==== Country Areas visited Dates Details'''1'''Brussels Scotland Week events, as well as addressing the Democratic renewal seminar'''2'''Dublin Meeting with the Taoiseach'''3'''Gave the William and Mary lecture and met with the Dutch Justice Minister'''4'''Inward Investment visit'''5'''DublinDelivered speech to the Irish-Scottish Academic Initiative" ], [ "Personal life", "On 20 July 1964, Dewar married Alison Mary McNair, with whom he had two children: a daughter, Marion, and a son, Ian.", "In 1972, McNair separated from Dewar and entered a relationship with the then Derry Irvine, a prominent Scottish barrister in London.", "Dewar and his wife divorced in 1973, and he never remarried.", "Dewar and Lord Irvine of Lairg never reconciled, even though they later served in the same Cabinet from May 1997 until 1999.In September 2009, Dennis Canavan said Dewar reacted callously when Canavan's son was diagnosed with skin cancer in 1989.The disease eventually killed him.", "Canavan said Dewar remarked, \"Oh no!", "That's all we need.", "He was mad enough before but I shudder to think what he'll be like now.", "\"Dewar amassed a personal fortune in excess of £2,000,000 including public utility shares, antiques and artwork with a value of over £400,000." ], [ "Death and funeral", "In early 2000, Dewar was admitted to the Glasgow Royal Infirmary after tests at Stobhill Hospital highlighted \"minor irregularity\" in his heart.", "In May 2000, tests revealed he had a faulty aortic valve and he underwent a four hour heart operation to repair a leaking heart valve.", "His personal spokesperson, David Whitton, stated \"he is as concerned about his health as anyone else would be\".", "Although Dewar was not going under surgery, considerations over whether to cancel foreign trips to Japan were under close watch.Dewar was forced to take a three-month break and Deputy First Minister Jim Wallace took over as acting first minister.", "After returning to office, Dewar was described as being \"visibly tired\" and fears for his health at this stage were officially dismissed following a First Minister's Question Time.Dewar dealt with the 2000 exam results controversy and the lorry drivers' strike, and attended the Labour Party conference in Brighton, but on 29 September 2000 he told the historian Tom Devine in Dublin that if he did any not feel better, he would have to reappraise the situation in a few months' time.On 10 October 2000, Dewar sustained a seemingly harmless fall outside his official residence at Bute House following a meeting of the Scottish Cabinet.", "He seemed fine at first, but later that day suffered a massive brain haemorrhage which was possibly triggered by the anticoagulant medication he was taking following his heart surgery.", "At 7pm, five hours after his fall, Dewar was admitted to the Western General Hospital in Edinburgh after his condition rapidly deteriorated.", "By 9pm, he was put on a life-support machine in the hospital's intensive care unit.", "Dewar's condition worsened and he failed to regain consciousness.", "On 11 October at 12:18pm, Dewar was officially pronounced dead, aged 63.=== Funeral ===Dewar's funeral service was held at Glasgow Cathedral, he was cremated on 18 October 2000 and his ashes were scattered at Lochgilphead in Argyll.=== Guests ======= Royal family ====* The Prince of Wales, Duke of Rothesay==== Heads of government ====* Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Cherie Blair* Jim Wallace, Acting First Minister of Scotland* Bertie Ahern, Taoiseach (Irish Prime Minister)* David Trimble, First Minister of Northern Ireland ==== Politicians ====* Members of the Scottish Executive Cabinet, including; ** Wendy Alexander, Minister for Communities** Henry McLeish, Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning* Members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, including;** Gordon Brown, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and Sarah Brown ** Jack Straw, Home Secretary * John Swinney, Leader of the Scottish National Party * Charles Kennedy, Leader of the Liberal Democrats* Neil Kinnock, Former Leader of the Labour Party* Menzies Campbell, Liberal Democrats Member of Parliament* James Douglas-Hamilton, Conservative Member of Parliament==== Other dignitaries ====* Ruth Wishart, Broadcaster and friend* Lord Robertson, Secretary General of NATO* Alastair Campbell, Downing Street Press Secretary* Lord Hardie, Senator of the College of Justice* John Monks, General Secretary of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) === Reactions and aftermath ===Dewar's death came as a shock to Scotland.", "UK Foreign Secretary described his death as \"a tragedy for Donald and a tragedy for Scotland.\"", "Henry McLeish said: \"this is a day of enormous sadness for Scotland and for me personally.", "Donald was devolution.", "The architect of the most successful constitutional change this century.", "\"\"Although he has become something of a political legend, Donald would have abhorred any attempt to turn him into some kind of secular saint.", "He would have been horrified at a Diana-style out-pouring of synthetic grief at his untimely death.\"", "— Iain Macwhirter, ''Sunday Herald'', 15 October 2000.Dewar was succeeded by Henry McLeish as First Minister." ], [ "Legacy", "Bust of Donald Dewar by Archie Forrest in the 264x264pxDewar's commitment for re-establishing the Scottish Parliament and his tireless work on writing the Scotland Act 1998 has led to him being referred to as the \"Father of the Nation\" and the \"Father of devolution\".", "His advocacy for Scottish devolution began in the 1960s, and at this stage, it was fairly unpopular among many Labour politicians, however, he ploughed ahead to gain support from all parties.", "Although Dewar did not associate with Scottish nationalism or support attempts for independence, he was a \"great unionist\" and saw the new Parliament as a \"journey not a destination\", which left many Labour supporters to question devolution.", "He introduced a proportional representation and many thought this, and devolution, would \"end the Scottish National Party's success\", but years on Labour's popularity plummeted and the SNP's popularity grew rapidly.", "In 2002, a bronze statue of Dewar was erected outside Glasgow's Royal Concert Hall in a ceremony attended by then-Prime Minister 212x212pxDewar received nicknames such as \"Donald Dour\" for his stiff matter of fact tone and \"The Gannet\" because of his huge appetite, could also be applied to his approach to politics.In May 2002, then Prime Minister Tony Blair unveiled a statue of Dewar at the top of Glasgow's Buchanan Street, a street in Glasgow city centre.", "In keeping with his famous unkempt appearance, it showed Dewar wearing a slightly crumpled jacket.The statue was taken down in October 2005 to be cleaned, and was re-erected on a high plinth in December in an effort to protect it from vandalism.", "On the base of the statue were inscribed the opening words of the Scotland Act: \"There Shall Be A Scottish Parliament\", a phrase to which Dewar himself famously said, \"I like that!", "\"Dewar called the Old Royal High School on Calton Hill in Edinburgh a \"nationalist shibboleth\", mainly because it had been the proposed site of the Scottish Assembly in the 1979 referendum.", "Dewar's opposition to the Calton Hill site partly contributed to the selection of the Holyrood site, which proved expensive.The First ScotRail Class 334 train ''334001'' was named ''Donald Dewar'' in his memory.", "The \"Dewar Arts Award\" was created by the Scottish Executive in 2002 dedicated to his memory.", "This award supports talented young Scottish artists." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Digimon" ], [ "Introduction", ", short for \"Digital Monsters\" ( ''Dejitaru Monsutā''), is a Japanese media franchise, which encompasses virtual pet toys, anime, manga, video games, films, and a trading card game.", "The franchise focuses on the eponymous creatures that inhabit a \"Digital World\", which is a parallel universe that originated from Earth's various communication networks.The franchise was created in 1997 as a series of virtual pets, and it was intended as the masculine counterpart to Tamagotchi.", "The creatures were first designed to look cute and iconic even on the devices' small screens.", "Later developments had them created with a harder-edged style, which was influenced by American comics.", "The franchise gained momentum with an early video game, ''Digimon World'', released only in Japan in January 1999.Several anime series and films, including its first anime incarnation, ''Digimon Adventure'' that was based on both video game and digital pet, have been released; the video game series has expanded into genres, such as role-playing, racing, fighting, and MMORPGs." ], [ "Conception and creation", "''Virtual pet'' model distributed on the Japanese market by Bandai, that allowed the popularization of ''Digimon'' in Japan.The ''Digimon'' franchise began as a series of virtual pets created by WiZ and Bandai, intended as a masculine counterpart to the more female-oriented Tamagotchi pets.", "It was released in June 1997 with the name Digimon, short for ''Digital Monster''.", "This device shows to players a virtual pet composed entirely of data and designed to play and fight.", "In February 1998, the ''DigiMon'' fighting game, compatible with Windows 95 and developed by Rapture Technologies, Inc., was announced.", "The one-shot manga ''C'mon Digimon'', designed by Tenya Yabuno, was published in the Japanese magazine V-Jump by Shueisha in 1997.A second generation of ''virtual pets'' was marketed six months after the launch of the first, followed by a third in 1998.Each player starts with a baby-level digital creature that has a limited number of attacks and transformations and to make the creature stronger by training and nourishing the creature; when the player is successful in a workout, the Digimon becomes strong, when the player fails, the Digimon becomes weak.", "Two devices can be connected, allowing two players to battle with their respective creatures, an innovation at the time, however, the battle is only possible from the moment the creature is in the child level or bigger.", "Playgrounds and subways were where the majority of users of the apparatus were concentrated; the virtual pet was banned in some Asian schools, being considered by parents and teachers as very noisy and violent.", "The first Digimon were created by Japanese designer Kenji Watanabe, influenced by American comics, which were beginning to gain popularity in Japan, and as such began to make his characters look stronger and \"cool.\"", "Other types of Digimon, which until the year 2000 totalled 279, came from extensive discussions and collaborations between the Bandai company members.The original Digital Monster model that was released in 1997 sold units worldwide, including million units in Japan and million overseas, up until March 2004.By 2005, more than Digital Monster units had been sold worldwide." ], [ "Premise", "Several media in the franchise are contained within their own continuity; however, they all share a similar setting and premise.", "For instance, most ''Digimon'' stories begin with a human child, who comes into contact with a Digimon.", "This generally occurs either through an accidental entrance into the so-called Digital World or an encounter with a Digimon who has come into the human world.", "The child or children then often find themselves equipped with a \"digivice\", which is a device modelled after the series' virtual pets; this device enables them to empower their partner Digimon.While some Digimon act like wild beasts, there are many who form small societies and follow governing bodies.", "Digimon can change through evolution (or \"digivolution\" in most English-language dubs), where they absorb additional data that allows them to change forms.", "This process is normally linear, but there are other methods, depending upon the media within the franchise.", "For example, \"Jogress\" (a portmanteau of \"joint progress\"; \"DNA Digivolution\" in most English-language dubs) is when two or more Digimon combine into a single being.", "Though evolution can occur naturally, Digimon can progress into stronger forms more quickly, when they are partnered with a human." ], [ "Media", "===Anime=======Television series====Multiple ''Digimon'' anime series have been produced by Toei Animation since 1999.The first of these was ''Digimon Adventure''; it began as a short film, but after its storyboard was finished, a request for the film to become a television series was made.", "The film debuted in theaters a day before the series debuted on TV.The first six ''Digimon'' series were adapted into English for release in Western markets, with the first four treated as a single show under the collective title ''Digimon: Digital Monsters''.", "The sixth series, ''Digimon Fusion'', was only partially localized; its third season was never adapted into English.No.", "'''Title'''EpisodesOriginally airedNetworkFirst airedLast aired1''Digimon Adventure'' (1999)54Fuji TV2''Digimon Adventure 02''503''Digimon Tamers''514''Digimon Frontier''505''Digimon Data Squad''486''Digimon Fusion''79TV Asahi7''Digimon Universe: App Monsters''52TV Tokyo8''Digimon Adventure'' (2020)67Fuji TV9''Digimon Ghost Game''67+1 specialTotal519 episodes====Films====Several ''Digimon'' featurette films were released in Japan, with some of them seasonal tie-ins for their respective television series.", "Footage from the first three films was used for the American-produced ''Digimon: The Movie''.", "'''Title'''Originally released''Digimon Adventure''''Digimon Adventure: Our War Game!", "''''Digimon Adventure 02: Part 1: Digimon Hurricane Touchdown /Part 2: Supreme Evolution The Golden Digimentals''''Digimon Adventure 3D: Digimon Grand Prix!", "''''Digimon: The Movie''''Digimon Adventure 02: Revenge of Diaboromon''''Digimon Tamers: Battle of Adventurers''''Digimon Tamers: Runaway Locomon''''Digimon Frontier: Island of Lost Digimon''''Digital Monster X-Evolution''''Digimon Savers 3D: The Digital World in Imminent Danger!", "''''Digimon Savers: Ultimate Power!", "Activate Burst Mode''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 1: Reunion''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 2: Determination''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 3: Confession''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 4: Loss''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 5: Coexistence''''Digimon Adventure tri.", "Chapter 6: Future''''Digimon Adventure: Last Evolution Kizuna''''Digimon Adventure 02: The Beginning''====OVA====No.", "'''Title'''EpisodesFirst airedLast aired1''Digimon Adventure 20th Memorial Story''5====Distribution and localization====In the United States, the first three series that made up ''Digimon: Digital Monsters'' first aired on Fox Kids from August 14, 1999 to June 8, 2002.The localized series was produced by Saban Entertainment, which would be acquired by The Walt Disney Company during the show's Fox Kids run.", "Some scenes from the original shows were modified or omitted in order to comply with Fox's standards and practices.", "The show also featured more jokes and added dialogue, along with a completely different musical score.", "As a cross-promotional stunt, 2001 and 2002 saw ''Digi-Bowl'' specials co-produced with Fox Sports; ''NFL on Fox'' commentator Terry Bradshaw provided interstitial segments in-between episodes as if the episodes were actually a football game.Disney's acquisition of Saban would result in ''Digimon'' airing on Disney's TV networks and programming blocks.", "Reruns of the show would begin airing on the cable network ABC Family on March 4, 2002, while the fourth series, ''Digimon Frontier'', premiered on UPN's Disney's One Too block.", "UPN aired the series until late August 2003, when they severed their ties to Disney.", "''Frontier'' would also air in reruns on ABC Family and on Toon Disney under the Jetix branding.", "An English version of ''Digimon Data Squad'', produced by Studiopolis, would premiere October 1, 2007, on Toon Disney.", "Around this time, the remaining Digimon Adventure 02 movie, both Tamers movies and the Frontier movie would also be dubbed and aired on Toon Disney in the US, with most actors from the TV series reprising their roles.", "The Data Squad/Savers movie however would not get a North American localised English dub produced.In September 2012, Saban Brands, a successor to Saban Entertainment, announced it had acquired the ''Digimon'' anime franchise.", "Saban would announce that they would be producing an English dub for ''Digimon Xros Wars'', retitled ''Digimon Fusion'', for broadcast on Nickelodeon in the United States starting September 7, 2013.Saban Capital Group would later sell most of Saban Brands' entertainment properties to Hasbro in 2018 and shutter the division in July of that year.The ''Digimon Adventure tri.''", "series would be distributed in North America by Eleven Arts.", "The English dub would utilize localized names from Saban's original dub, reunite several voice actors from the original cast, and feature a remixed version of the English opening theme, while retaining the original Japanese score.", "Shout!", "Factory would acquire the broadcast and home media distribution rights for the films.====International====In Canada, the English versions of ''Digimon'' were broadcast on YTV, with the exception of ''Data Squad'', which aired in Family Channel's Jetix block.", "YTV would eventually acquire ''Digimon Fusion'', but only the first 26 episodes were shown.In the United Kingdom, ''Digimon'' first aired on Fox Kids.", "ITV's children's slot CITV would broadcast ''Adventure'', ''Adventure 02'' and several episodes of ''Tamers'' during after school hours from 2001–2002.The rest of ''Tamers'' aired on Fox Kids from 2002–03.", "''Digimon Frontier'' was originally announced to be broadcast on Jetix, but the series was later dropped.", "The series eventually saw a release on October 29, 2018.In 2011, ''Digimon Data Squad'' aired on Kix!.", "According to Fox Kids' (2000–03) and Kix's (2010–) BARB Television ratings, ''Adventure'', ''Adventure 02'' & ''Tamers'' have been the most popular series'/seasons in the United Kingdom and was consistently in the weekly top 10 broadcasts for both channels for new episodes.", "Broadcast rights and merchandising sub-licensing rights for ''Digimon Fusion'' in the UK have been acquired by ITV Studios Global Entertainment.", "''Digimon Fusion'' had aired since Spring 2014 on digital terrestrial channel, CITV.In the Philippines, ''Digimon'' was first aired on ABS-CBN in Filipino English language from June 2, 2000 to October 21, 2001.And later, it was shift to Filipino in April 6, 2002.===Manga===''Digimon'' first appeared in narrative form in the one-shot manga ''C'mon Digimon'', released in the summer of 1997.", "''C'mon Digimon'' spawned the popular ''Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01'' manga, written by Hiroshi Izawa, which began serialization on November 21, 1998.The following are the known ''Digimon'' manga:====''Digimon Next''====Written by Tatsuya Hamazaki and illustrated by Takeshi Okano, was serialized in Shueisha's magazine ''V Jump'' from 2005 to 2008.Shueisha collected its chapters in four ''tankōbon'' volumes, released from July 4, 2006, to February 4, 2008.The story follow Tsurugi Tatsuno and is digimon partner, Greymon (later Agumon).", "Tsurugi makes contact with the Digital World through his virtual pet device called Digimon Mini and a \"Battle Terminal\", a virtual reality interface.", "Digimon can use the technology to materialize in the human world as well.====''Digimon Dreamers''====In 2021, a manga called ''Digimon Dreamers'' was announced.====Yuen Wong Yu manhua====A Chinese manhua was written and drawn by (余 遠鍠 ''Yu Yuen-wong''), who based its storyline on the television series.", "This adaptation covers ''Digimon Adventure'' in five volumes, ''Digimon Adventure 02'' in two, ''Digimon Tamers'' in four, and ''Digimon Frontier'' in three.", "The original stories are heavily abridged, though on rare occasions events play out differently from the anime.", "The Chinese-language version was published by Rightman Publishing Ltd. in Hong Kong.", "Yu also wrote ''D-Cyber''.Two English versions were also released.", "The first one was published by Chuang Yi in Singapore.", "The second one, which was adapted by Lianne Sentar, was released by Tokyopop in North America.The three volumes for ''Digimon Frontier'' have been released by Chuang Yi in English.", "These have not been released by TOKYOPOP in North America or Europe.", "However, the Chuang Yi releases of ''Digimon Frontier'' were distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australia.====Dark Horse====Dark Horse Comics published American-style Digimon comic books, adapting the first thirteen episodes of the English dub of ''Digimon Adventure'' in 2001.The story was written by Daniel Horn and Ryan Hill, and illustrated by Daniel Horn and Cara L. Niece.====Panini====The Italian publishing company, Panini, approached Digimon in different ways in different countries.", "While Germany created their own adaptations of episodes, the United Kingdom (UK) reprinted the Dark Horse titles, then translated some of the German adaptations of ''Adventure 02'' episodes.", "Eventually the UK comics were given their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK's official ''Digimon Magazine'' and the official UK Fox Kids companion magazine, ''Wickid''.", "These original stories only roughly followed the continuity of ''Adventure 02''.", "When the comic switched to the ''Tamers'' series the storylines adhered to continuity more strictly; sometimes it would expand on subject matter not covered by the original Japanese anime (such as Mitsuo Yamaki's past) or the English adaptations of the television shows and movies (such as Ryo's story or the movies that remained undubbed until 2005).", "In a money saving venture, the original stories were later removed from ''Digimon Magazine'', which returned to printing translated German adaptations of ''Tamers'' episodes.", "Eventually, both magazines were cancelled.===Video games===The ''Digimon'' series has inspired various video games, including the ''Digimon World'' and ''Digimon Story'' sub-series of role-playing games.", "Other genres have included life simulation, adventure, video card game, strategy, and racing games.By March 2001, Bandai had sold approximately video games worldwide, including 400,000 in Japan.", "In February 2010, a website for the MMORPG ''Digimon Battle Online'' was launched.", "On September 22, 2011, online game publisher Joymax announced the release of an MMORPG game called ''Digimon Masters'', which was developed by the Korean publisher DIGITALIC.", "In June 2021 it was announced that they were developing a new MMORPG titled ''Digimon Super Rumble''.In 2011, a new entry in the ''Digimon World'' series was announced after a seven-year hiatus, titled ''Digimon World Re:Digitize''.", "The game would be released in Japan on July 19, 2012, followed by an enhanced version for Nintendo 3DS released in 2013.", "''Digimon Story: Cyber Sleuth'' was first released in Japan in 2015.It would be the first game in the ''Digimon Story'' series to be released in North America under its original title; ''Digimon World DS'' and ''Digimon World Dawn and Dusk'' were originally marketed as entries in the ''Digimon World'' series, with the latter game being the last to be released in the West for nine years until ''Cyber Sleuth'''s release on February 2, 2016.There have also been several mobile games.", "''Digimon Links'' was active from March 2016 to July 2019, and was similar to the ''Story'' games in that the player raised digimon in a farm and fought enemies using a team of three of their Digimon.", "It was succeeded by ''Digimon ReArise'', which launched June 2018 in Japan and October 2019 in America.===Web novel===In February 2023, Bandai announced a web novel titled to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the franchise.", "The novel will serialize on the Digimon Web website for about a year, starting on April 3, simultaneously in English, Chinese, and Japanese.===Webcomic===In December 2023, Bandai announced a serialized webcomic titled ''Digimon Liberator'' for Spring 2024.===Card game===The Digimon Collectible Card Game is a card game based on Digimon, first introduced in Japan in 1997 and published by Bandai.", "The third season (''Digimon Tamers'') utilized this aspect of the franchise by making the card game an integral part of the season.", "Versions of the card game are also included in some of the Digimon video games including ''Digital Card Battle'' and ''Digimon World 3''.During the fourth anime (''Digimon Frontier''), Bandai created the ''D-Tector Card Game'' to tie in to their own D-Tector virtual pet toys.", "This was a West-only card game.", "From February 25, 2011 to September 28, 2012, ''Digimon Jintrix'' was an online card game supported by physical card releases.", "It was followed up by the mobile game ''Digimon Crusader'', which lasted from December 2012 to December 2017.In 2020 a new card game was launched to coincide with ''Digimon Adventure:'' using a new system, this was released in the West in January 2021." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * , outside-of-Asia series" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty" ], [ "Introduction", "Admiral of the Fleet '''David Richard Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty''', (17 January 1871 – 12 March 1936) was a Royal Navy officer.", "After serving in the Mahdist War and then the response to the Boxer Rebellion, he commanded the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron at the Battle of Jutland in 1916, a tactically indecisive engagement after which his aggressive approach was contrasted with the caution of his commander Admiral Sir John Jellicoe.", "He is remembered for his comment at Jutland that \"There seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today\", after two of his ships exploded.", "Later in the war he succeeded Jellicoe as Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet, in which capacity he received the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet at the end of the war.", "He then followed Jellicoe's path a second time, serving as First Sea Lord—a position that Beatty held longer (7 years 9 months) than any other First Sea Lord.", "While First Sea Lord, he was involved in negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 in which it was agreed that the United States, Britain and Japan should set their navies in a ratio of 5:5:3, with France and Italy maintaining smaller ratio fleets of 1.75 each." ], [ "Family and childhood", "Beatty was born into an Anglo-Irish family at Howbeck Lodge in the parish of Stapeley, near Nantwich, Cheshire, on 17 January 1871.He was the second son of five children born to Captain David Longfield Beatty and Katherine (or Katrine) Edith Beatty (née Sadleir), both from Ireland: David Longfield had been an officer in the Fourth Hussars where he formed a relationship with Katrine, the wife of another officer.After the affair between David Longfield and Katrine became known, David Longfield's father (Beatty's grandfather), David Vandeleur Beatty (1815–1881), arranged for his son to be posted to India in the hope that the scandalous relationship might end.", "David Longfield resigned from the regiment on 21 November 1865, with the honorary rank of Captain.", "He took up residence with Katrine in Cheshire and in 1869 sold his commission.", "David Longfield was unable to marry Katrine until Katrine had obtained a divorce on 21 February 1871, after the birth of their first two sons.", "Beatty's birth certificate recorded his mother's surname as Beatty, and his parents' eventual marriage at St Michael's Church in Liverpool was kept secret.Beatty's early education concentrated on horsemanship, hunting and learning to be a gentleman.", "Beatty had a close relationship with his elder brother Charles, who became his ally against their oppressive and overbearing father.", "They remained close throughout life, so much so that the only time Beatty felt despair was at his brother's death.", "Beatty later wrote to his wife about Charles, ''we lived together, played together, rode together, fought together.''", "His brothers would later join the British Army, but early on young David developed an interest in ships and the sea and expressed a desire to join the Royal Navy.", "In 1881 Beatty's grandfather died and David Longfield succeeded to the 18th century mansion, 'Borodale', outside Enniscorthy, in County Wexford.", "After retiring from the army David Longfield established a business training horses first in Cheshire and then at 'The Mount', near Rugby, Warwickshire.", "On inheriting and following the death of his wife at 'The Mount', David Longfield returned to Ireland abandoning the training business.Beatty was educated at Kilkenny College and in 1882 entered Burney's Naval Academy at Gosport, which was a 'crammer' for boys wishing to take the entrance examinations for the Royal Navy." ], [ "Early career", "Captain David BeattyBeatty joined the Royal Navy as a cadet passing into the training ship HMS ''Britannia'' tenth out of ninety-nine candidates in January 1884.During his two years at ''Britannia'', moored at Dartmouth, he was beaten three times for various infractions.", "He passed out of ''Britannia'' eighteenth out of the thirty-three remaining cadets at the end of 1885.Beatty's letters home made no complaint about the poor living conditions in ''Britannia'', and generally he was extrovert, even aggressive, and resented discipline.", "However, he understood how far he could transgress without serious consequences, and this approach continued throughout his career.Beatty was given orders to join the China Station in January 1886, but the posting did not appeal to his mother, who wrote to Lord Charles Beresford, then a senior naval officer, member of parliament and personal friend, to use his influence to obtain something better.", "Beatty was, in February 1886, instead appointed to , flagship of Admiral the Duke of Edinburgh, Queen Victoria's second son, who was Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Squadron.", "This proved an excellent social opening for Beatty, who established a longstanding relationship with the Duke's eldest daughter, Marie, and with other members of the court.", "''Alexandra'' was a three-masted sailing ship with auxiliary steam power, nonetheless, remaining flagship in a navy which was steadily transitioning from sail to steam.", "Life in the Mediterranean fleet was considerably easier than cadet life, with visits to friendly ports all around the Mediterranean, but Beatty was concerned to work diligently towards naval examinations, which would determine seniority and future promotion prospects.", "Beatty was promoted to midshipman on 15 May 1886 and assigned to assist Lieutenant Stanley Colville on watchkeeping duties: Colville was to play an important part in Beatty's future career.Beatty left HMS ''Alexandra'' in March 1889 and joined the cruiser in July 1889 for manoeuvres before joining the sailing corvette in September 1889, in which he was promoted to sub-lieutenant on 14 May 1890.Next he attended courses at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich during which he was somewhat distracted from his naval career by the delights of London.", "Beatty scored a first-class examination pass in Torpedoes, but only seconds in Seamanship, Gunnery and Pilotage, and a third in Navigation.", "A biography states that \"his cabin at Greenwich was full of photographs of actresses, some of which were signed in the most endearing terms\".", "After attending the gunnery school, , he undertook a posting to a torpedo boat in July 1891 and then a tour in from 19 January 1892.Beatty joined the Royal Yacht ''Victoria and Albert'' in July 1892 while Queen Victoria was holidaying in the Mediterranean: Victoria was in mourning for her grandson, Albert Duke of Clarence, who had died January 1892.Promoted to lieutenant on 25 August 1892, he rejoined HMS ''Ruby'' in August 1892 and then transferred to the battleship in September 1893 (which had only recently been involved in the fleet accident where she had rammed and sunk the battleship ).", "He transferred to the battleship in September 1895." ], [ "Sudan Campaign", "Beatty gained recognition during the Mahdist War for his actions in the campaign to recapture the Sudan.", "Stanley Colville was placed in command of the gunboats attached to the British expeditionary force in Egypt and as Beatty's former commander in HMS ''Trafalgar'' and superior in HMS ''Alexandra'' he requested that Beatty join him.", "Control of the river Nile was considered vitally important for any expedition into Egypt and the Sudan.", "Beatty was seconded to the Egyptian government on 3 June 1896 and appointed second in command of the river flotilla.", "Colville was wounded during the operation, leaving Beatty in command of the gunboats for the successful attack on Dongola.", "The campaign halted at Dongola to regroup and Beatty returned to Britain on leave.", "He was commended by Kitchener for his part in the campaign and as a result was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.Beatty was again seconded to the Egyptian government for the next phase of the campaign.", "This was now at Lord Kitchener's specific request, for the Khartoum expedition.", "Beatty first commanded the gunboat ''El Teb'' but this was capsized attempting to ascend the Fourth Cataract.", "Beatty then took command of gunboat ''Fateh'' between October 1897 and August 1898: the gunboats were frequently in action advancing along the Nile ahead of the army and saw action at the Battle of Omdurman, where Beatty made the acquaintance of Winston Churchill who had become a cavalry officer in Beatty's father's old regiment, the 4th Hussars, and had there learnt his family history.", "In a few hours 10,000 Dervishes were killed by rifle and machine gun fire without any of them getting within 600 yards of the British force.", "This battle marked the effective end of resistance to the expeditionary force, but the gunboats were called into service to transport troops to Fashoda, south along the White Nile, where a small force of French troops had made a difficult land crossing and staked a claim to the area.", "Despite the ensuing crisis, the French were persuaded to withdraw without incident.", "Kitchener commended Beatty for his efforts in the campaign and as a result Beatty was promoted to commander, ahead of 400 other lieutenants, on 15 November 1898." ], [ "Boxer Rebellion", "Beatty was appointed executive officer of the small battleship , flagship of the China Station, on 20 April 1899.The first year of his tour of duty was uneventful, but unrest against foreigners was growing in China.", "The Boxer movement was a secret Chinese peasant society committed to resisting oppression both from foreigners and from the Chinese government.", "The Empress Dowager Tzu-hsi partly encouraged the Boxer's opposition to foreigners in an attempt to turn their attention away from herself.", "The name was derived from ritual exercises supposed to make their users immune to bullets, which resembled boxing.In the summer of 1900 the rebellion reached Peking, where the German legation was attacked and foreign nationals withdrew to the relative safety of the Legation Quarter.", "Government troops joined forces with the rebels and the railway to the Treaty Port of Tientsin was interrupted.", "Admiral Sir Edward Seymour, then the Commander-in-Chief of the China Station, sent reinforcements to Peking, but they were insufficient to defend the Legation.", "An attempt was therefore made to send more troops from Tientsin, where British ships had been joined by French, German, Russian, American, Austrian, Italian and Japanese.", "The international naval brigade force of naval marines placed itself under the senior officer present, which was Seymour.", "After an urgent call for help from the Legation, Seymour set out on 10 June 1900 with 2,000 troops to attempt to break through to Peking in the Seymour Expedition.", "The force got about half way before abandoning the attempt because the railway line had been torn up.", "By now rebels had begun destroying the track behind the force, cutting it off from Tientsin.Admiral Seymour returning to Tientsin with wounded menOn 11 June 1900, Beatty and 150 men from HMS ''Barfleur'' landed as part of a force of 2,400 defending Tientsin from 15,000 Chinese troops plus Boxers.", "On 16 June 1900 the Taku forts were bombarded and captured to ensure ships could still reach the port.", "Fierce fighting broke out throughout the foreign areas and railway station, and Beatty was injured.", "He later took part in the successful relief of the naval brigade and was promoted to captain on 8 November 1900.Beatty returned to Britain, where he required an operation to restore proper use of his left arm." ], [ "Marriage", "Beatty had returned from leave after the Sudan campaign, but finding life in Ireland at the family home not to his taste, stayed instead with his brother at Newmarket, Suffolk.", "The location allowed him good hunting, and access to aristocratic houses where his recent heroic reputation from the campaign made him an honoured guest.", "Out hunting one day he chanced to meet Ethel Tree, daughter of Chicago department store founder Marshall Field.", "Beatty was immediately taken with her, for her good looks and her ability to hunt.", "The immediate difficulty with the match was that Ethel was married already to Arthur Tree, with a son, Ronald Tree.After the Boxer Campaign, the couple had at first exchanged letters, which Beatty signed 'Jack', as Ethel was still a married woman and discretion was advised.", "Ethel became involved with another man and the exchange of letters ceased but on Beatty's return she sent him a telegram and letter inviting him to resume their friendship.", "Beatty did not respond until after surgery on his arm in September 1900 when he wrote, \"I landed from China with my heart full of rage, and swore I did not care if I ever saw you again, or if I were killed or not.", "And now I have arrived with the firm determination not to see you at all in my own mind...", "Unfortunately I shall go on loving you to the bitter end... To me always a Queen, if not always mine, Good-bye.", "\"Despite this estrangement, the couple again met foxhunting and resumed a discreet relationship.", "Marshall Field was at first unimpressed by the impecunious Beatty as a future son-in-law, but was persuaded by his heroic reputation, impressive record of promotion and future prospects.", "There was the possibility that Field might revoke the settlement he had made on his daughter at the time of her first marriage and the new couple would have no means of support.", "Beatty's father was also unhappy about the match, fearing a repeat of the difficulties he had faced with his own relationship with a married woman, but with the added risk of publicity because both Beatty and Ethel were famous and the risk that Beatty's illegitimacy might be exposed.", "Beatty went so far as to consult a fortune teller, Mrs. Roberts, who predicted a fine outcome to the match.", "Ethel wrote to Arthur, telling him that it was her firm intention never to live with him again as his wife, though not naming any particular person or reason.", "Arthur agreed to co-operate, and filed for divorce in America on the grounds of desertion, which was granted 9 May 1901.Beatty and Ethel married on 22 May 1901 at the registry office, St. George's, Hanover Square, London with no family attending.", "Although Arthur Tree was himself from a wealthy American family, he now had to adjust to reduced circumstances without Ethel's support.", "He elected to remain in Britain and their son Ronald remained with him.", "Ronald and his mother were never reconciled from his perception that she had deserted his father, but he visited in later life and became friendly with Beatty.", "Ronald later became a member of parliament and, during the Second World War became a link between the British and United States governments, lending his country house, Ditchley Park near Oxford, to Winston Churchill for weekend visits when the official residences were considered unsafe.", "Beatty and Ethel set up home at Hanover Lodge in Regent's Park, London.The couple had two sons, David Field Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty (1905–1972) born at the Capua Palace in Malta, and the Hon.", "Peter Randolph Louis Beatty (1910–1949).", "His marriage to a very wealthy heiress allowed Beatty an independence that most other officers lacked.", "She is reputed to have commented after he was threatened with disciplinary action following the straining of his ship's engines, \"What?", "Court-martial my David?", "I'll buy them a new ship.\"" ], [ "Advancement", "In May 1902 Beatty was passed fit for sea duty and was appointed captain of the cruiser on 2 June, spending two months in exercises with the Channel Fleet under Admiral Sir Arthur Wilson before joining the Mediterranean Fleet.", "Beatty worked hard to raise efficiency so that she was highly rated in gunnery and other competitions by the time he left the ship 19 December 1902.Ethel decided not to be left behind so rented the Capua Palace on Malta, home port of the Mediterranean Fleet, where she became part of the island's high society.Beatty took command of the cruiser in the Mediterranean Fleet in November 1903 and then commanded the cruiser in the Mediterranean Fleet from October 1904.He then became the naval advisor to the Army Council in 1906 and, after having been appointed a naval Aide-de-Camp to the King on 5 November 1908, he became captain of the battleship in the Atlantic Fleet in December 1908.At the request of Alfred Winsloe, the Fourth Sea Lord, he was promoted to rear-admiral on 1 January 1910 by a special order in council since he had not completed the requisite time as a captain.", "He was offered the post of second-in-command of the Atlantic Fleet, but declined it and asked for one in the Home Fleet.", "As the Atlantic Fleet post was a major command, the Admiralty were very unimpressed and his attitude nearly ruined his career.", "Beatty, as a rapidly promoted war hero, with no financial worries and with a degree of support in Royal circles, felt more confident than most naval officers in standing firm on requesting a posting nearer home.", "He was approaching two years on half pay (which would trigger automatic retirement from the navy) when on 8 January 1912 his career was saved by the new First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill.", "Churchill had met Beatty when Beatty was commander of a gunboat on the Nile supporting the army at the Battle of Omdurman, in which Churchill took part as a cavalry officer.", "A \"probably apocryphal\" story relates that as Beatty walked into Churchill's office at the Admiralty, Churchill looked him over and said, \"You seem very young to be an Admiral.\"", "Unfazed, Beatty replied, \"And you seem very young to be First Lord.\"", "Churchill – who was himself only thirty-eight years old in 1912 – took to him immediately and he was appointed Naval Secretary., flagship of the battlecruiser squadronBeatty became Rear-Admiral Commanding the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron on 1 March 1913.Beatty was late taking up his new post, choosing not to cut short a holiday in Monte Carlo.", "On his eventual arrival, he set about drafting standing orders regarding how the squadron was to operate.", "He noted, \"Captains...to be successful must possess, in a marked degree, initiative, resource, determination, and no fear of accepting responsibility\".", "He went on \"...as a rule instructions will be of a very general character so as to avoid interfering with the judgement and initiative of captains...The admiral will rely on captains to use all the information at their disposal to grasp the situation quickly and anticipate his wishes, using their own discretion as to how to act in unforeseen circumstances...\" The approach outlined by Beatty contradicted the views of many within the navy, who felt that ships should always be closely controlled by their commanding admiral, and harked back to reforms attempted by Admiral George Tryon.", "It is argued that Tryon had attempted to introduce greater independence and initiative amongst his captains, which he believed would be essential in the confusion of a real war situation, but had ironically been killed in an accident caused by captains rigorously obeying incorrect but precise orders issued by Tryon himself.Beatty chose Lieutenant Ralph Seymour as his flag lieutenant, despite Seymour being unknown to him.", "Seymour had aristocratic connections, which may have appealed to Beatty since he sought connections in society, but it was also the case that Seymour's sister was a longstanding close friend of Churchill's wife.", "Appointments by influence were common in the navy at this time, but the significance of Beatty's choice lay in Seymour's relative inexperience as a signals officer, which later resulted in difficulties in battle." ], [ "First World War", "David Beatty in 1917, by John LaveryOn the eve of the First World War in 1914, Beatty was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and promoted to acting vice-admiral in February 1915 and given command of the Battle Cruiser Fleet a month later.", "He was confirmed in the rank of vice-admiral on 9 August 1915.He led the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron at the actions at Heligoland Bight (1914), Dogger Bank (1915) and Jutland (1916).Jutland proved to be decisive in Beatty's career, despite the loss of two of his battlecruisers.", "Beatty is reported to have remarked (to his Flag Captain, Ernle Chatfield, later First Sea Lord in the early 1930s), \"there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today,\" after two of them had exploded within half an hour during the battle.", "In any case Beatty's actions succeeded in drawing the German High Seas Fleet into action against the British Grand Fleet.Beatty succeeded Admiral John Jellicoe as commander-in-chief of the Grand Fleet and received promotion to the acting rank of admiral in December 1916.With his dashing style, he was the antithesis of his predecessor.", "Beatty's marriage was failing disastrously at the time, and the result was to be a decade-long love affair between Beatty and Eugénie Godfrey-Faussett, wife of Captain Bryan Godfrey-Faussett.", "Under Beatty's command the Grand Fleet maintained its dominance of the North Sea until the end of the War.Beatty escorted the German High Seas Fleet to internment at Scapa Flow in November 1918 giving the order from his flagship that \"the German Flag will be hauled down at sunset and will not be raised again without permission\".", "This was not a lawful order, as the fleet remained the property of the German Government having been interned rather than having surrendered, but nevertheless Beatty enforced it." ], [ "First Sea Lord", "Portrait of Beatty by William OrpenAdmiral of the Fleet David Beatty in Paris, with French General Pierre BerdoulatBeatty was promoted to substantive full admiral on 1 January 1919 and to Admiral of the Fleet on 1 May 1919.He was created 1st Earl Beatty, Viscount Borodale and Baron Beatty of the North Sea and Brooksby on 18 October 1919.He became First Sea Lord on 1 November 1919.In this capacity he was involved in negotiating the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 in which it was agreed that the United States, Britain and Japan should set their navies in a ratio of 5:5:3, with France and Italy maintaining smaller fleets.During the First Labour Government of 1924, with Japan increasingly hostile to the UK, Beatty lobbied the Clynes Committee for construction of the Singapore Naval Base to continue.", "Beatty wrote out, but did not send, a threat of resignation.", "The government were trying to cut back on the numbers of cruisers constructed; the other Sea Lords attributed the building of the ''Kent'' class to Beatty's lobbying, but government desire to alleviate shipyard unemployment was probably a more important factor.Despite further rumours that he would resign, Beatty remained in office when the Conservatives took power in the autumn of 1924.Supported by the First Lord of the Admiralty William Bridgeman, he clashed with the new Chancellor of the Exchequer, Winston Churchill, once again over the number of cruisers required by the Royal Navy.", "At this stage of his career Churchill was opposed to what he saw as excessive defence spending.", "This may seem odd in light of his previous and subsequent reputation, but in the 1920s no major war seemed to be on the horizon.", "Beatty also at this time pressed hard for the return of responsibility for naval aviation from the newly formed Royal Air Force to the Royal Navy.In 1926 Beatty was considered for the post of Governor General of Canada but was rejected by the Colonial Secretary Leo Amery as he had \"no manners and an impossible American wife\".By the time of his retirement from the Royal Navy in July 1927 a great deal of time was being spent preparing for the Coolidge Conference in Geneva, although Beatty did not himself attend as he had to remain in London to supervise the deployment of naval and marine forces against nationalist unrest in China and Egypt.", "On his last day in office (30 July) he attended a Cabinet at which Bridgeman reported the breakdown of the Geneva Conference as the Americans refused to accept any gun smaller than 8-inch for their cruisers, and after leaving office he congratulated Bridgeman that the Americans had not been able to achieve \"command of the sea at any cost\".", "Beatty was appointed a member of the Privy Council on 25 July 1927.Stephen Roskill wrote that whilst Beatty and his disciple Chatfield deserve some praise for the Royal Navy's comparative readiness in 1939, his main achievement was to maintain the morale of the Navy at a time of serious defence cuts, and that without his strong leadership the Royal Navy might have suffered more events like the Invergordon Mutiny of 1931." ], [ "Retirement and death", "Beatty spent much of his life (when not at sea) in Leicestershire, and lived at Brooksby Hall and Dingley Hall.", "In July 1930 he denounced the London Naval Treaty in the House of Lords as \"a great and deplorable blunder to which we are about to be committed by signing away the sea power by which the British Empire came into being\".", "Beatty also claimed: \"If any sane man erects an edifice, or has great possessions, he protects them by insurance.", "The Navy is the insurance company of the economic unity of the Empire.", "Under the Naval Treaty of London the Navy will be totally and entirely inadequate to provide that insurance\".Beatty's old commander Admiral John Jellicoe died on 19 November 1935.Already suffering from heart failure, and sick with influenza, Beatty defied doctors' orders and left his bed to act as a pallbearer, saying, \"What will the Navy say if I fail to attend Jellicoe's funeral?\"", "He was so obviously ill that, as the funeral procession passed up Fleet Street, a bystander sent a glass of brandy out to him.", "He also insisted on attending the funeral of King George V in January 1936.These acts hastened his own death.Beatty died at around 1 am on 12 March 1936.Bust of Beatty by William McMillan in Trafalgar Square, London.", "The two fountains were redesigned as memorials to Beatty and JellicoeAt Beatty's funeral his coffin was draped in the Union Flag flown by his flagship in 1919.The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Lang, said \"In him something of the spirit of Nelson seemed to have come back\".", "The Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, called in the House of Commons for a public memorial to Beatty to be erected, but no action was taken until after the Second World War, when busts of Beatty and Jellicoe were unveiled in Trafalgar Square on 21 October (Trafalgar Day) 1948.Beatty had requested in his will that he would like to be buried next to his wife Ethel at Dingley: however he was actually buried at St Paul's Cathedral and therefore the double grave at Dingley Church contains only his wife's body." ], [ "Assessment", "The outcome of the Battle of Jutland was inconclusive, leading to controversy and a search for someone to blame, especially since the British lost more ships.", "Beatty was particularly unhappy with the official account of the battle and other historians took sides in support of him or Jellicoe.", "Beatty did not publish his analysis of the battle, while Jellicoe wrote two memoirs.A number of serious errors have been identified in Beatty's handling of the Battle Cruiser Fleet at the Battle of Jutland:*He failed to engage the German battlecruisers (the I Scouting Group) with all his ships, thus throwing away a two-to-one numerical superiority and instead fighting six-to-five.", "Beatty was given command of the 5th Battle Squadron to replace a squadron of battlecruisers away for training.", "These were four of the most powerful ships in the world, but he positioned them so far away from his six battlecruisers that they were unable to take part in most of the engagement with Admiral Hipper's squadron of five battlecruisers.", "*Beatty did not take advantage of the time available to him between sighting the enemy and the start of fighting to position his battlecruisers to most effectively attack the enemy.", "At the point the German ships opened fire with accurately determined ranges for their guns, Beatty's ships were still manoeuvring, some could not see the enemy because of their own smoke, and hardly any had the opportunity of a period of steady course as they approached to properly determine target range.", "As a result, the German ships had a significant advantage in early hits, with obvious benefit.", "During this time he also lost the potential advantage of the larger guns on his ships: they could have commenced firing at a longer range than the German ships.", "*He did not ensure that signals sent to his ships were handled properly and received by the intended ships.", "Lost signals added to the confusion and lost opportunities during the battle.", "This issue had already arisen in previous battles, where the same signals officer, Ralph Seymour, had been involved, but no changes had been made.", "Although Beatty was supposed to act as a fast armoured scout and report to Jellicoe the exact position of the German ships he encountered, or to keep in contact with the German fleet while he retreated to the main British Grand Fleet, he failed to do so.", "This information was important to Jellicoe to know how best to position the main fleet to make the most of its eventual engagement with the German High Seas Fleet.", "Despite this, Jellicoe succeeded in positioning his ships to good advantage, relying on other closer cruisers for final knowledge of the German's position, but necessitating last-minute decisions.", "*Additionally, the gunnery of Beatty's ships was generally poor compared to the rest of the fleet.", "This was partly a consequence of his ships being stationed at Rosyth, rather than Scapa Flow with the main fleet, since local facilities at Rosyth were limited, but this was a problem identified months before Jutland which Beatty had failed to correct.After the war a report of the battle was prepared by the Admiralty under First Sea Lord Rosslyn Wemyss.", "Before the report was published, Beatty was himself appointed First Sea Lord, and immediately requested amendments to the report.", "When the authors refused to comply, he ordered it to be destroyed and instead had prepared an alternative report, which proved highly critical of Jellicoe.", "Considerable argument broke out as a result, with significant numbers of servicemen disputing the published version, including Admiral Reginald Bacon, who wrote his own book about the battle, criticising the version sponsored by Beatty and highly critical of Beatty's own part in the battle.Besides actively encouraging the publication of books and articles designed to praise his role at the Battle of Jutland and denigrate Jellicoe's, after his retirement Beatty assisted with the preparation of a 5,200 line poem \"The Epic of Jutland\" by Shane Leslie." ], [ "Honours and awards", "(ribbon bar, as it would look today)100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px100px===British===*Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO)-17 November 1896*Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB)-31 May 1916 (KCB: 19 June 1914; CB: 19 June 1911)*Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)-25 June 1917 (KCVO: 17 June 1916 Member Fourth Class (present-day Lieutenant)(MVO): 28 April 1905)*Member of the Order of Merit (OM)-3 June 1919*Earl Beatty, Viscount Borodale of Wexford in the County of Wexford, Baron Beatty of the North Sea and of Brooksby in the County of Leicester-18 October 1919Beatty was granted the Freedom of the City of London on 16 June 1919 at the same ceremony as Lord Haig.", "In June 1920, the Great Central Railway gave the name ''Earl Beatty'' to one of their newly built 4-6-0 express passenger locomotives, no.", "1164 of class 9P (LNER class B3).", "It carried the name until withdrawal in September 1947.In 1925, he became the President of the Society for Nautical Research.===Foreign===*Order of Majid, 4th Class (''Nishan-i-Majidieh'') of the Ottoman Empire-3 October 1898*Order of St George, Fourth Class of the Russian Empire-25 August 1916*Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy of the Kingdom of Italy-11 August 1917*Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun of the Empire of Japan-29 August 1917*Grand Cross of the Legion d'Honneur of France-23 May 1919 (Grand Officer-15 September 1916)*Croix de Guerre of France-15 February 1919*Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania of the Kingdom of Romania-17 March 1919*Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer of the Kingdom of Greece-21 June 1919*Distinguished Service Medal (United States)-16 September 1919*Grand Cordon with Brilliants of the Order of the Precious Brilliant Golden Grain of the Republic of China – 22 January 1920*Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers of the Empire of Japan – 20 January 1922===Namesakes===*Admiral Beatty Avenue in Mount Roskill, Auckland, was named as a tribute to Beatty in the late 1920s.", "*Beatty Secondary School (Singapore), was named after him in 1953.===Arms===" ], [ "Quotations" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*******" ], [ "Further reading", "*******" ], [ "External links", "***** Portrait of Admiral Sir David Beatty by American artist Cecilia Beaux.", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dictum of Kenilworth" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Dictum of Kenilworth''', issued on 31 October 1266, was a pronouncement designed to reconcile the rebels of the Second Barons' War with the royal government of England.", "After the baronial victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, Simon de Montfort took control of royal government, but at the Battle of Evesham the next year Montfort was killed, and King Henry III restored to power.", "A group of rebels held out in the stronghold of Kenilworth Castle, however, and their resistance proved difficult to crush.A siege of the castle was started, but through papal intervention King Henry later entered on a more conciliatory path.", "A commission was appointed to draw up an arrangement that would be acceptable to both sides.", "The resulting Dictum of Kenilworth offered the rebels the right to buy back forfeited estates, at prices depending on their level of involvement in the rebellion.", "After initial resistance, the terms were eventually accepted.", "By the summer of 1267, the country was pacified, and this spirit of reconciliation would last until the 1290s.", "The Dictum of Kenilworth was later incorporated into the Statute of Marlborough." ], [ "Background", "At the Battle of Lewes in 1264, the rebellious barons, led by Simon de Montfort, had defeated the royal army and taken King Henry III captive.", "For the next year, the reins of government were in Montfort's hands, but his support soon began to crumble.", "On 4 August 1265, Montfort faced an army led by Prince Edward (later King Edward I) and the powerful Earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the royalist side, at the Battle of Evesham.", "The battle resulted in a complete royal victory; Montfort was killed, and King Henry III was restored to full power.Part of the rebellious forces held out, however, and their stronghold was the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle.", "In the summer of 1266, a siege of the castle was initiated, but the effort proved futile.", "There were rumours that Montfort's son Simon the Younger was planning an invasion of England from Normandy, and this was the hope that the rebels hung on to.", "It was in this situation that the papal legate Ottobuono Fieschi exerted his influence, to make the king pursue a more conciliatory policy.", "In August, the king summoned a parliament at Kenilworth, where the siege was ongoing.", "He commissioned a number of earls, barons and bishops to draft a treaty of reconciliation." ], [ "The Dictum of Kenilworth", "The commission was created by parliament appointing three bishops and three barons, who then selected one more bishop, two earls, and three more barons.The final committee consisted of the bishops of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Worcester and St. David's, the earls of Gloucester and Hereford, and six barons (Philip Basset, John Balliol, Robert Walerand, Alan la Zouche, Roger de Somery and Warin Basingbourne).", "This committee was given until All Saints Day (1 November) to come up with provisions for a settlement.", "The result, known as the Dictum of Kenilworth, was made public on 31 October 1266.The primary point of the Dictum was the re-establishment of royal authority.", "The Provisions of Oxford, that had been forced on the king were repudiated, and it was made clear that the appointment of ministers was entirely a royal prerogative.", "King Henry in turn reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest.", "At the same time, Henry was faced with the increasing veneration of the fallen Simon de Montfort, whom some were already starting to consider a martyr and a possible saint.The rebels had previously been completely disinherited, and their land taken into the king's hands.", "The Dictum instead extended a pardon, and restored land to their previous owners, contingent on payment of certain penalties that were proportional to the level of involvement in the rebellion.", "It was traditional to value land at ten times its annual yield, and most of the rebels were subsequently fined at half of this amount: five times the annual yield of their lands.Robert Ferrers, Earl of Derby, was singled out in particular for his central involvement in the rebellion, and for him the multiple was seven rather than five.", "The same was the case for Henry de Hastings, who was the commander of Kenilworth Castle.", "Those who had not taken part in the fighting themselves, but had incited others to rise up against the king, were fined at two years' value, while those who had been compelled to fight, or played only a minor part, had to pay one year's value of their land.", "The proceedings from the fines were awarded to royal supporters, some of whom had already been awarded parts of the rebels' land, and now had to give it back." ], [ "Aftermath", "Hostilities did not end with the publication of the Dictum.", "The garrison at Kenilworth refused to accept the terms given, and held out until 14 December, when deprivation forced them to surrender.", "In April 1267, the earl of Gloucesterwho had been central both to the royal victory at Evesham and to the drafting of the Dictumturned against the king.", "He occupied the city of London, and set himself up as the champion of the disinherited.", "After negotiations involving both Edward and Ottobuono, Gloucester relented, and by June a settlement was reached.", "Gloucester had forced a change to the conditions of the Dictum, whereby the disinherited were allowed to recover their lands before they had paid their fines rather than after; an arrangement that made repayment much easier.", "In the summer of that year, Prince Edward moved at the Isle of Ely, where the last of the rebels still held out, and forced them into submission under terms favourable to the rebels.In November 1267, parliament met at Marlborough.", "Here an important provision was issued that would become known to history as the Statute of Marlborough.", "This statute incorporated the clauses of the Dictum of Kenilworth that dealt with the restoration of royal power, and reconciliation between the loyalists and the rebels.", "The Statute of Marlborough became a basis for royal government, and the relationship between the king and his subjects, and as such the Dictum lived on in English constitutional history.The spirit of peace and reconciliation established by the Dictum of Kenilworth lasted for the remainder of Henry III's reign and into the 1290s.", "In 1270, Prince Edward left the country to go on crusade in the Holy Land.", "When his father died in 1272, Edward felt in a safe enough position to wait until 1274 before returning home to claim the throne." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*Maddicott, J. R. (1994), '' Simon de Montfort'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "*Powicke, F. M. (1947), ''King Henry III and the Lord Edward: The Community of the Realm in the Thirteenth Century'', Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "*Powicke, F. M. (1953), ''The Thirteenth Century: 1216-1307'', Oxford: Clarendon.", ".", "*Prestwich, Michael (1988), '' Edward I'', English Monarchs series, London: Methuen London.", ".", "*Prestwich, Michael (2005), '' Plantagenet England: 1225–1360'', Oxford: Oxford University Press (pub.", "28 July 2005).", ".", "* *Rothwell, H.", "(ed.)", "(1975), ''English Historical Documents III, 1189–1327'', London, Eyre & Spottiswoode.", "." ], [ "Further reading", "*Altschul, M. (1965), ''A Baronial Family in Medieval England: The Clares, 1217-1314'', Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press.", "*Brand, P.A.", "(2003), ''Kings, Barons and Justices: The Making and Enforcement of Legislation in Thirteenth-Century England'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "*Carpenter, D.A.", "(1996), ''The Reign of Henry III'', London: Hambledon.", ".", "*Denholm-Young, N. (1947), ''Richard of Cornwall'', Oxford: Blackwell.", "*Jacob, E.F. (1925), ''Studies in the Period of Baronial Reform and Rebellion, 1258-1267'', Oxford, Clarendon Press.", "*Knowles, C.H.", "(1982), \"The resettlement of England after the Barons' War\", ''Transactions of the Royal Historical Society'', 5th ser.", "'''32'''.", "*Knowles, C.H.", "(1986), \"Provision for the families of the Montfortians disinherited after the Battle of Evesham\", in P.R.", "Coss and S.D.", "Lloyd (eds.)", "''Thirteenth Century England I'', Woodbridge: Boydell.", "*Lewis, A.", "(1939), \"Roger Leyburn and the Pacification of England, 1265-7\", ''English Historical Review'', '''54'''.", "*Lloyd, T.H.", "(1986), \"Gilbert de Clare, Richard of Cornwall and the Lord Edward's Crusade\", ''Nottingham Medieval Studies'', '''31'''.", "*Maddicott, J.R. (1986), \"Edward I and the lessons of baronial reform: local government, 1258-80\", in P.R.", "Coss and S.D.", "Lloyd (eds.)", "''Thirteenth Century England I'', Woodbridge: Boydell.", "*Treharne, R.F.", "(1932), ''The Baronial Plan of Reform'', Manchester: Manchester University Press." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "London Docklands" ], [ "Introduction", "Modern Docklands, showing Canary WharfKing George V Dock had not yet been built.The West India Docks and the Millwall Dock on a map of the Isle of Dogs in 1899A 2009 photo showing Canary Wharf with Millwall Dock on the Isle of DogsO2 and Canary Wharf from the Royal Victoria Dock'''London Docklands''' is the riverfront and former docks in London.", "It is located in inner east and southeast London, in the boroughs of Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Lewisham, Newham and Greenwich.", "The docks were formerly part of the Port of London, at one time the world's largest port.", "After the docks closed, the area had become derelict and poverty-ridden by the 1980s.", "The Docklands' regeneration began later that decade; it has been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use.", "The name \"London Docklands\" was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in 1971 and has since been almost universally adopted.", "The redevelopment created wealth, but also led to some conflict between the new and old communities in the area." ], [ "Establishment", "In Roman and medieval times, ships arriving in the River Thames tended to dock at small quays in the present-day City of London or Southwark, an area known as the Pool of London.", "However, these gave no protection against the elements, were vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside.", "The Howland Great Dock in Rotherhithe (built in 1696, and later to form the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels.", "It was a major commercial success, and provided for two phases of expansion during the Georgian and Victorian eras.The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened in 1802), followed by the London (1805), the East India (also 1805), the Surrey (1807), the Regent's Canal Dock (1820), St Katharine (1828) and the West India South (1829).", "The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria (1855), Millwall (1868) and Royal Albert (1880).", "The King George V Dock (1921) was a late addition." ], [ "Development", "Three principal kinds of docks existed.", "Wet docks were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded.", "Dry docks, which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing.", "Ships were built at dockyards along the riverside.", "In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points).", "The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce.", "The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on.The docks required an army of workers, chiefly lightermen (who carried loads between ships and quays aboard small barges called lighters) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore.", "Some of the workers were highly skilled: the lightermen had their own livery company or guild, while the deal porters (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills.", "Most were unskilled and worked as casual labourers.", "They assembled at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, where they were selected more or less at random by foremen.", "For these workers, it was effectively a lottery whether they would get work on any particular day.", "This arrangement continued until as late as 1965, although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the National Dock Labour Scheme in 1947.The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and lightly populated.", "With the establishment of the docks, the dock workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang.", "Due to poor communications with other parts of London, they tended to develop in some isolation.", "Road access to the Isle of Dogs, for example, was only via two swing bridges.", "Local sentiment there was so strong that Ted Johns, a local community campaigner, and his supporters, in protest at the lack of social provision from the state, unilaterally declared independence for the area, set up a so-called \"Island Council\" with Johns himself as its elected leader, and blocked off the two access roads." ], [ "20th century", "Museum of London Docklands, near Canary WharfThe docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private companies.", "From 1909, they were managed by the Port of London Authority (PLA) which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve labour relations.", "The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks.Heinkel He 111 bomber over the Surrey docks and Wapping in the East End of London on 7 September 1940German bombing during the Second World War caused massive damage to the docks, with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night.", "Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the 1950s.", "The end came suddenly, between approximately 1960 and 1970, when the shipping industry adopted the newly invented container system of cargo transportation.", "London's docks were unable to accommodate the much larger vessels needed by containerization, and the shipping industry moved to deep-water ports such as Tilbury and Felixstowe.", "Between 1960 and 1980, all of London's docks were closed, leaving around eight square miles (21 km2) of derelict land in East London." ], [ "Redevelopment", "Canary Wharf at sunsetEfforts to redevelop the docks began almost as soon as they were closed, although it took a decade for most plans to move beyond the drawing board and another decade for redevelopment to take full effect.", "The situation was greatly complicated by the large number of landowners involved: the PLA, the Greater London Council (GLC), the British Gas Corporation, five borough councils, British Rail and the Central Electricity Generating Board.The Docklands area as administered by LDDC.To address this problem, in 1981 the Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, formed the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) to redevelop the area.", "This was a statutory body appointed and funded by central government (a quango), with wide powers to acquire and dispose of land in the Docklands.", "It also served as the development planning authority for the area.Another important government intervention was the designation in 1982 of an enterprise zone, an area in which businesses were exempt from property taxes and had other incentives, including simplified planning and capital allowances.", "This made investing in the Docklands a significantly more attractive proposition and was instrumental in starting a property boom in the area.The LDDC was controversial; it was accused of favouring elitist luxury developments rather than affordable housing, and it was unpopular with the local communities, who felt that their needs were not being addressed.", "Nonetheless, the LDDC was central to a remarkable transformation in the area, although how far it was in control of events is debatable.", "It was wound up in 1998 when control of the Docklands area was handed back to the respective local authorities.The massive development programme managed by the LDDC during the 1980s and 1990s saw a huge area of the Docklands converted into a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial space.", "The clearest symbol of the whole effort was the ambitious Canary Wharf project that constructed Britain's tallest building at the time and established a second business district (CBD) in London.", "However, there is no evidence that the LDDC foresaw this scale of development; nearby Heron Quays had already been developed as low-density offices when Canary Wharf was proposed, and similar development was already underway on Canary Wharf itself, Limehouse Studios being the most famous occupant.Canary Wharf was far from trouble-free; the property slump of the early 1990s halted further development for several years.", "Developers found themselves, for a time, saddled with property that they were unable to sell or let." ], [ "Transport", "The Docklands historically had poor transport connections.", "This was addressed by the LDDC with the construction of the Docklands Light Railway (DLR), which connected the Docklands with the city.", "According to Transport for London, the owner of the project, it was a remarkably inexpensive development, costing only £77 million in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length.", "The LDDC originally requested a full London Underground line, but the Government refused to fund it.The LDDC also built the Limehouse Link tunnel, a cut and cover road tunnel linking the Isle of Dogs to The Highway (the A1203 road) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built.The LDDC also contributed to the development of London City Airport (IATA airport code LCY), opened in October 1987 on the spine of the Royal Docks.The London Underground's Jubilee line was extended eastwards in 1999; it now serves Rotherhithe/Surrey Quays at Canada Water station, the Isle of Dogs at Canary Wharf tube station, Greenwich at North Greenwich tube station and the nearby Royal Docks at Canning Town station.", "The DLR was extended in 1994 to serve much of the Royal Docks area when the Beckton branch was opened.", "The Isle of Dogs branch was extended further south, and in 1999 it began serving Greenwich town centre—including the Cutty Sark museum—Deptford and finally Lewisham.", "In 2005, a new branch of the DLR opened from Canning Town to serve what used to be the eastern terminus of the North London Line, including a station at London City Airport.", "It was then further extended to Woolwich Arsenal in 2009.===Future developments===Further development projects are being proposed and put into practice within the London Dockland area, such as:* Extensions of the DLR, possibly to Dagenham.", "* Further development of Canada Water.", "* Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and Wood Wharf, east of Canary Wharf.", "* New skyscrapers to be built at Canary Wharf, including the Riverside South towers, the Heron Quays West double-skyscraper development and the North Quay project, consisting of three towers.In the early 21st century, redevelopment is spreading into the more suburban parts of east and southeast London, and into the parts of the counties of Kent and Essex that abut the Thames Estuary.", "See Thames Gateway and Lower Lea Valley for further information on this trend.===Docklands series buses=======History====The numbers of several London Buses routes are prefixed ''D'' for Docklands; all run on the north bank of the River Thames as part of the London bus network, and act as feeder buses to the DLR.", "The ''D'' network was developed in the early stages of Docklands redevelopment; it was originally much larger, but as transport rapidly improved across east London, the need for the ''D'' routes reduced.", "Today only four remain, running primarily in Tower Hamlets and briefly into Newham and Hackney.", "Stagecoach London operate routes D6, D7 and D8, and Blue Triangle operate route D3." ], [ "21st century", "The population of the Docklands has more than doubled during the last 30 years, and the area has become a major business centre.", "Canary Wharf has emerged as one of Europe's biggest clusters of skyscrapers and a major extension to the financial services district of the City of London.Although most of the old wharfs and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats.", "Many of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres; a major exception is the Surrey Commercial Docks, which are now largely filled in.", "Although large ships can—and occasionally still do—visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved downriver further east.The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in other run-down surrounding areas.", "Greenwich and Deptford are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters.The Docklands' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects.", "The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out.", "It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates.The Docklands' status as a symbol of Margaret Thatcher's Britain has also made it a target for terrorists.", "After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf in 1992, a large IRA bomb exploded at South Quay on 9 February 1996.Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150 million of damage was caused.", "This bombing ended an IRA ceasefire.", "James McArdle was sentenced to 25 years of jail time but released in 2000 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement and royal prerogative of mercy officially signed by Queen Elizabeth II.In a further sign of regeneration in the area, the Docklands now has its own symphony orchestra, Docklands Sinfonia; which was formed in January 2009 and is based at St Anne's Limehouse.===Economy===The offices of ''The Independent'' group of publications were at one time situated in the Docklands.", "In 2008, Independent News & Media announced that ''The Independent'' would be moving its offices to Northcliffe House in Kensington.London's Docklands has become one of the world's leading global internet hubs since the opening in 1990 of the carrier-neutral Telehouse campus, which hosts the vast majority of LINX's internet peering traffic, occupying over 73,000 square metres.", "In August 2016, Telehouse Europe opened the $177 million North Two data centre of 24,000 square metres that became the only UK data centre to own a 132 kV on-campus grid substation that is directly connected to the National Grid, reducing transmission losses and improving power density and service continuity." ], [ "See also", "* Burrells Wharf* Island History Trust* Port of London* Safeguarded wharf* Stepney Historical Trust* University of East London" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Kevin d'Arcy.", "''London's 2nd City: Creating Canary Wharf.''", "Rajah Books .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Docklands newspaper* History of Docklands redevelopment * London East Research Institute * Royal Docks Trust (London)* West Silvertown Online* Royal Docks Information" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diesel multiple unit" ], [ "Introduction", "JNR Class KiHa40 in use for Erimo Express service, Hokkaido, JapanAn IE 29000 Class diesel multiple unit on a western commuter service at Dublin Connolly Rail station, IrelandA British Rail Class 185 diesel hydraulic multiple unit operated by TransPennine Express at Manchester Piccadilly station, United KingdomA '''diesel multiple unit''' or '''DMU''' is a multiple-unit train powered by on-board diesel engines.", "A DMU requires no separate locomotive, as the engines are incorporated into one or more of the carriages.", "Diesel-powered single-unit railcars are also generally classed as DMUs.", "Diesel-powered units may be further classified by their transmission type: diesel–mechanical '''DMMU''', diesel–hydraulic '''DHMU''', or diesel–electric '''DEMU'''." ], [ "Design", "The diesel engine may be located above the frame in an engine bay or under the floor.", "Driving controls can be at both ends, on one end, or in a separate car." ], [ "Types by transmission", "DMUs are usually classified by the method of transmitting motive power to their wheels.===Diesel–mechanical ===In a diesel–mechanical multiple unit (DMMU), the rotating energy of the engine is transmitted via a gearbox and driveshaft directly to the wheels of the train, like a car.", "The transmissions can be shifted manually by the driver, as in the great majority of first-generation British Rail DMUs, but in most applications, gears are changed automatically.===Diesel–hydraulic===One of the underfloor diesel engines with hydraulic transmission under a car of JR Shikoku 2700 series DMUIn a diesel–hydraulic multiple unit (DHMU), a hydraulic torque converter, a type of fluid coupling, acts as the transmission medium for the motive power of the diesel engine to turn the wheels.", "Some units feature a hybrid mix of hydraulic and mechanical transmissions, usually reverting to the latter at higher operating speeds as this decreases engine RPM and noise.===Diesel–electric ===\"Power Pack\" car of Stadler FLIRT DMU with open bay of a diesel-generator.", "The Jacobs bogies under this car do not have their own traction motors, which are mounted on bogies under other cars.In a diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU), a diesel engine drives an electrical generator or an alternator which produces electrical energy.", "The generated current is then fed to electric traction motors on the wheels or bogies in the same way as a conventional diesel–electric locomotive.On some DEMUs, such as the Bombardier Voyager, each car is entirely self-contained and has its own engine, generator and electric motors.", "In other designs, such as the British Rail Class 207 or the Stadler GTW and Stadler FLIRT DMU, some cars within the consist may be entirely unpowered or only feature electric motors, obtaining electric current from other cars in the consist which have a generator and engine.With diesel–electric transmission, some DMU can be no other than an EMU without pantograph or contact shoes (for use on the former British Rail Southern Region), which \"is substituted\" by one or more on-board diesel generators; this kind of DEMU can be potentially upgraded to electro-diesel multiple unit ''EDMU'', becoming a bi-mode multiple units train (BMU), just adding one or two pantographs or contact shoes (with opportune converters, if necessary) and related modifications on the electric system." ], [ "Around the world", "===Europe======= Belgium ====NMBS/SNCB uses its NMBS/SNCB Class 41 DMUs on the few remaining unelectrified lines.", "As electrification progresses, the DMUs become less and less important.==== Croatia ====DMU 7023 at Zagreb Central StationDiesel multiple units cover large number of passenger lines in Croatia which are operated by the national passenger service operator HŽ Putnički Prijevoz.", "On Croatian Railways, DMUs have important role since they cover local, regional and distant lines all across the country.", "The country's two largest towns, Zagreb and Split, are connected with an inter-city service that is provided by DMU tilting trains \"RegioSwinger\" (Croatian series 7123) since 2004.Those trains may also cover other lines in the country depending on need and availability.Luxury DMU series 7021, built in France, started to operate for Yugoslav Railways in 1972 and after 1991 still remained in service of Croatian Railways until 2005.Units 7121 and 7122 (which came as a replacement for 7221 units), together with the newest series 7022 and 7023 built in 2010s Croatia, cover many of the country's local and regional services on unelectrified or partly electrified lines.==== Czech Republic ====ČD Class 810ČD Class 814Diesel multiple units also cover large number of passenger lines in the Czech Republic which are operated by the national operator České dráhy.", "They have important role since they cover local, regional and distant lines all across the country.", "Those trains may also cover other lines in the country depending on need and availability too.Also, the DMUs were manufactured for foreign carriers.", "The tables of cars and units are divided into vehicles operated until 1987, when the ČSD used the series designations proposed by Vojtěch Kryšpín, and vehicles created after this date, which no longer have Kryšpín's designations (with some exceptions).", "In addition, these new cars are the new vehicles are already different in both countries.====Estonia====Elron has since 2015 a Stadler FLIRT fleet, with 20 trains DEMU version.====Germany====Germany has employed DMUs for both commuter and express services for many decades.", "The SVT 877 ''Fliegender Hamburger'' DMU, introduced in 1933, made the run from Berlin to Hamburg in an astonishing 138 minutes, and its derivative SVT 137 broke the land speed record in 1936.After World War 2, the VT 11.5 DMU was the flagship of the glamorous Trans Europ Express.Since 1968, DB has designated DMUs with class numbers beginning in 6.While DB and regional transport authorities generally prefer electric power for commuter rail, many local and rural lines remain un-electrified, and DMUs are invaluable in providing services to those areas.", "DMUs in service as of 2021 include the Adtranz Class 612 tilting train (\"Regio Swinger\"), the Alstom Coradia LINT (Classes 620–623, 640 and 648), the Siemens Desiro (Class 642) and the Bombardier Talent (Class 643/644).", "From 2001 to 2016 there was even a DMU version of DB's high-speed Intercity Express, the Class 605 ICE TD.====Greece====Diakopto–Kalavryta railway====Ireland====Iarnród Éireann DMU 2751 at Limerick Colbert station, 2006In the Republic of Ireland the Córas Iompair Éireann (CIÉ), which controlled the republic's railways between 1945 and 1986, introduced DMUs in the mid-1950s and they were the first diesel trains on many main lines.====Romania====Romanian Class 77 Malaxa DMU in Câmpulung Moldovenesc in 2006DMUs are used mostly on shorter or less frequently travelled routes in remote areas.", "The national railway company CFR still uses, along with other DMU models, Class 77 and 78 DMUs, locally built by Malaxa between the 1930s and 50s and refurbished in the 70s.", "The main DMU in use is the Class 96 Siemens Desiro aka Săgeata Albastră (The Blue Arrow).", "Private operators also largely use DMU units, mainly purchased from various French and German operators.====Slovakia====ZSSK Class 813In the present, several types of DMUs operate in Slovakia.", "Was the most common type in Slovakia is a Class 812 ZSSK based on the ČD Class 810.These are used almost exclusively for hauling passenger trains on non-electrified regional lines and these trains often excel in low travel speeds.", "In the past, however, in Slovakia there were a number of express trains driven by motor coaches, which often overcame heavier trains driven by steam locomotives at cruising speed, and classic sets.", "A typical example can be, for example, the Slovenská strela motor express train led on the Bratislava-Prague route by a motor car of the same name, or the Tatran express from Bratislava to Košice.", "Representatives of high-speed motor wagons were, for example, motor wagons of the M262 or M286 series, which, however, lost their application in high-speed wagons due to the gradual electrification of main lines and were, like the current wagons currently used for passenger trains.====United Kingdom====East Midlands Trains Class 222 at London St PancrasCentral Trains Class 170 at Peterborough stationNorthern Ireland Railways C3K at Yorkgate stationThe first significant use of DMUs in the United Kingdom was by the Great Western Railway, which introduced its small but successful series of diesel–mechanical GWR railcars in 1934.The London & North Eastern Railway and London, Midland & Scottish Railway also experimented with DMUs in the 1930s, the LMS both on its own system, and on that of its Northern Irish subsidiary, but development was curtailed by World War II.After nationalisation, British Railways (BR) revived the concept in the early 1950s.", "At that time there was an urgent need to move away from expensive steam traction which led to many experimental designs using diesel propulsion and multiple units.", "The early DMUs proved successful, and under BR's 1955 Modernisation Plan the building of a large fleet was authorised.", "These BR \"First Generation\" DMUs were built between 1956 and 1963.BR required that contracts for the design and manufacture of new locomotives and rolling stock be split between numerous private firms as well as BR's own workshops, while different BR Regions laid down different specifications.", "The result was a multitude of different types, one of which was:* 'Intercity' units, which were more substantially constructed, and shared many features with contemporary hauled coaching stock.", "They were built for express services on important secondary routes on the Scottish, North Eastern and Western regions.In 1960, British Railways introduced its Blue Pullman high-speed DEMUs.These were few in number and relatively short-lived, but they paved the way for the very successful InterCity 125 or High Speed Train (HST) units, which were built between 1975 and 1982 to take over most principal express services on non-electrified routes.These trains run with a streamlined power car at each end and (typically) seven to nine intermediate trailer cars.", "Although originally classified as DEMUs, the trailer cars are very similar to loco-hauled stock, and the power cars were later reclassified as locomotives under Class 43.HSTs started being replaced in 2017, but as of October 2022 some are still in use.By the early 1980s, many of the surviving First Generation units were reaching the end of their design life, leading to spiralling maintenance costs, poor reliability and a poor public image for the railway.", "A stopgap solution was to convert some services back to locomotive haulage, as spare locomotives and hauled coaching stock were available, but this also increased operating costs.", "Commencing in the mid '80s, British Rail embarked upon its so called \"Sprinterisation\" programme, to replace most of the first generation DMUs and many locomotive-hauled trains with three new families of DMU:*Class 140–144 ''Pacer'' railbuses, ultra-low-cost diesel–mechanical units utilising four-wheeled chassis and lightweight bus bodywork, designed for provincial branch line and stopping services.", "*Sprinter a family of diesel–hydraulic DMUs.", "These fall into three sub-groups; Class 150 ''Sprinters'' (for branch line/commuter service), Class 153 / 155 / 156 ''Super Sprinters'' (for longer cross country services), and Class 158 / 159 ''Express'' units (for secondary express services);*Networker diesel–hydraulic units, of Class 165 ''Network Turbo'' (standard commuter version) and Class 166 ''Network Express'' (for longer distance commuter services).", "These took over the remaining non-electric commuter services into London.Following the impact of the privatisation of British Rail in the late 1990s, several other diesel–hydraulic DMU families have been introduced:* Class 168 ''Clubman'' and Class 170/171/172 Bombardier ''Turbostar'', a development of the earlier ''Networkers''.", "These are built by Adtranz and later Bombardier at Derby Litchurch Lane Works and are the most numerous and widespread of the post-privatisation designs.", "Purchased by Anglia Railways, Central Trains, Chiltern Railways, London Midland, London Overground Rail Operations, Midland Mainline and ScotRail.", "*Class 175 Alstom ''Coradia'' were designed by Alstom as a rival to the 170 Turbostar, but bought only by First North Western*Class 180 ''Adelante'' were an Alstom design for express services built only for First Great Western*Class 185 Siemens ''Desiro'', built by Siemens introduced in 2006 by First TransPennine Express*Class 195/196/197 CAF ''Civity'', built by CAF for Arriva Rail North, West Midlands Trains and Transport for Wales*Class 220/221/222 ''Voyagers/Meridian'' built by Bombardier in Bruges for Hull Trains, Midland Mainline and Virgin CrossCountryIn 2018, the first bi and tri-mode electro-diesel multiple units were introduced:*Class 800/802s are being built by Hitachi for Great Western Railway, Hull Trains, London North Eastern Railway and TransPennine Express*Class 755 Stadler ''FLIRT'' are to be operated by Abellio Greater Anglia*Class 769s are being converted by Brush Traction from Class 319s for Arriva Rail North, Great Western Railway and KeolisAmey Wales*Class 230s are being converted by Vivarail from London Underground D78 Stock for West Midland Trains and Transport for Wales===North America=======Canada====Bombardier Talent low-floor DMUs on the O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa, CanadaCanada generally follows similar buffer strength requirements to the US, but new services are evaluated on a case-by-case basis.", "As a result, several types of lightweight DMUs have been used:* The O-Train Trillium Line in Ottawa, Ontario uses European-standard Alstom Coradia LINT (previously Bombardier Talent) DMUs on conventional railway tracks under a specific safety agreement with Transport Canada.", "* Via Rail operates Budd Rail Diesel Cars on its Sudbury – White River train.", "* Réseau Charlevoix (Le Massif) operates a shuttle in the Charlevoix region, Québec, using ex-Deutsche Bahn DB Class 628 units.", "* Canadian National operates the small custom-built Kaoham Shuttle between Lillooet, and D'Arcy via Seton Portage, northeast of Vancouver, in a partnership with the Seton Lake Indian Band.", "* Union Pearson Express uses Nippon Sharyo DMU trains for express service between Union Station and Pearson Airport.====Costa Rica====Apollo 2400 DMU in service in Costa RicaCosta Rica has purchased several Apolo 2400 series DMU railcars from the former narrow gauge operator in Spain, which are run in commuter service.====United States====Budd Rail Diesel Car RDC-1 #407 of the Cape May Seashore Lines, New JerseyA type of diesel multiple units in the U.S. was the Budd Rail Diesel Car (RDC).", "The RDC was a single passenger car with two diesel engines and two sets of controls.In the United States, DMU systems must be FRA-compliant to be permitted on freight rail corridors.", "The Federal Railway Administration has mandated higher coupling strength requirements than European regulators, effectively prohibiting the use of lighter weight European-style inter-city rail DMUs on U.S. main line railways without timesharing with freight operations or special waivers from the FRA.", "This has greatly restricted the development of DMUs within the U.S. as no other country requires the much heavier FRA compliant vehicles, and no export market for them exists.FRA compliant Colorado Railcar DMU of WES Commuter Rail.Operations using FRA-compliant vehicles:* Since February 2009, TriMet is using FRA-compliant Colorado Railcar DMUs for its rush-hour WES Commuter Rail service, a suburb-to-suburb line between Beaverton and Wilsonville, Oregon.", "The opening of the line was delayed from fall 2008 to early 2009 due to delays in getting the vehicles.", "TriMet also has four refurbished former Alaska RR and Trinity Railway Express RDCs as backup trainsets for when one or more Colorado Railcar DMUs is out of service.", "* Sonoma–Marin Area Rail Transit, also referred to as SMART, operates Nippon Sharyo DMUs (the same as those in Toronto) on its route between Larkspur and Santa Rosa, California.", "Service commenced in 2017.Operations using non FRA-compliant vehicles:* Capital Metro uses Stadler GTW cars to operate Capital MetroRail, a commuter rail line serving the Greater Austin, Texas area.", "* In Denton County, Texas, DCTA also uses Stadler GTW cars to operate its A-train service.", "DCTA has secured from the FRA the first-ever alternative vehicle technology waiver to use these cars on active freight corridors.Stadler FLIRT owned by TEXRail in Texas * TEXRail in Tarrant County, Texas is a commuter rail line operated by Trinity Metro which uses Stadler FLIRT DMUs.", "The vehicles are FRA Alternate Compliant.", "The line has 9 stops with termini at DFW Airport and T&P Station.", "* NJ Transit operates the River Line from Camden, NJ to Trenton, NJ, every 15 minutes during peak hours and every 30 minutes at other times.", "It uses modified Stadler GTW trains of one or two cars.", "The line is classified as light rail because it utilizes imported European made DMUs that do not meet FRA crash guidelines.", "The cars may not operate with the freight rail service that shares the line, so evening operating hours are restricted to Saturday nights.", "This line currently carries over 7,500 passengers on a typical weekday, exceeding expectations.", "* NCTD operates the Sprinter line using Desiro Classic DMUs built by Siemens.", "Opened March, 2008, The line operates every half-hour daily, except limitations in the morning and at night on Saturday, Sunday and on holidays.", "The line runs from Oceanside, CA, where transfer is possible with Coaster commuter rail service to San Diego, to Escondido, CA.", "Like the NJT River Line, it is classified as light rail due to the use of European made DMUs, but does not run at a more typical light rail frequency.", "* The eBART expansion of the Bay Area Rapid Transit System implements Stadler GTW diesel multiple unit train service from Pittsburg/Bay Point station east along the Highway 4 corridor to the town of Antioch.", "Future expansions in this direction could also connect the eBART service to Oakley, Brentwood, Byron, and beyond to Tracy and Stockton.", "The DMU system was chosen as a less-expensive alternative to the existing third-rail BART design.", "Service began on 25 May 2018.", "* Arrow utilizes Stadler FLIRT trainsets along its service route in Redlands, California.Proposed operations:* The Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority approved an allocation of $250,000 for a feasibility study of DMUs for \"future transportation options for the region\" on 5 July 2006 (Ara Najarian, Metro Board Member).", "* Chicago's commuter rail line, Metra, is studying the use of DMUs on its newly proposed lines (STAR line, SES).", "They claim these DMUs will have better acceleration, be more fuel efficient, and seat more customers than the current diesel locomotive and double decker rail cars that are currently in use.", "* Seattle area – The Central Puget Sound's regional transit agency Sound Transit, along with the Puget Sound Regional Council evaluated the feasibility of both DMU and diesel locomotive technology for operation in the Eastside BNSF Corridor in response to a state legislative request.", "The Eastside BNSF corridor runs from the City of Snohomish in the north to Renton in the south of the metro area.", "Sound Transit has no plans to operate passenger rail service in the eastside BNSF corridor, but has committed limited funds to provide capital improvements in the event another public or private operator proposes to operate the service.", "* Anchorage Mat-Su area – As part of a joint U.S. Forest Service (USFS) and ARRC Chugach Forest Whistle Stop project, a self-propelled rail car was purchased and delivered spring 2009.The diesel multiple unit (DMU) may be available for flexible demonstration service during winter months.", "* The Long Island Rail Road, the busiest commuter railroad in the United States, is exploring the possibility of operating DMUs on some of its lesser traveled routes in non-electrified territory (on the Montauk, Greenport, Port Jefferson, and Oyster Bay branches), where operation of its current fleet of C3 bilevel railcars pulled by DE30AC/DM30AC locomotives is uneconomical and inefficient.", "* A proposal to use DMUs on Boston's Fairmount Line was initially approved, but was canceled in 2016.", "* NJ Transit's Passaic–Bergen–Hudson Transit Project is studying the re-introduction passenger service on a portion of the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (NYSW) right-of-way in Passiac, Bergen and Hudson counties using newly built, FRA-compliant diesel multiple units.", "* Dallas Area Rapid Transit is rebuilding the Cotton Belt Rail Line as the Silver Line, which will utilize Stadler FLIRT units.===Asia/Australasia=======Australia====A V/Line VLocity operating in Victoria, AustraliaDMUs were first introduced to Australia in the late mid-20th century for use on quiet branch lines that could not justify a locomotive hauled service.", "Today, DMUs are widely used throughout Australia's southern states:* Adelaide Metro use 3000 class DMUs on their suburban network.", "* NSW TrainLink use Xplorer DMUs on services from Sydney to Canberra (ACT), Griffith, Broken Hill, Armidale and Moree.", "Endeavour DMUs are used on services to Bathurst, Moss Vale and Goulburn on the Southern Highlands Line, Kiama to Bomaderry and on the Hunter Line.", "Hunter DMUs are also used on the Hunter Line.", "* Victoria's V/Line uses Sprinter and V/Locity DMUs on all medium distance services.", "* Western Australia's Transwa operates the ''Prospector, AvonLink'' and ''Australind'' on medium and long distance country services.In Queensland, heritage DMUs are used on the ''Savannahlander'' and ''Gulflander'' tourist trains.====Bangladesh====Chinese manufactured (CNR Tangshan) DEMU was introduced in Bangladesh from 25 May 2013.DEMU is the country's first-ever commuter train service starting its journey on the Chittagong–Fouzdarhat line.", "These DEMUs also operate on the Chittagong Circular Railway and on the Bangladesh Railway's service between Dhaka and Narayanganj.A DEMU train (right) at Kamalapur railway station, Dhaka====Cambodia====Mexican manufacturer Ferrovias Del Bajio supplied in 2019, three DSUs (Diesel Single Unit) to Royal Railway in Cambodia for their airport shuttle service from Phnom Penh international airport to the city central station.", "The other two units were assigned to long-distance services from the central station to Sihanoukville and to Poipet.Ferrovias del Bajio DSU at Phom Penh Cambodia Airport====India====DMUs (DEMUs) are widely used in India.", "DEMUs in India are used in both the eight-coach format and the four-coach format.", "These trains replaced many (up to 10 car) trains with a WDM-2 or WDM-3A locomotive in the middle.", "These old trains had the loco controls duplicated in the Driving Trailer coach and all the actuation information reaching the locomotive through thin communication lines.", "This was called 'push-pull train'.", "The longest running such push-pull service operated between Diva - Bhiwandi Road and Vasai Road and was recently converted into an MEMU train service in 2018.India's first and largest DMU shed at Jalandhar, Punjab, holds more than 90 units placed in service all over Punjab.First generation DMU:Rated power was 700 HP and had three or six coaches, made first by ICF.", "Transmission was Voith-hydraulic.", "Max speed 100 km/h.Second generation DMU:Rated power is ,1400 HP and have eight coaches.", "Max speed is 105 km/h.", "Transmission is DC electric.", "Made at ICF and RCF.Third generation DMU:Rated power is 1,600 HP and have ten coaches.", "Max speed is 110 km/h.", "Transmission is AC electric.", "Made at ICF.====Indonesia====KRDI (Indonesian-built).", "KRDI Inka produced at Madiun.", "Sri Lelawangsa DMU, Medan.KRDI Solo Express, SurakartaState-owned company PT.INKA builds several type of DMU, some of which operate in urban and suburban areas:* Kualanamu Airport Rail Link * Minangkabau Airport Rail Link* Adisumarmo Airport Rail Link* Kedungsepur* Sri Lelawangsa* Prambanan Express* Kertalaya Railbus* Batara Kresna Railbus====Japan====JR Hokkaido KiHa 283 tilting DMU on Hakodate Main LineIn Japan, where gasoline-driven railbuses (on small private lines) and railmotors (Kihani 5000 of the national railways) had been built since the 1920s, the first two streamlined DMUs came in service in 1937, class Kiha 43000 (キハ43000系).The service of several hundreds (in sum even thousands) of diesel railcars and DMUs started in 1950s following the improvement of fuel supply that was critical during World War II.====Kenya====In 2021, Kenya acquired DMUs from France to operate in the Nairobi Metropolitan Area.", "These trains connect the city with settlements outside Nairobi, Jomo Kenyatta International Airport and the Nairobi Terminus.====Malaysia====The Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) has a total of 13 DMU KTM Class 61 ordered from CRRC for the West Coast Line and are assembled locally at CRRCs Batu Gajah factory from 2016 to 2020.The first scheduled service is expected from 1 September along the Gemas-Johor Bahru route, replacing old non-automotive stock.====Philippines====The Philippine National Railways (PNR) was one of the first adopters of diesel multiple unit trains in Asia.", "Initially built as gasoline-powered railmotors, the locally assembled Manila Railroad RMC class of 1929 was the first to be powered by diesel traction.", "Some units were also converted to streamliner units by 1932 for first-class services on the South Main Line between Manila and Legazpi, Albay.", "Since then, generations of DMUs were used chiefly for short-distance commuter services by the PNR in the island of Luzon.Even without active inter-city rail services in the present-day, DMUs are still used on the PNR Metro Commuter Line in Metro Manila and the Bicol Commuter service in the Bicol Region.", "Three generations of DMUs are in use: second-hand DMUs handed over by JR East such as the KiHa 35, 52 and 59 series originally built in the 1960s and acquired in the early 2010s, the Rotem DMUs of 2009 built by Korean manufacturer Hyundai Rotem, and the 8000 and 8100 classes built by Indonesian firm PT INKA.From 2022 onwards, the PNR will purchase standard gauge DMUs for its upcoming inter-city rail network in Luzon and Mindanao.", "This is compared to the 3 ft 6 in gauge of the rolling stock that is currently in active service.", "This move should allow access to better technology and increase line speeds.==== China ====CJ5 (DEMU) used by the Xi'an–Huyi railwayOn January 14, 2014, CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles announced that hybrid electric multiple units were put into production.", "At the end of 2014, the first batch of hybrid EMUs, one train each with battery-catenary power supply (EEMU) and catenary power supply-internal combustion engine (DEMU), rolled off the assembly line in Changchun.", "From 2016 to 2020, the vehicles were tested in Hohhot and Beijing Academy of Railway Sciences.In September 2022, the first CJ-5 train used by the Xi'an-Huxian Railway arrived in Xi'an.", "The No.", "0506 train, which uses an internal combustion engine and a battery hybrid, was used as a vehicle during the initial operation of the Xi'an-Huxian Railway.", "During the operation period, it will be temporarily managed by Xi'an Metro.====South Korea====Now retired Korail DHC-PP with new CI colourType of diesel Greek-German trainKorail used to operates many DMUs.", "The DHC (Diesel Hydraulic Car), which made its debut for the 1988 Seoul Olympics, was able to reach speeds up to and served Saemaul-ho trains.", "These train have retired on 2008.====Sri Lanka====DMUs were first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1940.The aim of this was connecting minor railway stations and stops on the main line where most express trains don't have a halt.====Taiwan====The DMUs are now usually used on the Taiwan Railway Administration Hualien–Taitung Line, North-Link Line, South-Link Line.", "DMUs in Taiwan are classified as Class DR.*Class DR2700 – built by Tokyu Car Corporation in 1966; was the fastest train on the West Coast line*Class DR2800 – built by Tokyu Car Corporation in 1982 and 1984*Class DR2900*Class DR3000*Class DR3100'''Thailand'''ASR (Sprinter) Class diesel train At Bangkok (Krungthep Station) ThailandThe State Railway of Thailand ASR class is a diesel multiple unit operated by the State Railway of Thailand.", "Built by British Rail Engineering Limited at Derby Litchurch Lane Works in England, it is based on the British Rail Class 158.Twenty carriages were built in 1990/91.All were painted in the same Regional Railways livery as the Class 158s.", "* Numbers 2501 - 2512 (with cockpit) 12 Unit* Numbers 2113 - 2120 (no cockpit) 8 Unit" ], [ "Manufacturers", "DMU manufacturers include:* Alstom* AnsaldoBreda, Italy* BEML, India* BHEL, India* Bombardier Transportation of Montreal, Canada* British Rail Engineering Limited, United Kingdom (1962-1980s)* British Railways, United Kingdom (1950s–1962)* Budd Company of United States* CAF* Colorado Railcar, US (Rader Railcar 1988–1997, Colorado Railcar 1997–2008, US Railcar 2009– )* CRRC, China* DMZ, Russia* EIKON International* Ferrovias Del Bajio S.A. de C.V., Mexico* Ganz-MÁVAG, Hungary* Hyundai Rotem of Seoul, South Korea* INKA, Indonesia* Integral Coach Factory, Chennai, India* Luganskteplovoz, Ukraine* Materfer, Argentina* Metrovagonmash, Russia* Niigata Transys of Tokyo, Japan* Nippon Sharyo/Sumitomo, Japan* Pojazdy Szynowe Pesa Bydgoszcz* RVR, Latvia* Siemens Mobility DMU* Stadler Rail of Bussnang, Switzerland* Torzhoksky car-building factory, Russia* TÜVASAŞ of Adapazarı, Turkey" ], [ "See also", "* Electric multiple unit* Battery electric multiple unit* Diesel locomotive" ], [ "References" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Donald A. Wollheim" ], [ "Introduction", "Future''.", "It appeared under Wollheim's \"Martin Pearson\" pseudonym and was illustrated by Hannes Bok.", "'''Donald Allen Wollheim''' (October 1, 1914 – November 2, 1990) was an American science fiction editor, publisher, writer, and fan.", "As an author, he published under his own name as well as under pseudonyms, including '''David Grinnell''', '''Martin Pearson''', and '''Darrell G. Raynor'''.", "A founding member of the Futurians, he was a leading influence on science fiction development and fandom in the 20th-century United States.", "Ursula K. Le Guin called Wollheim \"the tough, reliable editor of Ace Books, in the Late Pulpalignean Era, 1966 and '67\", which is when he published her first two novels in Ace Double editions." ], [ "Profile", "===Involvement in science fiction fandom===The 1979 first edition of ''The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction'' calls Wollheim \"one of the first and most vociferous SF fans.\"", "He published numerous fanzines and co-edited the early ''Fanciful Tales of Time and Space''.", "His importance to early fandom is chronicled in the 1974 book ''The Immortal Storm'' by Sam Moskowitz and in the 1977 book ''The Futurians'' by Damon Knight.With Frederik Pohl and John Michel, 1938Wollheim organized an event later considered the first American science fiction convention, when a group from New York met with a group from Philadelphia on October 22, 1936, in Philadelphia.", "The modern Philcon convention claims descent from this event.", "Out of this meeting, plans were formed for regional and national meetings, including the first-ever Worldcon.Wollheim was a member of the New York Science Fiction League, one of the clubs established by Hugo Gernsback to promote science fiction.", "When payment was not forthcoming for the first story he sold to Gernsback, Wollheim formed a group with several other authors, and successfully sued for payment.", "He was expelled from the Science Fiction League as \"a disruptive influence\" but was later reinstated.", "From the September 1935 issue of Gernsback's ''Wonder Stories'':In 1937 Wollheim founded the Fantasy Amateur Press Association, whose first mailing (July 1937) included this statement from him: \"There are many fans desiring to put out a voice who dare not, for fear of being obliged to keep it up, and for the worry and time taken by subscriptions and advertising.", "It is for them and for the fan who admits it is his hobby and not his business that we formed the FAPA.\"", "In 1938, with several friends, he formed the Futurians—arguably the best-known of the science fiction clubs.", "At one time or another, the membership included Isaac Asimov, Frederik Pohl, Cyril Kornbluth, James Blish, John Michel, Judith Merril, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Richard Wilson, Damon Knight, Virginia Kidd, and Larry T. Shaw.", "In 1943 Wollheim married fellow Futurian Elsie Balter (1910–1996).", "It proved to be a lasting marriage and publishing partnership.The Futurians became less fan-oriented and more professional after 1940.Its conferences and workshops focused on writing, editing, and publishing, with many of its members interested in all three.===Work as author===Wollheim's first story, \"The Man from Ariel\", was published in the January 1934 issue of ''Wonder Stories'' when he was nineteen.", "Don Wollheim and his daughter Elizabeth (1954).", "He was not paid for the story, and when he learned that other authors had not been paid either, he said so in the ''Bulletin'' of the Terrestrial Fantascience Guild.", "Publisher Hugo Gernsback eventually settled with Wollheim and the other authors out of court for $75.However, when Wollheim submitted another story (\"The Space Lens\") under the pseudonym Millard Verne Gordon, he was once again cheated by Gernsback who published it in the September 1935 issue.", "His third known story was published in ''Fanciful Tales of Time and Space'', Fall 1936, a fanzine that he edited himself.", "That year he also published and edited another short-lived fanzine, ''Phantagraph''.Wollheim's stories were published regularly from 1940; at the same time he was becoming an important editor.", "In the 1950s and 60s he wrote chiefly novels.", "He usually used pseudonyms for works aimed at grownups, and wrote children's novels under his own name.", "Notable and popular were the eight \"Mike Mars\" books for children, which explored different facets of the NASA space program.", "Also well-received were the \"Secret\" books for young readers: ''The Secret of Saturn's Rings'' (1954), ''Secret of the Martian Moons'' (1955), and ''The Secret of the Ninth Planet'' (1959).", "As Martin Pearson he published the \"Ajax Calkins\" series, which became the basis for his novel ''Destiny's Orbit'' (1962).", "A sequel, ''Destination: Saturn'' was published in 1967 in collaboration with Lin Carter.", "''The Universe Makers'' (1971) is a discussion of themes and philosophy in science fiction.One of Wollheim's short stories, \"Mimic\", was made into the film of the same name by director and co-writer Guillermo del Toro, released in 1997.His daughter Betsy declared: \"In true editorial fashion, he was honest about the quality of his own writing.", "He felt it was fair to middling at best.", "He always knew that his great talent was as an editor.", "\"===Career as editor and publisher===Robert Silverberg said that Wollheim was \"one of the most significant figures in 20th century American science fiction publishing,\" adding, \"A plausible case could be made that he was ''the'' most significant figure—responsible in large measure for the development of the science fiction paperback, the science fiction anthology, and the whole post-Tolkien boom in fantasy fiction.", "\"In late 1940, Wollheim noticed a new magazine titled ''Stirring Detective and Western Stories'' on the newsstands.", "He wrote to the publishers, Albing Publications, to see if they were interested in adding a science fiction title to their list, and he was invited to meet them.", "They did not have capital, however, and only guaranteed him a salary if the magazines were successful.", "He approached some of his fellow Futurians for free stories (some published under pseudonyms to protect their reputations with paying editors).", "It resulted in Wollheim's editing two of the earliest periodicals devoted to science fiction, the ''Cosmic Stories'' and ''Stirring Science Stories'' magazines starting in February 1941.After the magazines were cancelled later in 1941, Wollheim was able to find another publisher, Manhattan Fiction Publications, and a fourth issue of ''Stirring'' appeared, dated March 1942.Wartime constraints prevented ongoing publication, and there were no more issues of either title.Wollheim edited the first science fiction anthology to be mass-marketed, ''The Pocket Book of Science Fiction'' (1943).", "It was also the first book containing the words \"science fiction\" in the title.", "It included works by Robert A. Heinlein, Theodore Sturgeon, T. S. Stribling, Stephen Vincent Benét, Ambrose Bierce, and H. G. Wells.", "In 1945 Wollheim edited the first hardcover anthology from a major publisher and the first omnibus, ''The Viking Portable Novels of Science''.", "He also edited the first anthology of original science fiction, ''The Girl With the Hungry Eyes'' (1947), although there is evidence that this last was originally intended to be the first issue of a new magazine.Ace Double, ''The Brain Stealers/Atta'' (1954).", "''Avon Fantasy Reader'' No.", "10, edited by Wollheim.Between 1947 and 1951 he was editor at the pioneering paperback publisher Avon Books, where he made available highly affordable editions of the works of A. Merritt, H. P. Lovecraft, and C. S. Lewis' ''Silent Planet'' space trilogy, bringing these previously little known authors a wide readership.", "During this period he also edited eighteen issues of the influential ''Avon Fantasy Reader'' as well as three of the ''Avon Science Fiction Reader''.", "These periodicals contained mostly reprints and a few original stories.In 1952 Wollheim left Avon to work for A.", "A. Wyn at the Ace Magazine Company and spearheaded a new paperback book list, Ace Books.", "In 1953 he introduced science fiction to the Ace lineup, and for 20 years as editor-in-chief was responsible for their multi-genre list and, most important to him, their renowned sf list.", "Wollheim invented the ''Ace Doubles'' series which consisted of pairs of books, usually by different authors, bound back-to-back with two \"front\" covers.", "Because these paired books had to fit a fixed total page length, one or both were usually abridged to fit, and Wollheim often made other editorial alterations—as witness the differences between Poul Anderson's Ace novel ''War of the Wing-Men'' and its definitive revised edition, ''The Man Who Counts''.", "Among the authors who made their paperback debuts in Ace Doubles were Philip K. Dick, Samuel R. Delany, Leigh Brackett, Ursula K. Le Guin, and John Brunner.", "William S. Burroughs' first book, ''Junkie'', was published as an Ace Double.", "Wollheim also helped develop Marion Zimmer Bradley, Robert Silverberg, Avram Davidson, Fritz Leiber, Andre Norton, Thomas Burnett Swann, Jack Vance, and Roger Zelazny, among others.", "While at Ace, he and co-editor Terry Carr began an annual anthology series, ''The World's Best Science Fiction'', the first collection of what they considered the best of the prior year's short stories, from magazines, hardcovers, paperback collections and other anthologies.In the early 1960s Ace reintroduced Edgar Rice Burroughs' work, which had long been out of print, and in 1965, Ace bought the paperback rights to ''Dune'' (Herbert's title worried Wollheim, who feared it would be mistaken for a western).", "Eventually, Ace introduced single paperback books and became one of the preeminent genre publishers.", "Ace and Ballantine dominated sf in the 1960s and built the genre by publishing original material as well as reprints.====Tolkien controversy====The Ace Books editions of ''The Lord of the Rings'', with cover artwork by Jack Gaughan, who had produced many science fiction book covers for Wollheim.", "Prior to the 1960s, no large American paperback publisher would publish fantasy.", "It was believed that there was no public demand for it and that it would not sell.", "Wollheim published an unauthorized paperback edition of J. R. R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' in three volumes.", "It was the first mass-market paperback edition of Tolkien's epic.", "Wollheim did not consider himself a fantasy fan.", "In a 2006 interview his daughter, Betsy Wollheim, said:This account was disputed by Tolkien, who claimed that he never received any communication from Ace prior to publication of their version.", "In any case, Tolkien had previously authorized paperback editions of ''The Hobbit'' and ''Tree and Leaf''.", "The authorized Ballantine paperback edition of ''The Lord of the Rings'' was then published in November, 1965.Ace subsequently agreed to cease publishing the unauthorized edition and to pay Tolkien for their sales following a grassroots campaign by Tolkien's U.S. fans.", "A 1993 court determined that the copyright loophole suggested by Ace Books was invalid and its paperback edition was found to have been a violation of copyright under U.S. law (at this time, the U.S. had yet to join the International Copyright Convention, and most laws on the books existed to protect domestic creations from foreign infringement.", "Houghton Mifflin was technically in violation of the law when they exceeded their import limits and failed to renew their interim copyright).", "In the ''Locus'' obituary for Donald Wollheim, however, more details emerge:===Foundation of DAW Books===Wollheim left Ace in 1971.Frederik Pohl describes the circumstances:Unfortunately, when Wyn died in 1968 the company was sold to a consortium headed by a bank. ...", "Few of them had any publishing experience before they found themselves running Ace.", "It showed.", "Before long, bills weren't being paid, authors' advances and royalties were delayed, budgets were cut back, and most of Donald's time was spent trying to soothe authors and agents who were indignant, and had every right to be, at the way they were treated.DAW Books logo used from 1972 to 1984Upon leaving Ace, he and his wife, Elsie Balter Wollheim, founded DAW Books, which he named for his initials.", "DAW can claim to be the first mass market specialist science fiction and fantasy fiction publishing house.", "DAW issued its first four titles in April 1972.Most of the writers whom he had developed at Ace went with him to DAW: Marion Zimmer Bradley, Andre Norton, Philip K. Dick, John Brunner, A. Bertram Chandler, Kenneth Bulmer, Gordon R. Dickson, A. E. van Vogt, and Jack Vance.", "In later years, when his distributor, New American Library, threatened to withhold Thomas Burnett Swann's Biblical historical fantasy ''How Are the Mighty Fallen'' (1974), owing to its homosexual content, Wollheim fought vigorously against their decision, and they relented.His later author discoveries included Tanith Lee, Jennifer Roberson, Michael Shea, Tad Williams, Celia S. Friedman, and C. J. Cherryh, whose ''Downbelow Station'' (1982) was the first DAW book to win the Hugo Award for best novel.", "He was also able to give a number of British writers, including E. C. Tubb, Brian Stableford, Barrington Bayley, and Michael Coney, a new American audience.", "He published translations of international sf as well as anthologies of translated stories, ''Best From the Rest of the World.''", "With the help of Arthur W. Saha, Wollheim also edited and published the popular \"Annual World's Best Science Fiction\" anthology from 1971 until his death." ], [ "Recognition", "Algis Budrys in 1966 gave Wollheim a Galaxy Bookshelf award \"for doing his job\".", "Upon Wollheim's death in 1990, the prolific editor Robert Silverberg argued (above) that he may have been \"''the'' most significant figure\" in American SF publishing.Robert Jordan credited Wollheim for helping to launch Jordan's career.", "Wollheim made an offer for Jordan's first novel, ''Warriors of the Ataii'', though he withdrew the offer when Jordan requested some minor changes to the contract.", "Jordan claimed that Wollheim's first, 'laudatory' letter convinced him that he could write, and so he chose to remember the first letter and forget about the second.", "The novel was never published, but Jordan went on to write the immensely successful ''The Wheel of Time'' series for a different publisher.Marion Zimmer Bradley referred to him as \"a second father\", Frederick Pohl called him \"a founder\", and Robert Silverberg says he was \"seriously underrated\" and \"one of the great shapers of science-fiction publishing in the United States\".", "In 1977 scholar Robert Scholes named Wollheim \"one of the most important editors and publishers of science fiction.", "\"From 1975 on, Wollheim received several special awards for his contributions to science fiction and to fantasy, including one at the 1975 World SF Convention and runner-up to Ian & Betty Ballantine at the 1975 World Fantasy Convention.The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in 2002, its seventh class of two deceased and two living persons.", "He is the third person inducted primarily for his work as editor or publisher, after the inaugural 1996 pair Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell." ], [ "Selected works", "===As editor=======''World's Best Science Fiction'' (with Terry Carr)====*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1965'' (also known as ''World's Best Science Fiction: First Series'')*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1966'' (also known as ''World's Best Science Fiction: Second Series'')*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1967'' (also known as ''World's Best Science Fiction: Third Series'')*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1968'' (also known as ''World's Best Science Fiction: Fourth Series'')*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1969''*''World's Best Science Fiction: 1970'' *''World's Best Science Fiction: 1971''====''The Annual World's Best SF'' (with Arthur W. Saha)====*''The 1972 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series One'')*''The 1973 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Two'')*''The 1974 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Three'')*''The 1975 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Four'')*''The 1976 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Five'')*''The 1977 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Six'')*''The 1978 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Seven'')*''The 1979 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Eight'')*''The 1980 Annual World's Best SF'' (also known as ''Wollheim's World's Best SF: Series Nine'')*''The 1981 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1982 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1983 Annual World's Best SF''*''The 1984 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1985 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1986 Annual World's Best SF''*''The 1987 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1988 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1989 Annual World's Best SF'' *''The 1990 Annual World's Best SF''===As writer=======Novels====*''Across Time'' (as David Grinnell)*''Destination: Saturn'' (as David Grinnell, with Lin Carter)*''Destiny's Orbit'' (as David Grinnell; published as an Ace Double with John Brunner's ''Times Without Number'')*''The Edge of Time'' (as David Grinnell)*''The Martian Missile'' (as David Grinnell)*''One Against the Moon''*''The Secret of the Martian Moons'' (1955, Winston Science Fiction series)*''The Secret of the Ninth Planet'' (1959, Winston Science Fiction series)*''The Secret of Saturn's Rings'' (1954, Winston Science Fiction series)*''To Venus!", "To Venus!''", "(as David Grinnell)====Mike Mars series===='''Source:'''*''Mike Mars, Astronaut'' (1961)*''Mike Mars Flies the X-15'' (1961)*''Mike Mars at Cape Canaveral'' (renamed ''Mike Mars at Cape Kennedy'' when published in paperback in 1966) (1961)*''Mike Mars in Orbit'' (1961)*''Mike Mars Flies the Dyna-Soar'' (1962)*''Mike Mars, South Pole Spaceman'' (1962)*''Mike Mars and the Mystery Satellite'' (1963)*''Mike Mars Around the Moon'' (1964)====Nonfiction====*''A Year Among the Girls'' (as Darrell G. Raynor) (1966) (concerning his crossdressing experiences and Casa Susanna) *''The Universe Makers: Science Fiction Today'' (1971): a \"survey and behind-the-scenes look\" at science fiction from the Golden Age onward))" ], [ "Personal life", "Wollheim also actively practiced cross-dressing as a woman throughout his life, and he regularly attended events at Casa Susanna in the Catskills of upstate New York." ], [ "See also", "* Ace Double* Winston Science Fiction" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources" ], [ "External links", "* DAW Books, founded by and named for Wollheim* * * * * * Bibliography at fantasticfiction.co.uk* Bibliography at geometry.net* Anthopology 101: Pocketbooks and Portable Libraries by Bud Webster at Galactic Central* Anthopology 101: The Real Macabre by Bud Webster at Galactic Central* Audio recording of Donald Wollheim participating in panel discussion at the First World Fantasy Convention at the Internet Archive* Donald A. Wollheim Papers at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library at the University of Kansas* Donald A. Wollheim on H. Rider Haggard and ''She'' (full text)* \" Casa Susanna,\" a documentary directed by Sébastien Lifshitz, which aired on June 27, 2023 as part of American Experience (season 35).", "In the film Betsy Wollheim, the daughter of Donald Wollheim, talks about her father." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Digital cinema" ], [ "Introduction", "immersive experiences.", "'''Digital cinema''' refers to the adoption of digital technology within the film industry to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film.", "Whereas film reels have to be shipped to movie theaters, a digital movie can be distributed to cinemas in a number of ways: over the Internet or dedicated satellite links, or by sending hard drives or optical discs such as Blu-ray discs.Digital movies are projected using a digital video projector instead of a film projector, are shot using digital movie cameras and edited using a non-linear editing system (NLE).", "The NLE is often a video editing application installed in one or more computers that may be networked to access the original footage from a remote server, share or gain access to computing resources for rendering the final video, and to allow several editors to work on the same timeline or project.Alternatively a digital movie could be a film reel that has been digitized using a motion picture film scanner and then restored, or, a digital movie could be recorded using a film recorder onto film stock for projection using a traditional film projector.Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and does not necessarily use traditional television or other traditional high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates.", "In digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K (2048×1080 or 2.2 megapixels) or 4K (4096×2160 or 8.8 megapixels).", "The 2K and 4K resolutions used in digital cinema projection are often referred to as DCI 2K and DCI 4K.", "DCI stands for Digital Cinema Initiatives.As digital-cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most theaters across the world converted to digital video projection.", "Digital cinema technology has continued to develop over the years with 3D, RPX, 4DX and ScreenX, allowing moviegoers with more immersive experiences." ], [ "History", "The transition from film to digital video was preceded by cinema's transition from analog to digital audio, with the release of the Dolby Digital (AC-3) audio coding standard in 1991.Its main basis is the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), a lossy audio compression algorithm.", "It is a modification of the discrete cosine transform (DCT) algorithm, which was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972 and was originally intended for image compression.", "The DCT was adapted into the MDCT by J.P. Princen, A.W.", "Johnson and Alan B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987, and then Dolby Laboratories adapted the MDCT algorithm along with perceptual coding principles to develop the AC-3 audio format for cinema needs.", "Cinema in the 1990s typically combined analog photochemical images with digital audio.Digital media playback of high-resolution 2K files has at least a 20-year history.", "Early video data storage units (RAIDs) fed custom frame buffer systems with large memories.", "In early digital video units, the content was usually restricted to several minutes of material.", "Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity.", "It was not until the late 1990s that feature-length films could be sent over the \"wire\" (Internet or dedicated fiber links).", "On October 23, 1998, Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector technology was publicly demonstrated with the release of ''The Last Broadcast'', the first feature-length movie, shot, edited and distributed digitally.", "In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States (Philadelphia, Portland (Oregon), Minneapolis, Providence, and Orlando).===Foundations===Texas Instruments, DLP Cinema Prototype Projector, Mark V, 2000In the United States, on June 18, 1999, Texas Instruments' ''DLP Cinema'' projector technology was publicly demonstrated on two screens in Los Angeles and New York for the release of Lucasfilm's ''Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace''.", "In Europe, on February 2, 2000, Texas Instruments' ''DLP Cinema'' projector technology was publicly demonstrated, by Philippe Binant, on one screen in Paris for the release of ''Toy Story 2''.From 1997 to 2000, the JPEG 2000 image compression standard was developed by a Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) committee chaired by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president).", "In contrast to the original 1992 JPEG standard, which is a DCT-based lossy compression format for static digital images, JPEG 2000 is a discrete wavelet transform (DWT) based compression standard that could be adapted for motion imaging video compression with the Motion JPEG 2000 extension.", "JPEG 2000 technology was later selected as the video coding standard for digital cinema in 2004.===Initiatives===On January 19, 2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, initiated the first standards group dedicated towards developing digital cinema.", "By December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada, 11 in Western Europe, 4 in Asia, and 1 in South America.", "Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI) was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios (Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony Pictures, Universal and Warner Bros.) to develop a system specification for digital cinema.In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material (the ASC/DCI StEM material) for testing of 2K and 4K playback and compression technologies.", "DCI selected JPEG 2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year.", "Initial tests with JPEG 2000 produced bit rates of around 75125 Mbit/s for 2K resolution and 100200 Mbit/s for 4K resolution.===Worldwide deployment===In China, in June 2005, an e-cinema system called \"dMs\" was established and was used in over 15,000 screens spread across China's 30 provinces.", "dMs estimated that the system would expand to 40,000 screens in 2009.In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems.", "The roll-out was completed in 2006.This was the first mass roll-out in Europe.", "AccessIT/Christie Digital also started a roll-out in the United States and Canada.", "By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month.", "In August 2006, the Malayalam digital movie ''Moonnamathoral'', produced by Benzy Martin, was distributed via satellite to cinemas, thus becoming the first Indian digital cinema.", "This was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies.In January 2007, ''Guru'' became the first Indian film mastered in the DCI-compliant JPEG 2000 Interop format and also the first Indian film to be previewed digitally, internationally, at the Elgin Winter Garden in Toronto.", "This film was digitally mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India.", "In 2007, the UK became home to Europe's first DCI-compliant fully digital multiplex cinemas; Odeon Hatfield and Odeon Surrey Quays (in London), with a total of 18 digital screens, were launched on 9 February 2007.By March 2007, with the release of Disney's ''Meet the Robinsons'', about 600 screens had been equipped with digital projectors.", "In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee (VPF) agreements (with 20th Century Fox and Universal Pictures).", "In March 2009 AMC Theatres announced that it closed a $315 million deal with Sony to replace all of its movie projectors with 4K digital projectors starting in the second quarter of 2009; it was anticipated that this replacement would be finished by 2012.AMC Theatres former corporate headquarters in Kansas City, prior to their 2013 move to Leawood, Kansas.In January 2011, the total number of digital screens worldwide was 36,242, up from 16,339 at end 2009 or a growth rate of 121.8 percent during the year.", "There were 10,083 d-screens in Europe as a whole (28.2 percent of global figure), 16,522 in the United States and Canada (46.2 percent of global figure) and 7,703 in Asia (21.6 percent of global figure).", "Worldwide progress was slower as in some territories, particularly Latin America and Africa.", "As of 31 March 2015, 38,719 screens (out of a total of 39,789 screens) in the United States have been converted to digital, 3,007 screens in Canada have been converted, and 93,147 screens internationally have been converted.", "At the end of 2017, virtually all of the world's cinema screens were digital (98%).Despite the fact that today, virtually all global movie theaters have converted their screens to digital cinemas, some major motion pictures even as of 2019 are shot on film.", "For example, Quentin Tarantino released his latest film ''Once Upon a Time in Hollywood'' in 70 mm and 35 mm in selected theaters across the United States and Canada." ], [ "Elements", "In addition to the equipment already found in a film-based movie theatre (e.g., a sound reinforcement system, screen, etc.", "), a DCI-compliant digital cinema requires a DCI-compliant digital projector and a powerful computer known as a ''server''.", "Movies are supplied to the theatre as a digital file called a Digital Cinema Package (DCP).", "For a typical feature film, this file will be anywhere between 90 GB and 300 GB of data (roughly two to six times the information of a Blu-ray disc) and may arrive as a physical delivery on a conventional computer hard drive or via satellite or fibre-optic broadband Internet.", "As of 2013, physical deliveries of hard drives were most common in the industry.", "Promotional trailers arrive on a separate hard drive and range between 200 GB and 400 GB in size.", "The contents of the hard drive(s) may be encrypted.Regardless of how the DCP arrives, it first needs to be copied onto the internal hard drives of the server, either via a USB port, or through a faster eSATA connection, or via a closed network, a process known as \"ingesting.\"", "(USB is used mostly for single trailers.)", "DCPs can be, and in the case of feature films almost always are, encrypted, to prevent illegal copying and piracy.", "The necessary decryption keys are supplied separately, usually as email attachments or via download, and then \"ingested\" via USB.", "Keys are time-limited and will expire after the end of the period for which the title has been booked.", "They are also locked to the hardware (server and projector) that is to screen the film, so if the theatre wishes to move the title to another screen or extend the run, a new key must be obtained from the distributor.", "Several versions of the same feature can be sent together.", "The original version (OV) is used as the basis of all the other playback options.", "Version files (VF) may have a different sound format (e.g.", "7.1 as opposed to 5.1 surround sound) or subtitles.", "2D and 3D versions are often distributed on the same hard drive.The playback of the content is controlled by the server using a \"playlist\".", "As the name implies, this is a list of all the content that is to be played as part of the performance.", "The playlist will be created by a member of the theatre's staff using proprietary software that runs on the server.", "In addition to listing the content to be played the playlist also includes automation cues that allow the playlist to control the projector, the sound system, auditorium lighting, tab curtains and screen masking (if present), etc.", "The playlist can be started manually, by clicking the \"play\" button on the server's monitor screen, or automatically at pre-set times." ], [ "Technology and standards", "===Digital Cinema Initiatives===Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI), a joint venture of the six major studios, published the first version (V1.0) of a system specification for digital cinema in July 2005.The main declared objectives of the specification were to define a digital cinema system that would ''\"present a theatrical experience that is better than what one could achieve now with a traditional 35mm Answer Print\"'', to provide global standards for interoperability such that any DCI-compliant content could play on any DCI-compliant hardware anywhere in the world and to provide robust protection for the intellectual property of the content providers.The DCI specification calls for picture encoding using the ISO/IEC 15444-1 \"JPEG2000\" (.j2c) standard and use of the CIE XYZ color space at 12 bits per component encoded with a 2.6 gamma applied at projection.", "Two levels of resolution for both content and projectors are supported: 2K (2048×1080) or 2.2 MP at 24 or 48 frames per second, and 4K (4096×2160) or 8.85 MP at 24 frames per second.", "The specification ensures that 2K content can play on 4K projectors and vice versa.", "Smaller resolutions in one direction are also supported (the image gets automatically centered).", "Later versions of the standard added additional playback rates (like 25 fps in SMPTE mode).", "For the sound component of the content the specification provides for up to 16 channels of uncompressed audio using the \"Broadcast Wave\" (.wav) format at 24 bits and 48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling.Playback is controlled by an XML-format Composition Playlist, into an MXF-compliant file at a maximum data rate of 250 Mbit/s.", "Details about encryption, key management, and logging are all discussed in the specification as are the minimum specifications for the projectors employed including the color gamut, the contrast ratio and the brightness of the image.", "While much of the specification codifies work that had already been ongoing in the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), the specification is important in establishing a content owner framework for the distribution and security of first-release motion-picture content.===National Association of Theatre Owners===In addition to DCI's work, the National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) released its Digital Cinema System Requirements.", "The document addresses the requirements of digital cinema systems from the operational needs of the exhibitor, focusing on areas not addressed by DCI, including access for the visually impaired and hearing impaired, workflow inside the cinema, and equipment interoperability.", "In particular, NATO's document details requirements for the Theatre Management System (TMS), the governing software for digital cinema systems within a theatre complex, and provides direction for the development of security key management systems.", "As with DCI's document, NATO's document is also important to the SMPTE standards effort.===E-Cinema===The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) began work on standards for digital cinema in 2000.It was clear by that point in time that HDTV did not provide a sufficient technological basis for the foundation of digital cinema playback.", "In Europe, India and Japan however, there is still a significant presence of HDTV for theatrical presentations.", "Agreements within the ISO standards body have led to these non-compliant systems being referred to as Electronic Cinema Systems (E-Cinema)." ], [ "Projectors for digital cinema", "Only three manufacturers make DCI-approved digital cinema projectors; these are Barco, Christie and Sharp/NEC.", "Except for Sony, who used to use their own SXRD technology, all use the Digital Light Processing (DLP) technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI).", "D-Cinema projectors are similar in principle to digital projectors used in industry, education, and domestic home cinemas, but differ in two important respects.", "First, projectors must conform to the strict performance requirements of the DCI specification.", "Second, projectors must incorporate anti-piracy devices intended to enforce copyright compliance such as licensing limits.", "For these reasons all projectors intended to be sold to theaters for screening current release movies ''must'' be approved by the DCI before being put on sale.", "They now pass through a process called CTP (compliance test plan).", "Because feature films in digital form are encrypted and the decryption keys (KDMs) are locked to the serial number of the server used (linking to both the projector serial number and server is planned in the future), a system will allow playback of a protected feature only with the required KDM.===DLP Cinema===Three manufacturers have licensed the DLP Cinema technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI): Christie Digital Systems, Barco, and NEC.", "While NEC is a relative newcomer to Digital Cinema, Christie is the main player in the U.S. and Barco takes the lead in Europe and Asia.", "Initially DCI-compliant DLP projectors were available in 2K only, but from early 2012, when TI's 4K DLP chip went into full production, DLP projectors have been available in both 2K and 4K versions.", "Manufacturers of DLP-based cinema projectors can now also offer 4K upgrades to some of the more recent 2K models.", "Early DLP Cinema projectors, which were deployed primarily in the United States, used limited 1280×1024 resolution or the equivalent of 1.3 MP (megapixels).", "Digital Projection Incorporated (DPI) designed and sold a few DLP Cinema units (is8-2K) when TI's 2K technology debuted but then abandoned the D-Cinema market while continuing to offer DLP-based projectors for non-cinema purposes.", "Although based on the same 2K TI \"light engine\" as those of the major players they are so rare as to be virtually unknown in the industry.", "They are still widely used for pre-show advertising but not usually for feature presentations.TI's technology is based on the use of digital micromirror devices (DMDs).", "These are MEMS devices that are manufactured from silicon using similar technology to that of computer chips.", "The surface of these devices is covered by a very large number of microscopic mirrors, one for each pixel, so a 2K device has about 2.2 million mirrors and a 4K device about 8.8 million.", "Each mirror vibrates several thousand times a second between two positions: In one, light from the projector's lamp is reflected towards the screen, in the other away from it.", "The proportion of the time the mirror is in each position varies according to the required brightness of each pixel.", "Three DMD devices are used, one for each of the primary colors.", "Light from the lamp, usually a Xenon arc lamp similar to those used in film projectors with a power between 1 kW and 7 kW, is split by colored filters into red, green and blue beams which are directed at the appropriate DMD.", "The 'forward' reflected beam from the three DMDs is then re-combined and focused by the lens onto the cinema screen.", "Later projectors may use lasers instead of xenon lamps.===Sony SXRD===Alone amongst the manufacturers of DCI-compliant cinema projectors Sony decided to develop its own technology rather than use TI's DLP technology.", "SXRD (Silicon X-tal (Crystal) Reflective Display) projectors have only ever been manufactured in 4K form and, until the launch of the 4K DLP chip by TI, Sony SXRD projectors were the only 4K DCI-compatible projectors on the market.", "Unlike DLP projectors, however, SXRD projectors do not present the left and right eye images of stereoscopic movies sequentially, instead they use half the available area on the SXRD chip for each eye image.", "Thus during stereoscopic presentations the SXRD projector functions as a sub 2K projector, the same for HFR 3D Content.However, Sony decided in late April, 2020 that they would no longer manufacture digital cinema projectors.===Stereo 3D images===In late 2005, interest in digital 3-D stereoscopic projection led to a new willingness on the part of theaters to co-operate in installing 2K stereo installations to show Disney's ''Chicken Little'' in 3-D film.", "Six more digital 3-D movies were released in 2006 and 2007 (including ''Beowulf'', ''Monster House'' and ''Meet the Robinsons'').", "The technology combines a single digital projector fitted with either a polarizing filter (for use with polarized glasses and silver screens), a filter wheel or an emitter for LCD glasses.", "''RealD'' uses a \"''ZScreen''\" for polarisation and MasterImage uses a filter wheel that changes the polarity of projector's light output several times per second to alternate quickly the left-and-right-eye views.", "Another system that uses a filter wheel is Dolby 3D.", "The wheel changes the wavelengths of the colours being displayed, and tinted glasses filter these changes so the incorrect wavelength cannot enter the wrong eye.", "''XpanD'' makes use of an external emitter that sends a signal to the 3D glasses to block out the wrong image from the wrong eye.===Laser===RGB laser projection produces the purest BT.2020 colors and the brightest images." ], [ "LED screen for digital cinema", "In Asia, on July 13, 2017, an LED screen for digital cinema developed by Samsung Electronics was publicly demonstrated on one screen at Lotte Cinema World Tower in Seoul.", "The first installation in Europe is in Arena Sihlcity Cinema in Zürich.", "These displays do not use a projector; instead they use a LED video wall, and can offer higher contrast ratios, higher resolutions, and overall improvements in image quality.", "Sony already sells MicroLED displays as a replacement for conventional cinema screens." ], [ "Effect on distribution", "Digital distribution of movies has the potential to save money for film distributors.", "To print an 80-minute feature film can cost US$1,500 to $2,500, so making thousands of prints for a wide-release movie can cost millions of dollars.", "In contrast, at the maximum 250 megabit-per-second data rate (as defined by DCI for digital cinema), a feature-length movie can be stored on an off-the-shelf 300 GB hard drive for $50 and a broad release of 4000 'digital prints' might cost $200,000.In addition hard drives can be returned to distributors for reuse.", "With several hundred movies distributed every year, the industry saves billions of dollars.", "The digital-cinema roll-out was stalled by the slow pace at which exhibitors acquired digital projectors, since the savings would be seen not by themselves but by distribution companies.", "The Virtual Print Fee model was created to address this by passing some of the saving on to the cinemas.", "As a consequence of the rapid conversion to digital projection, the number of theatrical releases exhibited on film is dwindling.", "As of 4 May 2014, 37,711 screens (out of a total of 40,048 screens) in the United States have been converted to digital, 3,013 screens in Canada have been converted, and 79,043 screens internationally have been converted.===Telecommunication===Realization and demonstration, on October 29, 2001, of the first digital cinema transmission by satellite in Europe of a feature film by Bernard Pauchon, Alain Lorentz, Raymond Melwig and Philippe Binant.===Live broadcasting to cinemas or event cinema ===Broadcasting antenna in StuttgartDigital cinemas can deliver live broadcasts from performances or events.", "This began initially with live broadcasts from the New York Metropolitan Opera delivering regular live broadcasts into cinemas and has been widely imitated ever since.", "Leading territories providing the content are the UK, the US, France and Germany.", "The Royal Opera House, Sydney Opera House, English National Opera and others have found new and returning audiences captivated by the detail offered by a live digital broadcast featuring handheld and cameras on cranes positioned throughout the venue to capture the emotion that might be missed in a live venue situation.", "In addition these providers all offer additional value during the intervals e.g.", "interviews with choreographers, cast members, a backstage tour which would not be on offer at the live event itself.", "Other live events in this field include live theatre from NT Live, Branagh Live, Royal Shakespeare Company, Shakespeare's Globe, the Royal Ballet, Mariinsky Ballet, the Bolshoi Ballet and the Berlin Philharmoniker.In the last ten years this initial offering of the arts has also expanded to include live and recorded music events such as Take That Live, One Direction Live, Andre Rieu, live musicals such as the recent Miss Saigon and a record-breaking Billy Elliot Live In Cinemas.", "Live sport, documentary with a live question and answer element such as the recent Oasis documentary, lectures, faith broadcasts, stand-up comedy, museum and gallery exhibitions, TV specials such as the record-breaking ''Doctor Who'' fiftieth anniversary special ''The Day Of The Doctor'', have all contributed to creating a valuable revenue stream for cinemas large and small all over the world.", "Subsequently, live broadcasting, formerly known as Alternative Content, has become known as Event Cinema and a trade association now exists to that end.", "Ten years on the sector has become a sizeable revenue stream in its own right, earning a loyal following amongst fans of the arts, and the content limited only by the imagination of the producers it would seem.", "Theatre, ballet, sport, exhibitions, TV specials and documentaries are now established forms of Event Cinema.", "Worldwide estimations put the likely value of the Event Cinema industry at $1bn by 2019.Event Cinema currently accounts for on average between 1-3% of overall box office for cinemas worldwide but anecdotally it's been reported that some cinemas attribute as much as 25%, 48% and even 51% (the Rio Bio cinema in Stockholm) of their overall box office.", "It is envisaged ultimately that Event Cinema will account for around 5% of the overall box office globally.", "Event Cinema saw six worldwide records set and broken over from 2013 to 2015 with notable successes Dr Who ($10.2m in three days at the box office - event was also broadcast on terrestrial TV simultaneously), Pompeii Live by the British Museum, Billy Elliot, Andre Rieu, One Direction, Richard III by the Royal Shakespeare Company.Event Cinema is defined more by the frequency of events rather than by the content itself.", "Event Cinema events typically appear in cinemas during traditionally quieter times in the cinema week such as the Monday-Thursday daytime/evening slot and are characterised by the One Night Only release, followed by one or possibly more 'Encore' releases a few days or weeks later if the event is successful and sold out.", "On occasion more successful events have returned to cinemas some months or even years later in the case of NT Live where the audience loyalty and company branding is so strong the content owner can be assured of a good showing at the box office." ], [ "Pros and cons", "=== Pros ===The digital formation of sets and locations, especially in the time of growing film series and sequels, is that virtual sets, once computer generated and stored, can be easily revived for future films.Considering digital film images are documented as data files on hard disk or flash memory, varying systems of edits can be executed with the alteration of a few settings on the editing console with the structure being composed virtually in the computer's memory.", "A broad choice of effects can be sampled simply and rapidly, without the physical constraints posed by traditional cut-and-stick editing.", "Digital cinema allows national cinemas to construct films specific to their cultures in ways that the more constricting configurations and economics of customary film-making prevented.", "Low-cost cameras and computer-based editing software have gradually enabled films to be produced for minimal cost.", "The ability of digital cameras to allow film-makers to shoot limitless footage without wasting costly film has transformed film production in some Third World countries.", "From consumers' perspective digital prints don't deteriorate with the number of showings.", "Unlike film, there is no projection mechanism or manual handling to add scratches or other physically generated artefacts.", "Provincial cinemas that would have received old prints can give consumers the same cinematographic experience (all other things being equal) as those attending the premiere.The use of NLEs in movies allows for edits and cuts to be made non-destructively, without actually discarding any footage.=== Cons ===A number of high-profile film directors, including Christopher Nolan, Paul Thomas Anderson, David O. Russell and Quentin Tarantino have publicly criticized digital cinema and advocated the use of film and film prints.", "Most famously, Tarantino has suggested he may retire because, though he can still shoot on film, because of the rapid conversion to digital, he cannot project from 35 mm prints in the majority of American cinemas.", "Steven Spielberg has stated that though digital projection produces a much better image than film if originally shot in digital, it is \"inferior\" when it has been converted to digital.", "He attempted at one stage to release ''Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull'' solely on film.", "Paul Thomas Anderson recently was able to create 70-mm film prints for his film ''The Master'' .Film critic Roger Ebert criticized the use of DCPs after a cancelled film festival screening of Brian DePalma's film ''Passion'' at New York Film Festival as a result of a lockup due to the coding system.The theoretical resolution of 35 mm film is greater than that of 2K digital cinema.", "2K resolution (2048×1080) is also only slightly greater than that of consumer based 1080p HD (1920x1080).", "However, since digital post-production techniques became the standard in the early 2000s, the majority of movies, whether photographed digitally or on 35 mm film, have been mastered and edited at the 2K resolution.", "Moreover, 4K post production was becoming more common as of 2013.As projectors are replaced with 4K models the difference in resolution between digital and 35 mm film is somewhat reduced.", "Digital cinema servers utilize far greater bandwidth over domestic \"HD\", allowing for a difference in quality (e.g., Blu-ray colour encoding 4:2:0 48 Mbit/s MAX datarate, DCI D-Cinema 4:4:4 250 Mbit/s 2D/3D, 500 Mbit/s HFR3D).", "Each frame has greater detail.Owing to the smaller dynamic range of digital cameras, correcting poor digital exposures is more difficult than correcting poor film exposures during post-production.", "A partial solution to this problem is to add complex video-assist technology during the shooting process.", "However, such technologies are typically available only to high-budget production companies.", "Digital cinemas' efficiency of storing images has a downside.", "The speed and ease of modern digital editing processes threatens to give editors and their directors, if not an embarrassment of choice then at least a confusion of options, potentially making the editing process, with this 'try it and see' philosophy, lengthier rather than shorter.", "Because the equipment needed to produce digital feature films can be obtained more easily than film projectors, producers could inundate the market with cheap productions and potentially dominate the efforts of serious directors.", "Because of the quick speed in which they are filmed, these stories sometimes lack essential narrative structure.===Costs======= Pros ====The electronic transferring of digital film, from central servers to servers in cinema projection booths, is an inexpensive process of supplying copies of newest releases to the vast number of cinema screens demanded by prevailing saturation-release strategies.", "There is a significant saving on print expenses in such cases: at a minimum cost per print of $1200–2000, the cost of film print production is between $5–8 million per movie.", "With several thousand releases a year, the probable savings offered by digital distribution and projection are over $1 billion.", "The cost savings and ease, together with the ability to store film rather than having to send a print on to the next cinema, allows a larger scope of films to be screened and watched by the public; minority and small-budget films that would not otherwise get such a chance.==== Cons ====The initial costs for converting theaters to digital are high: $100,000 per screen, on average.", "Theaters have been reluctant to switch without a cost-sharing arrangement with film distributors.", "A solution is a temporary ''Virtual Print Fee'' system, where the distributor (who saves the money of producing and transporting a film print) pays a fee per copy to help finance the digital systems of the theaters.", "A theater can purchase a film projector for as little as $10,000 (though projectors intended for commercial cinemas cost two to three times that; to which must be added the cost of a long-play system, which also costs around $10,000, making a total of around $30,000–$40,000) from which they could expect an average life of 30–40 years.", "By contrast, a digital cinema playback system—including server, media block, and projector—can cost two to three times as much, and would have a greater risk of component failure and obsolescence.", "(In Britain the cost of an entry level projector including server, installation, etc., would be £31,000 $50,000.", ")Archiving digital masters has also turned out to be both tricky and costly.", "In a 2007 study, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences found the cost of long-term storage of 4K digital masters to be \"enormously higher—up to 11 times that of the cost of storing film masters.\"", "This is because of the limited or uncertain lifespan of digital storage: No current digital medium—be it optical disc, magnetic hard drive or digital tape—can reliably store a motion picture for as long as a hundred years or more (a timeframe for film properly stored).", "The short history of digital storage media has been one of innovation and, therefore, of obsolescence.", "Archived digital content must be periodically removed from obsolete physical media to up-to-date media.", "The expense of digital image capture is not necessarily less than the capture of images onto film; indeed, it is sometimes greater." ], [ "See also", "* Cinematography* JPEG 2000* 3D film*4K resolution*Digital cinematography*Digital projector*Digital intermediate*Digital Cinema Initiatives*Display resolution*Digital 3D*Color suite*List of film-related topics (extensive alphabetical listing)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Charles S. Swartz (editor), ''Understanding digital cinema.", "A professional handbook'', Elseiver / Focal Press, Burlington, Oxford, 2005, xvi + 327 p. * Philippe Binant (propos recueillis par Dominique Maillet), « Kodak.", "Au cœur de la projection numérique », ''Actions'', n° 29, Division Cinéma et Télévision Kodak, Paris, 2007, p. 12–13." ], [ "Filmography", "* Christopher Kenneally, ''Side by Side'', 2012.IMDb" ], [ "External links", "* ''Side by Side'' : Q & A with Keanu Reeves, Le Royal Monceau, Paris, April 11–12, 2016." ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Democratic Progressive Party" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Democratic Progressive Party''' ('''DPP''') is a Taiwanese nationalist and centre to centre-left political party in Taiwan.", "It is currently the major ruling party in Taiwan, controlling both the presidency and the central government, also the dominant party in the Pan-Green Coalition.Founded in 1986 by Hsu Hsin-liang, Hsieh Tsung-min and Lin Shui-chuan, a year prior to the end of martial law, the DPP is one of two major parties in Taiwan, the other being the historically dominant Kuomintang (KMT), which previously ruled the country as a one-party state.", "It has traditionally been associated with a strong advocacy of human rights, emerging against the authoritarian White Terror that was initiated by the KMT, as well as the promotion of Taiwanese nationalism and identity.", "Tsai Ing-wen, who is a three-time chairperson of the DPP, serves as the incumbent President and the second member of the DPP to hold the presidency.The DPP is a longtime member of Liberal International and a founding member of the Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats.", "It represented Taiwan in the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO).", "The DPP is widely classified as socially liberal having been founded as a party for human rights, including factions within the party supporting same-sex marriage and other LGBT rights.", "On foreign policy, the DPP is more willing to increase military expenditures to prevent military intimidation from the People's Republic of China (PRC) owing to the ambiguous political status of Taiwan.", "It favors closer ties with democratic nations such as Japan and the United States, as well as the nations of ASEAN as part of its New Southbound Policy.", "The party is frequently accused by the PRC government of being a primary force in Taiwan to \"prevent the Chinese nation from achieving complete reunification\" and \"halt the process of national rejuvenation\" due to the party's outspoken advocacy of the Taiwanese nationalism, its supportive attitude to Taiwanese enjoying the right to decide their own future, and its firm opposition to the notion of \"One China\", including the alleged \"1992 Consensus\" narratives by both the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and KMT." ], [ "History", "The DPP's roots were in the ''Tangwai'' movement, which formed in opposition to the Kuomintang's one-party authoritarian rule under the \"party-state\" system during martial law.", "This movement culminated in the formation of the DPP as an alternative, but still illegal, party on 28 September 1986 by eighteen organizing members at Grand Hotel Taipei, with a total of 132 people joining the party in attendance.", "The new party members contested the 1986 election as \"nonpartisan\" candidates since competing parties would remain illegal until the following year.", "These early members of the party, like the ''tangwai'', drew heavily from the ranks of family members and defense lawyers of political prisoners, as well as intellectuals and artists who had spent time abroad.", "These individuals were strongly committed to political change toward democracy and freedom of speech, press, assembly, and association.The ''tangwai'' were not a unified political unit and consisted of factions which carried over into the early DPP.", "At its founding the DPP consisted of three factions: the Kang group ,a moderate faction led by Kang Ning-hsiang, New Tide faction, consisting of intellectuals and social activists led by Wu Nai-ren and Chiou I-jen, and the Progress Faction led by Lin Cheng-chieh, a ''waishengren'' opposed to independence.", "Moderates would later coalesce around the Formosa faction, founded by those arrested during the Formosa Incident after their release from prison.", "In the early days of the party, the Formosa faction focused on winning elections by wielding the star power of its leaders, while New Tide would focus on ideological mobilization and developing grassroots support for social movements.", "As a result, the Formosa faction would become more moderate, often bending to public opinion, while New Tide would become more ideologically cohesive.", "By 1988 the Formosa Faction would dominate high-level positions within the party.The party did not at the outset give explicit support to an independent Taiwanese national identity, partially because moderates such as Hsu Hsin-liang were concerned that such a move that could have invited a violent crackdown by the Kuomintang and alienate voters, but also because some members such as Lin Cheng-chieh supported unification.", "Partially due to their waning influence within the party and partially due to their ideological commitment, between 1988 and 1991 the New Tide Faction would push the independence issue, bolstered by the return of pro-independence activists from overseas who were previously barred from Taiwan.", "In 1991, in order to head off the New Tide, party chairman Hsu Hsin-liang of the moderate Formosa faction agreed to include language in the party charter which advocated for the drafting of a new constitution as well as declaration of a new Republic of Taiwan via referendum (which resulted in many pro-unification members leaving the party).", "However, the party would quickly begin to walk back on this language, and eventually in 1999 the party congress passed a resolution that Taiwan was already an independent country, under the official name \"Republic of China,\" and that any constitutional changes should be approved by the people via referendum, while emphasizing the use of the name \"Taiwan\" in international settings.Despite its lack of electoral success, the pressure that the DPP created on the ruling KMT via its demands are widely credited in the political reforms of the 1990s, most notably the direct popular election of Republic of China's president and all representatives in the National Assembly and Legislative Yuan, as well the ability to open discuss events from the past such as the February 28 Incident and its long aftermath of martial law, and space for a greater variety of political views and advocacy.", "Once the DPP had representation in the Legislative Yuan, the party used the legislature as a forum to challenge the ruling KMT.", "In 1996, DPP Chairman Shih Ming-teh united with the New Party to run for the President of the Legislative Yuan, but lost by one vote.", "The vote that was missing was legislator Chang Chin-cheng's failure to vote for Shih.", "As a result, Chang was expelled from the DPP.", "Post-democratization, the DPP shifted their focus to anti-corruption issues, in particular regarding KMT connections to organized crime as well as \"party assets\" illegally acquired from the government during martial law.", "Meanwhile, factions continued to form within the DPP as a mechanism for coalition-building within the party; notably, future President Chen Shui-bian would form the Justice Alliance faction.===2000–2008: in minority government===President (2000-2008)Old DPP logoThe DPP won the presidency with the election of Chen Shui-bian in March 2000 with a plurality, due to Pan-Blue voters splitting their vote between the Kuomintang and independent candidate James Soong, ending 91 years of KMT rule in the Republic of China.", "Chen softened the party's stance on independence to appeal to moderate voters, appease the United States, and placate China.", "He also promised not to change the ROC state symbols or declare formal independence as long as the People's Republic of China did not attack Taiwan.", "Further, he advocated for economic exchange with China as well as the establishment of transportation links.In 2002 the DPP became the first party other than the KMT to reach a plurality in the Legislative Yuan following the 2001 legislative election.", "However, a majority coalition between the KMT, People First Party, and New Party prevented it from taking control of the chamber.", "This coalition was at odds with the presidency from the beginning, and led to President Chen's abandonment of the centrist positions that he ran his campaign on.In 2003, Chen announced a campaign to draft a referendum law as well as a new constitution, a move which appealed to the fundamentalist wing of the DPP.", "By now, the New Tide faction had begun to favor pragmatic approaches to their pro-independence goals and dominated decision-making positions within the party.", "By contrast, grassroots support was divided largely between moderate and fundamentalist wings.", "Though Chen's plans for a referendum on a new constitution were scuttled by the legislature, he did manage to include a largely symbolic referendum on the PRC military threat to coincide with the 2004 presidential election.", "President Chen Shui-bian would be narrowly re-elected in 2004 after an assassination attempt the day before the election, and in the later legislative election, the pan-blue coalition opposition retained control of the chamber.President Chen's moves sparked a debate within the party between fundamentalists and moderates who were concerned that voters would abandon their party.", "The fundamentalists won out, and as a result the DPP would largely follow Chen's lead.", "The DPP suffered a significant election defeat in nationwide local and county elections in December 2005, while the pan-blue coalition captured 16 of 23 county and city government offices under the leadership of popular Taipei mayor and KMT Party Chairman Ma Ying-jeou.", "Moderates within the party would blame this loss on the party's fundamentalist turn.The results led to a shake up of the party leadership.", "Su Tseng-chang resigned as DPP chairman soon after election results were announced.", "Su had pledged to step down if the DPP lost either Taipei County or failed to win 10 of the 23 mayor/magistrate positions.", "Vice President Annette Lu was appointed acting DPP leader.", "Presidential Office Secretary-General Yu Shyi-kun was elected in a three-way race against legislator Chai Trong-rong and Wong Chin-chu with 54.4% of the vote.Premier Frank Hsieh, DPP election organizer and former mayor of Kaohsiung twice tendered a verbal resignation immediately following the election, but his resignation was not accepted by President Chen until 17 January 2006 after the DPP chairmanship election had concluded.", "The former DPP Chairman Su Tseng-chang was appointed to replace Hsieh as premier.", "Hsieh and his cabinet resigned en masse on 24 January to make way for Su and his new cabinet.", "President Chen had offered the position of Presidential Office Secretary-General (vacated by Su) to the departing premier, but Hsieh declined and left office criticizing President Chen for his tough line on dealing with China.In 2005, following the passage of the Anti-Secession Law, the Chen administration issued a statement asserting the position that Taiwan's future should be decided by the people on Taiwan only.====Separate identity from China====On 30 September 2007, the DPP approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a \"normal nation\".", "It struck an accommodating tone by advocating general use of \"Taiwan\" as the country's name without calling for abandonment of the name Republic of China.Tsai Ing-wen, the second DPP President (2016–present) and the leader of the DPP (2008–2022).", "Tsai is the first female leader of the DPP.===2008–2016: return to opposition===In the national elections held in early months of 2008, the DPP won less than 25% of the seats (38.2% vote share) in the new Legislative Yuan while its presidential candidate, former Kaohsiung mayor Frank Hsieh, lost to KMT candidate Ma Ying-jeou by a wide margin (41.55% vs. 58.45%).", "In May, the DPP elected moderate Tsai Ing-wen as their new leader over fundamentalist Koo Kwang-ming.", "Tsai became the first female leader of the DPP and the first female leader to lead a major party in Taiwan.The first months since backed to the opposition were dominated by press coverage of the travails of Chen Shui-bian and his wife Wu Shu-jen.", "On 15 August 2008, Chen resigned from the DPP and apologized: \"Today I have to say sorry to all of the DPP members and supporters.", "I let everyone down, caused you humiliation and failed to meet your expectations.", "My acts have caused irreparable damage to the party.", "I love the DPP deeply and am proud of being a DPP member.", "To express my deepest regrets to all DPP members and supporters, I announce my withdrawal from the DPP immediately.", "My wife Wu Shu-jen is also withdrawing from the party.\"", "DPP Chairperson followed with a public statement on behalf of the party: \"In regard to Chen and his wife's decision to withdraw from the party and his desire to shoulder responsibility for his actions as well as to undergo an investigation by the party's anti-corruption committee, we respect his decision and accept it.", "\"The DPP vowed to reflect on public misgivings towards the party.", "Chairperson Tsai insisted on the need for the party to remember its history, defend the Republic of China's sovereignty and national security, and maintain its confidence.The party re-emerged as a voice in Taiwan's political debate when Ma's administration reached the end of its first year in office.", "The DPP marked the anniversary with massive rallies in Taipei and Kaohsiung.", "Tsai's address to the crowd in Taipei on 17 May proclaimed a \"citizens' movement to protect Republic of China\" seeking to \"protect our democracy and protect Republic of China.", "\"=== 2016–2024: in majority government ===On 16 January 2016, Taiwan held a general election for its presidency and for the Legislative Yuan.", "The DPP gained the presidential seat, with the election of Tsai Ing-wen, who received 56.12% of the votes, while her opponent Eric Chu gained 31.2%.", "In addition, the DPP gained a majority of the Legislative Yuan, winning 68 seats in the 113-seat legislature, up from 40 in 2012 election, thus giving them the majority for the first time in its history.President Tsai won reelection in the 2020 Taiwanese presidential election on 11 January 2020, and the Democratic Progressive Party retained its legislative majority, winning 61 seats.=== 2024–present: return to minority government ===The January 13, 2024 presidential election and legislative elections led to the election of Lai Ching-te who won with 40.1% of the votes, while his opponents, Hou Yu-ih of the KMT had 33.5% of the votes, and Ko Wen-je of the Taiwan People's Party with 26.5% of the vote.", "In addition, this election made the DPP the first party to win three consecutive presidential terms since direct elections were introduced in 1996.The DPP was unable to retain its majority in the Legislative Yuan, losing ten seats." ], [ "{{anchor|Policies|Ideology|Political views|Political positions|Political ideology}}Ideology and policies", "The DPP is a centre-left party generally described as progressive.", "It has also been described as liberal, as well as social democratic.", "The party takes a Taiwanese nationalist position, advocating for strengthening Taiwanese identity.", "Programs supported by the party include moderate social welfare policies involving the rights of women, senior citizens, children, young people, labor, minorities, indigenous peoples, farmers, and other disadvantaged sectors of the society.", "Furthermore, its platform includes a legal and political order based on human rights and democracy; balanced economic and financial administration; fair and open social welfare; educational and cultural reform; and, independent defense and peaceful foreign policy with closer ties to United States and Japan.", "The party is socially liberal and has a progressive stance that includes support for gender equality and same-sex marriage under Tsai's leadership, and also has a conservative base that includes support from the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan.=== Stance on Taiwanese independence ===The primary political axis in Taiwan involves the issue of Taiwan independence versus Chinese unification.", "Although the differences tend to be portrayed in polarized terms, both major coalitions have developed modified, nuanced and often complex positions.", "Though opposed in the philosophical origins, the practical differences between such positions can sometimes be subtle.The current official position of the party is that Taiwan is an independent and sovereign country whose territory consists of Taiwan and its surrounding smaller islands and whose sovereignty derives only from the ROC citizens living in Taiwan (similar philosophy of self-determination), based on the 1999 \"Resolution on Taiwan's Future\".", "It considers Taiwan an independent nation under the name of Republic of China, making a formal declaration of independence unnecessary.", "Though calls for drafting a new constitution and a declaration of a Republic of Taiwan was written into the party charter in 1991, the 1999 resolution has practically superseded the earlier charter.", "The DPP rejects the so-called \"One China principle\" defined in 1992 as the basis for official diplomatic relations with the PRC and advocates a Taiwanese national identity which is separate from mainland China.By contrast, the KMT or pan-blue coalition agrees that the Republic of China is an independent and sovereign country that is not part of the PRC, but argues that a one China principle (with different definitions across the strait) can be used as the basis for talks with China.", "The KMT also opposes Taiwan independence and argues that efforts to establish a Taiwanese national identity separated from the Chinese national identity are unnecessary and needlessly provocative.", "Some KMT conservative officials have called efforts from DPP \"anti-China\" (opposing migrants from mainland China, who DPP officials did not recognize as Taiwanese, but Chinese).", "At the other end of the political spectrum, the acceptance by the DPP of the symbols of the Republic of China is opposed by the Taiwan Solidarity Union.The first years of the DPP as the ruling party drew accusations from the opposition that, as a self-styled Taiwanese nationalist party, the DPP was itself inadequately sensitive to the ethnographic diversity of Taiwan's population.", "Where the KMT had been guilty of Chinese chauvinism, the critics charged, the DPP might offer nothing more as a remedy than Hoklo chauvinism.", "The DPP argues that its efforts to promote a Taiwanese national identity are merely an effort to normalize a Taiwanese identity repressed during years of authoritarian Kuomintang rule.=== Support ===Since the democratization of Taiwan in the 1990s, the DPP has had its strongest performance in the Hokkien-speaking counties and cities of Taiwan, compared with the predominantly Hakka and Mandarin-speaking counties, that tend to support the Kuomintang.The deep-rooted hostility between Taiwanese aborigines and (Taiwanese) Hoklo, and the effective KMT networks within aboriginal communities contribute to aboriginal skepticism against the DPP and the aboriginals‘ tendency to vote for the KMT.", "Aboriginals have criticized politicians for abusing the \"indigenization\" movement for political gains, such as aboriginal opposition to the DPP's \"rectification\" by recognizing the Truku for political reasons, where the Atayal and Seediq slammed the Truku for their name rectification.", "In 2008, the majority of mountain townships voted for Ma Ying-jeou.", "However, the DPP share of the aboriginal vote has been rising." ], [ "Structure", "DPP headquarters at Huashan Business Building Level 10 in Taipei.The DPP National Party Congress selects, for two-year terms, the 30 members of the Central Executive Committee and the 11 members of the Central Review Committee.", "The Central Executive Committee, in turn, chooses the 10 members of the Central Standing Committee.", "Since 2012, the DPP has had a \"China Affairs Committee\" to deal with Cross-Strait relations; the name caused some controversy within the party and in the Taiwan media, with critics suggesting that \"Mainland Affairs Committee\" or \"Cross-Strait Affairs Committee\" would show less of a hostile \"One Country on Each Side\" attitude.For many years the DPP officially recognized several factions within its membership, such as the New Tide faction (), the Formosa faction (), the Justice Alliance faction () and Welfare State Alliance faction ().", "Different factions endorse slightly different policies and are often generationally identifiable, representing individuals who had entered the party at different times.", "In 2006, the party ended recognition of factions.", "The factions have since stated that they will comply with the resolution.", "However, the factions are still referred to by name in national media.===Chair===* Current Chair: Lai Ching-te===Secretary-General===* Current Secretary-General: Lin Hsi-yao (since May 2020)===Legislative Yuan leader (caucus leader)===* Shih Ming-teh (1 February 1993 – 1 February 2002)* Ker Chien-ming (since 1 February 2002)" ], [ "Election results", "===Presidential elections=== Election Candidate Running mate Total votes Share of votes Outcome1996Peng Ming-minFrank Hsieh Chang-ting 2,274,586 21.13%2000Chen Shui-bianAnnette Lu Hsiu-lien 4,977,737 39.30%2004Chen Shui-bianAnnette Lu Hsiu-lien 6,446,900 50.11%2008Frank Hsieh Chang-tingSu Tseng-chang 5,445,239 41.55%2012Tsai Ing-wenSu Jia-chyuan 6,093,578 45.63%2016Tsai Ing-wenChen Chien-jen (15x15px ) 6,894,744 56.12%2020Tsai Ing-wenLai Ching‑te8,170,23157.13%2024Lai Ching-teHsiao Bi-khim5,586,01940.05%===Legislative elections===+ElectionTotal seats wonTotal votesShare of votesChangesParty leaderStatusPresident1989Huang Hsin-chiehLee Teng-hui 19922,944,19531.0% 30 seatsHsu Hsin-liang19953,132,15633.2% 3 seatsShih Ming-teh19982,966,83429.6% 16 seatsLin Yi-hsiung20013,447,74036.6% 21 seatsChen Shui-bianChen Shui-bian 20043,471,42937.9% 2 seats20083,775,35238.2% 62 seatsMa Ying-jeou 20124,556,52634.6% 13 seatsTsai Ing-wen20165,370,95344.1% 28 seatsTsai Ing-wen 20204,811,24133.98% 7 seatsCho Jung-tai20244,981,06036.16% 10 seatsLai Ching-teLai Ching-te ===Local elections=== Election Magistrates and mayors Councillors Township/city mayors Township/city council representatives Village chiefs Party leader1994 Shih Ming-teh1997–1998 Hsu Hsin-liang1998 Lin Yi-hsiung2001–2002 Chen Shui-bian2002 2005 2006 2009 Tsai Ing-wen2010 201420182022===National Assembly elections=== Election Total seats won Total votes Share of votes Changes Party leader Status President19912,036,27123.3%66 seatsHuang Shin-chieh Lee Teng-hui 19963,121,42329.9%33 seatsShih Ming-teh 2005 1,647,791 42.52% 28 seatsAnnette Lu Hsiu-lien Chen Shui-bian" ], [ "See also", "* Progressivism in Taiwan* Human rights in Taiwan* Taiwan Value* Culture of Taiwan* Taiwan independence movement* Taiwanese people* Taiwanese identity* Resolution on Taiwan's Future* Referendums in Taiwan* Foreign relations of Taiwan* February 28 Incident* Formosa Incident* Sunflower Student Movement" ], [ "Notes", "=== Words in native languages ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* DPP Official website* Academic thesis on the factions within DPP" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Datura" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Datura''''' is a genus of nine species of highly poisonous, vespertine-flowering plants belonging to the nightshade family (Solanaceae).", "They are commonly known as '''thornapples''' or '''jimsonweeds''', but are also known as '''devil's trumpets''' (not to be confused with angel's trumpets, which are placed in the closely related genus ''Brugmansia'').", "Other English common names include '''moonflower''', '''devil's weed''', and '''hell's bells'''.", "All species of ''Datura'' are extremely poisonous and psychoactive, especially their seeds and flowers, which can cause respiratory depression, arrhythmias, fever, delirium, hallucinations, anticholinergic syndrome, psychosis, and death if taken internally.Due to their effects and symptoms, ''Datura'' species have occasionally been used not only as poisons, but also as hallucinogens by various groups throughout history.", "Traditionally, their psychoactive administration has often been associated with witchcraft and sorcery or similar practices in many cultures, including the Western world.", "Certain common ''Datura'' species have also been used ritualistically as entheogens by some Native American groups.Non-psychoactive use of plants in the genus is usually done for medicinal purposes, and the alkaloids present in some species have long been considered traditional medicines in both the New and Old Worlds due to the presence of the alkaloids scopolamine and atropine, which are also produced by plants associated with Old World medicine such as ''Hyoscyamus niger'', ''Atropa belladonna'', and ''Mandragora officinarum''." ], [ "Etymology", "The generic name ''Datura'' is taken from Hindi धतूरा '''' \"thorn-apple\", ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर '''' \"white thorn-apple\" (referring to ''Datura metel'' of Asia).", "In the Ayurvedic text ''Sushruta Samhita'', different species of ''Datura'' are also referred to as '''' and ''''.", "''Dhatura'' is offered to Shiva in Hinduism.", "Record of this name in English dates back to 1662.Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in ''The Scarlet Letter'' as \"apple-Peru\".", "In Mexico, its common name is ''toloache''.", "The Mexican common name (also spelled ) derives from the Nahuatl , meaning \"the plant with the nodding head\" (in reference to the nodding seed capsules of ''Datura'' species belonging to section ''Dutra'' of the genus)." ], [ "Description", "''Datura'' species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials, which can reach up to 2 m in height.", "The leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long, and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin.", "The flowers are erect or spreading (not pendulous like those of ''Brugmansia''), trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long, and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth; colours vary from white to yellow and pale purple.", "The fruit is a spiny capsule, 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous seeds.", "The seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields, and even wasteland locations.", "''Datura'' belongs to the classic \"witches' weeds\", along with deadly nightshade, henbane, and mandrake.", "All parts of the plants are toxic, and the genus has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death.", "It was well known as an essential ingredient of magical ointments, potions, and witches' brews, most notably ''Datura stramonium''.In India, ''D.", "metel'' has long been regarded as a poison and aphrodisiac, having been used in Ayurveda as a medicine since ancient times.", "It features in rituals and prayers to Shiva and also in Ganesh Chaturthi, a festival devoted to the deity Ganesha.", "The larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species, including ''Hypercompe indecisa'', eat some ''Datura'' species.", "It has been observed that while insects may prefer to feed on ''Datura'' leaves, other animals such as cows will generally avoid consuming them.It was brought to Europe by the Romani people." ], [ "Species and cultivars", "''Datura metel'' 'Fastuosa'Classifying ''Datura'' as to its species is difficult, and the descriptions of new species often are accepted prematurely.", "Later, these \"new species\" are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location.", "They usually disappear in a few years.", "Contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as ''D.", "wrightii'' and ''D.", "inoxia'', are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme.", "For example, ''Datura'' species can change size of plant, leaf, and flowers, all depending on location.", "The same species, when growing in a half-shady, damp location can develop into a flowering bush half as tall as an adult human of average height, but when growing in a very dry location, will only grow into a thin plant not much more than ankle high, with tiny flowers and a few miniature leaves.", "''Datura'' species are native to dry, temperate, and subtropical regions.", "Most species native to Mexico, which is considered the center of origin of the genus.", "Several species are considered to have extra-American native ranges: ''D.", "ferox'' (native to China), ''D.", "metel'' (native to India and Southeast Asia), and ''D.", "leichardthii'' (native to Australia), however these may be early introductions from Central America.A group of South American species formerly placed in the genus ''Datura'' are now placed in the distinct genus ''Brugmansia'' (''Brugmansia'' differs from ''Datura'' in that it is woody (the species being shrubs or small trees) and has indehiscent fruits.", "The solanaceous tribe Datureae, to which ''Datura'' and ''Brugmansia'' belong, has recently acquired a new, monotypic genus ''Trompettia'' J. Dupin, featuring the species ''Trompettia cardenasiana'', which had hitherto been misclassified as belonging to the genus ''Iochroma''.", "''Datura'' specialists, the Preissels, accept only 9 species of ''Datura'', but Kew's Plants of the World Online currently lists the following 14 (out of which the current edition of The Plant List does not list ''D.", "arenicola'', ''D.", "lanosa'', and ''D.", "pruinosa'' as accepted spp.", "):*''Datura arenicola'' Gentry ex Bye & Luna*''Datura ceratocaula'' Ortega*''Datura discolor'' Bernh.", "*''Datura ferox'' L.*''Datura innoxia'' Mill.", "*''Datura kymatocarpa'' Barclay*''Datura lanosa'' A.S.Barclay ex Bye*''Datura leichhardtii'' Benth.", "*''Datura metel'' L.*''Datura pruinosa'' Greenm.", "*''Datura quercifolia'' Kunth*''Datura reburra'' Barclay*''Datura stramonium'' L.*''Datura wrightii'' RegelOf the above, ''D.", "leichhardtii'' is close enough to ''D.", "pruinosa'' to merit demotion to a subspecies and likewise ''D.", "ferox'' and ''D.", "quercifolia'' are close enough in morphology to merit being subsumed in a single species.", "Furthermore, the Australian provenance of ''D.", "leichhardtii'', the Chinese provenance of ''D.", "ferox'', and the Afro-Asiatic provenance of ''D.", "metel'' have been cast into serious doubt, with the three species being almost certainly post-Columbian introductions to the regions to which they were originally thought native.The case of ''D.", "metel'' is unique in that not only is the plant not a true species at all, but an assemblage of ancient pre-Columbian cultivars created from ''D.", "innoxia'' in the Greater Antilles, but evidence is mounting that it was introduced to the Indian subcontinent no later than the second century CE – whether by natural or human agency is, as yet, unknown – making it one of the most ancient plant introductions (if not the most ancient) from the New World to the Old World (see Columbian Exchange).''D.", "arenicola'' is a remarkable new species, described only in 2013, of very restricted range, and so distinctive as to have merited the creation for it of the new section ''Discola'' not to be confused with the species name ''D.", "discolor'' within the genus.", "The specific name ''arenicola'' means \"loving (i.e.", "\"thriving in\") sand\".", "Image Scientific name Common name Distribution ''Datura arenicola'' Gentry ex Bye & Luna Sand thorn-apple, Baja datura, Vizcaíno Desert datura Baja California Sur, Mexico 120px ''D.", "ceratocaula'' Jacq.", "torna loco, Sister of Ololiuhqui, swamp datura Mexico.", "120px ''D.", "discolor'' Bernh.", "(syn.", "''D.", "kymatocarpa'', ''D.", "reburra'') desert thorn-apple Sonoran Desert of western North America120px ''D.", "ferox'' L. long-spined thorn-apple southeastern China (disputed)120px ''D.", "innoxia'' Mill.", "thorn-apple, downy thorn-apple, Indian-apple, moonflower, ''toloatzin, toloache'' Southwestern United States, Central and South America (cosmopolitan weed)120px ''D.", "leichhardtii'' F.Muell.", "ex Benth.", "(syn.", "''D.", "pruinosa'') Leichhardt's datura from Mexico to Guatemala120px ''D.", "metel'' L. Hindu datura, Indian thorn-apple, devil's trumpet Asia, Africa (disputed)120px ''D.", "quercifolia'' Kunth oak-leaved thorn-apple Mexico and the Southwestern United States120px ''D.", "stramonium'' L. (syn.", "''D.", "inermis'', ''D.", "bernhardii'') jimsonweed, thorn-apple, devil's snare Central America (cosmopolitan weed)120px ''D.", "wrightii'' Regel sacred datura, western jimsonweed, California jimsonweed, sacred thorn-apple, tolguacha, toloache Southwestern United StatesAmerican Brugmansia and Datura Society, Inc. (ABADS) is designated in the 2004 edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants as the official International Cultivar Registration Authority for ''Datura''.", "This role was delegated to ABADS by the International Society for Horticultural Science in 2002.===Past classified species===* ''D.", "lanosa''* ''D.", "suaveolens''" ], [ "Cultivation", "Fruit''Datura metel'' 'Fastuosa' (Hindi: काला धतूरा ''kāla dhatūra'' – \"black datura\")''Datura'' species are usually sown annually from the seed produced in the spiny capsules, but, with care, the tuberous-rooted perennial species may be overwintered.", "Most species are suited to being planted outside or in containers.", "As a rule, they need warm, sunny places and soil that will keep their roots dry.", "When grown outdoors in good locations, the plants tend to reseed themselves and may become invasive.", "In containers, they should have porous, aerated potting soil with adequate drainage.", "The plants are susceptible to fungi in the root area, so anaerobic organic enrichment such as anaerobically composted organic matter or manure, should be avoided." ], [ "Toxicity", "All ''Datura'' plants contain tropane alkaloids such as scopolamine and atropine, primarily in their seeds and flowers, as well as the roots of certain species such as ''D.", "wrightii''.", "Because of the presence of these substances, ''Datura'' has been used for centuries in some cultures as a poison.", "A given plant's toxicity depends on its age, where it is growing, and the local weather conditions.", "These variations make ''Datura'' exceptionally hazardous as a drug.", "Since datura directly causes the effects of anticholinergic syndrome, the symptoms of its toxicity are often cited by the traditional mnemonic: \"Blind as a bat, mad as a hatter, red as a beet, hot as a hare, dry as a bone, the bowel and bladder lose their tone, and the heart runs alone\".", "''Datura'', as well as long-term psychoactive/toxic usage of other anticholinergic drugs, also appear to significantly increase the risk of developing dementia.In traditional cultures, a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'' was critical to minimize harm.", "Many tragic incidents result from modern users ingesting or smoking ''Datura''.", "For example, in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media reported stories of adolescents and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting ''Datura''.", "Deliberate or inadvertent poisoning resulting from smoking jimsonweed and other related species has been reported as well.", "Although most poisonings occur with more common species of ''Datura'' such as ''D.", "stramonium'', several reports in the medical literature indicate deaths from ''D.", "ferox'' intoxication.", "Children are especially vulnerable to atropine poisoning.''D.", "inoxia'' with ripe, split-open fruitIn some parts of Europe and India, ''Datura'' has been a popular poison for suicide and murder.", "From 1950 to 1965, the State Chemical Laboratories in Agra, India, investigated 2,778 deaths caused by ingesting ''Datura.''", "A group called Thugs ''(practicers of thuggee)'' were reportedly devotees of an Indian religious cult made up of robbers and assassins who strangled or poisoned their victims in rituals devoted to the Hindu goddess Kali.", "They were alleged to employ ''Datura'' in many such poisonings, using it also to induce drowsiness or stupefaction, making strangulation easier.", "''Datura'' toxins may be ingested accidentally by consumption of honey produced by several wasp species, including ''Brachygastra lecheguana'', during the ''Datura'' blooming season.", "These semi-domesticated honey wasps apparently collect ''Datura'' nectar for honey production, which can lead to poisoning.The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported accidental poisoning resulting in hospitalization for a family of six who inadvertently ingested ''Datura'' used as an ingredient in stew.In some places, buying, selling, or cultivating ''Datura'' plants is prohibited.", "Solanaceous tribes with a similar chemistry (i.e.", "a similar tropane alkaloid content), include the Hyoscyameae, containing such well-known toxic species as ''Hyoscyamus niger'' and ''Atropa belladonna'', the Solandreae containing the genus ''Solandra'' (\"chalice vines\") and the Mandragoreae, named for the famous ''Mandragora officinarum'', most of which are considered traditional witches' herbs and poisons." ], [ "Effects of ingestion", "''Datura'' is considered a deliriant.", "Due to the potent combination of anticholinergic substances it contains, ''Datura'' intoxication typically produces the effects of anticholinergic delirium (usually involving a complete or relative inability to differentiate reality from fantasy); bizarre thoughts, hyperthermia; tachycardia; bizarre, and possibly violent behavior; dry skin; dry mouth; illusions; and severe mydriasis (dilated pupils) with resultant painful photophobia that can last several days.", "Muscle stiffness, urinary retention, temporary paralysis, disrobing, emotional bluntness, dysphoria, and confusion are often reported, and pronounced amnesia is another commonly reported effect.", "The psychoactive alkaloids scopolamine and atropine are also both known for their characteristic hyperactive effects and ability to cause stark and dream-like hallucinations.", "The onset of symptoms generally occurs around 30 to 60 minutes after ingesting the herb.", "These symptoms generally last from 24 to 48 hours, but have been reported in some cases to last two weeks or longer.===Treatment===Due to their agitated behavior and confused mental state, people with acute ''Datura'' poisoning or intoxication are typically hospitalized.", "Gastric lavage and the administration of activated charcoal can be used to reduce the stomach's absorption of the ingested material, and the drug physostigmine is used to reverse the effect of the poisons.", "Benzodiazepines can be given to calm the patient's agitation, and supportive care with oxygen, hydration, and symptomatic treatment is often provided.", "Observation of the patient is indicated until the symptoms resolve, usually from 24 to 36 hours after ingestion of the ''Datura''." ], [ "Psychoactive use", "In ''Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs'', Freye asserts, \"Few substances have received as many severely negative recreational experience reports as has ''Datura''.\"", "The overwhelming majority of those who describe their use of ''Datura'' find their experiences extremely unpleasant; both mentally and often physically dangerous.", "However, anthropologists have found that indigenous groups, with a great deal of experience with and detailed knowledge of ''Datura'', have been known to use ''Datura'' spiritually (including the Navajo and especially the Havasupai).", "Adequate knowledge of ''Datura'' properties is necessary to facilitate a safe experience.", "The ancient inhabitants of what became central and southern California used to ingest ''Datura'' to \"commune with deities through visions\".", "The Southern Paiute believe ''Datura'' can help locate missing objects.", "In ancient Mexico, ''Datura'' also played an important role in the religion of the Aztecs and the practices of their medicine men and necromancers.", "It was reportedly used by the Aztecs for ritual sacrifice and malevolent purposes as well.", "In modern-day Mexico, some datura species are still used for sorcery and other occult practices, mostly in the southern region of Veracruz, specifically in the city of Catemaco.Bernardino de Sahagún, in around 1569, called attention to ''Datura'' in these words: \"It is administered in potions in order to cause harm to those who are objects of hatred.", "Those who eat it have visions of fearful things.", "Magicians or those who wish to harm someone administer it in food or drink.", "This herb is medicinal and its seed is used as a remedy for gout, ground up and applied to the part affected.", "\"Christian Rätsch has said, \"A mild dosage produces medicinal and healing effects, a moderate dosage produces aphrodisiac effects, and high dosages are used for shamanic purposes\".", "Wade Davis, an ethnobotanist, also lists it as an essential ingredient of Haitian zombie potion.", "In Western culture, the same species (''Datura stramonium'') has been said to have been commonly used by witches as an ingredient for their flying ointments and was regularly included in detailed recipes of magical ointments dating back as far as the early modern period, predominately in New England and Western Europe.", "During the anti-witchcraft hysteria of colonial times it was considered unlucky or inappropriate to grow ''D.", "stramonium'' in one's garden due to its supposed reputation for aiding in incantations." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Datura stramonium RF.jpg|''D.", "stramonium'' (lateral view) near Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany File:Datura wrightii, Twentynine Palms California - 2014-07.jpg | ''D.", "wrightii'' in bloom (lateral view) near Twentynine Palms, California, U.S.File:Datura Flower on the plant (Lateral View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 01.jpg|''Datura'' flower on the plant (lateral view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, IndiaFile:Datura Flower on the plant (Top View) near Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India 02.jpg|''Datura'' flower on the plant (top view) near Hyderabad, Telangana, India" ], [ "See also", "*Scopolamine*Anticholinergics*Antimuscarinic*Psychoactive plant" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * on eMedicine* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Commutator subgroup" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, more specifically in abstract algebra, the '''commutator subgroup''' or '''derived subgroup''' of a group is the subgroup generated by all the commutators of the group.The commutator subgroup is important because it is the smallest normal subgroup such that the quotient group of the original group by this subgroup is abelian.", "In other words, is abelian if and only if contains the commutator subgroup of .", "So in some sense it provides a measure of how far the group is from being abelian; the larger the commutator subgroup is, the \"less abelian\" the group is." ], [ "Commutators", "For elements and of a group ''G'', the commutator of and is .", "The commutator is equal to the identity element ''e'' if and only if , that is, if and only if and commute.", "In general, .However, the notation is somewhat arbitrary and there is a non-equivalent variant definition for the commutator that has the inverses on the right hand side of the equation: in which case but instead .An element of ''G'' of the form for some ''g'' and ''h'' is called a commutator.", "The identity element ''e'' = ''e'',''e'' is always a commutator, and it is the only commutator if and only if ''G'' is abelian.Here are some simple but useful commutator identities, true for any elements ''s'', ''g'', ''h'' of a group ''G'':* * where (or, respectively, ) is the conjugate of by * for any homomorphism , The first and second identities imply that the set of commutators in ''G'' is closed under inversion and conjugation.", "If in the third identity we take ''H'' = ''G'', we get that the set of commutators is stable under any endomorphism of ''G''.", "This is in fact a generalization of the second identity, since we can take ''f'' to be the conjugation automorphism on ''G'', , to get the second identity.However, the product of two or more commutators need not be a commutator.", "A generic example is ''a'',''b''''c'',''d'' in the free group on ''a'',''b'',''c'',''d''.", "It is known that the least order of a finite group for which there exists two commutators whose product is not a commutator is 96; in fact there are two nonisomorphic groups of order 96 with this property." ], [ "Definition", "This motivates the definition of the '''commutator subgroup''' (also called the '''derived subgroup''', and denoted or ) of ''G'': it is the subgroup generated by all the commutators.It follows from this definition that any element of is of the form:for some natural number , where the ''g''''i'' and ''h''''i'' are elements of ''G''.", "Moreover, since , the commutator subgroup is normal in ''G''.", "For any homomorphism ''f'': ''G'' → ''H'',:,so that .This shows that the commutator subgroup can be viewed as a functor on the category of groups, some implications of which are explored below.", "Moreover, taking ''G'' = ''H'' it shows that the commutator subgroup is stable under every endomorphism of ''G'': that is, ''G'',''G'' is a fully characteristic subgroup of ''G'', a property considerably stronger than normality.The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements ''g'' of the group that have an expression as a product ''g'' = ''g''1 ''g''2 ... ''g''''k'' that can be rearranged to give the identity.=== Derived series ===This construction can be iterated:::The groups are called the '''second derived subgroup''', '''third derived subgroup''', and so forth, and the descending normal series:is called the '''derived series'''.", "This should not be confused with the '''lower central series''', whose terms are .For a finite group, the derived series terminates in a perfect group, which may or may not be trivial.", "For an infinite group, the derived series need not terminate at a finite stage, and one can continue it to infinite ordinal numbers via transfinite recursion, thereby obtaining the '''transfinite derived series''', which eventually terminates at the perfect core of the group.=== Abelianization ===Given a group , a quotient group is abelian if and only if .The quotient is an abelian group called the '''abelianization''' of or '''made abelian'''.", "It is usually denoted by or .There is a useful categorical interpretation of the map .", "Namely is universal for homomorphisms from to an abelian group : for any abelian group and homomorphism of groups there exists a unique homomorphism such that .", "As usual for objects defined by universal mapping properties, this shows the uniqueness of the abelianization up to canonical isomorphism, whereas the explicit construction shows existence.The abelianization functor is the left adjoint of the inclusion functor from the category of abelian groups to the category of groups.", "The existence of the abelianization functor '''Grp''' → '''Ab''' makes the category '''Ab''' a reflective subcategory of the category of groups, defined as a full subcategory whose inclusion functor has a left adjoint.", "Another important interpretation of is as , the first homology group of with integral coefficients.=== Classes of groups ===A group is an '''abelian group''' if and only if the derived group is trivial: ''G'',''G'' = {''e''}.", "Equivalently, if and only if the group equals its abelianization.", "See above for the definition of a group's abelianization.A group is a '''perfect group''' if and only if the derived group equals the group itself: ''G'',''G'' = ''G''.", "Equivalently, if and only if the abelianization of the group is trivial.", "This is \"opposite\" to abelian.A group with for some ''n'' in '''N''' is called a '''solvable group'''; this is weaker than abelian, which is the case ''n'' = 1.A group with for all ''n'' in '''N''' is called a '''non-solvable group'''.A group with for some ordinal number, possibly infinite, is called a '''hypoabelian group'''; this is weaker than solvable, which is the case ''α'' is finite (a natural number).=== Perfect group ===Whenever a group has derived subgroup equal to itself, , it is called a '''perfect group'''.", "This includes non-abelian simple groups and the special linear groups for a fixed field ." ], [ "Examples", "* The commutator subgroup of any abelian group is trivial.", "* The commutator subgroup of the general linear group over a field or a division ring ''k'' equals the special linear group provided that or ''k'' is not the field with two elements.", "* The commutator subgroup of the alternating group ''A''4 is the Klein four group.", "* The commutator subgroup of the symmetric group ''Sn'' is the alternating group ''An''.", "* The commutator subgroup of the quaternion group ''Q'' = {1, −1, ''i'', −''i'', ''j'', −''j'', ''k'', −''k''} is ''Q'',''Q'' = {1, −1}.=== Map from Out ===Since the derived subgroup is characteristic, any automorphism of ''G'' induces an automorphism of the abelianization.", "Since the abelianization is abelian, inner automorphisms act trivially, hence this yields a map:" ], [ "See also", "*Solvable group*Nilpotent group*The abelianization ''H''/''H'' of a subgroup ''H'' < ''G'' of finite index (''G'':''H'') is the target of the Artin transfer ''T''(''G'',''H'')." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 19" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1154 – Henry II of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey.", "*1187 – Pope Clement III is elected.", "*1490 – Anne, Duchess of Brittany, is married to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor by proxy.", "*1562 – The Battle of Dreux takes place during the French Wars of Religion.===1601–1900===*1606 – The ships , , and depart England carrying settlers who founded, at Jamestown, Virginia, the first of the thirteen colonies that became the United States.", "*1675 – The Great Swamp Fight, a pivotal battle in King Philip's War, gives the English settlers a bitterly won victory.", "*1776 – Thomas Paine publishes one of a series of pamphlets in ''The Pennsylvania Journal'' entitled \"The American Crisis\".", "*1777 – American Revolutionary War: George Washington's Continental Army goes into winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.", "*1783 – William Pitt the Younger becomes the youngest Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at 24.", "*1793 – War of the First Coalition: The Siege of Toulon ends when Napoleon's French artillery forces the British to abandon the city, securing southern France from invasion.", "*1796 – French Revolutionary Wars: Two British frigates under Commodore Horatio Nelson and two Spanish frigates under Commodore Don Jacobo Stuart engage in battle off the coast of Murcia.", "*1828 – Vice President of the United States John C. Calhoun sparks the Nullification Crisis when he anonymously publishes the ''South Carolina Exposition and Protest'', protesting the Tariff of 1828.", "*1900 – Hopetoun Blunder: The first Governor-General of Australia John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun, appoints Sir William Lyne premier of the new state of New South Wales, but he is unable to persuade other colonial politicians to join his government and is forced to resign.", "* 1900 – French parliament votes amnesty for all involved in scandalous army treason trial known as Dreyfus affair.===1901–present===*1907 – Two hundred thirty-nine coal miners die in the Darr Mine Disaster in Jacobs Creek, Pennsylvania.", "*1912 – William Van Schaick, captain of the steamship which caught fire and killed over one thousand people, is pardoned by U.S. President William Howard Taft after years in Sing Sing prison.", "*1920 – King Constantine I is restored as King of the Hellenes after the death of his son Alexander of Greece and a plebiscite.", "*1924 – The last Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost is sold in London, England.", "* 1924 – German serial killer Fritz Haarmann is sentenced to death for a series of murders.", "*1927 – Three Indian revolutionaries, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh and Ashfaqulla Khan, are executed by the British Raj for participation in the Kakori conspiracy.", "*1929 – The Indian National Congress promulgates the Purna Swaraj (the Declaration of the Independence of India).", "*1932 – BBC World Service begins broadcasting as the BBC Empire Service.", "*1940 – Risto Ryti, the Prime Minister of Finland, is elected President of the Republic of Finland in a presidential election, which is exceptionally held by the 1937 electoral college.", "*1941 – World War II: Adolf Hitler appoints himself as head of the ''Oberkommando des Heeres''.", "* 1941 – World War II: Limpet mines placed by Italian divers heavily damage and in Alexandria harbour.", "*1945 – John Amery, British Fascist, is executed at the age of 33 by the British Government for treason.", "*1946 – Start of the First Indochina War.", "*1956 – Irish-born physician John Bodkin Adams is arrested in connection with the suspicious deaths of more than 160 patients.", "Eventually he is convicted only of minor charges.", "*1961 – India annexes Daman and Diu, part of Portuguese India.", "*1967 – Harold Holt, the Prime Minister of Australia, is officially presumed dead.", "*1972 – Apollo program: The last crewed lunar flight, Apollo 17, carrying Eugene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and Harrison Schmitt, returns to Earth.", "*1974 – Nelson Rockefeller is sworn in as Vice President of the United States under President Gerald Ford under the provisions of the 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution.", "*1977 – The 5.8 Bob–Tangol earthquake strikes Kerman Province in Iran, destroying villages and killing 665 people.", "*1981 – Sixteen lives are lost when the Penlee lifeboat goes to the aid of the stricken coaster Union Star in heavy seas.", "*1983 – The original FIFA World Cup trophy, the Jules Rimet Trophy, is stolen from the headquarters of the Brazilian Football Confederation in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.", "*1984 – The Sino-British Joint Declaration, stating that China would resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong and the United Kingdom would restore Hong Kong to China with effect from July 1, 1997, is signed in Beijing by Deng Xiaoping and Margaret Thatcher.", "*1985 – Aeroflot Flight 101/435 is hijacked to China by its first officer.", "*1986 – Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the Soviet Union, releases Andrei Sakharov and his wife from exile in Gorky.", "*1995 – The United States Government restores federal recognition to the Nottawaseppi Huron Band of Potawatomi Native American tribe.", "*1997 – SilkAir Flight 185 crashes into the Musi River, near Palembang in Indonesia, killing 104.", "*1998 – President Bill Clinton is impeached by the United States House of Representatives, becoming the second president of the United States to be impeached.", "*2000 – The Leninist Guerrilla Units wing of the Communist Labour Party of Turkey/Leninist attack a Nationalist Movement Party office in Istanbul, Turkey, killing one person and injuring three.", "*2001 – A record high barometric pressure of is recorded at Tosontsengel, Khövsgöl, Mongolia.", "* 2001 – Argentine economic crisis: December riots: Riots erupt in Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "* 2005 – Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101 crashes into the Government Cut channel immediately after takeoff from Miami Seaplane Base, killing 20.", "*2012 – Park Geun-hye is elected the first female president of South Korea.", "*2013 – Spacecraft ''Gaia'' is launched by the European Space Agency.", "*2016 – Russian ambassador to Turkey Andrei Karlov is assassinated while at an art exhibition in Ankara.", "The assassin, Mevlüt Mert Altıntaş, is shot and killed by a Turkish guard.", "* 2016 – A vehicular attack in Berlin, Germany, kills and injures multiple people at a Christmas market." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1343 – William I, Margrave of Meissen (d. 1407)*1498 – Andreas Osiander, German Protestant theologian (d. 1552)*1554 – Philip William, Prince of Orange (d. 1618)*1587 – Dorothea Sophia, Abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 1645)===1601–1900===*1683 – Philip V of Spain (d. 1746)*1699 – William Bowyer, English printer (d. 1777)*1714 – John Winthrop, American astronomer and educator (d. 1779)*1778 – Marie Thérèse of France (d. 1851)*1796 – Manuel Bretón de los Herreros, Spanish poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1873)*1797 – Antoine Louis Dugès, French obstetrician and naturalist (d. 1838)*1817 – James J. Archer, American lawyer and general (d. 1864)*1820 – Mary Livermore, American journalist and activist (d. 1905)*1825 – George Frederick Bristow, American violinist and composer (d. 1898)*1831 – Bernice Pauahi Bishop, American philanthropist (d. 1884)*1849 – Henry Clay Frick, American businessman and financier (d. 1919)*1852 – Albert Abraham Michelson, Prussian-American physicist, chemist, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931)*1853 – Charles Fitzpatrick, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec (d. 1942)*1861 – Italo Svevo, Italian author and playwright (d. 1928)*1863 – Wallace Bryant, American archer (d. 1953)*1865 – Minnie Maddern Fiske, American actress and playwright (d. 1932)*1873 – Alphonse Kirchhoffer, French fencer (d. 1913)*1875 – Mileva Marić, Serbian physicist (d. 1948)* 1875 – Carter G. Woodson, American historian and author, founded Black History Month (d. 1950)* 1875 – Grace Marie Bareis, American mathematician (d. 1962)*1876 – Bernard Friedberg, Austrian-Israeli scholar and author (d. 1961)*1884 – Antonín Zápotocký, Czech politician, President of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (d. 1957)*1888 – Fritz Reiner, Hungarian-American conductor (d. 1963)*1891 – Edward Bernard Raczyński, Polish politician and diplomat, 4th President-in-exile of Poland (d. 1993)*1894 – Ford Frick, American journalist and businessman (d. 1978)*1895 – Ingeborg Refling Hagen, Norwegian author and educator (d. 1989)*1899 – Martin Luther King Sr., American pastor, missionary, and activist (d. 1984)===1901–present===*1901 – Rudolf Hell, German engineer, invented the Hellschreiber (d. 2002)* 1901 – Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (d. 1963)* 1901 – Fritz Mauruschat, German footballer and manager (d. 1974)*1902 – Ralph Richardson, English actor (d. 1983)*1903 – George Davis Snell, American geneticist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)*1905 – Irving Kahn, American businessman (d. 2015)* 1905 – Giovanni Lurani, Italian race car driver, engineer, and journalist (d. 1995)*1906 – Leonid Brezhnev, Ukrainian-Russian marshal, engineer, and politician, 4th Head of State of the Soviet Union (d. 1982)*1907 – Jimmy McLarnin, Irish-American boxer, actor, and golfer (d. 2004)*1909 – W. A. Criswell, American pastor and author (d. 2002)*1910 – Jean Genet, French novelist, playwright, and poet (d. 1986)*1914 – Mel Shaw, American animator and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1915 – Édith Piaf, French singer-songwriter and actress (d. 1963)* 1915 – Claudia Testoni, Italian hurdler, sprinter, and long jumper (d. 1998)*1916 – Roy Ward Baker, English director and producer (d. 2010)* 1916 – Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, German political scientist, journalist, and academic (d. 2010)*1918 – Professor Longhair, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1980)* 1918 – Lee Rich, American producer and production manager (d. 2012)*1920 – Little Jimmy Dickens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2015)* 1920 – David Susskind, American talk show host and producer (d. 1987)*1922 – Eamonn Andrews, Irish radio and television host (d. 1987)*1923 – Robert V. Bruce, American historian and author (d. 2008)* 1923 – Gordon Jackson, Scottish-English actor and singer (d. 1990)*1924 – Carlo Chiti, Italian engineer (d. 1994)* 1924 – Doug Harvey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1989)* 1924 – Gary Morton, American comedian and producer (d. 1999)* 1924 – Edmund Purdom, British-Italian actor (d. 2009)* 1924 – Michel Tournier, French journalist and author (d. 2016)* 1924 – Cicely Tyson, American actress (d. 2021) *1925 – Tankred Dorst, German author and playwright (d. 2017)* 1925 – William Schutz, American psychologist and academic (d. 2002)* 1925 – Robert B. Sherman, American songwriter and screenwriter (d. 2012)*1926 – Bobby Layne, American football player and coach (d. 1986)* 1926 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (d. 2015)*1927 – James Booth, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2005)*1928 – Eve Bunting, Irish-American author and academic (d. 2023)* 1928 – Nathan Oliveira, American painter and sculptor (d. 2010)*1929 – Bob Brookmeyer, American trombonist, pianist, and composer (d. 2011)* 1929 – Gregory Carroll, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)* 1929 – David Douglas, 12th Marquess of Queensberry, Scottish potter* 1929 – Howard Sackler, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 1982)*1930 – Knut Helle, Norwegian historian and professor (d. 2015)* 1930 – Wally Olins, English businessman and academic (d. 2014)*1931 – Ginger Stanley, American model, actress and stunt woman (d. 2023)*1932 – Salvador Elizondo, Mexican author, poet, playwright, and critic (d. 2006)* 1932 – Lola Hendricks, African American civil rights activist (d. 2013)* 1932 – Wayne Tippit, American actor (d. 2009)*1933 – Kevan Gosper, Australian runner and politician* 1933 – Christopher Smout, Scottish historian and academic*1934 – Al Kaline, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2020)* 1934 – Pratibha Patil, Indian lawyer and politician, 12th President of India* 1934 – Casper R. Taylor, Jr., American lawyer and politician*1935 – Tony Taylor, Cuban baseball player and coach (d. 2020)* 1935 – Bobby Timmons, American pianist and composer (d. 1974)* 1935 – Joanne Weaver, American baseball player (d. 2000)*1938 – Jay Arnette, American basketball player*1940 – Phil Ochs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976)*1941 – Lee Myung-bak, South Korean businessman and politician, 10th President of South Korea* 1941 – Maurice White, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2016)*1942 – Cornell Dupree, American guitarist (d. 2011)* 1942 – Gene Okerlund, American sports announcer (d. 2019)*1943 – James L. Jones, American general and politician, 22nd United States National Security Advisor* 1943 – Elaine Joyce, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1943 – Ross M. Lence, American political scientist and academic (d. 2006)*1944 – William Christie, American-French harpsichord player and conductor * 1944 – Mitchell Feigenbaum, American physicist and mathematician (d. 2019)* 1944 – Martin Hume Johnson, English physiologist and academic* 1944 – Richard Leakey, Kenyan paleontologist and politician (d. 2022)* 1944 – Alvin Lee, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)* 1944 – Tim Reid, American actor and director* 1944 – Steve Tyrell, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1944 – Zal Yanovsky, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)*1945 – John McEuen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1946 – Rosemary Conley, English businesswoman, author, and broadcaster* 1946 – Robert Urich, American actor and producer (d. 2002)*1947 – Jimmy Bain, Scottish bass player and songwriter (d. 2016)*1948 – Ken Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster (d. 2022)*1949 – Orna Berry, Israeli computer scientist and businesswoman* 1949 – Claudia Kolb, American swimmer* 1949 – Sebastian, Danish singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1949 – Lenny White, American musician*1950 – Eleanor J. Hill, American lawyer and diplomat*1951 – Mohammad Reza Aref, Iranian engineer and politician, 2nd Vice President of Iran* 1951 – Alan Rouse, English mountaineer and author (d. 1986)*1952 – Walter Murphy, American pianist and composer*1954 – Jeff Allam, English race car driver* 1954 – Tim Parks, English author and translator*1955 – Lincoln Hall, Australian mountaineer and author (d. 2012)* 1955 – Rob Portman, American lawyer and politician*1956 – Phil Harris, American captain and fisherman (d. 2010)* 1956 – Tom Lawless, American baseball player and manager* 1956 – Shane McEntee, Irish farmer and politician, Minister of State at the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (d. 2012)* 1956 – Merzbow, Japanese noise musician*1957 – Cyril Collard, French actor, director, and composer (d. 1993)* 1957 – Kevin McHale, American basketball player, coach, and manager*1958 – Steven Isserlis, English cellist and author* 1958 – Limahl, English pop singer*1959 – Iván Vallejo, Ecuadorian mountaineer* 1959 – Lisa Wilkinson, Australian television host and journalist*1960 – Derrick Jensen, American author and activist* 1960 – Michelangelo Signorile, American journalist and author*1961 – Scott Cohen, American actor* 1961 – Eric Allin Cornell, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate* 1961 – Matthew Waterhouse, English actor and author* 1961 – Reggie White, American football player and wrestler (d. 2004)*1962 – Gary Fleder, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1963 – Jennifer Beals, American model and actress * 1963 – Til Schweiger, German actor, director, and producer*1964 – Béatrice Dalle, French actress* 1964 – Lorie Kane, Canadian golfer* 1964 – Randall McDaniel, American football player* 1964 – Arvydas Sabonis, Lithuanian basketball player*1965 – Chito Martínez, Belizean-American baseball player*1966 – Chuckii Booker, American singer-songwriter and producer* 1966 – Rajesh Chauhan, Indian cricketer* 1966 – Robert MacNaughton, American actor* 1966 – Alberto Tomba, Italian skier* 1966 – Eric Weinrich, American ice hockey player and coach*1967 – Criss Angel, American magician * 1967 – Charles Austin, American high jumper*1968 – Kristina Keneally, American-Australian politician, 42nd Premier of New South Wales* 1968 – Ken Marino, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter*1969 – Michael Bates, American sprinter and football player* 1969 – Tom Gugliotta, American basketball player* 1969 – Richard Hammond, English journalist and producer* 1969 – Nayan Mongia, Indian cricketer* 1969 – Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Azerbaijani composer, pianist, and singer* 1969 – Kristy Swanson, American actress*1970 – Tyson Beckford, American model and actor* 1970 – Robert Lang, Czech ice hockey player*1971 – Amy Locane, American actress* 1971 – Karen Pickering, English swimmer*1972 – Rosa Blasi, American actress* 1972 – Alyssa Milano, American actress, television personality, and activist* 1972 – Warren Sapp, American football player and analyst*1973 – Michalis Grigoriou, Greek footballer and coach* 1973 – Erick Wainaina, Kenyan runner* 1973 – Zulfiya Zabirova, Russian cyclist*1974 – Eduard Ivakdalam, Indonesian footballer* 1974 – Joe Jurevicius, American football player* 1974 – Felipe Lopez, Dominican-American basketball player* 1974 – Jake Plummer, American football player and sportscaster* 1974 – Ricky Ponting, Australian cricketer and sportscaster*1975 – Makis Belevonis, Greek footballer* 1975 – Brandon Sanderson, American author and academic* 1975 – Jeremy Soule, American composer* 1975 – Olivier Tébily, Ivorian-French footballer* 1975 – Dean Treister, Australian rugby league player*1977 – Jorge Garbajosa, Spanish basketball player* 1977 – LaTasha Jenkins, American sprinter* 1977 – Irina Voronina, Russian model*1978 – Patrick Casey, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1979 – Kevin Devine, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1979 – Rafael Soriano, Dominican baseball player*1980 – Jake Gyllenhaal, American actor and producer* 1980 – Marla Sokoloff, American actress and musician*1981 – Grégory Dufer, Belgian footballer*1982 – Mo Williams, American basketball player*1983 – Nektarios Alexandrou, Cypriot footballer* 1983 – Casey Crescenzo, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1983 – Bridget Phillipson, English politician* 1983 – Laura Pomeroy, Canadian swimmer* 1983 – Matt Stajan, Canadian ice hockey player*1984 – Ian Kennedy, American baseball player*1985 – Andrea Baldini, Italian fencer* 1985 – Gary Cahill, English footballer* 1985 – Neil Kilkenny, English-Australian footballer* 1985 – Sally Kipyego, Kenyan runner* 1985 – Dan Logan, English bass player * 1985 – Lady Sovereign, English rapper*1986 – Calvin Andrew, English footballer* 1986 – Ryan Babel, Dutch footballer* 1986 – Ingrid Burley, American rapper and songwriter* 1986 – Lazaros Christodoulopoulos, Greek footballer* 1986 – Zuzana Hejnová, Czech hurdler* 1986 – Miguel Lopes, Portuguese footballer* 1986 – Annie Murphy, Canadian actress*1987 – Cédric Baseya, French-Congolese footballer* 1987 – Karim Benzema, French footballer* 1987 – Ronan Farrow, American activist, journalist, and lawyer*1988 – Alexis Sánchez, Chilean footballer* 1988 – Peter Winn, English footballer*1989 – Yong Jun-hyung, South Korean singer-songwriter, rapper and producer * 1989 – Michał Masłowski, Polish footballer* 1989 – Kousei Miura, Japanese jockey* 1989 – Hamza Riazuddin, English cricketer*1990 – Greg Bretz, American snowboarder* 1990 – Torrey Craig, American basketball player*1991 – Steven Berghuis, Dutch footballer* 1991 – Declan Galbraith, English singer-songwriter* 1991 – Josh Huestis, American basketball player* 1991 – Keiynan Lonsdale, Australian actor, singer-songwriter, and dancer* 1991 – Sumire Uesaka, Japanese voice actress and singer*1992 – Iker Muniain, Spanish footballer* 1992 – Raphael Spiegel, Swiss footballer*1993 – Young K, South Korean singer-songwriter* 1993 – Isiah Koech, Kenyan runner*1994 – Maudy Ayunda, Indonesian actress and singer-songwriter* 1994 – M'Baye Niang, French footballer*1996 – Franck Kessié, Ivorian footballer*1998 – King Princess, American singer-songwriter and musician" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 401 – Pope Anastasius I* 966 – Sancho I, king of León*1091 – Adelaide of Susa, margravine of Turin*1111 – Al-Ghazali, Persian jurist, philosopher, theologian, and mystic (b.", "1058)*1123 – Saint Berardo, Italian bishop and saint*1327 – Agnes of France, Duchess of Burgundy (b.", "1260)*1370 – Pope Urban V (b.", "1310)*1442 – Elizabeth of Luxembourg (b.", "1409)*1385 – Bernabò Visconti, Lord of Milan (b.", "1319)*1558 – Cornelius Grapheus, Flemish writer (b.", "1482)===1601–1900===*1637 – Christina of Lorraine, Grand Duchess consort of Tuscany (b.", "1565)*1741 – Vitus Bering, Dutch explorer (b.", "1681)*1745 – Jean-Baptiste van Loo, French painter (b.", "1684)*1749 – Francesco Antonio Bonporti, Italian priest and composer (b.", "1672)*1807 – Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm, German-French author and playwright (b.", "1723)*1813 – James McGill, Scottish-Canadian businessman and philanthropist, founded McGill University (b.", "1744)*1819 – Thomas Fremantle, English admiral and politician (b.", "1765)*1848 – Emily Brontë, English novelist and poet (b.", "1818)*1851 – Joseph Mallord William Turner, English painter (b.", "1775)*1878 – Bayard Taylor, American author and poet (b.", "1825)*1899 – Henry Ware Lawton, American general (b.", "1843)===1901–present===*1915 – Alois Alzheimer, German psychiatrist and neuropathologist (b.", "1864)*1916 – Thibaw Min, Burmese king (b.", "1859)*1927 – Ashfaqulla Khan, Indian activist (b.", "1900)* 1927 – Ram Prasad Bismil, Indian poet and activist (b.", "1897)*1932 – Yun Bong-gil, South Korean activist (b.", "1908)*1933 – George Jackson Churchward, English engineer and businessman (b.", "1857)*1938 – Stephen Warfield Gambrill, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1873)*1940 – Kyösti Kallio, Finnish politician, the 4th President of Finland (b.", "1873)*1944 – Abbas II of Egypt (b.", "1874)* 1944 – Rudolph Karstadt, German businessman (b.", "1856)*1946 – Paul Langevin, French physicist and academic (b.", "1872)*1953 – Robert Andrews Millikan, American physicist and eugenicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1868)*1968 – Norman Thomas, American minister and politician (b.", "1884)*1972 – Ahmet Emin Yalman, Turkish journalist, author, and academic (b.", "1888)*1976 – Giuseppe Caselli, Italian painter (b.", "1893)*1982 – Dwight Macdonald, American philosopher, author, and critic (b.", "1906)*1984 – Joy Ridderhof, American missionary (b.", "1903)*1986 – V. C. Andrews, American author (b.", "1923)* 1986 – Werner Dankwort, Russian-German colonel and diplomat (b.", "1895)*1987 – August Mälk, Estonian author, playwright, and politician (b.", "1900)*1988 – Robert Bernstein, American author and playwright (b.", "1919)*1988 - Win Maw Oo, Burmese student activist (b.", "1971)*1989 – Stella Gibbons, English journalist, author, and poet (b.", "1902)* 1989 – Kirill Mazurov, Belarusian Soviet politician (b.", "1914)*1993 – Michael Clarke, American drummer (b.", "1946)*1996 – Marcello Mastroianni, Italian-French actor and singer (b.", "1924)*1997 – Sara Northrup Hollister, American occultist (b.", "1924)* 1997 – Masaru Ibuka, Japanese businessman, co-founded Sony (b.", "1908)* 1997 – Jimmy Rogers, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1924)*1998 – Mel Fisher, American treasure hunter (b.", "1922)*1999 – Desmond Llewelyn, Welsh soldier and actor (b.", "1914)*2000 – Rob Buck, American guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1958)* 2000 – Milt Hinton, American bassist and photographer (b.", "1910)* 2000 – John Lindsay, American lawyer and politician, 103rd Mayor of New York City (b.", "1921)*2002 – Will Hoy, English race car driver (b.", "1952)* 2002 – Arthur Rowley, English footballer and manager (b.", "1926)* 2002 – George Weller, American author, playwright, and journalist (b.", "1907)*2003 – Peter Carter-Ruck, English lawyer, founded Carter-Ruck (b.", "1914)* 2003 – Hope Lange, American actress (b.", "1933)*2004 – Herbert C. Brown, English-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1912)* 2004 – Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano and actress (b.", "1922)*2005 – Vincent Gigante, American mobster (b.", "1927)*2008 – James Bevel, American minister and activist (b.", "1936)* 2008 – Carol Chomsky, American linguist and educator (b.", "1930)* 2008 – Michael Connell, American political consultant (b.", "1963)* 2008 – Dock Ellis, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1945)*2009 – Kim Peek, American megasavant (b.", "1951)*2010 – Anthony Howard, English journalist and author (b.", "1934)*2012 – Robert Bork, American lawyer, judge, and scholar, United States Attorney General (b.", "1927)* 2012 – Amnon Lipkin-Shahak, Israeli general and politician, 22nd Transportation Minister of Israel (b.", "1944)* 2012 – Larry Morris, American football player (b.", "1933)* 2012 – Peter Struck, German lawyer and politician, 13th German Federal Minister of Defence (b.", "1943)*2013 – Winton Dean, English musicologist and author (b.", "1916)* 2013 – Al Goldstein, American publisher and pornographer (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Ned Vizzini, American author and screenwriter (b.", "1981)*2014 – S. Balasubramanian, Indian journalist and director (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Philip Bradbourn, English lawyer and politician (b.", "1951)* 2014 – Arthur Gardner, American actor and producer (b.", "1910)* 2014 – Igor Rodionov, Russian general and politician, 3rd Russian Minister of Defence (b.", "1936)* 2014 – Dick Thornton, American-Canadian football player and coach (b.", "1939)* 2014 – Roberta Leigh (Rita Shulman Lewin), British writer, artist and TV producer (b.", "1926).", "*2015 – Jimmy Hill, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Greville Janner, Baron Janner of Braunstone, Welsh-English lawyer and politician (b.", "1928)* 2015 – Karin Söder, Swedish educator and politician, 33rd Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs (b.", "1928)*2016 – Andrei Karlov, Russian diplomat, Ambassador to Turkey (b.", "1954)*2020 – Rosalind Knight, English actress (b.", "1933)*2021 – Sally Ann Howes, English-American singer and actress (b.", "1930)* 2021 – Johnny Isakson, American politician (b.", "1944)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Lillian Trasher (Episcopal Church)**O Radix**Pope Anastasius I**Pope Urban V**December 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)**Saint Nicholas Day*Goa Liberation Day (Goa, India)*National Heroes and Heroines Day (Anguilla)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 19" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 20" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*AD 69 – Antonius Primus enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor for Nero's former general Vespasian.", "*1192 – Richard I of England is captured and imprisoned by Leopold V of Austria on his way home to England after the Third Crusade.", "*1334 – Cardinal Jacques Fournier, a Cistercian monk, is elected Pope Benedict XII.===1601–1900===*1803 – The Louisiana Purchase is completed at a ceremony in New Orleans.", "*1808 – Peninsular War: The Siege of Zaragoza begins.", "*1832 – HMS ''Clio'' under the command of Captain Onslow arrives at Port Egmont under orders to take possession of the Falkland Islands.", "*1848 – French presidential election: Having won the popular vote in a landslide, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is inaugurated in the chamber of the National Assembly as the first (and only) president of the French Second Republic.", "*1860 – South Carolina becomes the first state to attempt to secede from the United States with the South Carolina Declaration of Secession.===1901–present===*1915 – World War I: The last Australian troops are evacuated from Gallipoli.", "*1917 – Cheka, the first Soviet secret police force, is founded.", "*1924 – Adolf Hitler is released from Landsberg Prison.", "*1940 – ''Captain America Comics'' #1, containing the first appearance of the superhero Captain America, is published.", "*1941 – World War II: First battle of the American Volunteer Group, better known as the \"Flying Tigers\", in Kunming, China.", "*1942 – World War II: Japanese air forces bomb Calcutta, India.", "*1946 – ''It's a Wonderful Life'' premieres at the Globe Theatre in New York to mixed reviews.", "* 1946 – An earthquake in Nankaidō, Japan causes a tsunami which kills at least one thousand people and destroys 36,000 homes.", "*1948 – Indonesian National Revolution: The Dutch military captures Yogyakarta, the temporary capital of the newly formed Republic of Indonesia.", "*1951 – The EBR-1 in Arco, Idaho becomes the first nuclear power plant to generate electricity.", "The electricity powered four light bulbs.", "*1952 – A United States Air Force C-124 crashes and burns in Moses Lake, Washington, killing 87 of the 115 people on board.", "*1955 – Cardiff is proclaimed the capital city of Wales, United Kingdom.", "*1957 – The initial production version of the Boeing 707 makes its first flight.", "*1960 – Vietnam War: The National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, popularly known as the Viet Cong, is formally established in Tân Lập village, present day Tây Ninh province.", "*1967 – A Pennsylvania Railroad Budd Metroliner exceeds on their New York Division, also present-day Amtrak's Northeast Corridor.", "*1968 – The Zodiac Killer murders his first two officially confirmed victims, David Arthur Faraday and Betty Lou Jensen, on Lake Herman Road in Benicia, California, United States.", "*1970 – Koza riot: After a series of hit-and-runs and other vehicular incidents involving American service personnel, roughly 5,000 Okinawans take to the streets, clashing with American law enforcement in protest against the U.S. occupation of Okinawa.", "*1973 – Assassination of Luis Carrero Blanco: A car bomb planted by ETA in Madrid kills three people, including the Prime Minister of Spain, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco.", "*1977 – With the approval of the State Council, China’s two largest newspapers, the ''People’s Daily'' and the ''Guangming Daily'', publish in full for the first time the Second Chinese Character Simplification Scheme.", "*1984 – The Summit Tunnel fire, one of the largest transportation tunnel fires in history, burns after a freight train carrying over one million liters of gasoline derails near the town of Todmorden, England, in the Pennines.", "* 1984 – Disappearance of Jonelle Matthews from Greeley, Colorado.", "Her remains were discovered on July 23, 2019, located about southeast of Jonelle's home.", "The cause of death \"was a gunshot wound to the head.", "\"*1985 – Pope John Paul II announces the institution of World Youth Day.", "*1987 – In the worst peacetime sea disaster, the passenger ferry ''Doña Paz'' sinks after colliding with the oil tanker MT ''Vector'' in the Tablas Strait of the Philippines, killing an estimated 4,000 people (1,749 official).", "*1988 – War on drugs: The United Nations agrees upon and promulgates the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, one of three major drug control treaties currently in force.", "*1989 – The United States invasion of Panama deposes Manuel Noriega.", "*1991 – A Missouri court sentences the Palestinian militant Zein Isa and his wife Maria to death for the honor killing of their daughter Palestina.", "*1995 – NATO begins peacekeeping in Bosnia.", "* 1995 – American Airlines Flight 965, a Boeing 757, crashes into a mountain 50 km north of Cali, Colombia, killing 159 of the 163 people on board.", "*1999 – Macau is handed over to China by Portugal.", "*2004 – A gang of thieves steal £26.5 million worth of currency from the Donegall Square West headquarters of Northern Bank in Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom, one of the largest bank robberies in British history.", "*2007 – Elizabeth II becomes the oldest monarch in the history of the United Kingdom, surpassing Queen Victoria, who lived for 81 years and 243 days.", "* 2007 – The ''Portrait of Suzanne Bloch'' (1904), by the Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, and ''O Lavrador de Café'' by Brazilian modernist painter Cândido Portinari, are stolen from the São Paulo Museum of Art in Brazil.", "Both will be recovered a few weeks later.", "*2019 – The United States Space Force becomes the first new branch of the United States Armed Forces since 1947." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1494 – Oronce Finé, French mathematician and cartographer (d. 1555)*1496 – Joseph ha-Kohen, historian and physician (d. 1575)*1537 – John III, king of Sweden (d. 1592)*1576 – John Sarkander, Moravian priest and saint (d. 1620)===1601–1900===*1626 – Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff, German scholar and politician (d. 1692)*1629 – Pieter de Hooch, Dutch painter (d. 1684)*1641 – Urban Hjärne, Swedish chemist, geologist, and physician (d. 1724)*1740 – Arthur Lee, American physician and diplomat (d. 1792)*1786 – Pietro Raimondi, Italian composer (d. 1853)*1792 – Nicolas Toussaint Charlet, French painter and educator (d. 1845)*1806 – Martín Carrera, Mexican general and president (1855) (d. 1871)*1812 – Laura M. Hawley Thurston, American poet and educator (d. 1842)*1838 – Edwin Abbott Abbott, English theologian, author, and educator (d. 1926)*1841 – Ferdinand Buisson, French academic and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1932)*1861 – Ferdinand Bonn, German actor (d. 1933)* 1861 – Ivana Kobilca, Slovenian painter (d. 1926)*1865 – Elsie de Wolfe, American actress and interior decorator (d. 1950)*1868 – Harvey Samuel Firestone, American businessman, founded the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company (d. 1938)*1869 – Charley Grapewin, American actor (d. 1956)*1871 – Henry Kimball Hadley, American composer and conductor (d. 1937)*1873 – Kan'ichi Asakawa, Japanese historian, author, and academic (d. 1948)* 1873 – Mehmet Akif Ersoy, Turkish poet, academic, and politician (d. 1936)*1881 – Branch Rickey, American baseball player and manager (d. 1965)*1884 – Ruhana Kuddus, Indonesian activist and journalist (d.1972)*1886 – Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman, American tennis player and businessman (d. 1974)*1888 – Yitzhak Baer, German-Israeli historian and academic (d. 1980)* 1888 – Fred Merkle, American baseball player and manager (d. 1956)*1890 – Yvonne Arnaud, French pianist, actress and singer (d. 1958)* 1890 – Jaroslav Heyrovský, Czech chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)*1891 – Erik Almlöf, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1971)*1894 – Robert Menzies, Australian lawyer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1978)*1898 – Konstantinos Dovas, Greek general and politician, 156th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1973)* 1898 – Irene Dunne, American actress and singer (d. 1990)*1899 – Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Welsh preacher and physician (d. 1981)*1900 – Lissy Arna, German actress (d. 1964)* 1900 – Gabby Hartnett, American baseball player and manager (d. 1972)===1901–present===*1901 – Robert J.", "Van de Graaff, American physicist and academic, invented the Van de Graaff generator (d. 1967)*1902 – Prince George, Duke of Kent (d. 1942)* 1902 – Sidney Hook, American philosopher and author (d. 1989)*1904 – Spud Davis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1984)* 1904 – Yevgenia Ginzburg, Russian author (d. 1977)*1905 – Bill O'Reilly, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1992)*1907 – Paul Francis Webster, American soldier and songwriter (d. 1984)*1908 – Dennis Morgan, American actor and singer (d. 1994)*1909 – Vakkom Majeed, Indian journalist and politician (d. 2000)*1911 – Hortense Calisher, American author (d. 2009)*1914 – Harry F. Byrd Jr., American lieutenant, publisher, and politician (d. 2013)*1915 – Aziz Nesin, Turkish author and poet (d. 1995)*1916 – Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader and activist (d. 2010)*1917 – David Bohm, American-English physicist, neuropsychologist, and philosopher (d. 1992)* 1917 – Cahit Külebi, Turkish poet and author (d. 1997)* 1917 – Audrey Totter, American actress (d. 2013)*1918 – Jean Marchand, Canadian trade union leader and politician, 43rd Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1988)*1920 – Väinö Linna, Finnish author (d. 1992)*1921 – George Roy Hill, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2002)*1922 – Beverly Pepper, American sculptor and painter (d. 2020)* 1922 – William Soeryadjaya, Chinese-Indonesian businessman and co-founder of Astra International (d. 2010)*1924 – Charlie Callas, American actor and comedian (d. 2011)* 1924 – Judy LaMarsh, Canadian soldier, lawyer, and politician, 42nd Secretary of State for Canada (d. 1980)*1925 – Benito Lorenzi, Italian footballer (d. 2007)*1926 – Geoffrey Howe, Welsh lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2015)* 1926 – Otto Graf Lambsdorff, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of Economics (d. 2009)*1927 – Michael Beaumont, 22nd Seigneur of Sark, English engineer and politician (d. 2016)* 1927 – Jim Simpson, American sportscaster (d. 2016)* 1927 – Kim Young-sam, South Korean soldier and politician, 7th President of South Korea (d. 2015)*1928 – John Menkes, Austrian-American pediatric and writer (d. 2008)*1929 – Don Sunderlage, American basketball player (d. 1961)*1931 – Mala Powers, American actress (d. 2007) *1932 – John Hillerman, American actor (d. 2017)*1933 – Olavi Salonen, Finnish runner* 1933 – Rik Van Looy, Belgian cyclist*1935 – Khalid Ibadulla, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster*1939 – Kathryn Joosten, American actress (d. 2012)* 1939 – Kim Weston, American soul singer*1942 – Rana Bhagwandas, Pakistani lawyer and judge, Chief Justice of Pakistan (d. 2015)* 1942 – Bob Hayes, American sprinter and football player (d. 2002)* 1942 – Jean-Claude Trichet, French banker and economist*1944 – Ray Martin, Australian television host and journalist*1945 – Peter Criss, American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer * 1945 – Sivakant Tiwari, Indian-Singaporean lawyer and author (d. 2010)*1946 – Uri Geller, Israeli-English magician and psychic* 1946 – Bill Hosket Jr., American basketball player* 1946 – Sonny Perdue, American politician, 31st United States Secretary of Agriculture, 81st Governor of Georgia* 1946 – Dick Wolf, American director, producer, and screenwriter*1947 – Gigliola Cinquetti, Italian singer-songwriter*1948 – Alan Parsons, English keyboard player and producer * 1948 – Mitsuko Uchida, Japanese pianist*1949 – Soumaïla Cissé, Malian engineer and politician* 1949 – Cecil Cooper, American baseball player and manager*1950 – Arturo Márquez, Mexican-American composer*1951 – Nuala O'Loan, Baroness O'Loan, Northern Irish academic and police ombudsman* 1951 – Marta Russell, American author and activist (d. 2013)*1952 – Jenny Agutter, English actress*1954 – Michael Badalucco, American actor* 1954 – Sandra Cisneros, American author and poet*1955 – David Breashears, American mountaineer, director, and producer* 1955 – Martin Schulz, German politician* 1955 – Binali Yıldırım, Turkish lawyer and politician, Turkish Minister of Transport*1956 – Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, Mauritanian general and politician, President of Mauritania* 1956 – Guy Babylon, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2009)* 1956 – Blanche Baker, American actress and screenwriter* 1956 – Junji Hirata, Japanese wrestler* 1956 – Andrew Mackenzie, Scottish geologist and businessman* 1956 – Anita Ward, American disco/R&B singer*1957 – Billy Bragg, English singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1957 – Anna Vissi, Cypriot singer-songwriter and actress * 1957 – Mike Watt, American singer-songwriter and bass player*1958 – Doug Nordquist, American high jumper* 1958 – James Thomson, American biologist and academic*1959 – George Coupland, Scottish scientist* 1959 – Hildegard Körner, German runner* 1959 – Jackie Fox, American bass player * 1959 – Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz, Polish physicist and politician, 12th Prime Minister of Poland* 1959 – Trent Tucker, American basketball player and sportscaster*1960 – Nalo Hopkinson, Jamaican-Canadian author and educator* 1960 – Kim Ki-duk, South Korean director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2020)*1961 – Mohammad Fouad, Egyptian singer-songwriter and actor* 1961 – Mike Keneally, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1961 – Freddie Spencer, American motorcycle racer*1963 – Joel Gretsch, American actor*1964 – Mark Coleman, American mixed martial artist and wrestler*1965 – Rich Gannon, American football player and sportscaster*1966 – Matt Neal, English racing driver* 1966 – Veronica Pershina, Russian-American figure skater and coach* 1966 – Chris Robinson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist *1968 – Joe Cornish, English actor, director, and screenwriter* 1968 – Karl Wendlinger, Austrian racing driver*1969 – Alain de Botton, Swiss-English philosopher and author* 1969 – Zahra Ouaziz, Moroccan runner*1970 – Nicole de Boer, Canadian actress* 1970 – Grant Flower, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach* 1970 – Jörg Schmidt, German footballer*1972 – Jan Čaloun, Czech ice hockey player* 1972 – Anders Odden, Norwegian guitarist, songwriter, and producer * 1972 – Anja Rücker, German sprinter*1973 – David Nedohin, Canadian curler and sportscaster*1974 – Die, Japanese guitarist, songwriter, and producer *1975 – Bartosz Bosacki, Polish footballer*1976 – Nenad Vučković, Croatian footballer*1978 – Yoon Kye-sang, South Korean singer* 1978 – Andrei Markov, Russian-Canadian ice hockey player* 1978 – Geremi Njitap, Cameroon footballer* 1978 – Bouabdellah Tahri, French runner*1979 – Michael Rogers, Australian cyclist*1980 – Israel Castro, Mexican footballer* 1980 – Ashley Cole, English footballer* 1980 – Anthony da Silva, French-Portuguese footballer* 1980 – Martín Demichelis, Argentine footballer*1981 – Royal Ivey, American basketball player and coach* 1981 – James Shields, American baseball player*1982 – Mohammad Asif, Pakistani cricketer* 1982 – David Cook, American singer-songwriter* 1982 – Kasper Klausen, Danish footballer* 1982 – David Wright, American baseball player*1983 – Jonah Hill, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1984 – Bob Morley, Australian actor* 1984 – David Tavaré, Spanish singer and DJ*1986 – Chay Genoway, Canadian ice hockey player*1987 – Malcolm Jenkins, American football player*1990 – JoJo, American singer and actress* 1990 – Marta Xargay, Spanish basketball player*1991 – Rachael Boyle, Scottish footballer* 1991 – Jorginho, Brazilian footballer* 1991 – Jillian Rose Reed, American actress* 1991 – Fabian Schär, Swiss footballer *1992 – Ksenia Makarova, Russian-American figure skater*1993 – Robeisy Ramírez, Cuban boxer*1994 – Calvin Ridley, American football player*1995 – Anžejs Pasečņiks, Latvian basketball player* 1995 – Christian Wilkins, American football player*1997 – De'Aaron Fox, American basketball player* 1997 – Suzuka Nakamoto, Japanese singer*1998 – Kylian Mbappé, French footballer*2001 – Facundo Pellistri, Uruguayan footballer*2002 – Marcelo Pitaluga, Brazilian footballer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 69 – Titus Flavius Sabinus, a Roman politician and soldier* 217 – Zephyrinus, pope of the Catholic Church* 910 – Alfonso III, king of Asturias* 977 – Fujiwara no Kanemichi, Japanese statesman (b.", "925)*1295 – Margaret of Provence, French queen (b.", "1221)*1326 – Peter of Moscow, Russian metropolitan bishop*1340 – John I, duke of Bavaria (b.", "1329)*1355 – Stefan Dušan, emperor of Serbia (b.", "1308)*1539 – Johannes Lupi, Flemish composer (b.", "1506)*1552 – Katharina von Bora, wife of Martin Luther (b.", "1499)*1590 – Ambroise Paré, French physician and surgeon (b.", "1510)===1601–1900===*1658 – Jean Jannon, French designer and typefounder (b.", "1580)*1722 – Kangxi, emperor of the Qing Dynasty (b.", "1654)*1723 – Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, German physician and botanist (b.", "1652)*1740 – Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon, English field marshal and politician, Governor of Portsmouth (b.", "1675)*1765 – Louis, dauphin of France (b.", "1729)*1768 – Carlo Innocenzo Frugoni, Italian poet and academic (b.", "1692)*1783 – Antonio Soler, Spanish priest and composer (b.", "1729)*1812 – Sacagawea, American explorer (b.", "1788)*1820 – John Bell, American farmer (b.", "1750)*1856 – Francesco Bentivegna, Italian activist (b.", "1820)*1862 – Robert Knox, Scottish surgeon and zoologist (b.", "1791)*1880 – Gaspar Tochman, Polish-American colonel and lawyer (b.", "1797)*1893 – George C. Magoun, American businessman (b.", "1840)===1901–present===*1915 – Upendrakishore Ray, Indian painter and composer (b.", "1863)*1916 – Arthur Morgan, Australian politician, 16th Premier of Queensland (b.", "1856)*1917 – Lucien Petit-Breton, French-Argentinian cyclist (b.", "1882)*1919 – Philip Fysh, English-Australian politician, 12th Premier of Tasmania (b.", "1835)*1920 – Linton Hope, English sailor and architect (b.", "1863)*1921 – Julius Richard Petri, German microbiologist (b.", "1852)*1925 – João Ferreira Sardo, the founder of Gafanha da Nazaré, also known as Prior Sardo (b.", "1873).", "*1927 – Frederick Semple, American golfer and tennis player (b.", "1872)*1929 – Émile Loubet, French lawyer and politician, 8th President of France (b.", "1838)*1935 – Martin O'Meara, Irish-Australian sergeant, Victoria Cross recipient (b.", "1882)*1937 – Erich Ludendorff, German general (b.", "1865)*1938 – Annie Armstrong, American missionary (b.", "1850)* 1938 – Lida Howell, American archer (b.", "1859)*1939 – Hans Langsdorff, German captain (b.", "1894)*1941 – Igor Severyanin, Russian-Estonian poet and author (b.", "1887)*1950 – Enrico Mizzi, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Malta (b.", "1885)*1954 – James Hilton, English-American author and screenwriter (b.", "1900)*1956 – Ramón Carrillo, Argentinian neurologist and physician (b.", "1906)*1959 – Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (b.", "1885)*1961 – Moss Hart, American director and playwright (b.", "1904)* 1961 – Earle Page, Australian soldier and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Australia (b.", "1880)*1968 – John Steinbeck, American novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1902)*1971 – Roy O. Disney, American banker and businessman, co-founded The Walt Disney Company (b.", "1893)*1972 – Adolfo Orsi, Italian businessman (b.", "1888)*1973 – Luis Carrero Blanco, Spanish admiral and politician, 69th President of the Government of Spain (b.", "1904; assassinated)* 1973 – Bobby Darin, American singer-songwriter and actor (b.", "1936)*1974 – Rajani Palme Dutt, English journalist and politician (b.", "1896)* 1974 – André Jolivet, French composer and conductor (b.", "1905)*1976 – Richard J. Daley, American lawyer and politician, 48th Mayor of Chicago (b.", "1902)*1976 – Soetardjo Kartohadikusumo, Indonesian politician, 1st Governor of West Java (b.", "1890)*1981 – Dimitris Rontiris, Greek actor and director (b.", "1899)*1982 – Arthur Rubinstein, Polish-American pianist and composer (b.", "1887)*1984 – Stanley Milgram, American psychologist and academic (b.", "1933)* 1984 – Dmitry Ustinov, Minister of Defence of the Soviet Union (1976-84) (b.", "1908)*1986 – Joe DeSa, American baseball player (b.", "1959)*1991 – Simone Beck, French chef and author (b.", "1904)* 1991 – Sam Rabin, English wrestler, singer, and sculptor (b.", "1903)* 1991 – Albert Van Vlierberghe, Belgian cyclist (b.", "1942)*1993 – W. Edwards Deming, American statistician, author, and academic (b.", "1900)* 1993 – Nazife Güran, Turkish composer and educator (b.", "1921)*1994 – Dean Rusk, American lawyer, and politician, 54th United States Secretary of State (b.", "1909)*1995 – Madge Sinclair, Jamaican-American actress (b.", "1938)*1996 – Carl Sagan, American astronomer, astrophysicist, and cosmologist (b.", "1934)*1997 – Denise Levertov, English-American poet and translator (b.", "1923)* 1997 – Dick Spooner, English cricketer (b.", "1919)* 1997 – Dawn Steel, American film producer (b.", "1946)*1998 – Alan Lloyd Hodgkin, English physiologist and biophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1916)*1999 – Riccardo Freda, Egyptian-Italian director and screenwriter (b.", "1909)* 1999 – Hank Snow, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b.", "1914)*2001 – Léopold Sédar Senghor, Senegalese poet and politician, 1st President of Senegal (b.", "1906)*2005 – Raoul Bott, Hungarian-American mathematician and academic (b.", "1923)*2006 – Anne Rogers Clark, American dog breeder and trainer (b.", "1929)*2008 – Adrian Mitchell, English author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1932)* 2008 – Robert Mulligan, American director and producer (b.", "1925)* 2008 – Igor Troubetzkoy, Russian aristocrat and racing driver (b.", "1912)*2009 – Brittany Murphy, American actress and singer (b.", "1977)* 2009 – Arnold Stang, American actor (b.", "1918)*2010 – K. P. Ratnam, Sri Lankan academic and politician (b.", "1914)*2011 – Barry Reckord, Jamaican playwright and screenwriter (b.", "1926)*2012 – Stan Charlton, English footballer and manager (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Robert Juniper, Australian painter and sculptor (b.", "1929)* 2012 – Victor Merzhanov, Russian pianist and educator (b.", "1919)*2013 – Pyotr Bolotnikov, Russian runner (b.", "1930)*2014 – Per-Ingvar Brånemark, Swedish surgeon and academic (b.", "1929)* 2014 – John Freeman, English lawyer, politician, and diplomat, British Ambassador to the United States (b.", "1915)*2020 – Fanny Waterman, British pianist (b.", "1920)* 2020 – Ezra Vogel, American sociologist (b.", "1930)*2022 – Franco Harris, American football player (b.", "1950)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Abolition of Slavery Day, also known as ''Fête des Cafres'' (Réunion, French Guiana)*Bo Aung Kyaw Day (Myanmar)*Christian feast day:**Dominic of Silos**O Clavis**Ursicinus of Saint-Ursanne**Katharina von Bora (Lutheran)**December 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Earliest date for Winter solstice's eve (Northern Hemisphere), and its related observances:**Yaldā (Iran)*International Human Solidarity Day (International)*Macau Special Administrative Region Establishment Day (Macau)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 20" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 21" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*AD 69 – The Roman Senate declares Vespasian emperor of Rome, the last in the Year of the Four Emperors.", "*1124 – Pope Honorius II is consecrated, having been elected after the controversial dethroning of Pope Celestine II.", "*1140 – After a siege of several weeks, the city of Weinsberg and its castle surrender to Conrad III of Germany.", "*1237 – The city of Ryazan is sacked by the Mongol army of Batu Khan.", "*1361 – The Battle of Linuesa is fought in the context of the Spanish Reconquista between the forces of the Emirate of Granada and the combined army of the Kingdom of Castile and of Jaén resulting in a Castilian victory.", "*1598 – Battle of Curalaba: The revolting Mapuche, led by cacique Pelentaru, inflict a major defeat on Spanish troops in southern Chile.===1601–1900===*1620 – Plymouth Colony: William Bradford and the ''Mayflower'' Pilgrims land near what is now known as Plymouth Rock in Plymouth, Massachusetts.", "*1826 – American settlers in Nacogdoches, Mexican Texas, declare their independence, starting the Fredonian Rebellion.", "*1832 – Egyptian–Ottoman War: Egyptian forces decisively defeat Ottoman troops at the Battle of Konya.", "*1844 – The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers commences business at its cooperative in Rochdale, England, starting the Cooperative movement.", "*1861 – Medal of Honor: Public Resolution 82, containing a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor, is signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln.", "*1872 – Challenger expedition: , commanded by Captain George Nares, sails from Portsmouth, England.", "*1879 – World premiere of Henrik Ibsen's ''A Doll's House'' at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "*1883 – The Royal Canadian Dragoons and The Royal Canadian Regiment, the first Permanent Force cavalry and infantry regiments of the Canadian Army, are formed.", "*1891 – James Naismith, a Canadian-American gym teacher at Springfield College, publishes the first rules for the game now known as basketball and brings it to his class, which then plays the first game of basketball.===1901–present===*1907 – The Chilean Army commits a massacre of at least 2,000 striking saltpeter miners in Iquique, Chile.", "*1910 – An underground explosion at the Hulton Bank Colliery No.", "3 Pit in Over Hulton, Westhoughton, England, kills 344 miners.", "*1913 – Arthur Wynne's \"word-cross\", the first crossword puzzle, is published in the ''New York World''.", "*1919 – American anarchist Emma Goldman is deported to Russia.", "*1923 – United Kingdom and Nepal formally sign an agreement of friendship, called the Nepal–Britain Treaty of 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sugauli signed in 1816.", "*1934 – ''Lieutenant Kijé'', one of Sergei Prokofiev's best-known works, premiered.", "*1936 – First flight of the Junkers Ju 88 multi-role combat aircraft.", "*1937 – ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', the world's first full-length animated feature, premieres at the Carthay Circle Theatre.", "*1941 – World War II: A Thai-Japanese Pact of Alliance is signed.", "*1946 – An 8.1 Mw earthquake and subsequent tsunami in Nankaidō, Japan, kills over 1,300 people and destroys over 38,000 homes.", "*1963 – \"Bloody Christmas\" begins in Cyprus, ultimately resulting in the displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots and destruction of more than 100 villages.", "*1965 – International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is adopted.", "*1967 – Louis Washkansky, the first man to undergo a human-to-human heart transplant, dies in Cape Town, South Africa, having lived for 18 days after the transplant.", "*1968 – Apollo program: Apollo 8 is launched from the Kennedy Space Center, placing its crew on a lunar trajectory for the first visit to another celestial body by humans.", "*1970 – First flight of F-14 multi-role combat aircraft.", "*1973 – The Geneva Conference on the Arab–Israeli conflict opens.", "*1979 – Lancaster House Agreement: An independence agreement for Rhodesia is signed in London by Lord Carrington, Sir Ian Gilmour, Robert Mugabe, Joshua Nkomo, Bishop Abel Muzorewa and S.C.", "Mundawarara.", "*1988 – A bomb explodes on board Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland, killing 270.This is to date the deadliest air disaster to occur on British soil.", "* 1988 – The first flight of Antonov An-225 Mriya, the largest aircraft in the world.", "*1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The leaders of 11 now effectively autonomous Soviet republics sign the Alma-Ata Protocol establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States in place of the collapsing Soviet Union.", "*1992 – A Dutch DC-10, flight Martinair MP 495, crashes at Faro Airport, killing 56.", "*1995 – The city of Bethlehem passes from Israeli to Palestinian control.", "*1999 – The Spanish Civil Guard intercepts a van loaded with 950 kg of explosives that ETA intended to use to blow up Torre Picasso in Madrid, Spain.", "* 1999 – Cubana de Aviación Flight 1216 overshoots the runway at La Aurora International Airport, killing 18.", "*2004 – Iraq War: A suicide bomber kills 22 at the forward operating base next to the main U.S. military airfield at Mosul, Iraq, the single deadliest suicide attack on American soldiers.", "*2012 – 2012 phenomenon: Festivities are held in parts of Mesoamerica to commemorate the conclusion of b’ak’tun 13, a roughly 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count Calendar whose passing many New Age spiritualists had earlier held to portend a variety of cataclysmic or transformative events.", "*2020 – A great conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn occurs, with the two planets separated in the sky by 0.1 degrees.", "This is the closest conjunction between the two planets since 1623.", "*2023 – 14 people are killed and 25 others injured during a mass shooting at Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic.", "The perpetrator, a student at the university, kills himself after police arrived; he also killed his father before the shooting." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 968 – Minamoto no Yorinobu, Japanese samurai (d. 1048)*1401 – Masaccio, Italian painter (d. 1428)*1468 – William Conyers, 1st Baron Conyers, English baron (d. 1524)*1505 – Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, English politician (d. 1550)*1538 – Luigi d'Este, Catholic cardinal (d. 1586)*1542 – Thomas Allen, English mathematician and astrologer (d. 1632)*1550 – Man Singh I, Mughal noble (d. 1614)*1596 – Peter Mohyla, Ruthenian Orthodox metropolitan and saint (d. 1646)===1601–1900===*1603 – Roger Williams, English minister, theologian, and politician, 9th President of the Colony of Rhode Island (d. 1684)*1615 – Benedict Arnold, Rhode Island colonial governor (d. 1678)*1672 – Benjamin Schmolck, German pastor and composer (d. 1737)*1714 – John Bradstreet, Canadian-English general (d. 1774)*1728 – Hermann Raupach, German harpsichord player and composer (d. 1778)*1778 – Anders Sandøe Ørsted, Danish jurist and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Denmark (d. 1860)*1795 – Jack Russell, English priest, hunter, and dog breeder (d. 1883)* 1795 – Leopold von Ranke, German historian, author, and academic (d. 1886)*1803 – Achille Vianelli, Italian painter and academic (d. 1894)*1804 – Benjamin Disraeli, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1881)*1805 – Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist and academic (d. 1869)*1811 – Archibald Tait, Scottish-English archbishop (d. 1882)*1815 – Thomas Couture, French painter and educator (d. 1879)*1820 – William H. Osborn, American businessman (d. 1894)*1830 – Bartolomé Masó, Cuban soldier and politician (d. 1907)*1832 – John H. Ketcham, American general and politician (d. 1906)*1840 – Namık Kemal, Turkish journalist, playwright, and activist (d. 1888)*1843 – Thomas Bracken, Irish-New Zealander journalist, poet, and politician (d. 1898)*1850 – Zdeněk Fibich, Czech composer and poet (d. 1900)*1851 – Thomas Chipman McRae, American lawyer and politician, 26th Governor of Arkansas (d. 1929)*1857 – Joseph Carruthers, Australian politician, 16th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1932)*1859 – Gustave Kahn, French poet and critic (d. 1936)*1866 – Maud Gonne, Irish nationalist and political activist (d. 1953)*1868 – George W. Fuller, American chemist and engineer (d. 1934)*1872 – Trevor Kincaid, Canadian-American zoologist and academic (d. 1970) * 1872 – Lorenzo Perosi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1956)* 1872 – Albert Payson Terhune, American journalist and author (d. 1942)*1876 – Jack Lang, Australian lawyer and politician, 23rd Premier of New South Wales (d. 1975)*1877 – Jaan Sarv, Estonian mathematician and scholar (d. 1954)*1878 – Jan Łukasiewicz, Polish-Irish mathematician and philosopher (d. 1956)*1884 – María Cadilla, Puerto Rican writer, educator, women's rights activist (d. 1951)*1885 – Frank Patrick, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1960)*1888 – Jean Bouin, French runner and rugby player (d. 1914)*1889 – Sewall Wright, American geneticist and biologist (d. 1988)*1890 – Hermann Joseph Muller, American geneticist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)*1891 – John William McCormack, American lawyer and politician, 53rd Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1980)*1892 – Walter Hagen, American golfer (d. 1969)* 1892 – Rebecca West, English journalist and author (d. 1983) *1896 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Marshal of the Soviet Union during World War II (d. 1968)*1900 – Luis Arturo González López, Guatemalan supreme court judge and briefly acting president (d. 1965)===1901–present===*1905 – Käte Fenchel, German mathematician (d. 1983)* 1905 – Anthony Powell, English author (d. 2000)*1909 – Seichō Matsumoto, Japanese journalist and author (d. 1992)*1911 – Josh Gibson, American baseball player (d. 1947)*1913 – Arnold Friberg, American illustrator and painter (d. 2010)*1914 – Frank Fenner, Australian microbiologist and virologist (d. 2010)*1917 – Heinrich Böll, German novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)*1918 – Donald Regan, American colonel and politician, 11th White House Chief of Staff (d. 2003)* 1918 – Kurt Waldheim, Austrian colonel and politician; 9th President of Austria (d. 2007)*1919 – Doug Young, American voice actor (d. 2018)*1920 – Alicia Alonso, Cuban ballerina and choreographer, founded the Cuban National Ballet (d. 2019)* 1920 – Adele Goldstine, American computer programmer (d. 1964)*1922 – Itubwa Amram, Nauruan pastor and politician (d. 1989)* 1922 – Cécile DeWitt-Morette, French mathematician and physicist (d. 2017)* 1922 – Paul Winchell, American actor, voice artist, and ventriloquist (d. 2005)*1923 – Wat Misaka, American basketball player (d. 2019)*1926 – Arnošt Lustig, Czech author and playwright (d. 2011)* 1926 – Joe Paterno, American football player and coach (d. 2012)*1930 – Phil Roman, American animator*1932 – U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and critic (d. 2014)* 1932 – Edward Hoagland, American author and critic*1933 – Jackie Hendriks, Jamaican cricketer* 1933 – Robert Worcester, American businessman and academic, founded MORI*1934 – Giuseppina Leone, Italian sprinter* 1934 – Hanif Mohammad, Pakistani cricketer (d. 2016)*1935 – John G. Avildsen, American director, producer, and cinematographer (d. 2017)* 1935 – Lorenzo Bandini, Italian racing driver (d. 1967)* 1935 – Phil Donahue, American talk show host and producer* 1935 – Stela Popescu, Romanian actress (d. 2017)* 1935 – Edward Schreyer, Canadian academic and politician, Governor General of Canada*1937 – Jane Fonda, American actress and activist*1938 – Larry Bryggman, American actor*1939 – Lloyd Axworthy, Canadian academic and politician, 2nd Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs* 1939 – Wafic Saïd, Syrian-Saudi Arabian financier, businessman and philanthropist*1940 – Frank Zappa, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, composer and producer (d. 1993)*1942 – Hu Jintao, Chinese engineer and politician, 5th Paramount leader of China* 1942 – Carla Thomas, American singer*1943 – Albert Lee, English guitarist and songwriter * 1943 – Walter Spanghero, French rugby player*1944 – Michael Tilson Thomas, American pianist, composer, and conductor* 1944 – Zheng Xiaoyu, Chinese diplomat (d. 2007)*1945 – Doug Walters, Australian cricketer*1946 – Roy Karch, American director, producer, and screenwriter* 1946 – Carl Wilson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998)*1947 – Paco de Lucía, Spanish guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2014)*1948 – Barry Gordon, American actor and voice artist; longest-serving president of the Screen Actors Guild (1988–95)* 1948 – Samuel L. Jackson, American actor and producer* 1948 – Dave Kingman, American baseball player*1949 – Thomas Sankara, Burkinabé captain and politician, 5th President of Burkina Faso (d. 1987)* 1949 – Nikolaos Sifounakis, Greek lawyer and politician*1950 – Jeffrey Katzenberg, American screenwriter and producer, co-founded DreamWorks Animation* 1950 – Max Maven, American magician and mentalist (d. 2022)* 1950 – Lillebjørn Nilsen, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist*1951 – Steve Perryman, English footballer and manager*1952 – Joaquín Andújar, Dominican baseball player (d. 2015)* 1952 – Dennis Boutsikaris, American actor* 1952 – Steve Furniss, American swimmer*1953 – András Schiff, Hungarian-English pianist and conductor* 1953 – Betty Wright, American singer-songwriter (d. 2020)*1954 – Chris Evert, American tennis player and coach*1955 – Jane Kaczmarek, American actress* 1955 – Kazuyuki Sekiguchi, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player *1956 – Dave Laut, American shot putter (d. 2009)*1957 – Ray Romano, American actor, producer, and screenwriter* 1957 – Tony Lewis, English singer and songwriter (d. 2020)*1958 – Tamara Bykova, Russian high jumper*1959 – Florence Griffith Joyner, American sprinter and actress (d. 1998)* 1959 – Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Indian cricketer*1960 – Sherry Rehman, Pakistani journalist, politician, and diplomat, 25th Pakistan Ambassador to the United States*1961 – Ryuji Sasai, Japanese bass player and composer*1963 – Govinda, Indian actor, singer, and politician*1964 – Kunihiko Ikuhara, Japanese director and illustrator* 1964 – Joe Kocur, Canadian ice hockey player and coach*1965 – Glenn Coleman, Australian rugby league player* 1965 – Andy Dick, American actor and comedian* 1965 – Anke Engelke, Canadian-German actress, director, and screenwriter*1966 – Michelle Hurd, American actress* 1966 – William Ruto, 5th President of Kenya* 1966 – Kiefer Sutherland, British-Canadian actor, director, and producer*1967 – Terry Mills, American basketball player and coach* 1967 – Mikheil Saakashvili, Georgian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Georgia*1969 – Julie Delpy, French model, actress, director, and screenwriter* 1969 – Mihails Zemļinskis, Latvian footballer, coach, and manager*1971 – Matthieu Chedid, French singer-songwriter and guitarist* 1971 – Natalie Grant, American singer-songwriter and author*1972 – Y. S. Jaganmohan Reddy, Indian Politician, 17th Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh*1973 – Irakli Alasania, Georgian colonel and politician, Georgian Minister of Defense* 1973 – Matías Almeyda, Argentine footballer and manager*1974 – Karrie Webb, Australian golfer*1975 – Paloma Herrera, Argentine ballerina*1977 – Buddy Carlyle, American baseball player* 1977 – Corey Collymore, Barbadian cricketer * 1977 – Leon MacDonald, New Zealand rugby player* 1977 – Emmanuel Macron, French politician, 25th President of France* 1977 – Freddy Sanchez, American baseball player*1978 – Emiliano Brembilla, Italian swimmer* 1978 – Charles Dera, American pornographic actor, dancer, model, and mixed martial arts fighter* 1978 – Shaun Morgan, South African musician, singer, and guitarist* 1978 – Rutina Wesley, American actress*1979 – Steve Montador, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2015)*1981 – Marta Fernández, Spanish basketball player* 1981 – Cristian Zaccardo, Italian footballer*1982 – Primo Colón, Puerto Rican wrestler* 1982 – Philip Humber, American baseball player* 1982 – Tom Payne, English actor*1983 – Taylor Teagarden, American baseball player* 1983 – Steven Yeun, American actor*1985 – Tom Sturridge, English actor*1987 – Khris Davis, American baseball player*1988 – Danny Duffy, American baseball player* 1988 – Perri Shakes-Drayton, English sprinter and hurdler*1989 – Mark Ingram II, American football player* 1989 – Tamannaah, Indian actress*1991 – Nic Maddinson, Australian cricketer* 1991 – Otis, American wrestler* 1991 – Riccardo Saponara, Italian footballer*1992 – Ha Ha Clinton-Dix, American football player* 1992 – Jamie Oleksiak, Canadian ice hockey player*1994 – Luke Brooks, Australian rugby league player*1996 – Kaitlyn Dever, American actress*1997 – Madelyn Cline, American actress and model* 1997 – Charlie McAvoy, American ice hockey player *2002 – Clara Tauson, Danish tennis player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*AD 72 – Thomas the Apostle, Roman martyr and saint (b.", "1 AD)* 882 – Hincmar, French archbishop and historian (b.", "806)* 956 – Sun Sheng, Chinese chancellor* 975 – Al-Mu'izz, Fatimid caliph (b.", "932)*1001 – Hugh of Tuscany, Italian margrave (b.", "950)*1215 – Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid, ''Dāʿī al-Muṭlaq'' of Tayyibi Isma'ilism (b. c. 1128)*1308 – Henry I, Landgrave of Hesse (b.", "1244)*1338 – Thomas Hemenhale, bishop of Worcester*1362 – Constantine III, king of Armenia (b.", "1313)*1375 – Giovanni Boccaccio, Italian author and poet (b.", "1313)*1504 – Berthold von Henneberg, German archbishop (b.", "1442)*1536 – John Seymour, English courtier (b.", "1474)*1549 – Marguerite de Navarre, queen of Henry II of Navarre (b.", "1492)*1581 – Jean de la Cassière, 51st Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b.", "1502)*1597 – Peter Canisius, Dutch priest and saint (b.", "1521)===1601–1900===*1608 – William Davison, secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England (b. c. 1541)*1610 – Catherine Vasa, Swedish princess (b.", "1539)*1701 – Sir Hugh Paterson, Baronet of Bannockburn (b.", "1659)*1807 – John Newton, English soldier and minister (b.", "1725)*1824 – James Parkinson, English physician and paleontologist (b.", "1755)*1869 – Friedrich Ernst Scheller, German jurist and politician (b.", "1791)*1873 – Francis Garnier, French admiral and explorer (b.", "1839)*1889 – Friedrich August von Quenstedt, German geologist and palaeontologist (b.", "1809)===1901–present===*1920 – Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, leader of the Dervish movement (b.", "1856)*1929 – I. L. Patterson, American politician, 18th Governor of Oregon (b.", "1859)*1933 – Knud Rasmussen, Greenlandic anthropologist and explorer (b.", "1879)*1935 – Ted Birnie, English footballer and manager (b.", "1878)* 1935 – Kurt Tucholsky, German-Swedish journalist and author (b.", "1890)*1937 – Violette Neatley Anderson, American judge (b.", "1882)* 1937 – Ted Healy, American comedian and actor (b.", "1896)* 1937 – Frank B. Kellogg, American lawyer and politician, 45th United States Secretary of State, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1856)*1940 – F. Scott Fitzgerald, American novelist and short story writer (b.", "1896)*1945 – George S. Patton, American general (b.", "1885)*1948 – Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (b.", "1878)*1952 – Kenneth Edwards, American golfer (b.", "1886)*1953 – Kaarlo Koskelo, Finnish-American wrestler and businessman (b.", "1888)*1957 – Eric Coates, English viola player and composer (b.", "1886)*1958 – H.B.", "Warner, English actor (b.", "1875)* 1958 – Lion Feuchtwanger, German-American author and playwright (b.", "1884)*1959 – Rosanjin, Japanese calligrapher, engraver, and painter (b.", "1883)*1963 – Jack Hobbs, English cricketer and journalist (b.", "1882)*1964 – Carl Van Vechten, American author and photographer (b.", "1880)*1965 – Claude Champagne, Canadian violinist, pianist, and composer (b.", "1891)*1968 – Vittorio Pozzo, Italian footballer, coach, and manager (b.", "1886)*1974 – Richard Long, American actor and director (b.", "1927)*1982 – Abu Al-Asar Hafeez Jullundhri, Pakistani poet and composer (b.", "1900)*1983 – Paul de Man, Belgian-born philosopher, literary critic and theorist (b.", "1919)*1988 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1907)*1992 – Stella Adler, American actress and educator (b.", "1901)* 1992 – Albert King, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b.", "1924)* 1992 – Nathan Milstein, Russian-American violinist and composer (b.", "1903)*1998 – Ernst-Günther Schenck, German colonel and physician (b.", "1904)*2004 – Autar Singh Paintal, Indian physiologist and neurologist (b.", "1925)*2006 – Saparmurat Niyazov, Turkmen engineer and politician, 1st President of Turkmenistan (b.", "1940)*2009 – Edwin G. Krebs, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1918)* 2009 – Christos Lambrakis, Greek journalist and businessman (b.", "1934)*2010 – Enzo Bearzot, Italian footballer and manager (b.", "1927)*2013 – Edgar Bronfman, Sr., Canadian-American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1929)* 2013 – John Eisenhower, American historian, general, and diplomat, 45th United States Ambassador to Belgium (b.", "1922)*2014 – Udo Jürgens, Austrian-Swiss singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1934)* 2014 – Sitor Situmorang, Indonesian poet and author (b.", "1923)* 2014 – Billie Whitelaw, English actress (b.", "1932)*2017 – Bruce McCandless II, US astronaut who conducted the first untethered spacewalk (b.", "1937)*2019 – Andrew Clennel Palmer, British engineer (b.", "1938)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Armed Forces Day (Philippines)*Christian feast day:**O Oriens**Peter Canisius**Thomas the Apostle (Anglicanism)**December 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Forefathers' Day (Plymouth, Massachusetts)*São Tomé Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)*The first day of Pancha Ganapati, celebrated until December 25 (Saiva Siddhanta Church)*Gravy Day (Australia), celebrated in honour of the song How to Make Gravy by Paul Kelly" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 21" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 14" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 557 – Constantinople is severely damaged by an earthquake, which cracks the dome of Hagia Sophia.", "* 835 – Sweet Dew Incident: Emperor Wenzong of the Tang dynasty conspires to kill the powerful eunuchs of the Tang court, but the plot is foiled.", "*1287 – St. Lucia's flood: The Zuiderzee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses, killing over 50,000 people.", "*1542 – Princess Mary Stuart becomes Queen of Scots at the age of one week on the death of her father, James V of Scotland.===1601–1900===*1751 – The Theresian Military Academy is founded in Wiener Neustadt, Austria.", "*1780 – Founding Father Alexander Hamilton marries Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York.", "*1782 – The Montgolfier brothers first test fly an unmanned hot air balloon in France; it floats nearly .", "*1812 – The French invasion of Russia comes to an end as the remnants of the Grande Armée are expelled from Russia.", "*1814 – War of 1812: The Royal Navy seizes control of Lake Borgne, Louisiana.", "*1819 – Alabama becomes the 22nd U.S.", "state.", "*1836 – The Toledo War unofficially ends as the \"Frostbitten Convention\" votes to accept Congress' terms for admitting Michigan as a U.S.", "state.", "*1863 – American Civil War: The Confederate victory under General James Longstreet at the Battle of Bean's Station in East Tennessee ends the Knoxville Campaign, but achieves very little as Longstreet returns to Virginia next spring.", "*1896 – The Glasgow Underground Railway is opened by the Glasgow District Subway Company.", "*1900 – Quantum mechanics: Max Planck presents a theoretical derivation of his black-body radiation law (quantum theory) at the Physic Society in Berlin.===1901–present===*1902 – The Commercial Pacific Cable Company lays the first Pacific telegraph cable, from San Francisco to Honolulu.", "*1903 – The Wright brothers make their first attempt to fly with the ''Wright Flyer'' at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.", "*1907 – The , the largest ever ship without a heat engine, runs aground and founders near the Hellweather's Reef within the Isles of Scilly in a gale.", "The pilot and 15 seamen die.", "*1909 – New South Wales Premier Charles Wade signs the Seat of Government Surrender Act 1909, formally completing the transfer of State land to the Commonwealth to create the Australian Capital Territory.", "*1911 – Roald Amundsen's team, comprising himself, Olav Bjaaland, Helmer Hanssen, Sverre Hassel, and Oscar Wisting, becomes the first to reach the South Pole.", "*1913 – , the fourth and last ship, launches, eventually becoming one of the Japanese workhorses during World War I and World War II.", "*1914 – Lisandro de la Torre and others found the Democratic Progressive Party (''Partido Demócrata Progresista'', PDP) at the Hotel Savoy, Buenos Aires, Argentina.", "*1918 – Friedrich Karl von Hessen, a German prince elected by the Parliament of Finland to become King Väinö I, renounces the Finnish throne.", "* 1918 – Portuguese President Sidónio Pais is assassinated.", "* 1918 – The 1918 United Kingdom general election occurs, the first where women were permitted to vote.", "In Ireland the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin wins a landslide victory with nearly 47% of the popular vote.", "* 1918 – Giacomo Puccini's comic opera '''''Gianni Schicchi''''' premiered at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City.", "*1939 – Winter War: The Soviet Union is expelled from the League of Nations for invading Finland.", "*1940 – Plutonium (specifically Pu-238) is first isolated at Berkeley, California.", "*1948 – Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann are granted a patent for their cathode-ray tube amusement device, the earliest known interactive electronic game.", "*1955 – Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Ceylon, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jordan, Laos, Libya, Nepal, Portugal, Romania and Spain join the United Nations through United Nations Security Council Resolution 109.", "*1958 – The 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition becomes the first to reach the southern pole of inaccessibility.", "*1960 – Convention against Discrimination in Education of UNESCO is adopted.", "*1962 – NASA's ''Mariner 2'' becomes the first spacecraft to fly by Venus.", "*1963 – The dam containing the Baldwin Hills Reservoir bursts, killing five people and damaging hundreds of homes in Los Angeles, California.", "*1964 – American Civil Rights Movement: ''Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States'': The Supreme Court of the United States rules that Congress can use the Constitution's Commerce Clause to fight discrimination.", "*1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War: Over 200 of East Pakistans intellectuals are executed by the Pakistan Army and their local allies.", "(The date is commemorated in Bangladesh as Martyred Intellectuals Day.", ")*1972 – Apollo program: Eugene Cernan is the most recent person to walk on the Moon, after he and Harrison Schmitt complete the third and final extravehicular activity (EVA) of the Apollo 17 mission.", "*1981 – Arab–Israeli conflict: Israel's Knesset ratifies the ''Golan Heights Law'', extending Israeli law to the Golan Heights.", "*1985 – Wilma Mankiller takes office as the first woman elected to serve as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation.", "*1986 – Qasba Aligarh massacre: Over 400 Muhajirs killed in revenge killings in Qasba colony after a raid on Pashtun heroin processing and distribution center in Sohrab Goth by the security forces.", "*1992 – War in Abkhazia: Siege of Tkvarcheli: A helicopter carrying evacuees from Tkvarcheli is shot down, resulting in at least 52 deaths, including 25 children.", "The incident catalyses more concerted Russian military intervention on behalf of Abkhazia.", "*1994 – Construction begins on the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze river.", "*1995 – Yugoslav Wars: The Dayton Agreement is signed in Paris by the leaders of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "*1998 – Yugoslav Wars: The Yugoslav Army ambushes a group of Kosovo Liberation Army fighters attempting to smuggle weapons from Albania into Kosovo, killing 36.", "*1999 – Torrential rains cause flash floods in Vargas, Venezuela, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths, the destruction of thousands of homes, and the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure.", "*2003 – Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf narrowly escapes an assassination attempt.", "*2004 – The Millau Viaduct, the tallest bridge in the world, is formally inaugurated near Millau, France.", "*2012 – Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting: Twenty-eight people, including the gunman, are killed in Sandy Hook, Connecticut.", "*2013 – A reported coup attempt in South Sudan leads to continued fighting and hundreds of casualties.", "*2017 – The Walt Disney Company announces that it would acquire 21st Century Fox, including the 20th Century Fox movie studio, for $52.4 billion.", "*2020 – A total solar eclipse is visible from parts of the South Pacific Ocean, southern South America, and the South Atlantic Ocean." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1009 – Go-Suzaku, emperor of Japan (d. 1045)*1332 – Frederick III, German nobleman (d. 1381)*1546 – Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer and chemist (d. 1601)*1599 – Charles Berkeley, 2nd Viscount Fitzhardinge, English politician (d. 1668)===1601–1900===*1607 – János Kemény, Hungarian prince (d. 1662)*1625 – Barthélemy d'Herbelot, French orientalist and academic (d. 1695)*1631 – Anne Conway, English philosopher and author (d. 1679)*1640 – Aphra Behn, English playwright and author (d. 1689)*1678 – Daniel Neal, English historian and author (d. 1743)*1720 – Justus Möser, German jurist and theorist (d. 1794)*1730 – Capel Bond, English organist and composer (d. 1790)*1738 – Jan Antonín Koželuh, Czech composer and educator (d. 1814)*1775 – Philander Chase, American bishop and educator, founded Kenyon College (d. 1852)* 1775 – Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, Scottish admiral and politician (d. 1860)*1777 – Du Pre Alexander, 2nd Earl of Caledon, Irish politician, Lord Lieutenant of Tyrone (d. 1839)*1784 – Princess Maria Antonia of Naples and Sicily (d. 1806)*1789 – Maria Szymanowska, Polish composer and pianist (d. 1831)*1791 – Charles Wolfe, Irish priest and poet (d. 1823)*1794 – Erastus Corning, American businessman and politician (d. 1872)*1816 – Abraham Hochmuth, Hungarian rabbi and educator (d. 1889)*1824 – Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, French painter and illustrator (d. 1898)*1832 – Daniel H. Reynolds, American general, lawyer, and politician (d. 1902)*1851 – Mary Tappan Wright, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1916)*1852 – Daniel De Leon, Curaçaoan-American journalist and politician (d. 1914)*1856 – Louis Marshall, American lawyer and activist (d. 1929)*1866 – Roger Fry, English painter and critic (d. 1934)*1870 – Karl Renner, Austrian lawyer and politician, 4th President of Austria (d. 1950)*1881 – Katherine MacDonald, American actress and producer (d. 1956)*1883 – Manolis Kalomiris, Greek pianist and composer (d. 1962)* 1883 – Morihei Ueshiba, Japanese martial artist, developed aikido (d. 1969)*1884 – Jane Cowl, American actress and playwright (d. 1950)*1887 – Xul Solar, Argentinian painter and sculptor (d. 1963)*1894 – Alexander Nelke, Estonian-American painter and carpenter (d. 1974)*1895 – George VI of the United Kingdom (d. 1952)* 1895 – Paul Éluard, French poet and author (d. 1952)*1896 – Jimmy Doolittle, American general and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)*1897 – Kurt Schuschnigg, Italian-Austrian lawyer and politician, 15th Federal Chancellor of Austria (d. 1977)* 1897 – Margaret Chase Smith, American educator and politician (d. 1995)*1899 – DeFord Bailey, American Hall of Fame country and blues musician (d. 1982)===1901–present===*1901 – Henri Cochet, French tennis player (d. 1987)* 1901 – Paul of Greece (d. 1964)*1902 – Frances Bavier, American actress (d. 1989)* 1902 – Herbert Feigl, Austrian philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1988)*1903 – Walter Rangeley, English sprinter (d. 1982)*1904 – Virginia Coffey, American civil rights activist (d. 2003)*1908 – Morey Amsterdam, American actor, singer, and screenwriter (d. 1996)* 1908 – Claude Davey, Welsh rugby player (d. 2001)* 1908 – Mária Szepes, Hungarian journalist, author, and screenwriter (d. 2007)*1909 – Edward Lawrie Tatum, American geneticist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)*1911 – Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz, Greek-Polish swimmer and water polo player (d. 1943)* 1911 – Spike Jones, American singer and bandleader (d. 1965)* 1911 – Hans von Ohain, German-American physicist and engineer (d. 1998)*1914 – Karl Carstens, German lieutenant and politician, 5th President of the Federal Republic of Germany (d. 1992)* 1914 – Rosalyn Tureck, American pianist and harpsichord player (d. 2003)*1915 – Dan Dailey, American dancer and actor (d. 1978)*1916 – Shirley Jackson, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1965)*1917 – C.-H. Hermansson, Swedish author and politician (d. 2016)* 1917 – Elyse Knox, American actress and fashion designer (d. 2012)* 1917 – June Taylor, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2004)*1918 – James T. Aubrey, American broadcaster (d. 1994)* 1918 – Radu Beligan, Romanian actor and director (d. 2016)* 1918 – B. K. S. Iyengar, Indian yoga instructor and author, founded Iyengar Yoga (d. 2014)*1920 – Clark Terry, American trumpet player, composer, and educator (d. 2015)*1922 – Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)* 1922 – Don Hewitt, American journalist and producer, created ''60 Minutes'' (d. 2009)* 1922 – Junior J. Spurrier, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1984)*1923 – Gerard Reve, Dutch-Belgian author and poet (d. 2006)*1924 – Raj Kapoor, Indian actor, director, and producer (d. 1988)*1927 – Richard Cassilly, American tenor and actor (d. 1998)* 1927 – Koos Rietkerk, Dutch lawyer and politician, Dutch Minister of the Interior (d. 1986)*1929 – Ron Jarden, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1977)*1930 – Margaret Bakkes, South African author (d. 2016)* 1930 – David R. Harris, English geographer, anthropologist, and archaeologist (d. 2013)*1931 – Jon Elia, Pakistani philosopher, poet, and scholar (d. 2002)* 1931 – Vladimir-Georg Karassev-Orgusaar, Estonian director and politician (d. 2015)*1932 – George Furth, American actor and playwright (d. 2008)* 1932 – Abbe Lane, American actress, singer, and dancer* 1932 – Charlie Rich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1995)*1934 – Shyam Benegal, Indian director and screenwriter* 1934 – Charlie Hodge, American guitarist and singer (d. 2006)*1935 – Lewis Arquette, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)* 1935 – Lee Remick, American actress (d. 1991)*1938 – Leonardo Boff, Brazilian theologian and author* 1938 – Charlie Griffith, Barbadian cricketer*1939 – Ann Cryer, English academic and politician* 1939 – Ernie Davis, American football player (d. 1963)*1940 – Lex Gold, Scottish footballer and civil servant*1941 – Karan Armstrong, American soprano and actress (d. 2021)* 1941 – Ellen Willis, American journalist, critic, and academic (d. 2006)*1942 – Chris Harris, English actor and director (d. 2014)* 1942 – Dick Wagner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)*1943 – Tommy McAvoy, Scottish politician* 1943 – Emmett Tyrrell, American journalist, author, and publisher, founded ''The American Spectator''*1944 – Graham Kirkham, Baron Kirkham, English businessman, founded DFS* 1944 – Denis Thwaites, English professional footballer murdered in the 2015 Sousse attacks (d. 2015)*1946 – Antony Beevor, English historian and author* 1946 – Jane Birkin, English-French actress and singer (d. 2023)* 1946 – John Du Prez, English conductor and composer* 1946 – Patty Duke, American actress (d. 2016)* 1946 – Ruth Fuchs, German javelin thrower and politician (d. 2023)* 1946 – Peter Lorimer, Scottish footballer (d. 2021)* 1946 – Michael Ovitz, American talent agent, co-founded Creative Artists Agency* 1946 – Stan Smith, American tennis player and coach* 1946 – Joyce Vincent Wilson, American singer *1947 – Christopher Parkening, American guitarist and educator* 1947 – Dilma Rousseff, Brazilian economist and politician, 36th President of Brazil*1948 – Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (d. 1982)* 1948 – Kim Beazley, Australian politician and diplomat, 9th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia* 1948 – Boudewijn Büch, Dutch author, poet, and television host (d. 2002)* 1948 – Peeter Kreitzberg, Estonian lawyer and politician (d. 2011)* 1948 – Dee Wallace, American actress*1949 – Bill Buckner, American baseball player and manager (d. 2019)* 1949 – David A. Cherry, American artist and illustrator* 1949 – Cliff Williams, Australian bass player *1951 – John Brown, American basketball player* 1951 – Jan Timman, Dutch chess player and author*1952 – John Lurie, American actor, saxophonist, painter, director, and producer *1953 – Vijay Amritraj, Indian tennis player and sportscaster* 1953 – Wade Davis, Canadian anthropologist, author, and photographer* 1953 – René Eespere, Estonian composer* 1953 – Vangelis Meimarakis, Greek lawyer and politician, 4th Greek Minister for National Defence* 1953 – Mikael Odenberg, Swedish soldier and politician, 29th Swedish Minister for Defence*1954 – Alan Kulwicki, American race car driver (d. 1993)* 1954 – Steve MacLean, Canadian physicist and astronaut*1955 – Jane Crafter, Australian golfer* 1955 – Jill Pipher, American mathematician and academic*1956 – T. K. Carter, American actor* 1956 – Linda Fabiani, Scottish politician* 1956 – Hanni Wenzel, German skier*1958 – Mike Scott, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1958 – Spider Stacy, English singer-songwriter and guitarist *1959 – Bob Paris, American-Canadian bodybuilder and actor* 1959 – Jorge Vaca, Mexican boxer*1960 – James Comey, American lawyer, 7th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation* 1960 – Don Franklin, American actor* 1960 – Chris Waddle, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster* 1960 – Diane Williams, American sprinter*1961 – Patrik Sundström, Swedish ice hockey player*1963 – Greg Abbott, English footballer and manager* 1963 – William Bedford, American basketball player* 1963 – Diana Gansky, German discus thrower* 1963 – Cynthia Gibb, American actress and model*1965 – Craig Biggio, American baseball player and coach* 1965 – Ken Hill, American baseball player* 1965 – Ted Raimi, American actor, director, and screenwriter*1966 – Fabrizio Giovanardi, Italian race car driver* 1966 – Carl Herrera, Trinidadian-Venezuelan basketball player* 1966 – Anthony Mason, American basketball player (d. 2015)* 1966 – Bill Ranford, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1966 – Tim Sköld, Swedish bass player and producer* 1966 – Helle Thorning-Schmidt, Danish academic and politician, 41st Prime Minister of Denmark *1967 – Ewa Białołęcka, Polish author* 1967 – Hanne Haugland, Norwegian high jumper and coach*1968 – Kelley Armstrong, Canadian author* 1968 – Mohamed Saad, Egyptian actor*1969 – Scott Hatteberg, American baseball player and sportscaster* 1969 – Archie Kao, American actor and producer* 1969 – Natascha McElhone, English-Irish actress* 1969 – Dave Nilsson, Australian baseball player and manager* 1969 – Arthur Numan, Dutch footballer and manager*1970 – Anna Maria Jopek, Polish singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer* 1970 – Beth Orton, English singer-songwriter and guitarist*1971 – Michaela Watkins, American actor and comedian*1972 – Miranda Hart, English actress* 1972 – Marcus Jensen, American baseball player and coach*1973 – Falk Balzer, German hurdler* 1973 – Pat Burke, Irish basketball player* 1973 – Tomasz Radzinski, Canadian soccer player* 1973 – Saulius Štombergas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach*1974 – Billy Koch, American baseball player*1975 – Justin Furstenfeld, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer* 1975 – Ben Kay, English rugby player * 1975 – KaDee Strickland, American actress*1976 – Tammy Blanchard, American actress and singer* 1976 – Leland Chapman, American bounty hunter* 1976 – Sebastien Chaule, French-German rugby player* 1976 – André Couto, Portuguese race car driver* 1976 – Santiago Ezquerro, Spanish footballer*1977 – Brendan Nash, Australian-Jamaican cricketer* 1977 – Jamie Peacock, English rugby player and manager*1978 – Dean Brogan, Australian footballer and coach* 1978 – Shedrack Kibet Korir, Kenyan runner* 1978 – Zdeněk Pospěch, Czech footballer* 1978 – Patty Schnyder, Swiss tennis player* 1978 – Kim St-Pierre, Canadian ice hockey player*1979 – Jean-Alain Boumsong, French footballer* 1979 – Andrei Makrov, Estonian ice hockey player* 1979 – Kyle Shanahan, American football coach* 1979 – Sophie Monk, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actress * 1979 – Michael Owen, English footballer and sportscaster* 1979 – Rocc, Slovenian opera stage director and designer*1980 – Thed Björk, Swedish race car driver* 1980 – Gordon Greer, Scottish footballer* 1980 – Didier Zokora, Ivorian footballer*1981 – Amber Chia, Malaysian model* 1981 – Johnny Jeter, American wrestler* 1981 – Liam Lawrence, Irish footballer* 1981 – Shaun Marcum, American baseball player*1982 – Josh Fields, American baseball player* 1982 – Steve Sidwell, English footballer* 1982 – Anthony Way, English singer and actor*1983 – Leanne Mitchell, English singer-songwriter*1984 – Chris Brunt, Northern Irish footballer * 1984 – Rana Daggubati, Indian actor and producer* 1984 – Ed Rainsford, Zimbabwean cricketer* 1984 – Jackson Rathbone, American actor, singer, and musician*1985 – Jakub Błaszczykowski, Polish footballer* 1985 – Alex Pennie, Welsh keyboard player * 1985 – Tom Smith, English-Welsh rugby player* 1985 – Nonami Takizawa, Japanese actress and singer*1987 – Kenneth Medwood, Belizean-American hurdler *1988 – Nicolas Batum, French basketball player* 1988 – Nate Ebner, American football player * 1988 – Vanessa Hudgens, American actress and singer * 1988 – Hayato Sakamoto, Japanese baseball player*1989 – Pedro Botelho, Brazilian footballer* 1989 – Sam Burgess, English rugby league player* 1989 – Onew, South Korean singer-songwriter and dancer*1990 – Robert Covington, American basketball player*1991 – Ben Henry, New Zealand rugby league player* 1991 – Offset, American rapper*1992 – Tori Kelly, American singer-songwriter* 1992 – Ryo Miyaichi, Japanese footballer*1993 – Antonio Giovinazzi, Italian race car driver*1995 – Ivan Barbashev, Russian ice hockey player* 1995 – Calvyn Justus, South African swimmer*1996 – Li Zijun, Chinese figure skater*1997 – DK Metcalf, American football player*1998 – Lonnie Walker IV, American basketball player*2001 – Joshua Rush, American actor and activist" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 618 – Xue Rengao, emperor of Qin* 648 – John III of the Sedre, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch* 704 – Aldfrith, king of Northumbria (or 705)* 872 – Pope Adrian II (b.", "792)*1077 – Agnes of Poitou, Holy Roman Empress and regent (b. c. 1025)*1293 – Al-Ashraf Khalil, Mamluk sultan of Egypt*1311 – Margaret of Brabant, German queen consort (b.", "1276)*1332 – Rinchinbal Khan, Mongolian emperor (b.", "1326)*1359 – Cangrande II della Scala, Lord of Verona (b.", "1332)*1417 – John Oldcastle, English Lollard leader*1460 – Guarino da Verona, Italian scholar and translator (b.", "1370)*1480 – Niccolò Perotti, humanist scholar (b.", "1429)*1503 – Sten Sture the Elder, regent of Sweden (b.", "1440)*1510 – Friedrich of Saxony (b.", "1473)*1542 – James V of Scotland (b.", "1512)*1591 – John of the Cross, Spanish priest and saint (b.", "1542)*1595 – Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon (b.", "1535)===1601–1900===*1624 – Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, English politician, Lord High Admiral (b.", "1536)*1651 – Pierre Dupuy, French historian and scholar (b.", "1582)*1715 – Thomas Tenison, English archbishop (b.", "1636)*1735 – Thomas Tanner, English bishop and historian (b.", "1674)*1741 – Charles Rollin, French historian and educator (b.", "1661)*1785 – Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Italian painter and engraver (b.", "1727)*1788 – Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, German pianist and composer (b.", "1714)* 1788 – Charles III of Spain (b.", "1716)*1799 – George Washington, American general and politician, 1st President of the United States (b.", "1732)*1831 – Martin Baum, American businessman and politician, 5th Mayor of Cincinnati (b.", "1765)*1838 – Jean-Olivier Chénier, Canadian physician (b.", "1806)*1842 – Ben Crack-O, king of several tribes around Cape Palmas*1860 – George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, Scottish-English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1784)*1861 – Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom (b.", "1819)*1865 – Johan Georg Forchhammer, Danish geologist and mineralogist (b.", "1794)*1873 – Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American zoologist and geologist (b.", "1807)*1878 – Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (b.", "1843)===1901–present===*1912 – Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis, English lieutenant and explorer (b.", "1887)*1917 – Phil Waller, Welsh rugby player (b.", "1889)*1920 – George Gipp, American football player (b.", "1895)*1927 – Julian Sochocki, Russian mathematician and academic (b.", "1842)*1929 – Henry B. Jackson, British admiral (b.", "1855)*1935 – Stanley G. Weinbaum, American author (b.", "1902)*1937 – Fabián de la Rosa, Filipino painter and educator (b.", "1869)*1940 – Anton Korošec, Slovenian priest and politician, 10th Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (b.", "1872)*1943 – John Harvey Kellogg, American physician and businessman, co-invented corn flakes (b.", "1852)*1944 – Lupe Vélez, Mexican actress (b.", "1908)*1947 – Stanley Baldwin, English lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1867)* 1947 – Edward Higgins, English-American 3rd General of The Salvation Army (b.", "1864)*1953 – Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, American author and academic (b.", "1896)*1956 – Juho Kusti Paasikivi, Finnish lawyer and politician, 7th President of Finland (b.", "1870)*1963 – Dinah Washington, American singer and pianist (b.", "1924)*1964 – William Bendix, American actor (b.", "1906)*1970 – Franz Schlegelberger, German judge and politician, German Reich Minister of Justice (b.", "1876)*1971 – Mufazzal Haider Chaudhury, Bangladeshi linguist and scholar (b.", "1926)* 1971 – Munier Choudhury, Bangladeshi author, playwright, and critic (b.", "1925)* 1971 – Shahidullah Kaiser, Bangladeshi journalist and author (b.", "1927)*1974 – Walter Lippmann, American journalist and author (b.", "1889)*1975 – Arthur Treacher, English-American entertainer (b.", "1894)*1978 – Salvador de Madariaga, Spanish historian and diplomat, co-founded the College of Europe (b.", "1886)*1980 – Elston Howard, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1929)*1984 – Vicente Aleixandre, Spanish poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1898)*1985 – Catherine Doherty, Russian-Canadian activist, founded the Madonna House Apostolate (b.", "1896)* 1985 – Roger Maris, American baseball player and coach (b.", "1934)*1989 – Jock Mahoney, American actor and stuntman (b.", "1919)* 1989 – Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and activist, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1921)*1990 – Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Swiss author and playwright (b.", "1921)* 1990 – Paula Nenette Pepin, French composer, pianist and lyricist (b.", "1908)*1991 – Robert Eddison, Japanese-English actor (b.", "1908)*1993 – Jeff Alm, American football player (b.", "1968)* 1993 – Myrna Loy, American actress (b.", "1905)*1994 – Orval Faubus, American soldier and politician, 36th Governor of Arkansas (b.", "1910)*1995 – G. C. Edmondson, American soldier and author (b.", "1922)*1996 – Gaston Miron, Canadian poet and author (b.", "1928)*1997 – Stubby Kaye, American actor and comedian (b.", "1918)* 1997 – Emily Cheney Neville, American author (b.", "1919)* 1997 – Kurt Winter, Canadian guitarist and songwriter (b.", "1946)*1998 – Norman Fell, American actor and comedian (b.", "1924)* 1998 – A. Leon Higginbotham Jr., American lawyer, judge, and activist (b.", "1928)* 1998 – Annette Strauss, American philanthropist and politician, Mayor of Dallas (b.", "1924)*2001 – W. G. Sebald, German novelist, essayist, and poet (b.", "1944)*2003 – Jeanne Crain, American actress (b.", "1925)* 2003 – Blas Ople, Filipino journalist and politician, 21st President of the Senate of the Philippines (b.", "1927)* 2003 – Frank Sheeran, American union leader and mobster (b.", "1920)*2004 – Rod Kanehl, American baseball player (b.", "1934)* 2004 – Fernando Poe Jr., Filipino actor, director, producer, and politician (b.", "1939)*2006 – Anton Balasingham, Sri Lankan-English strategist and negotiator (b.", "1938)* 2006 – Ahmet Ertegun, Turkish-American composer and producer, co-founded Atlantic Records (b.", "1923)* 2006 – Mike Evans, American actor and screenwriter (b.", "1949)*2009 – Alan A'Court, English footballer and manager (b.", "1934)*2010 – Timothy Davlin, American politician, Mayor of Springfield (b.", "1957)* 2010 – Neva Patterson, American actress (b.", "1920)* 2010 – Dale Roberts, English footballer (b.", "1986)*2011 – Joe Simon, American author and illustrator (b.", "1913)* 2011 – Billie Jo Spears, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1937)*2012 – John Graham, English general (b.", "1923)* 2012 – Edward Jones, American police officer and politician (b.", "1950)* 2012 – Victoria Leigh Soto, American educator (b.", "1985)*2013 – Janet Dailey, American author (b.", "1944)* 2013 – C. N. Karunakaran, Indian painter and illustrator (b.", "1940)* 2013 – Dennis Lindley, English statistician and academic (b.", "1923)* 2013 – Peter O'Toole, British-Irish actor (b.", "1932)* 2013 – George Rodrigue, American painter (b.", "1944)*2014 – Theo Colborn, American zoologist and academic (b.", "1927) * 2014 – Irene Dalis, American soprano and pianist (b.", "1925)* 2014 – Louis Alphonse Koyagialo, Congolese politician, Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Bess Myerson, American model, activist, game show panelist and television personality; Miss America 1945 (b.", "1924)* 2014 – Fred Thurston, American football player (b.", "1933)*2015 – Terry Backer, American soldier and politician (b.", "1954)* 2015 – Glen Sonmor, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b.", "1929)* 2015 – Vadym Tyshchenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (b.", "1963)* 2015 – Lillian Vernon, German-American businesswoman and philanthropist, founded the Lillian Vernon Company (b.", "1927)*2016 – Paulo Evaristo Arns, Brazilian cardinal (b.", "1921)* 2016 – Bernard Fox, Welsh actor (b.", "1927)*2017 – Yu Kwang-chung, Chinese writer (b.", "1928)*2019 – Chuy Bravo, Mexican-American comedian and actor (b.", "1956)*2020 – Gérard Houllier, French Football manager (b.", "1947)*2022 – Jean Franco, American academic and literary critic (b.", "1924)*2023 – Tomáš Janovic, Slovak writer (b.", "1937)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Folcwin** John of the Cross** John III of the Sedre (Syriac Orthodox Church)** Matronian** Nicasius of Rheims** Nimatullah Kassab (Maronite Church)** Spyridon (Western Church)** Venantius Fortunatus** December 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Alabama Day (Alabama)* Forty-seven Ronin Remembrance Day (Sengaku-ji, Tokyo)* Martyred Intellectuals Day (Bangladesh)* Monkey Day" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 14" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 13" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1294 – Saint Celestine V resigns the papacy after only five months to return to his previous life as an ascetic hermit.", "*1545 – The Council of Trent begins as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.", "*1577 – Sir Francis Drake sets sail from Plymouth, England, on his round-the-world voyage.===1601–1900===*1623 – The Plymouth Colony establishes the system of trial by 12-men jury in the American colonies.", "*1636 – The Massachusetts Bay Colony organizes three militia regiments to defend the colony against the Pequot Indians, a date now considered the founding of the National Guard of the United States.", "*1642 – Abel Tasman is the first recorded European to sight New Zealand.", "*1643 – English Civil War: The Battle of Alton takes place in Hampshire.", "*1758 – The English transport ship ''Duke William'' sinks in the North Atlantic, killing over 360 people.", "*1769 – Dartmouth College is founded by the Reverend Eleazar Wheelock, with a royal charter from King George III, on land donated by Royal governor John Wentworth.", "*1818 – Cyril VI of Constantinople resigns from his position as Ecumenical Patriarch under pressure from the Ottoman Empire.", "*1862 – American Civil War: At the Battle of Fredericksburg, Confederate General Robert E. Lee defeats Union Major General Ambrose Burnside.", "*1867 – A Fenian bomb explodes in Clerkenwell, London, killing 12 people and injuring 50.===1901–present===*1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: Battle of Nanking: The city of Nanjing, defended by the National Revolutionary Army under the command of General Tang Shengzhi, falls to the Japanese.", "This is followed by the Nanking Massacre, in which Japanese troops rape and slaughter hundreds of thousands of civilians.", "*1938 – The Holocaust: The Neuengamme concentration camp opens in the Bergedorf district of Hamburg, Germany.", "*1939 – The Battle of the River Plate is fought off the coast of Uruguay; the first naval battle of World War II.", "The Kriegsmarine's Deutschland-class cruiser (pocket battleship) ''Admiral Graf Spee'' engages with three Royal Navy cruisers: , and .", "*1943 – World War II: The Massacre of Kalavryta by German occupying forces in Greece.", "*1949 – The Knesset votes to move the capital of Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.", "*1957 – The 6.5 Farsinaj earthquake strikes Iran with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII, causing at least 1,119 deaths and damaging over 5,000 homes.", "*1959 – Archbishop Makarios III becomes the first President of Cyprus.", "*1960 – While Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia visits Brazil, his Imperial Bodyguard seizes the capital and proclaims him deposed and his son, Crown Prince Asfa Wossen, Emperor.", "*1962 – NASA launches ''Relay 1'', the first active repeater communications satellite in orbit.", "*1967 – Constantine II of Greece attempts an unsuccessful counter-coup against the Regime of the Colonels.", "*1968 – Brazilian President Artur da Costa e Silva issues AI-5 (Institutional Act No.", "5), enabling government by decree and suspending habeas corpus.", "*1972 – Apollo program: Eugene Cernan and Harrison Schmitt begin the third and final extra-vehicular activity (EVA) or \"Moonwalk\" of ''Apollo 17''.", "To date they are the last humans to set foot on the Moon.", "*1974 – Malta becomes a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* 1974 – In the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese forces launch their 1975 Spring Offensive (to 30 April 1975), which results in the final capitulation of South Vietnam.", "*1977 – Air Indiana Flight 216 crashes near Evansville Regional Airport, killing 29, including the University of Evansville basketball team, support staff, and boosters of the team.", "*1981 – General Wojciech Jaruzelski declares martial law in Poland, largely due to the actions by ''Solidarity''.", "*1982 – The 6.0 North Yemen earthquake shakes southwestern Yemen with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe''), killing 2,800, and injuring 1,500.", "*1988 – PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat gives a speech at a UN General Assembly meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, after United States authorities refused to grant him a visa to visit UN headquarters in New York.", "*1989 – The Troubles: Attack on Derryard checkpoint: The Provisional Irish Republican Army launches an attack on a British Army temporary vehicle checkpoint near Rosslea, Northern Ireland.", "Two British soldiers are killed and two others are wounded.", "*1994 – Flagship Airlines Flight 3379 crashes in Morrisville, North Carolina, near Raleigh–Durham International Airport, killing 15.", "*1995 – Banat Air Flight 166 crashes in Sommacampagna near Verona Villafranca Airport in Verona, Italy, killing 49.", "*2001 – Sansad Bhavan, the building housing the Indian Parliament, is attacked by terrorists.", "Twelve people are killed, including the terrorists.", "*2002 – European Union enlargement: The EU announces that Cyprus, Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia will become members on May 1, 2004.", "*2003 – Iraq War: Operation Red Dawn: Former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein is captured near his home town of Tikrit.", "*2007 – The Treaty of Lisbon is signed by the EU member states to amend both the Treaty of Rome and the Maastricht Treaty which together form the constitutional basis of the EU.", "The Treaty of Lisbon is effective from 1 December 2009." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1272 – King Frederick III of Sicily (d. 1337)*1363 – Jean Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris (d. 1429)*1476 – Lucy Brocadelli, Dominican tertiary and stigmatic (d. 1544)*1484 – Paul Speratus, German Lutheran (d. 1551)*1491 – Martín de Azpilcueta, Spanish theologian and economist (d. 1586)*1499 – Justus Menius, German Lutheran pastor (d. 1558)*1521 – Pope Sixtus V (d. 1590)*1533 – Eric XIV of Sweden (d. 1577)*1553 – Henry IV of France (d. 1610)*1560 – Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully, 2nd Prime Minister of France (d. 1641)*1585 – William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (d. 1649)===1601–1900===*1640 – Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (d. 1696)*1662 – Francesco Bianchini, Italian astronomer and philosopher (d. 1729)*1678 – Yongzheng Emperor of China (d. 1735)*1720 – Carlo Gozzi, Italian playwright (d. 1804)*1724 – Franz Aepinus, German astronomer and philosopher (d. 1802)*1769 – James Scarlett Abinger, English judge (d. 1844)*1780 – Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, German chemist, invented the Döbereiner's lamp (d. 1849)*1784 – Archduke Louis of Austria (d. 1864)*1797 – Heinrich Heine, German journalist, poet, and critic (d. 1856)*1804 – Joseph Howe, Canadian journalist and politician, 5th Premier of Nova Scotia (d. 1873)*1814 – Ana Néri, Brazilian nurse and philanthropist (d. 1880)*1816 – Werner von Siemens, German engineer and businessman, founded Siemens (d. 1892)*1818 – Mary Todd Lincoln, 16th First Lady of the United States (d. 1882)*1830 – Mathilde Fibiger, Danish feminist, novelist and telegraphist (d. 1892)*1836 – Franz von Lenbach, German painter and academic (d. 1904)*1854 – Herman Bavinck, Dutch philosopher, theologian, and academic (d. 1921)*1856 – Svetozar Boroević, Croatian-Austrian field marshal (d. 1920)*1860 – Lucien Guitry, French actor (d. 1925)*1864 – Emil Seidel, American woodcarver and politician, 36th Mayor of Milwaukee (d. 1947)*1867 – Kristian Birkeland, Norwegian physicist and author (d. 1917)*1870 – Edward LeSaint, American actor and director (d. 1940)*1871 – Emily Carr, Canadian painter and author (d. 1945)*1874 – Josef Lhévinne, Russian pianist and educator (d. 1944)*1882 – Jane Edna Hunter, African-American social worker (d. 1971)*1883 – Belle da Costa Greene, American librarian and bibliographer (d. 1950)*1884 – Aimilios Veakis, Greek actor, director, and playwright (d. 1951)*1885 – Annie Dale Biddle Andrews, American mathematician (d. 1940)*1887 – George Pólya, Hungarian-American mathematician and academic (d. 1985)* 1887 – Alvin C. York, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1964)*1895 – Lucía Sánchez Saornil, Spanish anarchist feminist (d. 1970)*1897 – Albert Aalbers, Dutch architect, designed the Savoy Homann Bidakara Hotel (d. 1961)* 1897 – Drew Pearson, American journalist and author (d. 1969)*1900 – Jonel Perlea, Romanian-American conductor and educator (d. 1970)===1901–present===*1901 – Olev Roomet, Estonian singer, violinist, and bagpipe player (d. 1987)*1902 – Panagiotis Kanellopoulos, Greek philosopher and politician, 138th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1986)* 1902 – Talcott Parsons, American sociologist and academic (d. 1979)*1903 – Ella Baker, American activist (d. 1986)* 1903 – Carlos Montoya, Spanish guitarist and composer (d. 1993)*1905 – Ann Barzel, American writer and dance critic (d. 2007)*1906 – Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (d. 1968)* 1906 – Laurens van der Post, South African-English soldier and author (d. 1996)*1908 – Elizabeth Alexander, English geologist, academic, and physicist (d. 1958)* 1908 – Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira, Brazilian historian and activist (d. 1995)* 1908 – Van Heflin, American film actor (d. 1971)*1911 – Trygve Haavelmo, Norwegian economist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)* 1911 – Kenneth Patchen, American poet and painter (d. 1972)*1912 – Luiz Gonzaga, Brazilian singer-songwriter and accordion player (d. 1989)*1913 – Archie Moore, American boxer and actor (d. 1998)*1914 – Alan Bullock, English historian and author (d. 2004)* 1914 – Larry Noble, English comedian and actor (d. 1993)*1915 – B. J. Vorster, South African lawyer and politician, 4th State President of South Africa (d. 1983)*1916 – Leonard Weisgard, American author and illustrator (d. 2000)*1919 – Hans-Joachim Marseille, German captain and pilot (d. 1942)*1920 – George P. Shultz, American economist and politician, 60th United States Secretary of State (d. 2021)*1921 – Turgut Demirağ, Turkish film producer, director and screenwriter (d. 1987)*1923 – Philip Warren Anderson, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2020)* 1923 – Larry Doby, American baseball player (d. 2003)*1925 – Dick Van Dyke, American actor, singer, and dancer*1927 – James Wright, American poet and academic (d. 1980)*1929 – Christopher Plummer, Canadian actor and producer (d. 2021)*1933 – Paul Bracq, French automotive designer*1934 – Richard D. Zanuck, American film producer (d. 2012) *1935 – Türkan Saylan, Turkish physician and academic (d. 2009)*1936 – Prince Karim al-Husayn Shāh, Aga Khan IV, Swiss humanitarian and religious leader*1938 – Gus Johnson, American basketball player (d. 1987)*1940 – Sanjaya Lall, Indian economist and academic (d. 2005)*1942 – Howard Brenton, English playwright and screenwriter* 1942 – Ferguson Jenkins, Canadian baseball player*1945 – Herman Cain, American businessman, politician, and activist (d. 2020)*1948 – Jeff Baxter, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer* 1948 – Lillian Board, British athlete (d. 1970)* 1948 – Ted Nugent, American musician*1950 – Wendie Malick, American actress*1952 – Muhsin Kenon, American basketball player*1953 – Ben Bernanke, American economist* 1953 – Bob Gainey, Canadian ice hockey player*1956 – Phil Hubbard, American basketball player and coach*1957 – Steve Buscemi, American actor and director* 1957 – Morris Day, American musician and actor*1959 – Johnny Whitaker, American actor*1960 – Richard Dent, American football player*1961 – Gary Zimmerman, American football player*1962 – Rex Ryan, American football coach and analyst*1964 – Krišjānis Kariņš, American-Latvian politician, 23rd Prime Minister of Latvia*1967 – Jamie Foxx, American actor, singer, songwriter, producer, and comedian*1969 – Sergei Fedorov, Russian ice hockey player and coach*1971 – Scott Sattler, Australian rugby league player*1972 – Matti Kärki, Swedish heavy metal singer*1975 – Tom DeLonge, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, author, and filmmaker* 1975 – James Kyson, American actor* 1975 – Matthew LeCroy, American baseball player and manager*1978 – Cameron Douglas, American actor*1981 – Amy Lee, American singer, songwriter and pianist*1982 – Dan Hamhuis, Canadian ice hockey player* 1982 – Ricky Nolasco, American baseball player*1983 – Laura Hodges, Australian basketball player*1984 – Santi Cazorla, Spanish footballer* 1984 – Hanna-Maria Seppälä, Finnish freestyle swimmer*1988 – Rickie Fowler, American golfer*1989 – Hellen Obiri, Kenyan runner* 1989 – Katherine Schwarzenegger, American author* 1989 – Taylor Swift, American singer-songwriter*1990 – Fletcher Cox, American football player* 1990 – Arantxa Rus, Dutch tennis player*1991 – Dave Leduc, Canadian martial artist* 1991 – Vladimir Tarasenko, Russian ice hockey player*1993 – Danielle Collins, American tennis player*1995 – Emma Corrin, English actor*1996 – Gleyber Torres, Venezuelan baseball player*1999 – Marina Bassols Ribera, Spanish tennis player*2000 – Simona Waltert, Swiss tennis player*2001 – Jayden Goodwin, Australian cricketer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 558 – Childebert I, Frankish king (b.", "496)* 769 – Du Hongjian, Chinese politician (b.", "709)* 838 – Pepin I of Aquitaine (b.", "797)* 859 – Angilbert II, archbishop of Milan*1124 – Pope Callixtus II (b.", "1065)*1126 – Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1075)*1204 – Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (b.", "1135)*1250 – Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (b.", "1194)*1272 – Bertold of Regensburg, German preacher*1404 – Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (b.", "1336)*1466 – Donatello, Italian painter and sculptor (b.", "1386)*1516 – Johannes Trithemius, German cryptographer and historian (b.", "1462)*1521 – Manuel I of Portugal (b.", "1469)*1557 – Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia, Italian mathematician and engineer (b.", "1499)*1565 – Conrad Gessner, Swiss botanist and physician (b.", "1516)===1601–1900===*1621 – Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (b.", "1535)*1671 – Antonio Grassi, Italian Roman Catholic priest(b.", "1592)*1716 – Charles de La Fosse, French painter (b.", "1640)*1721 – Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (b.", "1676)*1729 – Anthony Collins, English philosopher and author (b.", "1676)*1754 – Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (b.", "1696)*1758 – Noël Doiron, Canadian Acadia leader (b.", "1684)*1769 – Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet and hymn-writer (b.", "1715)*1783 – Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin, Swedish astronomer and demographer (b.", "1717)*1784 – Samuel Johnson, English poet and lexicographer (b.", "1709)*1814 – Charles-Joseph, 7th Prince of Ligne, Belgian-Austrian field marshal (b.", "1735)*1849 – Johann Centurius Hoffmannsegg, German botanist and entomologist (b.", "1766)*1862 – Thomas Reade Rootes Cobb, American general, lawyer, and politician (b.", "1823)*1863 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and playwright (b.", "1813)*1868 – Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, German botanist and explorer (b.", "1794)*1881 – August Šenoa, Croatian author and poet (b.", "1838)*1883 – Victor de Laprade, French poet and critic (b.", "1812)*1893 – Georg August Rudolph, German lawyer and politician, 3rd Mayor of Marburg (b.", "1816)*1895 – Ányos Jedlik, Hungarian physicist and engineer (b.", "1800)===1901–present===*1908 – Augustus Le Plongeon, French photographer and historian (b.", "1825)*1911 – Reggie Duff, Australian cricketer (b.", "1878)*1919 – Woldemar Voigt, German physicist and academic (b.", "1850)*1922 – Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (b.", "1857)* 1922 – Hannes Hafstein, Icelandic poet and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Iceland (b.", "1861)*1924 – Samuel Gompers, English-born American labor leader, founded the American Federation of Labor (b.", "1850)*1927 – Mehmet Nadir, Turkish mathematician and academic (b.", "1856)*1929 – Rosina Heikel, Finnish physician (b.", "1842)*1930 – Fritz Pregl, Slovenian-Austrian chemist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1869)*1931 – Gustave Le Bon, French psychologist, sociologist, and anthropologist (b.", "1840)*1932 – Georgios Jakobides, Greek painter and sculptor (b.", "1853)*1935 – Victor Grignard, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1871)*1942 – Wlodimir Ledóchowski, Austrian-Polish religious leader, 26th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus (b.", "1866)* 1942 – Robert Robinson Taylor, American architect (b.", "1868)*1944 – Wassily Kandinsky, Russian-French painter and theorist (b.", "1866)*1945 – Irma Grese, German concentration camp guard (b.", "1923)* 1945 – Josef Kramer, German concentration camp commandant (b.", "1906)* 1945 – Elisabeth Volkenrath, Polish-German concentration camp supervisor (b.", "1919)*1947 – Henry James, American lawyer and author (b.", "1879)* 1947 – Nicholas Roerich, Russian archaeologist, painter, and philosopher (b.", "1874)*1950 – Abraham Wald, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b.", "1902)*1954 – John Raymond Hubbell, American director and composer (b.", "1879)*1955 – Egas Moniz, Portuguese psychiatrist and neurosurgeon, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1874)*1960 – Dora Marsden, English author and activist (b.", "1882)*1961 – Grandma Moses, American painter (b.", "1860)*1962 – Harry Barris, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b.", "1905)*1969 – Raymond A. Spruance, American admiral and diplomat, United States Ambassador to the Philippines (b.", "1886)*1973 – Henry Green, English author (b.", "1905)*1974 – Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu, Egyptian-Turkish journalist, author, and politician (b.", "1889)*1975 – Cyril Delevanti, English-American actor (b.", "1889)*1977 – Oguz Atay, Turkish engineer and author (b.", "1934)*1979 – Jon Hall, American actor and director (b.", "1915)* 1979 – Behçet Necatigil, Turkish author, poet and translator (b.", "1916)*1983 – Alexander Schmemann, Estonian-American priest and theologian (b.", "1921)* 1983 – Nichita Stănescu, Romanian poet and critic (b.", "1933)*1986 – Heather Angel, British-American actress (b.", "1909)* 1986 – Ella Baker, American activist (b.", "1903)* 1986 – Smita Patil, Indian actress and journalist (b.", "1955)*1992 – K. C. Irving, Canadian businessman (b.", "1899)* 1992 – Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney, American businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1899)*1993 – Vanessa Duriès, French author (b.", "1972)*1995 – Ann Nolan Clark, American author and educator (b.", "1896)*1996 – Edward Blishen, English author and educator (b.", "1920)*1997 – Don E. Fehrenbacher, American historian, author, and academic (b.", "1920)*1998 – Lew Grade, Ukrainian-born British impresario and media proprietor (b.", "1906)* 1998 – Richard Thomas, Royal Naval Officer (b.", "1922)* 1998 – Wade Watts, civil rights activist (b.", "1919)*2002 – Zal Yanovsky, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist who founded The Lovin' Spoonful (b.", "1944)*2004 – David Wheeler, English computer scientist and academic (b.", "1927)*2005 – Alan Shields, American painter and ferryboat captain (b.", "1944) *2006 – Lamar Hunt, American businessman, co-founded the American Football League and World Championship Tennis (b.", "1932)*2016 – Alan Thicke, Canadian actor, songwriter, game and talk-show host (b.", "1947)*2018 – Noah Klieger, Holocaust survivor who became an award-winning Israeli journalist (b.", "1926)*2022 – Stephen \"tWitch\" Boss, American dancer and media personality (b.", "1982)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "St Lucy* Christian feast day:** St Antiochus of Sulcis** St Judoc ''aka'' St Joyce** St Lucy** St Odile of Alsace* Acadian Remembrance Day (Acadians)* National Day (Saint Lucia)* Martial Law Victims Remembrance Day (Poland)* Nanking Massacre Memorial Day (China)* Nusantara Day (Indonesia)* Republic Day (Malta)* Sailor's Day (Brazil)* Saint Lucia Day (mainly in Scandinavia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 13" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dr. Seuss" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Theodor Seuss Geisel''' ( ; March 2, 1904 – September 24, 1991) was an American children's author and cartoonist.", "He is known for his work writing and illustrating more than 60 books under the pen name '''Dr.", "Seuss''' ( ).", "His work includes many of the most popular children's books of all time, selling over 600 million copies and being translated into more than 20 languages by the time of his death.Geisel adopted the name \"Dr. Seuss\" as an undergraduate at Dartmouth College and as a graduate student at Lincoln College, Oxford.", "He left Oxford in 1927 to begin his career as an illustrator and cartoonist for ''Vanity Fair'', ''Life'', and various other publications.", "He also worked as an illustrator for advertising campaigns, including for FLIT and Standard Oil, and as a political cartoonist for the New York newspaper ''PM''.", "He published his first children's book ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street'' in 1937.During World War II, he took a brief hiatus from children's literature to illustrate political cartoons, and he worked in the animation and film department of the United States Army.After the war, Geisel returned to writing children's books, writing acclaimed works such as ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950), ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(1955), ''The Cat in the Hat'' (1957), ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "(1957), ''Green Eggs and Ham'' (1960), ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish'' (1960), ''The Sneetches and Other Stories'' (1961), ''The Lorax'' (1971), ''The Butter Battle Book'' (1984), and ''Oh, the Places You'll Go!''", "(1990).", "He published over 60 books during his career, which have spawned numerous adaptations, including eleven television specials, five feature films, a Broadway musical, and four television series.He received two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children's Special for ''Halloween Is Grinch Night'' (1978) and Outstanding Animated Program for ''The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat'' (1982).", "In 1984, he won a Pulitzer Prize Special Citation.", "His birthday, March 2, has been adopted as the annual date for National Read Across America Day, an initiative focused on reading created by the National Education Association." ], [ "Life and career", "=== Early years ===Geisel was born and raised in Springfield, Massachusetts, the son of Henrietta (''née'' Seuss) and Theodor Robert Geisel.", "His father managed the family brewery and was later appointed to supervise Springfield's public park system by Mayor John A. Denison after the brewery closed because of Prohibition.", "Mulberry Street in Springfield, made famous in his first children's book ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street'', is near his boyhood home on Fairfield Street.", "The family was of German descent, and Geisel and his sister Marnie experienced anti-German prejudice from other children following the outbreak of World War I in 1914.Geisel was raised as a Missouri Synod Lutheran and remained in the denomination his entire life.Geisel attended Dartmouth College, graduating in 1925.At Dartmouth, he joined the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity and the humor magazine ''Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern'', eventually rising to the rank of editor-in-chief.", "While at Dartmouth, he was caught drinking gin with nine friends in his room.", "At the time, the possession and consumption of alcohol was illegal under Prohibition laws, which remained in place between 1920 and 1933.As a result of this infraction, Dean Craven Laycock insisted that Geisel resign from all extracurricular activities, including the ''Jack-O-Lantern''.", "To continue working on the magazine without the administration's knowledge, Geisel began signing his work with the pen name \"Seuss\".", "He was encouraged in his writing by professor of rhetoric W. Benfield Pressey, whom he described as his \"big inspiration for writing\" at Dartmouth.Upon graduating from Dartmouth, he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, intending to earn a Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.)", "in English literature.", "At Oxford, he met his future wife Helen Palmer, who encouraged him to give up becoming an English teacher in favor of pursuing drawing as a career.", "She later recalled that \"Ted's notebooks were always filled with these fabulous animals.", "So I set to work diverting him; here was a man who could draw such pictures; he should be earning a living doing that.", "\"===Early career===Geisel left Oxford without earning a degree and returned to the United States in February 1927, where he immediately began submitting writings and drawings to magazines, book publishers, and advertising agencies.", "Making use of his time in Europe, he pitched a series of cartoons called ''Eminent Europeans'' to ''Life'' magazine, but the magazine passed on it.", "His first nationally published cartoon appeared in the 16 July 1927, issue of ''The Saturday Evening Post''.", "This single $25 sale encouraged Geisel to move from Springfield to New York City.", "Later that year, Geisel accepted a job as writer and illustrator at the humor magazine ''Judge'', and he felt financially stable enough to marry Palmer.", "His first cartoon for ''Judge'' appeared on October 22, 1927, and Geisel and Palmer were married on November 29.Geisel's first work signed \"Dr. Seuss\" was published in ''Judge'' about six months after he started working there.In early 1928, one of Geisel's cartoons for ''Judge'' mentioned Flit, a common bug spray at the time manufactured by Standard Oil of New Jersey.", "According to Geisel, the wife of an advertising executive in charge of advertising Flit saw Geisel's cartoon at a hairdresser's and urged her husband to sign him.", "Geisel's first Flit ad appeared on May 31, 1928, and the campaign continued sporadically until 1941.The campaign's catchphrase \"Quick, Henry, the Flit!\"", "became a part of popular culture.", "It spawned a song and was used as a punch line for comedians such as Fred Allen and Jack Benny.", "As Geisel gained notoriety for the Flit campaign, his work was in demand and began to appear regularly in magazines such as ''Life'', ''Liberty'' and ''Vanity Fair''.The money Geisel earned from his advertising work and magazine submissions made him wealthier than even his most successful Dartmouth classmates.", "The increased income allowed the Geisels to move to better quarters and to socialize in higher social circles.", "They became friends with the wealthy family of banker Frank A. Vanderlip.", "They also traveled extensively: by 1936, Geisel and his wife had visited 30 countries together.", "They did not have children, neither kept regular office hours, and they had ample money.", "Geisel also felt that traveling helped his creativity.Geisel's success with the Flit campaign led to more advertising work, including for other Standard Oil products like Essomarine boat fuel and Essolube Motor Oil and for other companies like the Ford Motor Company, NBC Radio Network, and Holly Sugar.", "His first foray into books, ''Boners'', a collection of children's sayings that he illustrated, was published by Viking Press in 1931.It topped ''The New York Times'' non-fiction bestseller list and led to a sequel, ''More Boners'', published the same year.", "Encouraged by the books' sales and positive critical reception, Geisel wrote and illustrated an ABC book featuring \"very strange animals\" that failed to interest publishers.In 1936, Geisel and his wife were returning from an ocean voyage to Europe when the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first children's book: ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street''.", "Based on Geisel's varied accounts, the book was rejected by between 20 and 43 publishers.", "According to Geisel, he was walking home to burn the manuscript when a chance encounter with an old Dartmouth classmate led to its publication by Vanguard Press.", "Geisel wrote four more books before the US entered World War II.", "This included ''The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins'' in 1938, as well as ''The King's Stilts'' and ''The Seven Lady Godivas'' in 1939, all of which were in prose, atypically for him.", "This was followed by ''Horton Hatches the Egg'' in 1940, in which Geisel returned to the use of verse.===World War II-era work===\"The Goldbrick\", Private Snafu episode written by Geisel, 1943As World War II began, Geisel turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the left-leaning New York City daily newspaper, ''PM''.", "Geisel's political cartoons, later published in ''Dr.", "Seuss Goes to War'', denounced Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and were highly critical of non-interventionists (\"isolationists\"), such as Charles Lindbergh, who opposed US entry into the war.", "One cartoon depicted Japanese Americans being handed TNT in anticipation of a \"signal from home\", while other cartoons deplored the racism at home against Jews and blacks that harmed the war effort.", "His cartoons were strongly supportive of President Roosevelt's handling of the war, combining the usual exhortations to ration and contribute to the war effort with frequent attacks on Congress (especially the Republican Party), parts of the press (such as the ''New York Daily News'', ''Chicago Tribune'' and ''Washington Times-Herald''), and others for criticism of Roosevelt, criticism of aid to the Soviet Union, investigation of suspected Communists, and other offences that he depicted as leading to disunity and helping the Nazis, intentionally or inadvertently.In 1942, Geisel turned his energies to direct support of the U.S. war effort.", "First, he worked drawing posters for the Treasury Department and the War Production Board.", "Then, in 1943, he joined the Army as a captain and was commander of the Animation Department of the First Motion Picture Unit of the United States Army Air Forces, where he wrote films that included ''Your Job in Germany'', a 1945 propaganda film about peace in Europe after World War II; ''Our Job in Japan'' and the ''Private Snafu'' series of adult army training films.", "While in the Army, he was awarded the Legion of Merit.", "''Our Job in Japan'' became the basis for the commercially released film ''Design for Death'' (1947), a study of Japanese culture that won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature Film.", "''Gerald McBoing-Boing'' (1950) was based on an original story by Seuss and won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.===Later years===After the war, Geisel and his wife moved to the La Jolla community of San Diego, California, where he returned to writing children's books.", "He published most of his books through Random House in North America and William Collins, Sons (later HarperCollins) internationally.", "He wrote many, including such favorites as ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950), ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(1955), ''If I Ran the Circus'' (1956), ''The Cat in the Hat'' (1957), ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "(1957), and ''Green Eggs and Ham'' (1960).", "He received numerous awards throughout his career, but he won neither the Caldecott Medal nor the Newbery Medal.", "Three of his titles from this period were, however, chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books): ''McElligot's Pool'' (1947), ''Bartholomew and the Oobleck'' (1949), and ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950).", "Dr. Seuss also wrote the musical and fantasy film ''The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T.'', which was released in 1953.The movie was a critical and financial failure, and Geisel never attempted another feature film.", "During the 1950s, he also published a number of illustrated short stories, mostly in ''Redbook'' magazine.", "Some of these were later collected (in volumes such as ''The Sneetches and Other Stories'') or reworked into independent books (''If I Ran the Zoo'').", "A number have never been reprinted since their original appearances.In May 1954, ''Life'' published a report on illiteracy among school children which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring.", "William Ellsworth Spaulding was the director of the education division at Houghton Mifflin (he later became its chairman), and he compiled a list of 348 words that he felt were important for first-graders to recognize.", "He asked Geisel to cut the list to 250 words and to write a book using only those words.", "Spaulding challenged Geisel to \"bring back a book children can't put down\".", "Nine months later, Geisel completed ''The Cat in the Hat'', using 236 of the words given to him.", "It retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Geisel's earlier works but, because of its simplified vocabulary, it could be read by beginning readers.", "''The Cat in the Hat'' and subsequent books written for young children achieved significant international success and they remain very popular today.", "For example, in 2009, ''Green Eggs and Ham'' sold 540,000 copies, ''The Cat in the Hat'' sold 452,000 copies, and ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish'' (1960) sold 409,000 copies—all outselling the majority of newly published children's books.Geisel went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simplified-vocabulary manner (sold as Beginner Books) and in his older, more elaborate style.In 1955, Dartmouth awarded Geisel an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters, with the citation:Geisel joked that he would now have to sign \"Dr. Dr. Seuss\".", "His wife was ill at the time, so he delayed accepting it until June 1956.Geisel's wife Helen had a long struggle with illnesses.", "On October 23, 1967, Helen died by suicide.", "Eight months later, on June 21, 1968, Geisel married Audrey Dimond with whom he had reportedly been having an affair.", "Although he devoted most of his life to writing children's books, Geisel had no children of his own, saying of children: \"You have 'em; I'll entertain 'em.\"", "Audrey added that Geisel \"lived his whole life without children and he was very happy without children.\"", "Audrey oversaw Geisel's estate until her death on December 19, 2018, at the age of 97.Geisel was awarded an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters (L.H.D.)", "from Whittier College in 1980.He also received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the professional children's librarians in 1980, recognizing his \"substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature\".", "At the time, it was awarded every five years.", "He won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1984 citing his \"contribution over nearly half a century to the education and enjoyment of America's children and their parents\"." ], [ "Illness, death, and posthumous honors", "Bronze statue of Dr. Seuss and his character The Cat in the Hat outside the Geisel Library in San DiegoGeisel died of cancer on September 24, 1991, at his home in the La Jolla community of San Diego at the age of 87.His ashes were scattered in the Pacific Ocean.", "On December 1, 1995, four years after his death, University of California, San Diego's University Library Building was renamed Geisel Library in honor of Geisel and Audrey for the generous contributions that they made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy.In 2002, the Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden opened in Springfield, Massachusetts, featuring sculptures of Geisel and of many of his characters.", "In 2017, the Amazing World of Dr. Seuss Museum opened next to the Dr. Seuss National Memorial Sculpture Garden in the Springfield Museums Quadrangle.", "In 2008, Dr. Seuss was inducted into the California Hall of Fame.", "In 2004, U.S. children's librarians established the annual Theodor Seuss Geisel Award to recognize \"the most distinguished American book for beginning readers published in English in the United States during the preceding year\".", "It should \"demonstrate creativity and imagination to engage children in reading\" from pre-kindergarten to second grade.", "\"Theodor Seuss Geisel Award\".", "ALSC.", "ALA. Retrieved June 17, 2013.On April 4, 2012, the Dartmouth Medical School was renamed the Audrey and Theodor Geisel School of Medicine in honor of their many years of generosity to the college.", "Dr. Seuss has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at the 6500 block of Hollywood Boulevard.In 2012, a crater on the planet Mercury was named after Geisel." ], [ "Pen names", "Geisel's most famous pen name is regularly pronounced , an anglicized pronunciation of his German name (the standard German pronunciation is ).", "He himself noted that it rhymed with \"voice\" (his own pronunciation being ).", "Alexander Laing, one of his collaborators on the ''Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern'', wrote of it:Geisel switched to the anglicized pronunciation because it \"evoked a figure advantageous for an author of children's books to be associated with—Mother Goose\" and because most people used this pronunciation.", "He added the \"Doctor (abbreviated Dr.)\" to his pen name because his father had always wanted him to practice medicine.For books that Geisel wrote and others illustrated, he used the pen name \"Theo LeSieg\", starting with ''I Wish That I Had Duck Feet'' published in 1965.", "\"LeSieg\" is \"Geisel\" spelled backward.", "Geisel also published one book under the name Rosetta Stone, 1975's ''Because a Little Bug Went Ka-Choo'', a collaboration with Michael K. Frith.", "Frith and Geisel chose the name in honor of Geisel's second wife Audrey, whose maiden name was Stone." ], [ "Political views", "Geisel was a liberal Democrat and a supporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal.", "His early political cartoons show a passionate opposition to fascism, and he urged action against it both before and after the U.S. entered World War II.", "His cartoons portrayed the fear of communism as overstated, finding greater threats in the House Committee on Unamerican Activities and those who threatened to cut the U.S.'s \"life line\" to the USSR and Stalin, whom he once depicted as a porter carrying \"our war load\".Dr.", "Seuss 1942 cartoon with the caption 'Waiting for the Signal from Home'Geisel supported the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II in order to prevent possible sabotage.", "Geisel explained his position:After the war, Geisel overcame his feelings of animosity and his view, using his book ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(1954) as an allegory for the American post-war occupation of Japan, as well as dedicating the book to a Japanese friend.Geisel converted a copy of one of his famous children's books, ''Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!", "'', into a polemic shortly before the end of the 1972–1974 Watergate scandal, in which U.S. president Richard Nixon resigned, by replacing the name of the main character everywhere that it occurred.", "\"Richard M. Nixon, Will You Please Go Now!\"", "was published in major newspapers through the column of his friend Art Buchwald.The line \"a person's a person, no matter how small\" from ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "has been used widely as a slogan by the pro-life movement in the United States.", "Geisel and later his widow Audrey objected to this use; according to her attorney, \"She doesn't like people to hijack Dr. Seuss characters or material to front their own points of view.\"", "In the 1980s Geisel threatened to sue an anti-abortion group for using this phrase on their stationery, according to his biographer, causing them to remove it.", "The attorney says he never discussed abortion with either of them, and the biographer says Geisel never expressed a public opinion on the subject.", "After Seuss's death, Audrey gave financial support to Planned Parenthood.===In his children's books===Geisel made a point of not beginning to write his stories with a moral in mind, stating that \"kids can see a moral coming a mile off.\"", "He was not against writing about issues, however; he said that \"there's an inherent moral in any story\", and he remarked that he was \"subversive as hell.", "\"Geisel's books express his views on a wide variety of social and political issues: ''The Lorax'' (1971), about environmentalism and anti-consumerism; ''The Sneetches'' (1961), about racial equality; ''The Butter Battle Book'' (1984), about the arms race; ''Yertle the Turtle'' (1958), about Adolf Hitler and anti-authoritarianism; ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "(1957), criticizing the economic materialism and consumerism of the Christmas season; and ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(1954), about anti-isolationism and internationalism.=== Retired books ===Seuss's work for children has been criticized for unconscious racist themes.", "Dr. Seuss Enterprises, the organization that owns the rights to the books, films, TV shows, stage productions, exhibitions, digital media, licensed merchandise, and other strategic partnerships, announced on March 2, 2021, that it will stop publishing and licensing six books.", "The publications include ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street'' (1937), ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950), ''McElligot's Pool'' (1947), ''On Beyond Zebra!''", "(1955), ''Scrambled Eggs Super!''", "(1953) and ''The Cat's Quizzer'' (1976).", "According to the organization, the books \"portray people in ways that are hurtful and wrong\" and are no longer being published." ], [ "Style", "===Poetic meters===Geisel wrote most of his books in anapestic tetrameter, a poetic meter employed by many poets of the English literary canon.", "This is often suggested as one of the reasons that Geisel's writing was so well received.===Artwork===Geisel at work on a drawing of the Grinch for ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "in 1957Geisel's early artwork often employed the shaded texture of pencil drawings or watercolors, but in his children's books of the postwar period, he generally made use of a starker medium—pen and ink—normally using just black, white, and one or two colors.", "His later books, such as ''The Lorax,'' used more colors.Geisel's style was unique—his figures are often \"rounded\" and somewhat droopy.", "This is true, for instance, of the faces of the Grinch and the Cat in the Hat.", "Almost all his buildings and machinery were devoid of straight lines when they were drawn, even when he was representing real objects.", "For example, ''If I Ran the Circus'' shows a droopy hoisting crane and a droopy steam calliope.Geisel evidently enjoyed drawing architecturally elaborate objects, and a number of his motifs are identifiable with structures in his childhood home of Springfield, including examples such as the onion domes of its Main Street and his family's brewery.", "His endlessly varied but never rectilinear palaces, ramps, platforms, and free-standing stairways are among his most evocative creations.", "Geisel also drew complex imaginary machines, such as the ''Audio-Telly-O-Tally-O-Count'', from ''Dr.", "Seuss's Sleep Book'', or the \"most peculiar machine\" of Sylvester McMonkey McBean in ''The Sneetches''.", "Geisel also liked drawing outlandish arrangements of feathers or fur: for example, the 500th hat of ''Bartholomew Cubbins'', the tail of ''Gertrude McFuzz'', and the pet for girls who like to brush and comb, in ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish''.Geisel's illustrations often convey motion vividly.", "He was fond of a sort of \"voilà\" gesture in which the hand flips outward and the fingers spread slightly backward with the thumb up.", "This motion is done by Ish in ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish'' when he creates fish (who perform the gesture with their fins), in the introduction of the various acts of ''If I Ran the Circus'', and in the introduction of the \"Little Cats\" in ''The Cat in the Hat Comes Back''.", "He was also fond of drawing hands with interlocked fingers, making it look as though his characters were twiddling their thumbs.Geisel also follows the cartoon tradition of showing motion with lines, like in the sweeping lines that accompany Sneelock's final dive in ''If I Ran the Circus''.", "Cartoon lines are also used to illustrate the action of the senses—sight, smell, and hearing—in ''The Big Brag,'' and lines even illustrate \"thought\", as in the moment when the Grinch conceives his awful plan to ruin Christmas." ], [ "Adaptations", "Seuss Landing at Islands of Adventure in Orlando, FloridaFor most of his career, Geisel was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books.", "However, he did permit the creation of several animated cartoons, an art form in which he had gained experience during World War II, and he gradually relaxed his policy as he aged.The first adaptation of one of Geisel's works was an animated short film based on ''Horton Hatches the Egg'', animated at Leon Schlesinger Productions in 1942 and directed by Bob Clampett.", "As part of George Pal's Puppetoons theatrical cartoon series for Paramount Pictures, two of Geisel's works were adapted into stop-motion films by George Pal.", "The first, ''The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins'', was released in 1943.The second, ''And to Think I Saw It on Mulberry Street'', with a title slightly altered from the book's, was released in 1944.Both were nominated for an Academy Award for \"Short Subject (Cartoon)\".In 1966, Geisel authorized eminent cartoon artist Chuck Jones—his friend and former colleague from the war—to make a cartoon version of ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "The cartoon was narrated by Boris Karloff, who also provided the voice of the Grinch.", "It is often broadcast as an annual Christmas television special.", "Jones directed an adaptation of ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "in 1970 and produced an adaptation of ''The Cat in the Hat'' in 1971.From 1972 to 1983, Geisel wrote six animated specials that were produced by DePatie-Freleng: ''The Lorax'' (1972); ''Dr.", "Seuss on the Loose'' (1973); ''The Hoober-Bloob Highway'' (1975); ''Halloween Is Grinch Night'' (1977); ''Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You?''", "(1980); and ''The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat'' (1982).", "Several of the specials won multiple Emmy Awards.", "A Soviet paint-on-glass-animated short film was made in 1986 called ''Welcome'', an adaptation of ''Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose''.", "The last adaptation of Geisel's work before he died was ''The Butter Battle Book'', a television special based on the book of the same name, directed by Ralph Bakshi.", "A television film titled ''In Search of Dr. Seuss'' was released in 1994, which adapted many of Seuss's stories.After Geisel died of cancer at the age of 87 in 1991, his widow Audrey Geisel took charge of licensing matters until her death in 2018.Since then, licensing is controlled by the nonprofit Dr. Seuss Enterprises.", "Audrey approved a live-action feature-film version of ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' starring Jim Carrey, as well as a Seuss-themed Broadway musical called ''Seussical'', and both premiered in 2000.In 2003, another live-action film was released, this time an adaptation of ''The Cat in the Hat'' that featured Mike Myers as the title character.", "Audrey Geisel spoke critically of the film, especially the casting of Myers as the Cat in the Hat, and stated that she would not allow any further live-action adaptations of Geisel's books.", "However, a first animated CGI feature film adaptation of ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "was approved, and was eventually released on March 14, 2008, to positive reviews.", "A second CGI-animated feature film adaptation of ''The Lorax'' was released by Universal on March 2, 2012 (on what would have been Seuss's 108th birthday).", "The third adaptation of Seuss's story, the CGI-animated feature film, ''The Grinch'', was released by Universal on November 9, 2018.Five television series have been adapted from Geisel's work.", "The first, ''Gerald McBoing-Boing'', was an animated television adaptation of Geisel's 1951 cartoon of the same name and lasted three months between 1956 and 1957.The second, ''The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss'', was a mix of live-action and puppetry by Jim Henson Television, the producers of The Muppets.", "It aired for two seasons on Nickelodeon in the United States, from 1996 to 1998.The third, ''Gerald McBoing-Boing'', is a remake of the 1956 series.", "Produced in Canada by Cookie Jar Entertainment (now DHX Media) and North America by Classic Media (now DreamWorks Classics), it ran from 2005 to 2007.The fourth, ''The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That!", "'', produced by Portfolio Entertainment Inc., began on August 7, 2010, in Canada and September 6, 2010, in the United States and is producing new episodes .", "The fifth, ''Green Eggs and Ham'', is an animated streaming television adaptation of Geisel's 1960 book of the same title and premiered on November 8, 2019, on Netflix, and a second season by the title of ''Green Eggs and Ham: The Second Serving'' premiered in 2022.Geisel's books and characters are featured in Seuss Landing, one of many islands at the Islands of Adventure theme park in Orlando, Florida.", "In an attempt to match Geisel's visual style, there are reportedly \"no straight lines\" in Seuss Landing.", "''The Hollywood Reporter'' has reported that Warner Animation Group and Dr. Seuss Enterprises have struck a deal to make new animated movies based on the stories of Dr. Seuss.", "Their first project will be a fully animated version of ''The Cat in the Hat''." ], [ "Bibliography", "Geisel wrote more than 60 books over the course of his long career.", "Most were published under his well-known pseudonym Dr. Seuss, though he also authored more than a dozen books as Theo LeSieg and one as Rosetta Stone.", "His books have topped many bestseller lists, sold over 600 million copies, and been translated into more than 20 languages.", "In 2000, ''Publishers Weekly'' compiled a list of the best-selling children's books of all time; of the top 100 hardcover books, 16 were written by Geisel, including ''Green Eggs and Ham'', at number 4, ''The Cat in the Hat'', at number 9, and ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish'', at number 13.In the years after his death in 1991, two additional books were published based on his sketches and notes: ''Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!''", "and ''Daisy-Head Mayzie''.", "''My Many Colored Days'' was originally written in 1973 but was posthumously published in 1996.In September 2011, seven stories originally published in magazines during the 1950s were released in a collection titled ''The Bippolo Seed and Other Lost Stories''.===Selected titles===*''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street'' (1937)*''Horton Hatches the Egg'' (1940)*''Horton Hears a Who!''", "(1954)*''The Cat in the Hat'' (1957)*''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "(1957)*''The Cat in the Hat Comes Back'' (1958)*''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish'' (1960)*''Green Eggs and Ham'' (1960)*''The Sneetches and Other Stories'' (1961)*''Hop on Pop'' (1963)*''Fox in Socks'' (1965)*''The Lorax'' (1971)*''The Butter Battle Book'' (1981)*''I Am Not Going to Get Up Today!''", "(1987)*''Oh, the Places You'll Go!''", "(1990)" ], [ "List of screen adaptations", "===Theatrical short films=== Year Title Format Director Distributor Length Ref(s) 1942 ''Horton Hatches the Egg'' traditional animation Bob Clampett Warner Bros. Pictures 10 min.", "1943 ''The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins'' stop motion George Pal Paramount Pictures 1944 ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street'' 1950 ''Gerald McBoing-Boing'' traditional animation Robert Cannon UPA and Columbia Pictures ===Theatrical feature films=== Year Title Format Director(s) Screenwriter(s) Distributor Studio Length Budget Ref(s) 1953 ''The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T.'' live-action Roy Rowland Dr. Seuss and Allan Scott Columbia Pictures A Stanley Kramer Company Production 92 min.", "$2.75 million 2000 ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' Ron Howard Jeffrey Price & Peter S. Seaman Universal Pictures Imagine Entertainment 104 min.", "$123 million 2003 ''The Cat in the Hat'' Bo Welch Alec Berg, David Mandel & Jeff Schaffer Universal Pictures and DreamWorks Pictures 82 min.", "$109 million 2008 ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "computer animation Jimmy Hayward & Steve Martino Cinco Paul and Ken Daurio 20th Century Fox 20th Century Fox AnimationBlue Sky Studios 86 min.", "$85 million 2012 ''The Lorax'' Chris Renaud and Kyle Balda Universal Pictures Illumination Entertainment $70 million 2018 ''The Grinch'' Scott Mosier and Yarrow Cheney Michael LeSieur and Tommy Swerdlow 90 min.", "$75 million 2025 ''The Cat in the Hat'' Erica Rivinoja & Art Hernandez TBA Warner Bros. Pictures Warner Bros. Pictures Animation TBA TBA 2026 ''Thing One and Thing Two'' TBA TBA TBA TBA 2027 ''Oh, the Places You'll Go!''", "Jon M. Chu TBA TBA TBA===Television specials=== Year Title Format Studio Director Writer Distributor Length 1966 ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!''", "traditional animation Chuck Jones Productions Chuck Jones Dr. Seuss, Irv Spector, and Bob Ogle MGM 25 min.", "1970 ''Horton Hears a Who!''", "Dr. Seuss 1971 ''The Cat in the Hat'' DePatie-Freleng Enterprises Hawley Pratt CBS 1972 ''The Lorax'' 1973 ''Dr.", "Seuss on the Loose'' 1975 ''The Hoober-Bloob Highway'' Alan Zaslove 1977 ''Halloween Is Grinch Night'' Gerard Baldwin ABC 1980 ''Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You?''", "1982 ''The Grinch Grinches the Cat in the Hat'' Bill Perez 1989 ''The Butter Battle Book'' Bakshi Production Ralph Bakshi Turner 1995 ''Daisy-Head Mayzie'' Hanna-Barbera Productions Tony Collingwood===Television series=== Year Title Format Director WriterStudio Network 1996–1998 ''The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss'' live-action/puppet Various Various Jim Henson Productions Nickelodeon 2010–2018 ''The Cat in the Hat Knows a Lot About That!''", "traditional animation Collingwood O'Hare ProductionsPortfolio EntertainmentRandom House Children's EntertainmentKQED Treehouse TV 2019–2022 ''Green Eggs and Ham'' Gulfstream PicturesA Stern Talking ToA Very Good ProductionWarner Bros.", "Animation Netflix" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * Documentary aired on the Public Television System.", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Seussville site Random House* * Dr. Seuss at Internet Off-Broadway Database* Dr. Seuss biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia* Dr. Seuss Went to War: A Catalog of Political Cartoons by Dr. Seuss* The Advertising Artwork of Dr. Seuss* The Register of Dr. Seuss Collection UC San Diego* * Dr. Seuss / Theodor Geisel artwork can be viewed at American Art Archives web site* * The Dr. Seuss That Switched His Voice – poem by Joe Dolce, first published in ''Quadrant'' magazine.", "* Register of the Dr. Seuss Collection, UC San Diego* * Theodor Seuss Geisel (real name), Theo.", "LeSieg (pseud.", "), and Rosetta Stone (joint pseud.)", "at LC Authorities with 30, 9, and 1 records" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Digital compositing" ], [ "Introduction", "Four images assembled into one final image'''Digital compositing''' is the process of digitally assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, motion pictures or screen display.", "It is the digital analogue of optical film compositing.", "It’s part of the VFX processing." ], [ "Mathematics", "The basic operation used in digital compositing is known as alpha blending, where an opacity value, 'α', is used to control the proportions of two input pixel values that end up a single output pixel.As a simple example, suppose two images of the same size are available and they are to be composited.", "The input images are referred to as the foreground image and the background image.", "Each image consists of the same number of pixels.", "Compositing is performed by mathematically combining information from the corresponding pixels from the two input images and recording the result in a third image, which is called the composited image.Consider three pixels;* a foreground pixel, f* a background pixel, b* a composited adetpixel, cand * α, the opacity value of the foreground pixel.", "(α = 1 for an opaque foreground, α = 0 for a completely transparent foreground).", "A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a matte.Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a γ=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have::cr = α fr + (1 − α) br:cg = α fg + (1 − α) bg:cb = α fb + (1 − α) bbNote that if the operations are performed in a colour space where γ is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as aliasing artifacts (or \"jaggies\") along sharp edges in the matte.", "More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as \"halos\" around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear.", "It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space.Performing alpha blending is an expensive operation if performed on an entire image or 3D scene.", "If this operation has to be done in real time video games, there is an easy trick to boost performance.", ":cout = α fin + (1 − α) bin:cout = α fin + bin − α bin:cout = bin + α (fin − bin)By simply rewriting the mathematical expression, one can save 50% of the multiplications required.===Algebraic properties===When many partially transparent layers need to be composited together, it is worthwhile to consider the algebraic properties of compositing operators used.", "Specifically, the associativity and commutativity determine when repeated calculation can or cannot be avoided.Consider the case when we have four layers to blend to produce the final image: F=A*(B*(C*D)) where A, B, C, D are partially transparent image layers and \"*\" denotes a compositing operator (with the left layer on top of the right layer).", "If only layer C changes, we should find a way to avoid re-blending all of the layers when computing F. Without any special considerations, four full-image blends would need to occur.", "For compositing operators that are commutative, such as additive blending, it is safe to re-order the blending operations.", "In this case, we might compute T=A*(B*D) only once and simply blend T*C to produce F, a single operation.", "Unfortunately, most operators are not commutative.", "However, many are associative, suggesting it is safe to re-group operations to F=(A*B)*(C*D), i.e.", "without changing their order.", "In this case, we may compute S:=A*B once and save this result.", "To form F with an associative operator, we need only do two additional compositing operations to integrate the new layer S, by computing F:=S*(C*D).", "This expression indicates compositing C with all of the layers below it in one step, and then blending all of the layers on top of it with the previous result to produce the final image in the second step.If all layers of an image change regularly but many layers still need to be composited (such as in distributed rendering), the commutativity of a compositing operator can still be exploited to speed up computation through parallelism even when there is no gain from pre-computation.", "Again, consider the image F=A*(B*(C*D)).", "Each compositing operation in this expression depends on the next, leading to serial computation.", "However, associativity can allow us to rewrite F=(A*B)*(C*D) where there are clearly two operations that do not depend on each other that may be executed in parallel.", "In general, we can build a tree of pair-wise compositing operations with a height that is logarithmic in the number of layers." ], [ "Software", "The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the Cineon, which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon System, made by Kodak, is no longer in production).", "Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps.", "Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space.Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images.===Node-based and layer-based compositing===There are two radically different digital compositing workflows: node-based compositing and layer-based compositing.Node-based compositing represents an entire composite as a directed acyclic graph, linking media objects and effects in a procedural map, intuitively laying out the progression from source input to final output, and is in fact the way all compositing applications internally handle composites.", "This type of compositing interface allows great flexibility, including the ability to modify the parameters of an earlier image processing step \"in context\" (while viewing the final composite).", "Node-based compositing packages often handle keyframing and time effects poorly, as their workflow does not stem directly from a timeline, as do layer-based compositing packages.", "Software which incorporates a node based interface include Natron, Shake, Blender, Blackmagic Fusion, and Nuke.", "Nodes are a great way to organize the effects in a complex shot while maintaining a grip on the smaller details.Layer-based compositing represents each media object in a composite as a separate layer within a timeline, each with its own time bounds, effects, and keyframes.", "All the layers are stacked, one above the next, in any desired order; and the bottom layer is usually rendered as a base in the resultant image, with each higher layer being progressively rendered on top of the previously composited of layers, moving upward until all layers have been rendered into the final composite.", "Layer-based compositing is very well suited for rapid 2D and limited 3D effects, such as in motion graphics, but becomes awkward for more complex composites entailing numerous layers.", "A partial solution to this is some programs' ability to view the composite-order of elements (such as images, effects, or other attributes) with a visual diagram called a flowchart to nest compositions, or \"comps,\" directly into other compositions, thereby adding complexity to the render-order by first compositing layers in the beginning composition, then combining that resultant image with the layered images from the proceeding composition, and so on." ], [ "See also", "* Broadcast designer* Chroma key* Digital asset* Digital cinema* Digital on-screen graphic* Gamma correction* Graphics coordinator* Motion graphic* Motion graphic design" ], [ "External links", "* Digital Compositor Simplified online digital compositor to create a photomontage." ], [ "Further reading", "* * T. Porter and T. Duff, \"Compositing Digital Images\", Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984).", "* The Art and Science of Digital Compositing ()* Samuel Collett, \" Node Based Compositing Explained(Video)\" (2023)" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dandy" ], [ "Introduction", "Parisian costumes: The dandies of Paris in 1831.A '''dandy''' is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance and personal grooming, refined language and leisurely hobbies.", "A dandy could be a self-made man in person and ''persona'', who imitated an aristocratic style of life, despite his middle-class origin, birth, and background, especially in the Britain of the late-18th and early-19th centuries.Early manifestations of dandyism were ''Le petit-maître'' (the Little Master) and the musk-wearing Muscadin ruffians of the middle-class Thermidorean reaction (1794–1795), but modern dandyism appeared in the stratified societies of Europe during the revolutionary period of the 1790s, especially in cultural centres such as London and in Paris.", "Socially, the dandy cultivated a persona of extreme cynical reserve to the degree that the Victorian novelist George Meredith defined such posed cynicism as \"intellectual dandyism\"; whereas the kinder Thomas Carlyle, in the novel ''Sartor Resartus'' (1831), dismissed the dandy as just \"a clothes-wearing man\"; and Honoré de Balzac in ''La fille aux yeux d'or'' (1835) chronicled the idle life of Henri de Marsay, a model French dandy done in by his obsessive Romanticism in pursuit of love, which included yielding to sexual passion and murderous jealousy.In the metaphysical phase of dandyism, the poet Charles Baudelaire defined the dandy as a man who elevates aesthetics to a religion.", "That the dandy is an existential reproach of the conformity of the middle-class man, because \"dandyism, in certain respects, comes close to spirituality and to stoicism\" as an approach to living daily life.", "That \"these beings, have no other status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons, of satisfying their passions, of feeling and thinking .", ".", ".", "because Dandyism is a form of Romanticism.", "Contrary to what many thoughtless people seem to believe, dandyism is not even an excessive delight in clothes and material elegance.", "For the perfect dandy, these material things are no more than the symbol of the aristocratic superiority of mind.", "\"The linkage of clothing and political protest was a particularly English national characteristic in 18th-century Britain; the sociologic connotation is that dandyism was a reactionary protest against social equality, against the levelling effect of egalitarian principles, thus the dandy is nostalgic for feudal values and the ideals of ''the perfect gentleman'' and ''the autonomous aristocrat'' — men of self-made person and persona.", "Paradoxically, the social existence of the dandy required the gaze of spectators, an audience, and readers for their \"successfully marketed lives\" in the public sphere, as in the cases of the playwright Oscar Wilde and the poet Lord Byron, each of whom personified the two social roles of the dandy: the dandy-as-writer, and the dandy-as-''persona''; each role a source of gossip and scandal, each man limited to entertaining high society." ], [ "Etymology", "In the late 18th century, the word ''dandy'' was an abbreviated usage of the term ''jack-a-dandy'', a 17th-century British usage that described a conceited man.", "In British North America, before the American Revolution (1765–1791), the British version of the song \"Yankee Doodle\", specifically the first verse: \"Yankee Doodle went to town, / Upon a little pony; / He stuck a feather in his hat, / And called it Macoroni .", ".", ".", "\"; and the chorus: \"Yankee Doodle, keep it up, / Yankee Doodle Dandy, / Mind the music and the step, / And with the girls be handy.", ".", ".", ".\"", "derided the rustic manner and poverty of colonial Americans, by implying that Macoroni fashion (a fine horse and gold-braided clothing) was what set a dandy apart from colonial society.", "Moreover, there is an Anglo–Scottish border ballad () that uses the word ''dandy'' with a Scots meaning, not the derisive British usage in colonial North America.", "Since the 18th century, contemporary British usage has distinguished between a dandy and a fop in that the wardrobe of a dandy is more sober and refined than the ostentatious wardrobe of a fop." ], [ "British dandyism", "The British Dandy: Beau Brummell in a double-breasted sportscoat and odd trousers, in 1805.", "(Richard Dighton).The French Dandy: Alfred d'Orsay was a social butterfly and friend of Lord Byron.", "(James Baillie Fraser)Pelham: Or, The Adventures of a Gentleman'' (1828), by Edward Bulwer-Lytton.", "The illustration, by E. J. Sullivan, is from an 1898 edition of the novel ''Sartor Resartus'' (1831), by Thomas Carlyle.Beau Brummell (George Bryan Brummell, 1778–1840) was the model British dandy since his days as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, and later as an associate of the Prince Regent (George IV) — all despite not being an aristocrat.", "Always bathed and shaved, always powdered and perfumed, always groomed and immaculately dressed in a dark-blue coat of plain style.", "Sartorially, ''the look'' of Brummel's tailoring was perfectly fitted, clean, and displayed much linen; an elaborately knotted cravat completed the aesthetics of Brummell's suite of clothes.", "In the mid–1790s, handsome Beau Brummell was a personable man-about-town who was ''famous for being famous''; a man celebrated \"based on nothing at all\" but personal charm and social connections.In the national politics of the Regency era (1795–1837), by the time that P.M. William Pitt the Younger had realised the Duty on Hair Powder Act (1795) to pay for Britain's wars against France — and to discourage the use of a foodstuff as hair powder — in the high society of Regency London, the dandy Brummell already had abandoned wearing a powdered wig and wore his hair cut ''à la Brutus'', in the Roman fashion.", "Moreover, Brummel also led the sartorial progress from breeches to tailored ''pantaloons'', which became modern trousers.Upon coming of age in 1799, Brummell received a paternal inheritance of thirty thousand pounds sterling, which he spent on a high life of casinos, tailors, and brothels.", "After bankruptcy in 1816, Brummel fled England to France, whilst pursued by creditors and lived in penury; in 1840, at sixty-one years of age, Beau Brummel died in a lunatic asylum in Caen.", "Nonetheless, despite his ignominious end, European men emulated Brummell's dandyism; thus, the poetical persona of Lord Byron wore a poet's shirt featuring a lace-collar, a lace-placket, and lace-cuffs, which Byron wore in a portrait of himself in Albanian national costume in 1813; and likewise the Count d'Orsay who was a social butterfly among the upper-class social circles of his friend Lord Byron.In \"The Dandiacal Body\", a chapter of the novel ''Sartor Resartus'' (1831), Thomas Carlyle described the dandy's symbolic social function as a man and as a persona of refined masculinity:A Dandy is a Clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office, and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes.", "Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to this one object, the wearing of Clothes wisely and well: so that as others dress to live, he lives to dress.", ".", ".", ".", "And now, for all this perennial Martyrdom, and Poesy, and even Prophecy, what is it that the Dandy asks in return?", "Solely, we may say, that you would recognise his existence; would admit him to be a living object; or even failing this, a visual object, or thing that will reflect rays of light.In the mid-19th century, within the limited palette of muted colours allowed for the clothes of men, the English dandy gave much attention to the details of sartorial refinement (design, cut, and style), such as: \"The quality of the fine woollen cloth, the slope of a pocket flap or coat revers, exactly the right colour for the gloves, the correct amount of shine on boots and shoes, and so on.", "It was an image of a well-dressed man who, while taking infinite pains about his appearance, affected indifference to it.", "This refined dandyism continued to be regarded as an essential strand of male Englishness.\"" ], [ "French dandyism", "The French Dandy: The symbolist poet Robert de Montesquiou.", "(Giovanni Boldini).In monarchic France, ''dandyism'' was ideologically bound to the egalitarian politics of the French Revolution (1789–1799); thus the dandyism of the ''jeunesse dorée'' (the Gilded Youth) was their political statement of aristocratic style in effort to differentiate and distinguish themselves from the working-class ''sans-culottes'', from the poor men who owned no stylish knee-breeches made of silk.In the late 18th century, British and French men abided Beau Brummell's dictates about fashion and etiquette, especially the French bohemians who closely imitated Brummell's habits of dress, manner, and style.", "In that time of political progress, French dandies were celebrated as social revolutionaries who were self-created men possessed of a consciously-designed personality, men whose way of being broke with inflexible tradition that limited the social progress of greater French society; thus, with their elaborate dress and decadent styles of life, the French dandies conveyed their moral superiority to and political contempt for the conformist bourgeoisie.Regarding the social function of the dandy in a stratified society, like the British writer Carlyle, in ''Sartor Resartus'', the French poet Baudelaire said that dandies have \"no profession other than elegance .", ".", ".", "no other social status, but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons.", ".", ".", ".", "The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror.\"", "Likewise, French intellectuals investigated the sociology of the dandies (''flâneurs'') who strolled Parisian boulevards; in the essay \"On Dandyism and George Brummell\" (1845) Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly analysed the personal and social career of Beau Brummell as a man-about-town who arbitrated what was fashionable and what was unfashionable in polite society.In the late 19th century, dandified bohemianism was characteristic of the artists who were the Symbolist movement in French poetry and literature, wherein the \"Truth of Art\" included the artist to the work of art." ], [ "Dandy sociology", "The Dandy King: Joachim Murat, the French King of Naples.Regarding the existence and the political and cultural functions of the dandy in a society, in the essay ''L'Homme révolté'' (1951) Albert Camus said that:The dandy creates his own unity by aesthetic means.", "But it is an aesthetic of negation.", "''To live and die before a mirror'': that, according to Baudelaire, was the dandy's slogan.", "It is indeed a coherent slogan.", "The dandy is, by occupation, always in opposition to society.", "He can only exist by defiance .", ".", ".", "The dandy, therefore, is always compelled to astonish.", "Singularity is his vocation, excess his way to perfection.", "Perpetually incomplete, always on the fringe of things, he compels others to create him, while denying their values.", "He plays at life because he is unable to live life.Further addressing that vein of male narcissism, in the book ''Simulacra and Simulation'' (1981), Jean Baudrillard said that dandyism is \"an aesthetic form of nihilism\" that is centred upon the Self as the centre of the world." ], [ "Quaintrelle", "An 1819 caricature of a DandizetteThe counterpart to the dandy is the ''quaintrelle'', a woman whose life is dedicated to the passionate expression of personal charm and style, to enjoying leisurely pastimes, and the dedicated cultivation of the pleasures of life.In the 12th century, ''cointerrels'' (male) and ''cointrelles'' (female) emerged, based upon ''coint'', a word applied to things skillfully made, later indicating a person of beautiful dress and refined speech.", "By the 18th century, ''coint'' became ''quaint'', indicating elegant speech and beauty.", "Middle English dictionaries note ''quaintrelle'' as a beautifully dressed woman (or overly dressed), but do not include the favorable personality elements of grace and charm.", "The notion of a quaintrelle sharing the major philosophical components of refinement with dandies is a modern development that returns quaintrelles to their historic roots.Female dandies did overlap with male dandies for a brief period during the early 19th century when ''dandy'' had a derisive definition of \"fop\" or \"over-the-top fellow\"; the female equivalents were ''dandyess'' or ''dandizette''.", "Charles Dickens, in ''All the Year Around'' (1869) comments, \"The dandies and dandizettes of 1819–20 must have been a strange race.", "\"Dandizette\" was a term applied to the feminine devotees to dress, and their absurdities were fully equal to those of the dandies.\"", "In 1819, ''Charms of Dandyism'', in three volumes, was published by Olivia Moreland, Chief of the Female Dandies; most likely one of many pseudonyms used by Thomas Ashe.", "Olivia Moreland may have existed, as Ashe did write several novels about living persons.", "Throughout the novel, dandyism is associated with \"living in style\".", "Later, as the word ''dandy'' evolved to denote refinement, it became applied solely to men.", "''Popular Culture and Performance in the Victorian City'' (2003) notes this evolution in the latter 19th century: \".", ".", ".", "or ''dandizette'', although the term was increasingly reserved for men.\"" ], [ "See also", "* Adonis* * ''Dandy and Dedicated Follower of Fashion,'' songs by the Kinks that parody modern (1960s) dandyism.", "* Dude* Effeminacy* Flâneur* Fop* Gentleman* Hipster (contemporary subculture)* Incroyables and Merveilleuses* La Sape* Macaroni (fashion)* Metrosexual* Narcissus (mythology)* Personal branding* Preppy* Risqué* Swenkas* Zoot suit (a style of clothing)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules.", "''Of Dandyism and of George Brummell''.", "Translated by Douglas Ainslie.", "New York: PAJ Publications, 1988.", "* Botz-Bornstein, Thorsten.", "'Rulefollowing in Dandyism: Style as an Overcoming of Rule and Structure' in ''The Modern Language Review'' 90, April 1995, pp. 285–295.", "* Carassus, Émile.", "''Le Mythe du Dandy'' 1971.", "* Carlyle, Thomas.", "''Sartor Resartus''.", "In ''A Carlyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Carlyle''.", "Edited by G.B.", "Tennyson.", "London: Cambridge University Press, 1984.", "* Jesse, Captain William.", "''The Life of Beau Brummell''.", "London: The Navarre Society Limited, 1927.", "* Lytton, Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton.", "''Pelham or the Adventures of a Gentleman''.", "Edited by Jerome McGann.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972.", "* Moers, Ellen.", "''The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm''.", "London: Secker and Warburg, 1960.", "* Murray, Venetia.", "''An Elegant Madness: High Society in Regency England''.", "New York: Viking, 1998.", "* Nicolay, Claire.", "''Origins and Reception of Regency Dandyism: Brummell to Baudelaire''.", "PhD diss., Loyola U of Chicago, 1998.", "* Prevost, John C., ''Le Dandysme en France (1817–1839)'' (Geneva and Paris) 1957.", "* Nigel Rodgers ''The Dandy: Peacock or Enigma?''", "(London) 2012* Stanton, Domna.", "''The Aristocrat as Art'' 1980.", "* Wharton, Grace and Philip.", "''Wits and Beaux of Society''.", "New York: Harper and Brothers, 1861." ], [ "External links", "** La Loge d'Apollon* \"Bohemianism and Counter-Culture\": The Dandy * Il Dandy (in Italian)* Dandyism.net* \"The Dandy\"* Walter Thornbury, Dandysme.eu \"London Parks: IV.", "Hyde Park\" , ''Belgravia: A London Magazine'' 1868" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dubbing" ], [ "Introduction", "Dubbing studio'''Dubbing''' ('''re-recording''' and '''mixing''') is a post-production process used in filmmaking and video production, often in concert with sound design, in which additional or supplementary recordings ('''doubles''') are lip-synced and \"mixed\" with original production sound to create the finished soundtrack.The process usually takes place on a dub stage.", "After sound editors edit and prepare all the necessary tracks—dialogue, automated dialogue replacement (ADR), effects, Foley, and music—the dubbing mixers proceed to balance all of the elements and record the finished soundtrack.", "Dubbing is sometimes confused with ADR, also known as \"additional dialogue replacement\", \"automated dialogue recording\" and \"looping\", in which the original actors re-record and synchronize audio segments.Outside the film industry, the term \"dubbing\" commonly refers to the replacement of the actor's voices with those of different performers speaking another language, which is called \"revoicing\" in the film industry.", "The term \"dubbing\" is only used when talking about replacing a previous voice, usually in another language.", "When a voice is created from scratch for animations, the term \"original voice\" is always used because, in some cases, these media are partially finished before the voice is implemented.", "The voice work would still be part of the creation process, thus being considered the official voice." ], [ "Origins", "Films, videos, and sometimes video games are often dubbed into the local language of a foreign market.", "In foreign distribution, dubbing is common in theatrically released films, television films, television series, cartoons, and anime.In many countries dubbing was adopted, at least in part, for political reasons.", "In authoritarian states such as Fascist Italy and Francoist Spain, dubbing could be used to enforce particular ideological agendas, excising negative references to the nation and its leaders and promoting standardised national languages at the expense of local dialects and minority languages.", "In post-Nazi Germany, dubbing was used to downplay events in the country's recent past, as in the case of the dub of Alfred Hitchcock's ''Notorious'', where the Nazi organisation upon which the film's plot centres was changed to a drug smuggling enterprise.", "First post-WWII movie dub was ''Konstantin Zaslonov'' (1949) dubbed from Russian to the Czech language.", "In Western Europe after World War II, dubbing was attractive to many film producers as it helped to enable co-production between companies in different countries, in turn allowing them to pool resources and benefit from financial support from multiple governments.", "Use of dubbing meant that multi-national casts could be assembled and were able to use their preferred language for their performances, with appropriate post-production dubs being carried out before distributing versions of the film in the appropriate language for each territory." ], [ "Methods", "===ADR/post-sync===Example of ADR for the Telugu-language film ''Uppena''.", "Here, P. Ravi Shankar dubs over the original performance of Vijay Sethupathi.", "'''Automated dialogue replacement''' ('''ADR''') is the process of re-recording dialogue by the original actor (or a replacement actor) after the filming process to improve audio quality or make changes to the originally scripted dialog.", "In the early days of talkies, a loop of film would be cut and spliced together for each of the scenes that needed to be rerecorded, then one-by-one the loops would be loaded onto a projector.", "For each scene the loop would be played over and over while the voice actor performed the lines trying to synchronize them to the filmed performance.", "This was known as \"looping\" or a \"looping session\".", "Loading and reloading the film loops while the talent and recording crew stood by was a tedious process.", "Later, video tape and then digital technology replaced the film loops and the process became known as automated dialogue replacement (ADR).In conventional film production, a production sound mixer records dialogue during filming.", "During post-production, a supervising sound editor, or ADR supervisor, reviews all of the dialogue in the film and decides which lines must be re-recorded.", "ADR is recorded during an ADR session, which takes place in a specialized sound studio.", "Multiple takes are recorded and the most suitable take becomes the final version, or portions of multiple takes may be edited together.", "The ADR process does not always take place in a post-production studio.", "The process may be recorded on location, with mobile equipment.", "ADR can also be recorded without showing the actor the image they must match, but by having them listen to the performance, since some actors believe that watching themselves act can degrade subsequent performances.", "The director may be present during ADR, or alternatively, they may leave it up to a trusted sound editor, an ADR specialist, and the performers.", "the automated process includes sophisticated techniques including automatically displaying lines on-screen for the talent, automated cues, shifting the audio track for accurate synchronization, and time-fitting algorithms for stretching or compressing portions of a spoken line.", "There is even software that can sort out spoken words from ambient sounds in the original filmed soundtrack and detect the peaks of the dialog and automatically time-fit the new dubbed performance to the original to create perfect synchronization.Sometimes, an actor other than the original actor is used during ADR.", "One famous example is the ''Star Wars'' character Darth Vader, portrayed by David Prowse; in post-production, James Earl Jones dubbed the voice of Vader.In India, the process is simply known as \"dubbing\", while in the UK, it is also called \"post-synchronization\" or \"post-sync\".", "The insertion of voice actor performances for animation, such as computer generated imagery or animated cartoons, is often referred to as ADR although it generally does not replace existing dialogue.The ADR process may be used to::*remove extraneous sounds such as production equipment noise, traffic, wind, or other undesirable sounds from the environment:*change the original lines recorded on set to clarify context:*improve diction or modify an accent:*improve comedic timing or dramatic timing:*correct technical issues with synchronization:*use a studio-quality singing performance or provide a voice-double for actors who are poor vocalists:*add or remove content for legal purposes (such as removing an unauthorized trademarked name):*add or remove a product placement:*correct a misspoken line not caught during filming.", ":*replace \"foul language\" for TV broadcasts of the media or if the scene in question has a young actor involved.Other examples include:* Jean Hagen provided Debbie Reynolds' voice in two scenes of ''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952).", "Ironically, the film's story has Reynolds' character, Kathy Seldon, dubbing the voice for ''Hagen's'' character, Lina Lamont, due to Lina's grating voice and strong New York accent.", "Hagen used her own normal melodious voice to portray Kathy dubbing for Lina.", "The film, which takes place in Hollywood as talking pictures are taking over from silent films, also portrays another character, Cosmo Brown, played by Donald O'Connor, as inventing the idea of using one actor to provide the voice for another.", "* Marni Nixon provided the singing voice for the character Eliza Doolittle, otherwise played by Audrey Hepburn, in the 1964 musical film ''My Fair Lady''.", "Nixon was also the singing voices for Deborah Kerr in ''The King and I'' and Natalie Wood in ''West Side Story'', among many others.", "* Ray Park, who acted as Darth Maul from ''Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace'', had his voice dubbed over by Peter Serafinowicz* Frenchmen Philippe Noiret and Jacques Perrin, who were dubbed into Italian for ''Cinema Paradiso''* Austrian bodybuilder Arnold Schwarzenegger, dubbed for ''Hercules in New York''* Argentine boxer Carlos Monzón, dubbed by a professional actor for the lead in the drama ''La Mary''* Gert Fröbe, who played Auric Goldfinger in the James Bond film Goldfinger, dubbed by Michael Collins* George Lazenby's James Bond in ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', dubbed for a portion of the film by George Baker, since Bond was undercover and impersonating Baker's own character.", "* Andie MacDowell's Jane, in ''Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes'', who was dubbed by Glenn Close* Tom Hardy, who portrayed Bane in ''The Dark Knight Rises'', re-dubbed half of his own lines for ease of viewer comprehension* Harvey Keitel was dubbed by Roy Dotrice in post production for ''Saturn 3''* Dave Coulier dubbed replacement of swear words for Richard Pryor in multiple TV versions of his movies* Doug Jones was dubbed by Laurence Fishburne in post production for ''Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer''===Rythmo band===An alternative method to dubbing, called \"rythmo band\" (or \"lip-sync band\"), has historically been used in Canada and France.", "It provides a more precise guide for the actors, directors, and technicians, and can be used to complement the traditional ADR method.", "The \"band\" is actually a clear 35 mm film leader on which the dialogue is hand-written in India ink, together with numerous additional indications for the actor—including laughs, cries, length of syllables, mouth sounds, breaths, and mouth openings and closings.", "The rythmo band is projected in the studio and scrolls in perfect synchronization with the picture.Studio time is used more efficiently, since with the aid of scrolling text, picture, and audio cues, actors can read more lines per hour than with ADR alone (only picture and audio).", "With ADR, actors can average 10–12 lines per hour, while rythmo band can facilitate the reading of 35-50 lines per hour.However, the preparation of a rythmo band is a time-consuming process involving a series of specialists organized in a production line.", "This has prevented the technique from being more widely adopted, but software emulations of rythmo band technology overcome the disadvantages of the traditional rythmo band process and significantly reduce the time needed to prepare a dubbing session.===Translation process===For dubs into a language other than the original language, the dubbing process includes the following tasks:# Translation# Dialog writing:## Take segmentation## Insertion of dubbing symbols## Dialogue writing and the emulation of natural discourse## Lip-syncSometimes the translator performs all five tasks.", "In other cases, the translator just submits a rough translation and a dialogue writer does the rest.", "However, the language expertise of translator and dialog writing is different; translators must be proficient in the source language, while dialog writers must be proficient in the target language.====Dialog writing====The dialogue writer's role is to make the translation sound natural in the target language, and to make the translation sound like a credible dialogue instead of merely a translated text.Another task of dialogue writers is to check whether a translation matches an on-screen character's mouth movements or not, by reading aloud simultaneously with the character.", "The dialogue writer often stays in the recording setting with the actors or the voice talents, to ensure that the dialogue is being spoken in the way that it was written to be, and to avoid any ambiguity in the way the dialogue is to be read (focusing on emphasis, intonation, pronunciation, articulation, pronouncing foreign words correctly, etc.).", "The overall goal is to make sure the script creates the illusion of authenticity of the spoken language.", "A successful localization product is one that feels like the original character is speaking the target language.", "Therefore, in the localization process, the position of the dialogue writing or song writing is extremely important." ], [ "<span id=\"Practice of dubbing foreign films throughout the world\"></span> Global use", "===Localization===Localization is the practice of adapting a film or television series from one region of the world for another.", "In contrast to pure translation, localization encompasses adapting the content to suit the target audience.", "For example, culture-specific references may be replaced and footage may be removed or added.Dub localization is a contentious issue in cinephilia among aficionados of foreign filmmaking and television programs, particularly anime fans.", "While some localization is virtually inevitable in translation, the controversy surrounding how much localization is \"too much\" is often discussed in such communities, especially when the final dub product is significantly different from the original.", "Some fans frown on any extensive localization, while others expect it, and to varying degrees, appreciate it.The new voice track is usually spoken by a voice actor.", "In many countries, actors who regularly perform this duty remain little-known, with the exception of particular circles (such as anime fandom) or when their voices have become synonymous with roles or actors whose voices they usually dub.", "In the United States, many of these voice artists may employ pseudonyms or go uncredited due to Screen Actors Guild regulations or the desire to dissociate themselves from the role.===Africa=======North Africa, Western Asia====In Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, most foreign movies (especially Hollywood productions) are shown dubbed in French.", "These movies are usually imported directly from French film distributors.", "The choice of movies dubbed into French can be explained by the widespread use of the French language.", "Another important factor is that local theaters and private media companies do not dub in local languages in order to avoid high costs, but also because of the lack of both expertise and demand.Beginning in the 1980s, dubbed series and movies for children in Modern Standard Arabic became a popular choice among most TV channels, cinemas and VHS/DVD stores.", "However, dubbed films are still imported, and dubbing is performed in the Levant countries with a strong tradition of dubbing (mainly Syria, Lebanon and Jordan).", "Egypt was the first Arab country in charge of dubbing Disney movies in 1975 and used to do it exclusively in Egyptian Arabic rather than Modern Standard Arabic until 2011, and since then many other companies started dubbing their productions in this dialect.", "Beginning with ''Encanto'', Disney movies are now dubbed in both dialects.In the Arabic-speaking countries, children's shows (mainly cartoons & kids sitcoms) are dubbed in Arabic, or Arabic subtitles are used.", "The only exception was telenovelas dubbed in Standard Arabic, or dialects, but also Turkish series, most notably Gümüş, in Syrian Arabic.An example of Arabic voice actors that dub for certain performers is Safi Mohammed for Elijah Wood.In Tunisia, the Tunisia National Television (TNT), the public broadcaster of Tunisia, is not allowed to show any content in any language other than Arabic, which forces it to broadcast only dubbed content (this restriction was recently removed for commercials).", "During the 1970s and 1980s, TNT (known as ERTT at the time) started dubbing famous cartoons in Tunisian and Standard Arabic.", "However, in the private sector, television channels are not subject to the language rule.====South Africa====In South Africa, many television programs were dubbed in Afrikaans, with the original soundtrack (usually in English, but sometimes Dutch or German) \"simulcast\" in FM stereo on Radio 2000.These included US series such as ''The Six Million Dollar Man'', ''(Steve Austin: Die Man van Staal)'' ''Miami Vice'' ''(Misdaad in Miami)'', ''Beverly Hills 90210'', and the German detective series ''Derrick''.As a result of the boycott by the British actors' union Equity, which banned the sale of most British television programs, the puppet series ''The Adventures of Rupert Bear'' was dubbed into South African English, as the original voices had been recorded by Equity voice artists.This practice has declined as a result of the reduction of airtime for the language on SABC TV, and the increase of locally produced material in Afrikaans on other channels like KykNet.", "Similarly, many programs, such as ''The Jeffersons'', were dubbed into Zulu, but this has also declined as local drama production has increased.", "However, some animated films, such as ''Maya the Bee'', have been dubbed in both Afrikaans and Zulu by local artists.", "In 2018, eExtra began showing the Turkish drama series ''Paramparça'' dubbed in Afrikaans as ''Gebroke Harte'' or \"Broken Hearts\", the first foreign drama to be dubbed in the language for twenty years.====Uganda====Uganda's own film industry is fairly small, and foreign movies are commonly watched.", "The English sound track is often accompanied by the Luganda translation and comments, provided by an Ugandan \"video jockey\" (VJ).", "VJ's interpreting and narration may be available in a recorded form or live.===Asia=======Azerbaijan====In Azerbaijan, dubbing is rare, as most Azerbaijani channels such as ARB Günəş air voice-overs or Azerbaijan originals.====China====China has a long tradition of dubbing foreign films into Mandarin Chinese, starting in the 1930s.", "While during the Republic of China era Western motion pictures may have been imported and dubbed into Chinese, since 1950 Soviet movies became the main import, sometimes even surpassing the local production.", "In Communist China, most European movies were dubbed in Shanghai, whereas Asian and Soviet films were usually dubbed in Changchun.", "During the Cultural Revolution, North Korean, Romanian and Albanian films became popular.", "Beginning in the late 1970s, in addition to films, popular TV series from the United States, Japan, Brazil, and Mexico were also dubbed.", "The Shanghai Film Dubbing Studio has been the most well-known studio in the film dubbing industry in China.", "In order to generate high-quality products, they divide each film into short segments, each one lasting only a few minutes, and then work on the segments one-by-one.", "In addition to the correct meaning in translation, they make tremendous effort to match the lips of the actors to the dialogue.", "As a result, the dubbing in these films generally is not readily detected.", "The cast of dubbers is acknowledged at the end of a dubbed film.", "Several dubbing actors and actresses of the Shanghai Film Dubbing Studio have become well-known celebrities, such as Qiu Yuefeng, Bi Ke, Li Zi, and Liu Guangning.", "In recent years, however, especially in the larger cities on the east and south coasts, it has become increasingly common for movie theaters to show subtitled versions with the original soundtracks intact.Motion pictures are also dubbed into the languages of some of China's autonomous regions.", "Notably, the Translation Department of the Tibetan Autonomous Region Movie Company (西藏自治区电影公司译制科) has been dubbing movies into the Tibetan language since the 1960s.", "In the early decades, it would dub 25 to 30 movies each year, the number rising to 60-75 by the early 2010s.Motion pictures are dubbed for China's Mongol- and Uyghur-speaking markets as well.Chinese television dramas are often dubbed in Standard Mandarin by professional voice actors to remove accents, improve poor performances, or change lines to comply with local censorship laws.=====Hong Kong=====In Hong Kong, foreign television programs, except for English-language and Mandarin television programs, are dubbed in Cantonese.", "English-language and Mandarin programs are generally shown in their original with subtitles.", "Foreign films, such as most live-action and animated films (such as anime and Disney), are usually dubbed in Cantonese.", "However most cinemas also offer subtitled versions of English-language films.For the most part, foreign films and TV programs, both live-action and animated, are generally dubbed in both Mandarin and Cantonese.", "For example, in ''The Lord of the Rings'' film series, Elijah Wood's character Frodo Baggins was dubbed into Mandarin by Jiang Guangtao for China and Taiwan.", "For the Cantonese localization, there were actually two dubs for Hong Kong and Macau.", "In the first Cantonese dub, he was voiced by Leung Wai Tak, while in the second Cantonese dub, he was voiced by Bosco Tang.=====Taiwan=====Taiwan dubs some foreign films and TV series in Mandarin Chinese.", "Until the mid-1990s, the major national terrestrial channels both dubbed and subtitled all foreign programs and films and, for some popular programs, the original voices were offered in second audio program.", "Gradually, however, both terrestrial and cable channels stopped dubbing for prime time U.S. shows and films, while subtitling continued.In the 2000s, the dubbing practice has differed depending on the nature and origin of the program.", "Animations, children's shows and some educational programs on PTS are mostly dubbed.", "English live-action movies and shows are not dubbed in theaters or on television.", "Japanese TV dramas are no longer dubbed, while Korean dramas, Hong Kong dramas and dramas from other Asian countries are still often dubbed.", "Korean variety shows are not dubbed.", "Japanese and Korean films on Asian movie channels are still dubbed.", "In theaters, most foreign films are not dubbed, while animated films and some films meant for children offer a dubbed version.", "Hong Kong live-action films have a long tradition of being dubbed into Mandarin, while more famous films offer a Cantonese version.A list for Mandarin and Cantonese voice artists that dub for actors are shown here.In the 2000s, the dubbing practice has differed depending on the nature and origin of the program.", "Animations, children's shows and some educational programs on PTS are mostly dubbed.", "English live-action movies and shows are not dubbed in theaters or on television.", "Japanese TV dramas are no longer dubbed, while Korean dramas, Hong Kong dramas and dramas from other Asian countries are still often dubbed.", "Korean variety shows are not dubbed.", "Japanese and Korean films on Asian movie channels are still dubbed.", "In theaters, most foreign films are not dubbed, while animated films and some films meant for children offer a dubbed version.", "Hong Kong live-action films have a long tradition of being dubbed into Mandarin, while more famous films offer a Cantonese version.====Georgia====In Georgia, original soundtracks are kept in films and TV series, but with voice-over translation.", "There are exceptions, such as some children's cartoons.====India====In India, where \"foreign films\" are synonymous with \"Hollywood films\", dubbing is done mostly in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu.", "Dubbing is rarely done with the other major Indian languages, namely Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, and Odia, due to lack of significant market size.", "Despite this, some Kannada and Malayalam dubs of children television programs can be seen on the Sun TV channel.", "The dubbed versions are released into the towns and lower tier settlements of the respective states (where English penetration is low), often with the English-language originals released in the metropolitan areas.", "In all other states, the English originals are released along with the dubbed versions, where often the dubbed version collections are more outstanding than the originals.", "''Spider-Man 3'' was also done in the Bhojpuri language, a language popular in eastern India in addition to Hindi, Tamil and Telugu.", "''A Good Day to Die Hard'', the most recent installment in the ''Die Hard'' franchise, was the first ever Hollywood film to receive a Punjabi language dub as well.Most TV channels mention neither the Indian-language dubbing credits, nor its staff, at the end of the original ending credits, since changing the credits casting for the original actors or voice actors involves a huge budget for modifying, making it somewhat difficult to find information for the dubbed versions.", "The same situation is encountered for films.", "Sometimes foreign programs and films receive more than one dub, such as for example, Jumanji, Dragonheart and Van Helsing having two Hindi dubs.", "Information for the Hindi, Tamil and Telugu voice actors who have done the voices for specific actors and for their roles on foreign films and television programs are published in local Indian data magazines, for those that are involved in the dubbing industry in India.", "But on a few occasions, there are some foreign productions that do credit the dubbing cast, such as animated films like the ''Barbie'' films, and some Disney films.", "Disney Channel original series released on DVD with their Hindi dubs show a list of the artists in the Hindi dub credits, after the original ending credits.", "Theatrical releases and VCD releases of foreign films do not credit the dubbing cast or staff.", "The DVD releases, however, do have credits for the dubbing staff, if they are released multilingual.", "As of recently, information for the dubbing staff of foreign productions have been expanding due to high demands of people wanting to know the voice actors behind characters in foreign works.====Indonesia====Unlike movie theaters in most Asian countries, those in Indonesia show foreign movies with subtitles.", "Then a few months or years later, those movies appear on TV either dubbed in Indonesian or subtitled.", "Kids shows are mostly dubbed, though even in cartoon series, songs typically are not dubbed, but in big movies such as Disney movies, both speaking and singing voice are cast for the Indonesian dub.", "Adult films are mostly subtitled but sometimes they can be dubbed as well, and because there are not many Indonesian voice actors, multiple characters might have the exact same voice.When it comes to reality shows, whether the show is dubbed or not differs.", "For example, the Japanese competition show TV Champion Japan are fully dubbed, while other reality shows are aired with Indonesian subtitles.", "All Malay language TV shows, including animated ones, are subtitled instead, likely due to the language's mutual intelligibility with Indonesian.====Iran====A group of Iranian dubbing artistsIn Iran, International foreign films and television programs are dubbed in Persian.", "Dubbing began in 1946 with the advent of movies and cinemas in the country.", "Since then, foreign movies have always been dubbed for the cinema and TV foreign films and television programs are subtitled in Persian.", "Using various voice actors and adding local hints and witticisms to the original contents, dubbing played a major role in attracting people to the cinemas and developing an interest in other cultures.", "The dubbing art in Iran reached its apex during the 1960s and 1970s with the inflow of American, European and Hindi movies.The most famous musicals of the time, such as ''My Fair Lady'' and ''The Sound of Music'', were translated, adjusted and performed in Persian by the voice artists.", "Since the 1990s, for political reasons and under pressure from the state, the dubbing industry has declined, with movies dubbed only for the state TV channels.", "During recent years, DVDs with Persian subtitles have found a market among viewers for the same reason, but most people still prefer the Persian-speaking dubbed versions.", "Recently, privately operated companies started dubbing TV series by hiring famous dubbers.", "However, the dubs which these companies make are often unauthorized and vary greatly in terms of quality.A list of Persian voice actors that associate with their actor counterparts are listed here.", "Persian dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) NotesAmir Houshang ZandJames FrancoMatthew PerrySimon PeggTom HiddlestonOrlando BloomJames McAvoySaeed MozaffariBrad PittJackie ChanMichael KeatonKevin BaconChristopher WalkenWillem DafoeIraj NazerianOrson WellesMarlon BrandoLino VenturaGene HackmanCharles BronsonSylvester StalloneRock Hudson Dubbed for Welles as Charles Foster Kane in ''Citizen Kane'' and dubbed for Brando as Vito Corleone in ''The Godfather''.Bahram ZandRobert De NiroMel GibsonRussell CroweJeremy BrettRoger HaninJalal MaghamiJames CagneyRobert RedfordOmar SharifKhosro KhosroshahiAlain DelonDustin HoffmanAl PacinoShervin Ghetei Johnny DeppTobey MaguireMark Wahlberg Ryan ReynoldsMartin FreemanManouchehr valizadehTom CruiseWill SmithJamie Foxx Eddie MurphyAdam SandlerGeorge PetrossiChris HemsworthNicolas CageJim CarreyDenzel WashingtonKurt RussellAfshin ZinooriElijah WoodDaniel RadcliffeLeonardo DiCaprioMatt Damon Dubbed for Wood as Frodo Baggins in ''The Lord of the Rings'' and dubbed for Radcliffe as Harry Potter in the ''titular film series'' from 3 to 5.====Israel====In Israel, only children's movies and TV programming are dubbed in Hebrew.", "In programs aimed at teenagers and adults, dubbing is never considered for translation, not only because of its high costs, but also because the audience is mainly multi-lingual.", "Most viewers in Israel speak at least one European language in addition to Hebrew, and a large part of the audience also speaks Arabic.", "Therefore, most viewers prefer to hear the original soundtrack, aided by Hebrew subtitles.", "Another problem is that dubbing does not allow for translation into two different languages simultaneously, as is often the case of Israeli television channels that use subtitles in Hebrew and another language (like Russian) simultaneously.====Japan====In Japan, many television programs appear on Japanese television subtitled or dubbed if they are intended for children.", "When the American film ''Morocco'' was released in Japan in 1931, subtitles became the mainstream method of translating TV programs and films in Japan.", "Later, around the 1950s, foreign television programs and films began to be shown dubbed in Japanese on television.", "The first ones to be dubbed into Japanese were the 1940s Superman cartoons in 1955.Due to the lack of video software for domestic television, video software was imported from abroad.", "When the television program was shown on television, it was mostly dubbed.", "There was a character limit for a small TV screen at a lower resolution, and this method was not suitable for the poor elderly and illiterate eye, as was audio dubbing.", "Presently, TV shows and movies (both those aimed at all ages and adults-only) are shown dubbed with the original language and Japanese subtitles, while providing the original language option when the same film is released on VHS, DVD and Blu-ray.", "Laserdisc releases of Hollywood films were almost always subtitled, films alike Godzilla: King of the Monsters.Adult cartoons such as ''South Park'' and ''The Simpsons'' are shown dubbed in Japanese on the WOWOW TV channel.", "''South Park: Bigger, Longer and Uncut'' was dubbed in Japanese by different actors instead of the same Japanese dubbing-actors from the cartoon because it was handled by a different Japanese dubbing studio, and it was marketed for the Kansai market.", "In Japanese theaters, foreign-language movies, except those intended for children, are usually shown in their original version with Japanese subtitles.", "Foreign films usually contain multiple Japanese-dubbing versions, but with several different original Japanese-dubbing voice actors, depending upon which TV station they are aired.", "NHK, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, and TBS usually follow this practice, as do software releases on VHS, Laserdisc, DVD and Blu-ray.", "As for recent foreign films being released, there are now some film theaters in Japan that show both dubbed and subtitled editions.On 22 June 2009, 20th Century Fox's Japanese division has opened up a Blu-ray lineup known as \"Emperor of Dubbing\", dedicated at having multiple Japanese dubs of popular English-language films (mostly Hollywood films) as well as retaining the original scripts, releasing them altogether in special Blu-ray releases.", "These also feature a new dub created exclusively for that release as a director's cut, or a new dub made with a better surround sound mix to match that of the original English mix (as most older Japanese dubbings were made on mono mixes to be aired on TV).", "Other companies have followed practice, like Universal Pictures's Japanese division NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan opening up \"Reprint of Memories\", along with Warner Bros Japan having \"Power of Dubbing\", which act in a similar way by re-packaging all the multiple Japanese dubs of popular films and putting them out as Special Blu-ray releases.", "\"Japanese dub-over artists\" provide the voices for certain performers, such as those listed in the following table: Japanese dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) NotesHiroya Ishimaru Jackie Chan Officially approved by Chan.Tesshō Genda Arnold Schwarzenegger Officially approved by Schwarzenegger.Isao Sasaki Sylvester StalloneElvis PresleyDavid Hasselhoff Masashi Ebara Tom HanksBill MurrayWesley SnipesRobin Williams Kōichi Yamadera Jim CarreyWill SmithJean-Claude Van DammeEddie Murphy Officially approved by Carrey, Murphy and Smith.Kenyu Horiuchi Brad PittCharlie SheenBen StillerJohn Stamos Officially approved by Pitt.Takeshi Kusao Leonardo DiCaprio Dubbed throughout his 1990s films.Daisuke Namikawa Elijah WoodHayden ChristensenLeonardo DiCaprio Officially approved by Christensen and Wood.Yūya Uchida Leonardo DiCaprioRyan Gosling Rikiya Koyama George ClooneyKiefer Sutherland Officially approved by Sutherland and Clooney.Kunio Murai Harrison Ford Tsutomu Isobe Harrison FordMel GibsonChow Yun-fat Kazuhiro Yamaji Russell CroweHugh JackmanJason StathamSean Penn Hiroe Oka Kate WinsletCharlize TheronKirsten Dunst Marika Hayashi Kate Winslet Masane Tsukayama Kevin CostnerLiam NeesonEd HarrisRobert De Niro Akio Ōtsuka Nicolas CageSteven SeagalDenzel WashingtonDolph Lundgren Masato Sako Gary Oldman Mayumi Sako Rachel McAdamsScarlett Johansson Shinpachi Tsuji Gary OldmanColm Meaney Hōchū Ōtsuka Jean-Claude Van DammeJeff GoldblumDonnie YenGary Oldman Dubbed for Oldman in a few films and later dubs of his earlier films.Jūrōta Kosugi Billy BlanksDavid DuchovnyLuke PerryDaniel Craig Hiroaki Hirata Johnny DeppMatt DamonNoah WyleMatt LeBlanc Officially approved by Depp.Keiji Fujiwara Robert Downey Jr. Toshiyuki Morikawa Tom CruiseEwan McGregorAdam SandlerKeanu Reeves Officially approved by Cruise and McGregor.Masako Ikeda Audrey Hepburn Noriko Ohara Jane FondaBrigitte Bardot Reiko Mutō Elizabeth Taylor Gorō Naya Charlton HestonClark GableLee Van Cleef Officially approved by Heston.Kiyoshi Kobayashi James CoburnLee Marvin Officially approved by Coburn.Yasuo Yamada Clint EastwoodJean-Paul Belmondo Officially approved by Eastwood.Chikao Ōtsuka Charles BronsonRichard Widmark Kenji Utsumi Oliver ReedSteve McQueen Genzō Wakayama Sean ConneryGene BarryPeter GravesRaymond Burr Officially approved by Graves and Burr.Osamu Kobayashi Yul Brynner Masato Yamanouchi Montgomery CliftTyrone Power Akiji Kobayashi John Wayne Iemasa Kayumi Frank SinatraDonald SutherlandChristopher Lee Michio Hazama Roy ScheiderSteve MartinDean MartinSylvester Stallone Nachi Nozawa Alain DelonAl PacinoGiuliano GemmaBruce Willis Kei Tomiyama Rick Moranis Tadashi Nakamura Leslie Nielsen Hirotaka Suzuoki Tom CruiseJohn Travolta Dubbed throughout his 1990s films.Yurika Hino Ingrid BergmanWinona RyderKate WinsletJulianne Moore Kotono Mitsuishi Ellen Pompeo Chie Nakamura Kirsten Dunst Yūko Nagashima Sarah Jessica Parker Atomu Shimojō Eddie Murphy Shūichi Ikeda Jet Li Tōru Furuya Yuen Biao Ryōtarō Okiayu Scott FoleyTaylor KitschStephen FungLin Gengxin Official approved by FoleyYū Mizushima Sammo HungMark Hamill Officially approved by Sammo Hung.Takayuki Sugō Jean RenoTommy Lee JonesEd Harris Rica Matsumoto Sandra BullockRenée Zellweger Yoshito Yasuhara Mickey RourkeKevin BaconGary Oldman Maaya Sakamoto Natalie Portman Takako Honda Milla JovovichHilary SwankHalle Berry Officially approved by Jovovich.Kinryū Arimoto Christopher Walken Takanobu Hozumi Christopher Lloyd Takeshi Aono Christopher LloydJoe Pesci Taichirō Hirokawa Roger MooreTony CurtisMichael HuiRobert Redford Hideyuki Tanaka Pierce BrosnanMichael Biehn Yoshisada Sakaguchi Morgan Freeman Masaru Ikeda Danny GloverMorgan Freeman Masahito Kawanago Justin Long Mika Doi Julia Roberts Wataru Takagi Jack Black Taiten Kusunoki Dwayne Johnson Daisuke Ono Benjamin McKenzieShunsuke Sakuya Patrick WilsonBen Affleck Satoshi Mikami Benedict Cumberbatch Daisuke Hirakawa Orlando Bloom Yuhko Kaida Anne Hathaway Mie Sonozaki Anne HathawayKirsten Dunst Shinobu Adachi Jennifer Aniston Kōsei Hirota Danny Trejo Hiroshi Yanaka John Cusack Koichi Chiba Christopher Lee Tetsuo Kanao Will Patton Norihiro Inoue Anthony Edwards Kazue Komiya Bette Midler Toshiko Sawada Anjelica Huston Toshiko Fujita Glenn Close Shigeru Ushiyama William Fichtner Megumi Han Chloë Grace Moretz Shin-ichiro Miki Daniel Wu Kazuo Kumakura Alfred Hitchcock Naoya Uchida Bruce WillisWoody Harrelson Keiko Toda Jodie Foster Gara Takashima Demi MooreAndie MacDowellAmy YasbeckEmma Thompson Mami Koyama Sharon Stone Yūko Sasaki Robin Wright Atsuko Tanaka Nicole KidmanMonica BellucciKate Beckinsale Rica Fukami Catherine Zeta-Jones Misa Watanabe Cameron Diaz Yutaka Aoyama Steve Buscemi Banjō Ginga Michael Clarke Duncan Daisuke Gōri Michael Clarke Duncan Naomi Kusumi John Goodman Bin Shimada Mark HamillSteve Carell Haruhiko Jō Geoffrey Rush Junpei Morita Hugh GrantMatthew McConaugheyColin Firth Katsuhisa Hōki Ving Rhames Hiroshi Iwasaki Stanley Tucci Kinya Aikawa Jack Lemmon Taro Ishida Gene Hackman Ryoko Shiraishi Miley Cyrus Takashi Taniguchi Tommy Lee Jones Kazuko Yanaga Sigourney Weaver Hiroshi Tsuchida Joseph Gordon-Levitt Takaya Hashi Alan Rickman Yoshimasa Hosoya Taylor Lautner Ben Hiura Bruce WillisJohn MalkovichRichard Dreyfuss Yūji Mitsuya Michael J.", "Fox Yū Hayashi Shia LaBeouf Fuminori Komatsu Shia LaBeouf Kenshō Ono Daniel Radcliffe Yumi Sudō Hilary DuffHayden PanettiereEmma Watson Yūki Tokiwa Rupert GrintDaryl Sabara Shūhei Sakaguchi Chris PineLee Byung-hun Kazuya Takahashi Lee Byung-hun Akira Ishida Lee Joon-gi Mitsuaki Madono Kwon Sang-woo Masato Hagiwara Bae Yong-joon Yumi Tōma Kim Ha-neul Hiroki Tōchi Will SmithSam WorthingtonWentworth Miller Hisao Egawa Dominic Purcell Mitsuru Miyamoto Keanu ReevesEthan HawkeAdrien Brody Atsuko Yuya Angelina Jolie Yasuyoshi Hara Kurt Russell Unshō Ishizuka Liam Neeson Shinji Ogawa Michael DouglasDustin HoffmanTimothy Dalton Takuya Kirimoto Bradley Cooper Mugihito Patrick Stewart Fumihiko Tachiki Forest WhitakerMichael Rooker Masakazu Morita Zac Efron Hiroshi Arikawa Ian McKellen Kōsei Tomita Ernest Borgnine Shūichirō Moriyama Telly Savalas Akira Kume Humphrey Bogart Katsunosuke Hori William Hurt Hiroko Suzuki Jacqueline Bisset Manabu Ino Tobey Maguire Tamio Ōki Christopher Plummer Yasuyuki Kase Paul BettanyRyan Reynolds Yuzuru Fujimoto James Earl Jones Saori Yumiba Keira Knightley Minoru Uchida Henry Fonda Munenori Oyamada Henry Fonda Tomoko Shiota Cate Blanchett Mabuki Andō Jennifer Garner Asao Koike Peter Falk Ryō Kurosawa Gary Cooper Yōsuke Kondō William Holden Hōsei Komatsu Anthony Quinn Nobuo Kawai Paul Newman Akio Miyabe Steve McQueen Akira Kimura Glenn Ford Kōji Nakata Jeffrey Hunter Ushio Shima Karl Malden Kei Taguchi Richard Burton Hikaru Urano James Stewart Nobuo Tanaka Sidney Poitier Shinsuke Chikaishi Jerry Lewis Takao Inoue Rock Hudson Aiko Konoshima Sophia Loren Reiko Tajima Kathleen Turner Ranko Mizuki Ingrid Bergman Tatsuya Jō Gregory Peck Michiko Ōtsuka Lauren Bacall Hiroko Ushida Bridgit Mendler Tadashi Mutō Jesse Eisenberg ====Malaysia====Foreign-language programmes and films that air on TV2 are shown in their original language but have subtitles in Malay.====Pakistan====In Pakistan \"foreign films\", and cartoons are not normally dubbed locally.", "Instead, foreign films, anime and cartoons, such as those shown on Nickelodeon Pakistan and Cartoon Network Pakistan, are dubbed in Hindi in India, as Hindi and Urdu, the national language of Pakistan, are mutually intelligible.However, soap operas from Turkey are now dubbed in Urdu and have gained increased popularity at the expense of Indian soap operas in Hindi.", "This has led to protests from local producers that these are a threat to Pakistan's television industry, with local productions being moved out of peak viewing time or dropped altogether.", "Similarly, politicians leaders have expressed concerns over their content, given Turkey's less conservative culture.====Philippines====In the Philippines, the media industry generally has mixed practices regarding whether to dub television programs or films, even within the same kind of medium.", "In general, the decision whether to dub a video production depends on a variety of factors such as the target audience of the channel or programming bloc on which the feature will be aired, its genre, and/or outlet of transmission (e.g.", "TV or cinema, free or pay-TV).=====Free-to-air TV=====The prevalence of media needing to be dubbed has resulted in a talent pool that is very capable of syncing voice to lip, especially for shows broadcast by the country's three largest networks.", "It is not uncommon in the Filipino dub industry to have most of the voices in a series dubbing by only a handful of voice talents.", "Programs originally in English used to usually air in their original language on free-to-air television.Since the late 1990s/early 2000s, however, more originally English-language programs that air on major free-to-air networks or their affiliates (e.g.", "TV5, GMA, GTV, the defunct ABS-CBN) have been dubbed into Filipino.", "Even the former Studio 23 (now S+A), once known for its airing programs in English, had later adopted Filipino language dubbing for some of its foreign programs.", "Children's programs from cable networks Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network, and the former Disney Channel shown on TV5 and GMA have long been dubbed into Filipino or another Philippine regional language.", "Animated Disney films are often dubbed in Filipino except for the singing scenes, which are shown in their original language (though in recent years, there has been an increase in number of Disney musicals having their songs also translated such as ''Frozen'').Dubbing has also been less common in smaller free-to-air networks such as the former RPN 9 (now CNN Philippines) whereby the original-language version of the program is aired.", "Dramas from Asia and Latin America have always been dubbed into Filipino, and each program from these genres feature their unique set of Filipino-speaking voice actors.=====Pay TV=====The original language-version of TV programs is also usually available on cable/satellite channels such as AXN, HBO, and Warner TV Philippines.", "However, some pay-TV channels do specialize in showing foreign shows and films dubbed into Filipino.", "Cinema One, ABS-CBN's cable movie channel, shows some films originally in languages other than English dubbed into Filipino.", "ABS-CBN's Kapamilya Channel also dubs its foreign language programmes.", "Nat Geo Wild airs most programs dubbed into Filipino for Philippine audiences, being one of the few cable channels to do so.", "Tagalized Movie Channel and Tag airs Hollywood and Asian movies dubbed in Filipino.", "The former Fox Filipino aired some English, Latin, and Asian series dubbed in Filipino such as ''The Walking Dead'', ''Devious Maids'', ''La Teniente'', ''Kdabra'', and some selected programs from Channel M. The defunct channel HERO TV, which focused on anime series, dubbed all its foreign programs into Filipino.", "This was in contrast to Animax, where their anime programs are dubbed in English.=====Cinema=====Foreign films, especially English films shown in local cinemas, are almost always shown in their original language.", "Non-English foreign films make use of English subtitles.", "Unlike other countries, children's films originally in English are not dubbed in cinemas.A list of voice actors with their associates that they dub into Filipino are listed here.", "Filipino dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Ryan Ang Elijah Wood Sherwin Revestir Kirsten Dunst Joonee Gamboa Will Smith Jennifer Paz Jennifer Lawrence Diether Ocampo Travis Willingham, Josh Peck Claudine Barretto Moira Kelly, Gabrielle Union, Julianne Buescher Patrick Garcia Daniel Radcliffe, Drake Bell Piolo Pascual Rob Lowe Jolina Magdangal Miranda Cosgrove, Rashida Jones Heart Evangelista Kari Wahlgren, Eden Riegel Miles Ocampo Diamond White Izzy Canillo Max Charles, Joshua Rush Kathryn Bernardo Ariel Winter, Alyson Stoner Alden Richards Ross Lynch Angel Aquino Neve Campbell ====Singapore====In multilingual Singapore, dubbing is rare for western programs.", "English-language programs on the free-to-air terrestrial channels are usually subtitled in Chinese or Malay.", "Chinese, Malay and Tamil programs (except for news bulletins and other live shows), usually have subtitles in English and the original language during the prime time hours.", "Dual sound programs, such as Korean and Japanese dramas, offer sound in the original languages with subtitles, Mandarin-dubbed and subtitled, or English-dubbed.", "The deliberate policy to encourage Mandarin among citizens made it required by law for programs in other Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew) to be dubbed into Mandarin, with the exception of traditional operas.", "Cantonese and Hokkien shows from Hong Kong and Taiwan, respectively, are available on VCD and DVD.", "In a recent development, news bulletins are subtitled into the language of the channel they air on.====South Korea====In South Korea, anime that are imported from Japan are generally shown dubbed in Korean on television.", "However, some anime is censored, such as Japanese letters or content being edited for a suitable Korean audience.", "Western cartoons are dubbed in Korean as well, such as Nickelodeon cartoons like ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' and ''Danny Phantom''.", "Several English-language (mostly American) live-action films are dubbed in Korean, but they are not shown in theaters.", "Instead they are only broadcast on South Korean television networks (KBS, MBC, SBS, EBS), while DVD import releases of these films are shown with Korean subtitles, such as ''The Wizard of Oz'', ''Mary Poppins'', the ''Star Wars'' films, and ''Avatar''.", "This may be due to the fact that the six American major film studios may not own any rights to the Korean dubs of their live-action films that the Korean television networks have dubbed and aired.", "Even if they do not own the rights, Korean or non-Korean viewers can record from Korean-dubbed live-action films from television broadcasting onto DVDs with DVRs.Sometimes, video games are dubbed in Korean.", "Examples would be the ''Halo'' series, the ''Jak & Daxter'' series, and the ''God of War'' series.", "For the ''Halo'' games, Lee Jeong Gu provides his Korean voice to the main protagonist Master Chief (replacing Steve Downes's voice), while Kim So Hyeong voices Chieftain Tartarus, one of the main antagonists (replacing Kevin Michael Richardson's voice).The following South Korean voice-over artists are usually identified with the following actors: South Korean dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Ahn Ji-hwan Johnny Depp Bae Jung-Mi Kirsten Dunst Bak Il Pierce BrosnanMichael Douglas Park Ki-Ryang Mark Hamill Dubbed Hamill as Luke Skywalker in the ''Star Wars'' film series.", "Bak Yeong-hee Carrie FisherWinona Ryder Dubbed Fisher as Princess Leia in the ''Star Wars'' film series.", "Kang Hee-Sun Julia RobertsSharon Stone Ham Soo-Jung Winona Ryder Kim Hwan-Jin George ClooneyCharlie Sheen Jang Yoo-Jin Meryl Streep Chung Misook Sandra BullockEmma Watson Dubbed Watson as Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter film series.", "Jung So-Young Kirsten Dunst Kim Kwan-cheol Denzel Washington Kwon Young-Ho John Candy Dubbed Candy as Gus Polinski in the SBS dub of Home Alone.", "Kim So-hyeong Terrence Howard Kim Youngsun Elijah Wood Lee Jung-Goo Nicolas CageRichard GereSylvester StalloneBruce Willis Park Jo-Ho Nicolas Cage So Yeon Keira Knightley Son Jung-Ah Susan SarandonSigourney Weaver Dubbed Weaver as Ellen Ripley in the Alien titular film series.", "Song Do-yeong Kim BasingerMeg Ryan Yang Ji-Woon Kevin CostnerRobert De NiroHarrison FordMel Gibson Yoo Hae-Moo Samuel L. Jackson Yoon So-Ra Demi MooreMichelle Pfeiffer Yoo Kang-Jin Sean Connery ====Thailand====In Thailand, foreign television programs are dubbed in Thai, but the original soundtrack is often simultaneously carried on a NICAM audio track on terrestrial broadcast, and alternate audio tracks on satellite broadcast.", "Previously, terrestrial stations simulcasted the original soundtrack on the radio.", "On pay-TV, many channels carry foreign-language movies and television programs with subtitles.", "Movie theaters in Bangkok and some larger cities show both the subtitled version and the dubbed version of English-language movies.", "In big cities like Bangkok, Thai-language movies have English subtitles.", "This list features a collection of Thai voice actors and actresses that have dubbed for these featured performers.", "Thai dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Elijah Wood A Thailand actor and singer who dubbed for Wood as Frodo Baggins in the Kapook version of The Lord of the Rings.", "Dubbed for Wood as Frodo Baggins in the Channel 7 version of The Lord of the Rings.", "Dubbed for Wood as Frodo Baggins in The Hobbit.", "Adam Sandler Santisuk Promsiri Gary Oldman Dubbed for Oldman as Sirius Black in the Harry Potter film series.", "Kirsten Dunst Dubbed for Dunst as Mary Jane Watson in the original Spider-Man trilogy.", "Leo Putt Tobey Maguire Dubbed for Maguire as Peter Parker / Spider-Man in the original Spider-Man trilogy.", "James Franco Dubbed for Franco as Harry Osborn in the original Spider-Man trilogy.", "Daniel Radcliffe Dubbed for Radcliffe as Harry Potter in the titular film series.", "He dubbed for this character in all films except for the third one where he was dubbed by a different actor.", "Dubbed for Radcliffe as Harry Potter in the third Harry Potter film.", "Emma Watson Thai actress and singer who dubbed for Watson as Hermione Granger in the Harry Potter film series.", "Rupert Grint Dubbed for Grint as Ron Weasley in the Harry Potter film series.", "Tom Felton Dubbed for Felton as Draco Malfoy in the Harry Potter film series.", "Sean Astin Dubbed for Astin as Samwise Gamgee in the Kapook version of The Lord of the Rings.", "Dubbed for Astin as Samwise Gamgee in the Channel 7 version of The Lord of the Rings.", "Leonardo DiCaprioDean O'Gorman Dubbed for O'Gorman as Fíli in The Hobbit.", "Sam WorthingtonAidan Turner Dubbed for Turner as Kíli in The Hobbit.", "Itthipol Mameket William Moseley Dubbed for Moseley as Peter Pevensie in The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe.", "Bruce WillisRobin Williams † Jonathan Hyde Unknown dubbing artist Sean Connery 'Pancake' Khemanit Jamikorn Rachel Weisz Only replaced her voice for Saphira in the Thai dub of Eragon.", "And this was the only role that she took over regarding Weisz.", "Unknown dubbing artist Mark Hamill ====Vietnam====In Vietnam, foreign-language films and programs are often subtitled or voice-overed on television in Vietnamese.", "They were not dubbed until 1985.", "''Rio'' was considered to be the very first American Hollywood film to be entirely dubbed in Vietnamese.", "Since then, children's films that came out afterwards have been released dubbed in theaters.", "HTV3 has dubbed television programs for children, including ''Ben 10'', and ''Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide'', by using various voice actors to dub over the character roles.Sooner afterwards, more programs started to get dubbed.", "Also dubbed into Vietnamese are most films and TV series produced in Asia-Pacific countries such as China and Japan, most notably HTV3 offers anime dubbed into Vietnamese.", "Pokémon got a Vietnamese dub in early 2014 on HTV3 starting with the Best Wishes series.", "While characters kept their original names, due to a controversy regarding Pokémon's cries being re-dubbed, it was switched to VTV2 in September 2015 when the XY series debuted.", "Sailor Moon also has been dubbed for HTV3 in early 2015.===Europe=======Kids/family films and programming====In North-West Europe, Poland, Portugal, Balkan, Baltic and Nordic countries, generally only movies and TV shows intended for children are dubbed, while TV shows and movies for older audiences are subtitled (although animated productions have a tradition of being dubbed).", "For movies in cinemas with clear target audiences (both below and above 10–11 years of age), both a dubbed and a subtitled version are usually available.=====Belgium=====In the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium (Flanders), movies and TV series are shown in their original language with subtitles, with the exception of most movies made for a young audience.", "In the latter case, sometimes separate versions are recorded in the Netherlands and in Flanders (for instance, several Walt Disney films and Harry Potter films).", "These dubbed versions only differ from each other in their use of different voice actors and different pronunciation, while the text is almost the same.In the French-speaking part of Belgium (Wallonia), the range of French-dubbed versions is approximately as wide as the German range, where nearly all movies and TV series are dubbed.=====Bosnia and Herzegovina=====Bosnia and Herzegovina usually uses Serbian and Croatian dubs (due to their mutual intelligibility), but they have dubbed some cartoons in Bosnian by themselves, for example ''My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic''.", "Children's programs (both animated and live-action) are airing dubbed (in Serbian, Croatian or Bosnian), while every other program is subtitled (in Bosnian).=====Bulgaria=====After November 10, 1991, there was a large-scale influx of American animation production in Bulgaria, which can be classified as follows: A/ Films that in the years of the Iron Curtain either did not reach Bulgaria or were not dubbed according to the generally accepted world standard.", "For example: Sleeping Beauty /1959/, One Hundred and One Dalmatians /1961/, Jungle Book /1967/, The Aristocats /1970/, Robin Hood /1973/ and many others entered the Bulgarian market after 1991.B/ New first-run films created after 1991: Ice Age, Toy Story, Tangled, The Lion King, Mulan, etc.After 1991, BNT was the first to obtain the rights to voice and broadcast Disney series - 101 Dalmatians, Woody Woodpecker, Mickey Mouse, Tom and Jerry, etc.", "The first full-length animated films were dubbed at Boyana Film Studio, Dolly Media Studio (1992) and Ars Digital Studio (1994).", "In 1999, Alexandra Audio Studio took over the Disney production from BNT, which lost the rights to do the voice-overs due to a highly outdated technology park.", "In 2019 Andarta Studio joined the sound business, and in 2005 Profilms Studio, which are still working.In Bulgaria, there are two forms of Bulgarian dubbing.", "The first is the so-called \"voiceover\" dubbing, typical of the Bulgarian television market, in which the voice-over is based on the back-camera technology of the 1970s, with the voice superimposed on the original phonogram.", "This inexpensive way of voice-over is preferred only because of its low cost.", "But unfortunately it is a rather outdated technological form that does not meet the technical requirements of the new times.", "The second, considered basic in many European countries and the only one acceptable today, is synchronous dubbing, a radically different technology with much higher sound quality and speech synchronisation capabilities.", "This new method is defined as post-synchronous /non-synchronous/ dubbing of the product, in which the dialogue component of the phonogram is completely produced in Bulgarian, similar to the process in film production, in order for it to completely replace the original.", "In this sense, dubbing is considered by the production companies as one of the final elements of the overall post-production process of their films, and therefore their control over all the activities performed is complete.=====Croatia=====In Croatia, foreign films and TV series are always subtitled, while most children's programs and animated movies are dubbed into Croatian.", "The practice of dubbing began in the 1980s in some animated shows and continued in 90's, 00's and forward in other shows and films, the latter ones being released in home media.", "Recently, more efforts have been made to introduce dubbing, but public reception has been poor in some exceptions.", "Regardless of language, Croatian audiences prefer subtitling to dubbing; however, dubbing is still popular in animated films.", "Some previously popular shows (such as ''Sailor Moon'') lost their appeal completely after the practice of dubbing began, and the dubbing was eventually removed from the programs, even though most animated shows shown on television and some on home media have been well received by people watching dubbed versions of them.", "This situation is similar with theater movies, with only those intended for children being dubbed.", "Also, there has been an effort to impose dubbing by Nova TV, with ''La Fea Más Bella'' translated as ''Ružna ljepotica'' (literally, \"The Ugly Beauty\"), a Mexican ''telenovela'', but it failed.", "Some of Croatian dubbing is also broadcast in Bosnia and Herzegovina.=====Estonia=====In Estonia, only foreign children's films are dubbed in cinemas and on Estonian broadcast TV channels.", "As a rule, all other foreign films are shown with their original \"pure\" language soundtrack along with subtitles.", "On TV, the subtitles are almost always available in the Estonian language by default settings, and sometimes also in Russian and English upon request.", "In the cinemas, the subtitles are usually presented in Estonian and Russian languages.", "Cartoons and animated series are voiced by dubbing or voiceover.", "Estonian-language television channels use subtitles for English, Russian, and other foreign language audio.", "However, Russian-language TV channels tend to use dubbing more often, since most of them are produced and broadcast from Russia (as opposed to the few Russian-language channels broadcast from Estonia).=====Greece=====In Greece, most cartoon films have dubs.", "Usually when a movie has a Greek dub the dub is shown in cinemas but subtitled versions are shown as well.", "Foreign TV shows for adults are shown in their original versions with subtitles, most cartoons, for example, ''The Flintstones'' and ''The Jetsons'' were always dubbed, while ''Family Guy'' and ''American Dad!''", "are always subtitled and contain the original English dialogue, since they are mostly for adults rather than children.", "Some Japanese anime series are dubbed in Greek (such as ''Pokémon'', ''Dragon Ball'', ''Digimon'', ''Pichi Pichi Pitch'', ''Sailor Moon'', ''Candy Candy'' etc.).", "Some Mexican TV series (like ''Rubí'' and ''La usurpadora'') are dubbed into Greek.", "However, when Skai TV was re-launched in April 2006, the network opted for dubbing almost all foreign shows in Greek, unlike other Greek channels which had always broadcast most foreign-language programmes in their original language with subtitles.", "During 2023, adult shows began getting dubbed (such as Heartstopper and Red, White and Royal Blue)=====Ireland=====Ireland usually receives the same film versions as the UK.", "However, some films have been dubbed into Irish by TG4.Children's cartoons on TV are also occasionally dubbed into Irish.=====Netherlands=====In the Netherlands, for the most part, Dutch versions are only made for children's and family films.", "Animated movies are shown in theaters with Dutch subtitles or dubbing, but usually those cinemas with more screening rooms also provide the original subtitled version.=====Nordic countries=====In the Nordic countries, dubbing is used only in animated features (except adult animated features which only use subtitles) and other films for younger audiences.", "Some cinemas in the major cities may also screen the original version, usually as the last showing of the day, or in a smaller auditorium in a multiplex.In television programs with off-screen narration, both the original audio and on-screen voices are usually subtitled in their native languages.The Nordic countries are often treated as a common market issuing DVD and Blu-ray releases with original audio and user choosable subtitle options in Danish, Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish.", "The covers often have text in all four languages as well, but are sometimes unique for each country.", "Some releases may include other European language audio and/or subtitles (i.e.", "German, Greek, Hungarian or Italian).", "as well as original audio in most cases.In Finland, the dubbed version from Sweden may also be available at certain cinemas for children of the 5% Swedish-speaking minority, but only in cities or towns with a significant percentage of Swedish speakers.", "Most DVD and Blu-ray releases usually only have the original audio, except for animated television series telenovelas, which have both Finnish and Swedish language tracks, in addition to the original audio and subtitles in both languages.In Finnish movie theaters, films for adult audiences have both Finnish and Swedish subtitles, the Finnish printed in basic font and the Swedish printed below the Finnish in a cursive font.", "In the early ages of television, foreign TV shows and movies were voiced by narrator in Finland.", "Later, Finnish subtitles became a practice on Finnish television.", "As in many other countries, dubbing is not preferred outside of children's programs.", "A good example of this is ''The Simpsons Movie''.", "While the original version was well-received, the Finnish-dubbed version received poor reviews, with some critics even calling it a disaster.", "On the other hand, many dubs of Disney's animated television series and movies have been well-received, both critically and by the public.In Iceland, the dubbed version of film and TV was originally Danish with some translated into Icelandic but Icelandic has taken over.", "LazyTown, an Icelandic TV show originally filmed in English, was dubbed into Icelandic, amongst thirty-two other languages.=====North Macedonia=====North Macedonia dubbed many cartoons in Macedonian, but they also air some Serbian dubs.", "Children's programs are airing dubbed (in Macedonian or Serbian), while every other program is subtitled (in Macedonian).", "They use Serbian dubs for Disney movies, because there are no Macedonian Disney dubs.=====Portugal=====In Portugal, dubbing was banned under a 1948 law as a way of protecting the domestic film industry and reducing access to culture as most of the population was illiterate.", "Until 1994, animated movies, as well as other TV series for children, were shown subtitled in Portugal along with imported Brazilian Portuguese dubs due to the lack of interest from Portuguese companies in the dubbing industry.", "This lack of interest was justified, since there were already quality dubbed copies of shows and movies in Portuguese made by Brazilians.", "''The Lion King'' was the first feature film to be dubbed in European Portuguese rather than strictly Brazilian Portuguese.", "Currently, all movies for children are dubbed in European Portuguese.", "Subtitles are preferred in Portugal, used in every foreign-language documentary, TV series and film.", "The exception to this preference is when children are the target audience.While on TV, children's shows and movies are always dubbed, in cinemas, films with a clear juvenile target can be found in two versions, one dubbed (identified by the letters V.P.", "for ''versão portuguesa'' - \"Portuguese version\") and another subtitled version (V.O.", "for ''versão original'' - \"original version\").", "This duality applies only to juvenile films.", "Others use subtitles only.", "While the quality of these dubs is recognized (some have already received international recognition and prizes), original versions with subtitles are usually preferred by the adults.", "Presently, live action series and movies are always shown in their original language format with Portuguese subtitles.", "Streaming services also offer some content for adults dubbed in European Portuguese, although there they provide an option to select the original language.", "There are also a few examples of Anime who were dubbed in European Portuguese (i.e.", "''Dragon Ball'' and ''Naruto'') Netflix is now offering foreign language films aimed at older audiences and TV series (M/12, M/14 and M/16) dubbed into European Portuguese in addition to offering the original version with subtitles.=====Romania=====In Romania, virtually all programs intended for children are dubbed in Romanian.", "Animated movies are shown in theaters with Romanian dubbing.", "However, cinemas with more screening rooms usually also provide the original subtitled version.", "Other foreign TV shows and movies are shown in the original language with Romanian subtitles.", "Subtitles are usually preferred in the Romanian market.", "According to \"Special Eurobarometer 243\" (graph QA11.8) of the European Commission (research carried out in November and December 2005), 62% of Romanians prefer to watch foreign films and programs with subtitles (rather than dubbed), 22% prefer dubbing, and 16% declined to answer.", "This is led by the assumption that watching movies in their original versions is very useful for learning foreign languages.", "However, according to the same Eurobarometer, virtually no Romanian found this method—watching movies in their original version—to be the most efficient way to learn foreign languages, compared to 53 percent who preferred language lessons at school.Some programmes that are broadcast on The Fishing & Hunting Channel are subtitled.", "TV Paprika used to broadcast voice-overed programmes, but it was replaced with subtitles.Some promos for films shown on TV 1000 use voice-overs; but the films are subtitled.", "Examples shown here, at 2:11, 4:25, 5:09 and 7:15=====Serbia=====Serbian language dubs are made mainly for Serbia, but they also broadcast in Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Children's animated movies and some live-action movies and TV series are dubbed into Serbian, while live-action films and TV series for adults are always airing subtitled, because in the region of former Yugoslavia people prefer subtitling for live-action formats.", "An exception to this is the Turkish soap opera ''Lale Devri'' that was dubbed in 2011, and aired on RTV Pink, but because of negative reception, the rest of the TV series was aired subtitled.The dubbing of cartoon series in former Yugoslavia during the 1980s had a twist of its own: famous Serbian actors, such as Nikola Simić, Mića Tatić, Nada Blam and others provided the voices for characters of Disney, Warner Bros., MGM and other companies, frequently using region-specific phrases and sentences and, thus, adding a dose of local humor to the translation of the original lines.", "These phrases became immensely popular and are still being used for tongue-in-cheek comments in specific situations.", "These dubs are today considered cult dubs.", "The only dub made after 1980s and 1990s ones that has a cult following is the ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' dub, broadcast by B92 between 2002–2017, because of the memorable translation with regional humor, akin to the translations seen in 1980s Yugoslavian dubs.Some Serbian dubs are also broadcast in North Macedonia, while cult dubs made during Yugoslavia were aired all over the country (today's Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Slovenia, North Macedonia and Serbia).In the 21st-century, prominent dubbing/voice actors in Serbia include actors Marko Marković, Vladislava Đorđević, Jelena Gavrilović, Dragan Vujić, Milan Antonić, Boris Milivojević, Radovan Vujović, Goran Jevtić, Ivan Bosiljčić, Gordan Kičić, Slobodan Stefanović, Dubravko Jovanović, Dragan Mićanović, Slobodan Ninković, Branislav Lečić, Jakov Jevtović, Ivan Jevtović, Katarina Žutić, Anica Dobra, Voja Brajović, Nebojša Glogovac and Dejan Lutkić.=====Slovenia=====In Slovenia, all foreign films and television programs are subtitled with the exception of children's movies and TV shows (both animated or live-action).", "While dubbed versions are always shown in cinemas and later on TV channels, cinemas will sometimes play subtitled versions of children's movies as well.=====United Kingdom=====In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of foreign language films are subtitled, although mostly animated films are dubbed in English.", "These usually originate from North America, as opposed to being dubbed locally.", "Foreign language serials shown on BBC Four are subtitled into English (although open subtitles are dropped during dialogues with English language segments already).", "There have, however, been notable examples of films and TV programs successfully dubbed in the UK, such as the Japanese ''Monkey'' and French ''Magic Roundabout'' series.", "When airing films on television, channels in the UK often choose subtitling over dubbing, even if a dubbing in English exists.", "It is also a fairly common practice for animation aimed at preschool children to be re-dubbed with British voice actors replacing the original voices, such as Spin Master Entertainment's PAW Patrol series, although this is not done with shows aimed at older audiences.", "The off-screen narrated portions of some programs and reality shows that originate from North America are also redone with British English voices.", "The 2020 Bavarian show on Netflix, Freud, has also been dubbed to English.Some animated films and TV programs are also dubbed into Welsh and Scottish Gaelic.Hinterland displays a not so common example of a bilingual production.", "Each scene is filmed twice, in the English and Welsh languages, apart from a few scenes where Welsh with subtitles is used for the English version.====General films and programming====In the French-, Italian-, Spanish-, German-, Russian-, Polish-, Czech-, Slovak- and Hungarian-speaking markets of Europe, almost all foreign films and television shows are dubbed (with the main exception being the majority of theatrical releases of adult-audience movies in the Czech Republic and Slovakia).", "There are few opportunities to watch foreign movies in their original versions.", "In Spain, Italy, Germany and Austria, even in the largest cities, there are few cinemas that screen original versions with subtitles, or without any translation.", "However, digital pay-TV programming is often available in the original language, including the latest movies.", "Prior to the rise of DVDs (and later Video on Demand and Streaming), which in these countries are mostly issued with multi-language audio tracks, original-language films (those in languages other than the country's official language) were rare, whether in theaters, on TV, or on home video, and subtitled versions were considered a product for small niche markets such as intellectual or art films.=====Albania=====The first movie dubbed in Albanian was ''The Great Warrior Skanderbeg'' in 1954 and since then, there have been thousands of popular titles dubbed in Albanian by different dubbing studios.", "All animated movies and children's programs are dubbed into Albanian (though typically, songs are left in English or the original language of the program with Albanian subtitles).", "Many live-action movies are dubbed as well.", "TV series nevertheless are usually not dubbed, they are subtitled except for a few Mexican, Brazilian and Turkish soap operas, like: ''Por Ti'', ''Celebridade'', ''A Casa das Sete Mulheres'', ''Paramparça'', etc.", "As for documentaries, Albania usually uses voice-over.=====France=====In France, dubbing is the norm.", "Most movies with a theatrical release, including all those from major distributors, are dubbed.", "Those that are not, are foreign independent films whose budget for international distribution is limited, or foreign art films with a niche audience.Almost all theaters show movies with their French dubbing (\"VF\", short for ).", "Some of them also offer screenings in the original language (\"VO\", short for ), generally accompanied with French subtitles (\"VOST\", short for ).", "A minority of theaters (usually small ones) screen exclusively in the original language.", "According to the CNC (National Centre for Cinematography), VOST screenings accounted for 16.4% of tickets sold in France.In addition, dubbing is required for home entertainment and television screenings.", "However, since the advent of digital television, foreign programs are broadcast to television viewers in both languages (sometimes, French with audio description is also aired); while the French-language track is selected by default, viewers can switch to the original-language track and enable French subtitles.", "As a special case, the binational television channel Arte broadcasts both the French and German dubbing, in addition to the original-language version.Some voice actors that have dubbed for celebrities in the European French language are listed below.", "European French dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Benoît Allemane Morgan Freeman Adrien Antoine Chris HemsworthSam WorthingtonAdrien BrodyHenry CavillChanning TatumAshton KutcherZachary Quinto Jacques Balutin Elliott GouldPaul Michael Glaser Michèle Bardollet Barbra StreisandBette MidlerJoan Collins Michel Bedetti Corey Burton Chloé Berthier Kirsten Dunst Claude Bertrand Bud SpencerBurt LancasterRoger MooreCharles BronsonJohn Wayne Laura Blanc Jennifer GarnerKate Beckinsale Damien Boisseau Matt DamonEdward NortonJames MarsdenJosh HartnettSam RockwellPatrick DempseyCasper Van Dien Roger Carel Peter SellersPeter UstinovJack Lemmon Marc Cassot Paul NewmanRichard HarrisMichael Gambon Dominique Collignon-Maurin Mark HamillNicolas CageKevin Kline Jérémie Covillault Benedict CumberbatchTom HardyJoel EdgertonJavier Bardem Emmanuel Curtil Jim CarreyKyle ChandlerJohnny KnoxvilleMike Myers Maïk Darah Whoopi GoldbergQueen LatifahAngela BassettMadonna Richard Darbois Harrison FordDanny GloverRichard GereDan AykroydJeff GoldblumWilliam HurtPatrick Swayze Jean Davy Errol FlynnRobert TaylorOrson WellesCary GrantJames MasonCharlton HestonVictor Mature Béatrice Delfe Susan SarandonDiane KeatonGeraldine ChaplinFarrah Fawcett Thierry Desroses Samuel L. JacksonWesley SnipesCuba Gooding Jr.Forest Whitaker Jean-Claude Donda Jim BroadbentKen StottWilliam H. MacyJoe Pantoliano Alain Dorval Sylvester StalloneNick Nolte Danièle Douet Nicole KidmanCarrie-Anne MossKristin Scott Thomas Bruno Dubernat Neal McDonoughBlair UnderwoodTaye Diggs Patrice Dubois Mark WahlbergPaul RuddJosh DuhamelSeann William Scott Paule Emmanuele Shelley WintersElizabeth TaylorLois Maxwell Xavier Fagnon Seth RogenJason MomoaDylan McDermottMichael Weatherly Serge Faliu Adam SandlerCharlie SheenChris TuckerKal PennTerrence HowardEmilio Estevez Alexandre Gillet Elijah WoodJoshua JacksonRyan GoslingBen FosterDavid Charvet Claude Giraud Robert RedfordTommy Lee JonesAlan Rickman Claire Guibert Doris DayLinda DarnellMarilyn MonroeSusan Hayward Pierre Hatet Christopher LloydRip TornTom SelleckMark Hamill Barbara Kelsch Milla JovovichGwyneth PaltrowCharlize Theron David Krüger Dwayne JohnsonMichael ShannonChris Pratt Gabriel Le Doze Gary OldmanKevin SpaceyGabriel ByrneAlfred MolinaPhilip Seymour HoffmanToni ServilloChris Noth Raymond Loyer John WayneCharlton HestonRobert RyanJohnny Weissmuller Marie-Eugénie Maréchal Kirsten DunstElizabeth BanksAmanda Seyfried Jean-Pierre Michaël Brad PittKeanu ReevesEthan HawkeBen AffleckMichael FassbenderJude LawTimothy Olyphant Jean-Claude Michel Sean ConneryClint EastwoodRobert MitchumRock HudsonCharlton Heston Céline Montsarrat Julia Roberts Laurent Morteau Jeff BennettWill ForteThomas LennonJason Segel Jean-Pierre Moulin Anthony HopkinsJack NicholsonDonald Sutherland Charles Pestel Elijah WoodJonah Hill Patrick Poivey Bruce WillisDon JohnsonTom CruiseMickey Rourke Jacqueline Porel Deborah KerrAudrey HepburnLana Turner Dorothée Pousséo Mary-Kate OlsenAshley OlsenPiper PeraboBrittany MurphyIsla Fisher Perette Pradier Faye DunawayJacqueline BissetKate Jackson Jean-Philippe Puymartin Tom HanksTom CruiseChristian SlaterQuentin TarantinoMarc Dacascos Lita Recio Barbara StanwyckMarlene DietrichAgnes MooreheadBette Davis Michel Roux Tony CurtisPeter SellersElvis PresleyJack Lemmon Roger Rudel Kirk DouglasFrank SinatraTyrone PowerFred AstaireGene Kelly Martine Sarcey Audrey HepburnJulie AndrewsJoanne WoodwardElizabeth Montgomery Serge Sauvion Burt ReynoldsPeter Falk Évelyn Séléna Glenn CloseHelen MirrenJane FondaJane SeymourLinda Gray Yoann Sover Zac EfronDave FrancoJackson RathboneChad Michael Murray Pierre Tessier Ryan ReynoldsGreg Germann Jacques Thébault Audie MurphySteve McQueenRobert ConradPatrick McGoohan Frédérique Tirmont Emma ThompsonMeryl StreepSigourney WeawerMia FarrowSusan Sarandon Roger Tréville James StewartRobert Mitchum Philippe Valmont Luke WilsonChristian BaleJames Franco Alexis Victor Bradley CooperJosh DuhamelPatrick WilsonJames McAvoyJude LawTom HiddlestonJoseph Gordon-Levitt Caroline Victoria Anne HathawayAmy AdamsKatie HolmesAnna Paquin Michel Vigné Mickey RourkeMichael WincottRon Perlman Marie Vincent Demi MooreKirstie Alley =====Germany, Austria, Switzerland=====The Germanophone dubbing market is the largest in Europe.", "Germany has the most foreign-movie-dubbing studios per capita and per given area in the world and according to the German newspaper Die Welt 52% of all voice actors currently work in the German dubbing industry.", "In Germany and Austria, practically all films, shows, television series and foreign soap operas are shown in dubbed versions created for the German market.", "Dubbing films is a traditional and common practice in German-speaking Europe, since subtitles are not accepted and used as much as in other European countries.", "According to a European study, Austria is the country with the highest rejection rate (more than 70 percent) of subtitles, followed by Italy, Spain and Germany.In German-speaking markets, computer and video games feature German text menus and are generally dubbed into the German language if speaking parts exist.Unlike in Austria and Germany, cinemas in German-speaking Switzerland historically strongly preferred subtitled versions of foreign-language films.", "Swiss film distributors commissioned dual-language prints with both German and French subtitles as the primary version, with the dubbed version also shown.", "In recent years, however, there has been a shift towards dubbed versions, which now account for the majority of showings.", "Television broadcasts of foreign films and programming have historically been dubbed.Swiss and Austrian television stations have increasingly been broadcasting foreign-language movies and TV programs with multiple soundtracks, allowing the viewer to choose between the original language (e.g.", "English) and the channel's local language (German, French, or Italian, according to the location).Although German-speaking voice actors play only a secondary role, they are still notable for providing familiar voices to well-known actors.", "Famous foreign actors are known and recognized for their German voice, and the German audience is used to them, so dubbing is also a matter of authenticity.", "However, in larger cities, there are theaters where movies can be seen in their original versions, as English has become somewhat more popular among young educated viewers.", "On German mainstream television, films are never broadcast with subtitles, but pay-per-view programming is often available in the original language.", "Subtitled niche and art films are sometimes aired on smaller networks.German-dubbed versions sometimes diverge greatly from the original, especially in adding humorous elements absent from the original.", "In extreme cases, such as ''The Persuaders!''", "or ''Erik the Viking'', the German-dubbed version was more successful than the English original.", "Often, translation adds sexually explicit gags the U.S. versions might not be allowed to use.", "For example, in ''Bewitched'', the translators changed ''\"The Do Not Disturb sign will hang on the door tonight\"'' to ''\"The only hanging thing tonight will be the Do Not Disturb sign\"''.", "This practice was the most prevalent from the 1960s to 80s, from the 1990s onwards it became much less common.Some movies dubbed in Austria diverge from the German Standard version in addressing other people but only when the movies are dubbed into certain Austrian dialect versions.", "(Mr. and Mrs. are translated into Herr and Frau which is usually not translated in order to be in lip-sync).Sometimes even English pronounced first names are translated and are pronounced into the correct German equivalent (English name \"Bert\" became Southern German pronounced name \"Bertl\" which is an abbreviation for any name either beginning or even ending with \"bert\", e.g.", "\"Berthold\" or \"Albert\".", ")Some movies dubbed before reunification exist in different versions for the east and the west.", "They use different translations, and often differ in the style of dubbing.Some of the well-known German dubbing voice artists are listed below.", "German dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Peer Augustinski Robin Williams Marie Bierstedt Kirsten DunstAnna FarisKate Beckinsale Susanna Bonaséwicz Isabelle HuppertSissy Spacek Hallgerd Bruckhaus Meryl StreepSigourney Weaver Christian Brückner Robert De Niro Michael Chevalier Charles BronsonOmar Sharif Thomas Danneberg Arnold SchwarzeneggerSylvester StalloneNick Nolte Marion Degler Sophia LorenAudrey Hepburn Eckart Dux Anthony Perkins Arne Elsholtz Tom HanksBill Murray Max Felder Rupert GrintTaylor Lautner Rosemarie Fendel Elizabeth TaylorJeanne Moreau Gisela Fritsch Judi Dench Frank Glaubrecht Al PacinoPierce BrosnanKevin Costner Daniela Hoffmann Julia Roberts Gert Günther Hoffmann Paul NewmanSean Connery Hansi Jochmann Jodie Foster Martin Keßler Nicolas CageVin DieselTemuera Morrison Also dubs Dee Bradley Baker in his role as the Clone troopers.", "Renate Küster Faye DunawayJane Fonda Manfred Lehmann Bruce Willis Margot Leonard Marilyn MonroeBrigitte Bardot Lutz Mackensey Rowan AtkinsonChristopher Lloyd Arnold Marquis John Wayne Ulrich Matthes Kenneth Branagh Dubbed him as Henry V of England in the 1989 film ''Henry V''.", "Hartmut Neugebauer Gene HackmanJohn GoodmanRobbie Coltrane Veronika Neugebauer Neve Campbell Timmo Niesner Elijah WoodTom WellingPeter SarsgaardTopher Grace The Official German voice artist for Elijah Wood since 1999.Heinz Petruo As Darth Vader Thomas Petruo Gary Oldman Gabrielle Pietermann Emma WatsonSelena GomezMeaghan Jette MartinAnna Kendrick Nico Sablik Daniel Radcliffe Dubbed him as Harry Potter for the rest of the titular film series, starting with the third film.", "Udo Schenk Gary Oldman Dennis Schmidt-Foß Ryan ReynoldsChris Evans Siegmar Schneider James Stewart Tim Schwarzmaier Daniel Radcliffe Dubbed him as Harry Potter of the first two installments of the titular film series.", "Achime Schülke Most well known as the German Voice of Spud Georg Thomalla Jack Lemmon Jürgen Thormann Michael Caine Andreas von der Meden David Hasselhoff Dubbed him in a majority of his work, including ''Baywatch'' and ''The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie''.", "Dietmar Wunder Adam SandlerCuba Gooding Jr.Daniel Craig =====Hungary=====In Hungary, dubbing is almost universally common.", "Almost every foreign movie or TV show released in Hungary is dubbed into Hungarian.", "The history of dubbing dates back to the 1950s, when the country was still under communist rule.", "One of the most iconic Hungarian dubs was of the American cartoon ''The Flintstones'', with a local translation by József Romhányi.", "The Internetes Szinkron Adatbázis (ISzDB) is the largest Hungarian database for film dubs, with information for many live action and animated films.", "On page 59 of the Eurobarometer, 84% of Hungarians said that they prefer dubbing over subtitles.In the socialist era, every film was dubbed with professional and mostly popular actors.", "Care was taken to make sure the same voice actor would lend their voice to the same original actor.", "In the early 1990s, as cinemas tried to keep up with showing newly-released films, subtitling became dominant in the cinema.", "This, in turn, forced TV channels to make their own cheap versions of dubbed soundtracks for the movies they presented, resulting in a constant degrading of dubbing quality.", "Once this became customary, cinema distributors resumed the habit of dubbing for popular productions, presenting them in a below-average quality.", "However, every feature is presented with the original soundtrack in at least one cinema in large towns and cities.However, in Hungary, most documentary films and series (for example, those on Discovery Channel, National Geographic Channel) are made with voiceovers, as is the case with most other countries that favor dubbing.", "Some old movies and series, or ones that provide non-translatable jokes and conversations (for example, the ''Mr.", "Bean'' television series), are shown only with subtitles.There is a more recent problem arising from dubbing included on DVD releases.", "Many generations have grown up with an original (and, by current technological standards, outdated) soundtrack, which is either technologically (mono or bad quality stereo sound) or legally (expired soundtrack license) unsuitable for a DVD release.", "Many original features are released on DVD with a new soundtrack, which in some cases proves to be extremely unpopular, thus forcing DVD producers to include the original soundtrack.", "In some rare cases, the Hungarian soundtrack is left out altogether.", "This happens notably with Warner Home Video Hungary, which ignored the existence of Hungarian soundtracks completely, as they did not want to pay the licenses for the soundtracks to be included on their new DVD releases, which appear with improved picture quality, but very poor subtitling.=====Italy=====Dubbing is systematic in Italy, with a tradition going back to 1930.In Mussolini's fascist Italy, the release of movies in foreign languages was banned in 1938 for political reasons.", "Rome is the main base of the dubbing industry, where major productions, such as movies, drama, documentaries, and some animation films are dubbed.", "However, most animated works are dubbed in Milan, as well as other minor productions.", "Virtually every foreign film of every genre and target audience—as well as TV shows—are dubbed into Italian.", "Some theatres in the bigger cities include original language shows in their schedules, even if this is an uncommon practice.", "Subtitles may be available on late-night programs on mainstream TV channels.", "Pay-TV and streaming services provide films in the dubbed version as well as in their original language.Early in their careers, actors such as Alberto Sordi or Nino Manfredi worked extensively as dubbing actors.", "At a certain point, shooting scenes in MOS (motor only sync or motor only shot) was a common practice in Italian cinema; all dialogue was dubbed in post-production.", "A notable instance is ''The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly'', in which all actors had to dub in their own voices.Because many films would feature multinational casts, dubbing became necessary to ensure dialogue would be comprehensible regardless of the dub language.", "The presence of foreign actors also meant that some directors would have actors recite gibberish or otherwise unrelated words, since the end goal was simply to have general lip movements over which to add dialogue.A typical example of this practice was ''La Strada'', which starred two Americans; Anthony Quinn and Richard Basehart, in leading roles.", "Rather than have dialogue spoken phonetically or have multiple languages at the same time (which would require lines to be translated multiple times), actors would instead count numbers corresponding to the number of lines.", "Liliana Betti, assistant to director Federico Fellini, described the system as such: \"Instead of lines, the actor has to count off numbers in their normal order.", "For instance, a line of fifteen words equals an enumeration of up to thirty.", "The actor merely counts till thirty: 1-2-3-4-5-6-7.etc.\"", "Fellini used this system, which he coined \"numerological diction,\" in many of his films.", "Other directors adopted similar systems.Dubbing may also be used for artistic purposes.", "It was common for even Italian-speaking performers to have their dialogue dubbed by separate voice actors, if their actual voice is thought to be unfitting or some otherwise unsuitable.", "For example, in ''Django'', lead actor Franco Nero was dubbed by Nando Gazzolo because he was thought to sound too youthful for the grizzled character he portrayed.", "Claudia Cardinale, one of the major actresses of the 1960s and 70s, had a heavy accent from her Tunisian background, and was likewise dubbed for the first decade of her career.", "This practice was generally phased out in the 1990s, with the widespread adoption of sync sound.Video games are generally either dubbed into Italian (for instance, the ''Assassin's Creed'', ''Halo'', and ''Harry Potter'' series) or released with the original audio tracks providing Italian subtitles.As for documentaries, Italy usually uses voice-over.The most important Italian voice actors and actresses, as well as the main celebrities dubbed in their career, are listed below.Italian dubbing artists Voice actor/actress Years active Main actors/actresses dubbed NotesTina Lattanzi1923–1988Greta GarboJoan CrawfordMarlene DietrichGreer GarsonRita HayworthMyrna LoyFamous for her deep, seductive, and adaptable voice, she was the main dubbing actress for ''femmes fatales'' in the 1930s and 1940s.", "Famous interpretations of animation roles were the Evil Queen in ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', Lady Tremaine in ''Cinderella'', the Queen of Hearts in ''Alice in Wonderland'' and Maleficent in ''Sleeping Beauty''.Andreina Pagnani1924–1981Marlene DietrichBette DavisGinger RogersNorma ShearerActive primarily as a theatre actress, her intense and nuanced voice made her one of the most prominent and esteemed dub actresses of her generation (along with Lydia Simoneschi, Rosetta Calavetta, Giovanna Scotto and Tina Lattanzi).Carlo Romano1927–1975Jerry LewisLou CostelloBob HopeRod SteigerEli WallachNigel BruceLouis de FunèsPeter LorreWilliam BendixFernando SanchoJason RobardsHe was the official Italian voice of Jerry Lewis, Bob Hope and Lou Costello; he was also well-known for dubbing the role of Don Camillo played by French actor Fernandel.Rosetta Calavetta1930–1993Marilyn MonroeLana TurnerDoris DayEleanor ParkerAva GardnerVeronica LakeShe was the official Italian voice of Lana Turner, Marilyn Monroe and Doris Day.Mario Besesti1932–1968Charles LaughtonThomas MitchellEdward ArnoldEdgar BuchananCharles CoburnRaymond MasseyHe was considered one of the most significant dubbing artists of the Classical Hollywood cinema and worked on some of the early Disney animated films.", "He was the main dubber of all the actors listed.Miranda Bonansea1932–2009Shirley TempleJudy GarlandAnne FrancisLinda HuntJune AllysonJean SimmonsShe was the official Italian voice of Shirley Temple.Pino Locchi1932–1994Sean ConneryGiuliano GemmaTony CurtisCharles BronsonSidney PoitierRoger MooreJean-Paul BelmondoTerence HillClint EastwoodElvis PresleyRingo StarrHe was the official Italian voice of Sean Connery until 1994 and the primary Italian voice of James Bond.Lydia Simoneschi1932–1976Sophia LorenIngrid BergmanMaureen O'HaraBarbara StanwyckSusan HaywardJennifer JonesBette DavisJoan Fontaine Considered the \"queen\" of Italian dubbing actresses (together with Rosetta Calavetta, Rita Savagnone, and Dhia Cristiani), she dubbed most of the classic Hollywood female stars at least once in her 40-years career.Cesare Barbetti1934–2006Robert RedfordRobert DuvallSteve McQueenJean-Louis TrintignantDean JonesWarren BeattySteve MartinJames FoxWilliam ShatnerJon VoightKevin KlineJohn LennonBeginning his career as a child actor, he is best known for being the official Italian voice of Robert Redford and for dubbing most of the films of Robert Duvall, Steve McQueen, Warren Beatty and Dean Jones.Emilio Cigoli1935–1980Orson WellesGregory PeckGary CooperJohn WayneBurt LancasterWilliam HoldenCharlton HestonClark GableJean GabinLee Van CleefSteve ReevesHenry FondaConsidered the \"King\" of Italian dubbing actors (together with Giulio Panicali and Gualtiero De Angelis), he dubbed 7000 films from 1936 to 1980.Giulio Panicali1935–1973Tyrone PowerRobert TaylorGlenn FordRay MillandRobert MitchumKirk DouglasHenry FondaDhia Cristiani1936–1975Anne BaxterEsther WilliamsVirginia MayoRhonda FlemingYvonne SansonJoanne DruGualtiero De Angelis1936–1980James StewartCary GrantErrol FlynnDean MartinHenry FondaLauro Gazzolo1938–1970Walter BrennanBud AbbottPeter LorreSam JaffeAlan NapierGiuseppe Rinaldi1939–1987James DeanPaul NewmanRock HudsonJack LemmonPeter SellersVan JohnsonMarlon BrandoFrank SinatraCharles BronsonJames CoburnJason RobardsLuciano De Ambrosis1942–presentJames CaanBurt ReynoldsDennis FarinaHe is known for playing the lead role as a child actor in Vittorio De Sica's film ''The Children Are Watching Us''.", "Since 1994, he replaced Pino Locchi as the main Italian voice of Sean Connery.", "He dubbed most of the roles of the listed actors.Gianni Musy1942–2011Michael GambonRichard HarrisChristopher PlummerMax von SydowIan McKellenHe is best known for dubbing the roles of Albus Dumbledore (played by Richard Harris first, then by Michael Gambon) in the ''Harry Potter'' film series and Gandalf (played by Ian McKellen) in the ''Lord of the Rings'' trilogy (replaced by Gigi Proietti after 2011).", "He also dubbed most of the roles of Christopher Plummer and Max von Sydow.Massimo Turci1942–1990Russ TamblynPaul McCartneyFerruccio Amendola1943–2001Robert De NiroDustin HoffmanSylvester StalloneTomas MilianAl PacinoPeter FalkThe Italian voice of Robert De Niro, Dustin Hoffman, and Sylvester Stallone in almost each of their films from 1969 to 1995.He also dubbed the most famous interpretations of Al Pacino.", "He was chosen by Tomas Milian himself for his dubbed voice.Maria Pia Di Meo1944–presentMeryl StreepAudrey HepburnJulie AndrewsShirley MacLaineJane FondaBarbra StreisandSandra DeeJulie ChristieUrsula AndressBarbara BouchetEdwige FenechThe most important female dubbing voice in Italy after 1960.Best known for being the official Italian voice of Meryl Streep, she dubbed most of the films of all the listed actresses.Corrado Gaipa1946–1989Lionel StanderLee J. CobbOrson WellesAlec GuinnessBest known for portraying Don Tommasino in ''The Godfather'', he dubbed most of the roles of Lion Stander and Lee J. Cobb and some interpretations of Orson Welles between 1965 and 1972.He also dubbed Alec Guinness in the ''Star Wars'' classic trilogy.Renato Turi1946–1991Walter MatthauLee MarvinChristopher LeeLee Van CleefJohn CarradineTelly SavalasSidney PoitierCharlton HestonCharles TingwellEnrico Maria Salerno1946–1994Clint EastwoodHe was the Italian voice of Clint Eastwood in the ''Dollars Trilogy'' and ''Hang 'Em High''.Nando Gazzolo1948–2015David NivenPeter CushingRex HarrisonMichael CaineGeorge C. ScottFranco NeroHenry FondaVittoria Febbi1949–presentBarbara BouchetCharlotte RamplingEdwige FenechLiv UllmannDiane KeatonBarbara BachKathy BatesLaura GemserFlorinda BolkanFlaminia Jandolo1950–2019Brigitte BardotRita Savagnone1952–presentVanessa RedgraveEdwige FenechClaudia CardinaleWhoopi GoldbergElizabeth TaylorIngrid BergmanGreta GarboSophia LorenNieves NavarroUrsula AndressFlorinda BolkanDominique SandaLoredana NusciakStefania SandrelliOreste Lionello1953–2009Woody AllenGene WilderPeter SellersGeorge HarrisonHe was the official Italian voice of Woody Allen, dubbing almost all of his interpretations from 1965 to 2006.He also dubbed most of the roles of Gene Wilder, Peter Sellers, and all the film appearances of George Harrison.Alessandro Rossi1955–presentLiam NeesonArnold SchwarzeneggerSamuel L. JacksonVing RhamesMichael Clarke DuncanPatrick StewartRecognizable by his deep, baritone voice, he dubbed most of the roles of Liam Neeson, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Ving Rhames and Michael Clarke Duncan.Sergio Graziani1956–2014Donald SutherlandMichael CainePeter O'TooleKlaus KinskiRichard HarrisPhilippe NoiretFranco Nero He dubbed Franco Nero in most of the Italian versions of his films prior to the mid-1970s, after which Nero dubbed himself.Dario Penne1957–presentAnthony HopkinsMichael CaineChristopher LloydDennis HopperAlan RickmanJames CromwellHe is the Italian voice of Anthony Hopkins in every film since 1990 and of Michael Caine in almost every film since 1992.Roberto Chevalier1958–presentTom CruiseTom HanksAndy GarcíaGreg KinnearHe is the Italian voice of Tom Cruise, dubbing most of his roles since 1986.Glauco Onorato1959–2009Bud SpencerLino VenturaDanny GloverCharles BronsonJames CoburnArnold SchwarzeneggerGeorge HarrisonHe was best known for dubbing most of Bud Spencer's interpretations.", "He was also the Italian voice of Arnold Schwarzenegger in his most iconic films (''The Terminator'' and ''Predator'').Sandro Acerbo1960–presentBrad PittWill SmithMichael J. FoxEddie MurphyManlio De Angelis1960–2017Joe PesciAlan ArkinGene WilderRoy ScheiderRichard DreyfussSergio Fiorentini1960–2014Gene HackmanEli WallachOreste Rizzini1960–2008Michael DouglasJon VoightBill MurrayChuck NorrisGérard DepardieuEugene LevyGiampiero Albertini1962–1991Peter FalkHe was best known for being the Italian voice of Peter Falk in his role of Columbo (in the first eight seasons, until 1991, except in the second pilot episode).Roberto Del Giudice1962–2007Lee MajorsTerry JonesTimothy BottomsRenato Mori1962–2011Morgan FreemanGene HackmanJames Earl JonesJohn Rhys-DaviesRod SteigerJack WardenRobert ShawBrian DennehySergio Di Stefano1963–2010Jeff BridgesJohn MalkovichKevin CostnerHugh LaurieAlan RickmanThe official Italian voice of Jeff Bridges and John Malkovich, he dubbed Kevin Costner in seven films from 1985 to 2007.He was also well known for dubbing Hugh Laurie in the first six seasons of the TV series House (2004–2010) and for being one of the most frequent dubbers of Christopher Lambert (17 films from 1986 to 2005).Michele Gammino1965–presentHarrison FordSteven SeagalKevin CostnerJack NicholsonBill MurrayChevy ChaseBob HoskinsThe official Italian voice of Harrison Ford and Steven Seagal, he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors.", "He also dubbed James Bond played by Timothy Dalton.Giancarlo Giannini1965–presentAl PacinoJack NicholsonMichael DouglasHe is the official dubber of Al Pacino since 1995 (previously shared with Ferruccio Amendola).", "Among the others, he dubbed some roles of Jack Nicholson (including the film ''Shining'') and Michael Douglas.Omero Antonutti1966–2019Christopher LeeChristopher PlummerJames CromwellMichele Kalamera1966–presentClint EastwoodSteve MartinMichael CaineLeslie NielsenThe official Italian voice of Clint Eastwood.Carlo Valli1966–presentRobin WilliamsJim BroadbentColm MeaneyThe official Italian voice of Robin Williams.Fabio Boccanera1968–presentJohnny DeppColin FarrellClive OwenJoaquin PhoenixHe is the most frequent dubber of Colin Farrell, Clive Owen, Joaquin Phoenix and dubbed most of the roles of Johnny Depp; he shares the Italian dubbing of Johnny Depp, Ben Affleck and Cuba Gooding Jr. with his cousin Riccardo Rossi.Vittorio Guerrieri1968–presentBen StillerJohn CorbettSteve CarellHe is the official dubber of Ben Stiller from 2000.Giorgio Lopez1969–2021Danny DeVitoDustin HoffmanJohn CleesePat MoritaRiccardo Rossi1970–presentAdam SandlerBen AffleckMark RuffaloChristian BaleSam RockwellMatt DamonCuba Gooding Jr.Paul WalkerHe shares the Italian dubbing of Ben Affleck, Cuba Gooding Jr. and Johnny Depp with his cousin Fabio Boccanera.Oreste Baldini1974–presentJohn CusackKen JeongNoah TaylorThe official Italian voice of John Cusack, he is the main dubber of the listed actors.", "He portrayed Vito Corleone as a child in the flashback sequences of ''The Godfather Part II''.Riccardo Rovatti1974–presentCorey BurtonMartin JarvisFabrizio Vidale1975–presentJack BlackMartin FreemanDon CheadleMarlon WayansIlaria Latini1976–presentKatie HolmesAmy AdamsAnna FarisHayley AtwellThe official Italian voice dubber of Katie Holmes, Amy Adams and Anna Faris, she dubbed most of the films of the listed actresses.Tonino Accolla1978–2013Eddie Murphy Kenneth BranaghTom HanksMickey Rourke Jim CarreyBilly CrystalHe was best known for being the Italian voice of Eddie Murphy until 2009; he was also very popular for being the Italian voice of Homer Simpson in the first 23 seasons of the sitcom The Simpsons (1989–2012).", "He dubbed some popular comedy roles of Jim Carrey, such as Ace Ventura and Bruce Almigthy.Luca Biagini1979–presentJohn MalkovichKevin KlineMichael KeatonHugh LaurieColin FirthStefano De Sando1979–presentRobert De NiroJames GandolfiniBryan CranstonTim RobbinsJohn GoodmanNino Prester1979–presentEugene LevyGary OldmanStanley TucciDave BautistaMichael RookerPasquale Anselmo1980–presentNicolas CageJohn TurturroPhilip Seymour HoffmanWoody HarrelsonClark GreggThe official Italian voice of Nicolas Cage since 1996.Paolo Buglioni1980–presentNick NolteAlec BaldwinSamuel L. JacksonDanilo De Girolamo1980–2012Alan CummingVincent GalloUlrich TukurDavid ThewlisJack DavenportRoberto Pedicini1980–presentKevin SpaceyJim CarreyWoody HarrelsonJavier BardemRalph FiennesTemuera MorrisonHe is the current official voice of Kevin Spacey and Jim Carrey; he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors.Pino Insegno1981–presentWill FerrellViggo MortensenLiev SchreiberMichael ShannonSacha Baron CohenThe official Italian voice of Will Ferrell, he dubbed most of the interpretations of the listed actors.Pietro Ubaldi1981–presentGeoffrey RushKevin Michael RichardsonFrank WelkerLuca Ward1981–presentPierce BrosnanSamuel L. JacksonRussell CroweKeanu ReevesHugh GrantGerard ButlerAntonio BanderasKevin BaconHe is the official Italian voice of Pierce Brosnan, Samuel L. Jackson, Keanu Reeves and Russell Crowe.", "He provided the Italian voice of James Bond during his portrayal by Pierce Brosnan.Rossella Acerbo1982–presentDrew BarrymoreMichelle RodriguezLisa KudrowAmanda PeetHeather GrahamReese WitherspoonMarco Balzarotti1982–presentKevin CostnerJeff BennettKevin ConroyAngelo Maggi1982–presentTom HanksRobert Downey Jr.Gary OldmanJohn C. McGinleyMassimo Venturiello1982–presentGary OldmanJames WoodsKurt RussellVittorio De Angelis1983–2015Cary ElwesKevin JamesMatt LeBlancBrendan FraserSteve ZahnFrancesco Pezzulli1983–presentLeonardo DiCaprioDaniel BrühlHayden ChristensenAaron PaulDominic CooperHe is the Italian voice of Leonardo DiCaprio since 1997 (excluding the film ''The Man in the Iron Mask'').Federica De Bortoli1984–presentNatalie PortmanRachel McAdamsIsla FisherKristen StewartShe is the main Italian dubber of all the listed actresses.Davide Perino1984–presentElijah WoodCristina Boraschi1985–presentJulia RobertsSandra BullockJulianne MooreShe is the main Italian voice of Julia Roberts, while she dubbed many roles of Sandra Bullock and Julianne Moore.Myriam Catania1985–presentKeira KnightleyAmanda SeyfriedJessica AlbaFrancesco Pannofino1985–presentGeorge ClooneyDenzel WashingtonRobbie ColtraneKurt RussellHe is the official Italian voice of George Clooney and Denzel Washington.Francesco Prando1985–presentLuke PerryMatthew McConaugheyVince VaughnGuy PearceMichael FassbenderDaniel CraigEric McCormackJason StathamHe is popular for dubbing the following actors in long-term television series: Luke Perry (''Beverly Hills, 90210'', 199 episodes), Eric McCormack in (''Will & Grace'', 187 episodes), Eric Dane (''Grey's Anatomy'', 135 episodes).", "He is also known for providing the Italian voice of James Bond during his portrayal by Daniel Craig.", "He dubbed the majority of the film roles of all the listed actors.Stefano Benassi1986–presentChristoph WaltzColin FirthWoody HarrelsonTim RobbinsGary OldmanValentina Mari1986–presentNatalie PortmanAudrey TautouKristen BellAmanda SeyfriedSimone Mori 1988–presentSeth RogenJohn C. ReillyIce CubeOmar SySimone Crisari1989–presentJonah HillMacaulay CulkinEleonora De Angelis1989–presentJennifer AnistonCameron DiazAngelina JolieAlessia Amendola1990–presentLindsay LohanMichelle TrachtenbergDanielle PanabakerBrenda SongNanni Baldini1990–presentKevin HartChris RockTopher GraceAdam GoldbergDomitilla D'Amico1990–presentKirsten DunstScarlett JohanssonAnne HathawayMargot RobbieEva GreenMila KunisAbbie CornishShe is the official Italian voice actress of Kirsten Dunst and Scarlett Johansson.Flavio Aquilone1994–presentZac EfronTom FeltonDane DeHaanAnton YelchinDevon BostickLiam HemsworthPerla Liberatori1994–presentHilary DuffScarlett JohanssonShe dubbed most of the roles of Hilary Duff; among the others, she also dubbed many interpretations of Scarlett Johansson.Adriano Giannini2001–presentHeath LedgerTom HardyChristian BaleJoaquin PhoenixManuel Meli2003–presentJosh HutchersonCole SprouseVincent MartellaHe dubbed most of the roles of Josh Hutcherson.Maurizio Merluzzo2007–presentTravis FimmelZachary LeviItalian voice of Travis Fimmel in Vikings.", "He dubbed many roles videogames animated series, mostly noted for Naruto: Shippuden, André Harris in the Nickelodeon sitcom Victorious and Zamasu in Dragon Ball Super.Joy Saltarelli2008–presentJennifer LawrenceAna de ArmasShe dubbed many roles of Jennifer Lawrence and Ana de Armas.=====Latvia, Lithuania=====In Latvia and Lithuania, only children's movies get dubbed in the cinema, while many live-action movies for an older audience use voice-over.", "Most children's TV shows, like ''SpongeBob SquarePants'', use voice-over, but in recent years, a few of them, mainly aimed at preschoolers, have been dubbed into Latvian and Lithuanian.=====Poland=====In Poland, cinema releases for general audiences are almost exclusively subtitled, with the exception of children's movies, home media releases and television screenings of movies, as well as made-for-TV shows.", "These are usually shown with voice-over translation, where a voice talent reads a translation over the original soundtrack.", "This method is similar to the so-called Gavrilov translation in Russia, with one difference—all dialogues are voiced by one off-screen reader (), preferably with a deep and neutral voice which does not interfere with the pitch of voice of the original speakers in the background.", "To some extent, it resembles live translation.", "Certain highly qualified voice talents are traditionally assigned to particular kinds of production, such as action or drama.", "Standard dubbing is not widely popular with most audiences, with the exception of cartoons and children's shows, which are dubbed also for TV releases.It is claimed that, until around 1951, there were no revoiced foreign movies available in Poland.", "Instead, they were exclusively subtitled in Polish.Poland's dubbing traditions began between the two world wars.", "In 1931, among the first movies dubbed into Polish were ''Dangerous Curves'' (1929), ''The Dance of Life'' (1929), ''Paramount on Parade'' (1930), and ''Darling of the Gods'' (1930).", "In 1949, the first dubbing studio opened in Łódź.", "The first film dubbed that year was ''Russkiy Vopros'' (filmed 1948).Polish dubbing in the first post-war years suffered from poor synchronization.", "Polish dialogues were not always audible and the cinema equipment of that time often made films sound less clear than they were.", "In the 1950s, Polish publicists discussed the quality of Polish versions of foreign movies.The number of dubbed movies and the quality improved.", "Polish dubbing had a golden age between the 1960s and the 1980s.", "Approximately a third of foreign movies screened in cinemas were dubbed.", "The \"Polish dubbing school\" was known for its high quality.", "In that time, Poland had some of the best dubbing in the world.", "The person who initiated high-quality dubbing versions was director Zofia Dybowska-Aleksandrowicz.", "In that time, dubbing in Poland was very popular.", "Polish television dubbed popular films and TV series such as ''Rich Man, Poor Man''; ''Fawlty Towers'', ''Forsyte Saga'', ''Elizabeth R'', ''I, Claudius'', ''I'll Take Manhattan'', and ''Peter the Great''.In the 1980s, due to budget cuts, state-run TV saved on tapes by voicing films over live during transmission.Overall, during 1948–1998, almost 1,000 films were dubbed in Polish.", "In the 1990s, dubbing films and TV series continued, although often also for one emission only.In 1995, Canal+ was launched in Poland.", "In its first years, it dubbed 30% of its schedule dubbing popular films and TV series, one of the best-known and popular dubbings was that of ''Friends'', but this proved unsuccessful.", "It stopped dubbing films in 1999, although many people supported the idea of dubbing and bought the access only for dubbing versions of foreign productions.", "In the 1990s, dubbing was done by the television channel known as Wizja Jeden.", "They mainly dubbed BBC productions such as ''The League of Gentlemen'', ''Absolutely Fabulous'' and ''Men Behaving Badly''.", "Wizja Jeden was closed in 2001.In the same year, TVP stopped dubbing the TV series ''Frasier'', although that dubbing was very popular.Currently, dubbing of films and TV series for teenagers is made by Nickelodeon and Disney Channel.", "One of the major breakthroughs in dubbing was the Polish release of ''Shrek'', which contained many references to local culture and Polish humor.", "Since then, people seem to have grown to like dubbed versions more, and pay more attention to the dubbing actors.", "However, this seems to be the case only with animated films, as live-action dubbing is still considered a bad practice.", "In the case of DVD releases, most discs contain both the original soundtrack and subtitles, and either voice over or dubbed Polish track.", "The dubbed version is, in most cases, the one from the theater release, while voice-over is provided for movies that were only subtitled in theaters.Since the theatrical release of ''The Avengers'' in May 2012, Walt Disney Company Polska dubs all films for cinema releases.", "Also in 2012, United International Pictures Polska dubbed ''The Amazing Spider-Man'', while Forum Film Polska – former distributor of Disney's films – decided to dub ''The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey'', along with its two sequels.", "However, when a dub is produced but the film's target audience is not exclusively children, both dubbed and subtitled versions are usually available in movie theaters.", "The dubbed versions are more commonly shown in morning and early afternoon hours, with the subtitled version dominating in the evening.", "Both can be available in parallel at similar hours in multiplexes.=====Russia=====Russian television is generally dubbed, but often uses the voice-over translation method with only a couple of voice actors, with the original speech still audible underneath.", "In the Soviet Union, most foreign movies to be officially released were dubbed.", "Voice-over dub was invented in the Soviet Union in the 1980s when with the fall of the regime, many popular foreign movies, previously forbidden, or at least questionable under communist rule, started to flood in, in the form of low-quality home-copied videos.", "Being unofficial releases, they were dubbed in a very primitive way.", "For example, the translator spoke the text directly over the audio of a video being copied, using primitive equipment.", "The quality of the resulting dub was very low: The translated phrases were off-sync (interfering with the original voices), background sounds leaked into the track, the translation was inaccurate, and, most importantly, all dub voices were made by a single person who usually lacked the intonation of the original, making comprehension of some scenes quite difficult.", "This method of translation exerted a strong influence on Russian pop culture.", "Voices of translators became recognizable for generations.In modern Russia, the overdubbing technique is still used in many cases, although with vastly improved quality, and now with multiple voice actors dubbing different original voices.", "Video games are generally either dubbed into Russian (such as the ''Legend of Spyro'' trilogy, the ''Skylanders'' series, the ''Assassin's Creed'' saga, the ''Halo'' series, the ''Harry Potter'' series, etc.)", "or released with original-speaking tracks but with all the texts translated into Russian language.", "The technique of non-voiceover dubbing, without the original speech still audible underneath, has also gained traction in Russia in the 21st century.Releases of films in cinemas are almost always dubbed in the Russian language.", "Television series are typically shown as a dubbed or voiceovered translation.", "Subtitles are rarely used.Some of the well-known Russian dubbing voice artists are listed below.", "Russian dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Olga Zubkova Cate BlanchettAngelina JolieCharlize TheronMichelle PfeifferSigourney WeaverJulianne MooreRene RussoRose ByrneCharlotte Rampling Vsevolod Kuznetsov Brad PittTom CruiseKeanu ReevesRalph Fiennes Tatiana Shitova Scarlett JohanssonNatalie PortmanEmma StoneMargot RobbieCameron DiazKristen Wiig Vladimir Eryomin Al PacinoAnthony HopkinsMichael Douglas Nikita Prozorovskiy Robert De NiroBen KingsleyGary OldmanToby JonesJeremy IronsStanley TucciRichard JenkinsJ.K.", "Simmons Natalya Grachyova Jennifer LawrenceJessica ChastainJulia RobertsNicole KidmanKatie HolmesRachel WeiszKeira KnightleyHalle Berry =====Slovakia=====In Slovakia, home media market, Czech dubbed versions are widely used, with only children's films and some few exceptions (for example Independence Day) that have been dubbed for cinema being released with Slovak dubbing.", "Czech dubbing was also extensively used in the broadcast of Slovak television channels, but since 2008 Slovak language laws require any newer shows (understood as the first television broadcast in Slovakia) to be provided with Slovak localization (dubbing or subtitles); since then, television broadcasts of films, TV series and cartoons have been dubbed into Slovak.Theatrical releases are generally subtitled, except for films with a young target audience.=====Spain=====In Spain, practically all foreign television programs are shown dubbed in European Spanish, as are most films.", "Some dubbing actors have achieved popularity for their voices, such as Constantino Romero (who dubs Clint Eastwood, Darth Vader and Arnold Schwarzenegger's ''Terminator'', among others) and Óscar Muñoz (the official European Spanish dub-over voice artist for Elijah Wood and Hayden Christensen).", "Currently, with the spread of digital terrestrial television, viewers can choose between the original and the dubbed soundtracks for most movies and television.In some communities such as Catalonia, Galicia and Basque Country, some foreign programs are also often dubbed into Catalan, Galician, or Basque.", "Films from the Spanish-speaking America shown in these communities are shown in their original language, while strong regional accents (from the Spanish-speaking America or from Spain) may be dubbed in news and documentaries.=====Ukraine=====In Ukraine, since 2006 cinema releases are almost always dubbed into Ukrainian with the overdubbing technique and multiple voice actors dubbing different original voices with a small percent of art-house/documentaries shown in the original language with Ukrainian subtitles.", "For television, TV channels usually release movies and TV-shows with a Ukrainian voiceover, although certain high-profile films and TV shows are dubbed rather than voice-overed.In the past Russian-language films, TV series, cartoons, animated series and TV programs were usually not dubbed but were shown with the original audio with Ukrainian subtitles.", "However, this practice has been slowly abandoned since the late 2010s: all children's films and cartoons regardless of the original language (including Russian) are always dubbed into Ukrainian; example of the first Russian cartoons dubbed into Ukrainian for the cinematic-release is ''The Snow Queen 2'' (2015), ''A Warrior's Tail'' (2015), ''Volki i Ovtsy: Be-e-e-zumnoe prevrashenie'' (2016), ''Ivan Tsarevich i Seryy Volk 3'' (2016), ''Bremenskie razboyniki'' (2016), ''The Snow Queen 3: Fire and Ice'' (2017), ''Fantastic Journey to OZ'' (2017), ''Fixies: Top Secret'' (2017) etc.", "; the same trend is seen among Russian language feature films for adults, with the first such films dubbed into Ukrainian including ''Battle for Sevastopol'' (2015), ''Hardcore Henry'' (2016), ''The Duelist'' (2016).===Latin America=======Brazil====In Brazil, foreign programs are invariably dubbed into Brazilian Portuguese on free-to-air TV, with only a few exceptions.", "Films shown at cinemas are generally offered with both subtitled and dubbed versions, with dubbing frequently being the only choice for children's movies.", "Subtitling was primarily for adult audience movies until 2012.Since then, dubbed versions also became available for all ages.", "As a result, in recent years, more cinemas have opened in Brazil, attracting new audiences to the cinema who prefer dubbing.", "According to a Datafolha survey, 56% of Brazilian movie theaters' audience prefer to watch dubbed movies.", "Most of the dubbing studios in Brazil are in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.The first film to be dubbed in Brazil was the Disney animation ''\"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\"'' in 1938.By the end of the 1950s, most of the movies, TV series and cartoons on television in Brazil were shown in its original sound and subtitles.", "However, in 1961, a decree of President Jânio Quadros ruled that all foreign productions on television should be dubbed.", "This measure boosted the growth of dubbing in Brazil, and has led to several dubbing studios since then.", "The biggest dubbing studio in Brazil was Herbert Richers, headquartered in Rio de Janeiro and closed in 2009.At its peak in the 80s and 90s, the Herbert Richers studios dubbed about 70% of the productions shown in Brazilian cinemas.In the 90s, with ''Saint Seiya'', ''Dragon Ball'' and other anime shows becoming popular in Brazilian TVs, the voice actors and the dubbing career gained a higher space in Brazilian culture.", "Actors like Hermes Baroli (Brazilian dubber of Pegasus Seiya, in ''Saint Seiya'' and actors like Ashton Kutcher), Marco Ribeiro (Brazilian dubber of many actors like Tom Hanks, Jim Carrey and Robert Downey Jr., and Yusuke Urameshi from the anime ''Yu Yu Hakusho'') and Wendel Bezerra (Brazilian dubber of Goku in ''Dragon Ball Z'' and SpongeBob in ''SpongeBob SquarePants'') are recognized for their most notable roles.Pay TV commonly offers both dubbed and subtitled movies, with statistics showing that dubbed versions are becoming predominant.", "Most DVD and Blu-ray releases usually feature Portuguese, Spanish, and the original audio along with subtitles in native languages.", "Most video games are dubbed in Brazilian Portuguese rather than having European Portuguese dubs alone.", "Games such as ''Halo 3'', ''God of War: Ascension'', ''inFamous 2'', ''Assassin's Creed III'', ''Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure'', ''World of Warcraft'' and others are dubbed in Brazilian Portuguese.", "This is because despite the dropping of the dubbing law in Portugal in 1994, most companies in that country use the Brazilian Portuguese because of traditional usage during the days of the dubbing rule, along with these dubbings being more marketable than European Portuguese.A list that showcases Brazilian Portuguese voice artists that dub for actors and actresses are displayed here.", "However, there can also be different official dub artists for certain regions within Brazil.", "Brazilian Portuguese dubbing artists Actor(s)/Actress(es) Notes Vagner Fagundes Elijah Wood Official voice artist for Elijah Wood in São Paulo dubs.", "Sérgio Cantú Elijah WoodJonathan Sadowski Official voice artist for Elijah Wood in Rio de Janeiro dubs.", "Alexandre Moreno Adam SandlerJohn LeguizamoBen StillerVince VaughnChris TuckerDon CheadleJosh DuhamelJason BiggsSam Rockwell Mauro Ramos Gary OldmanJohn GoodmanForest WhitakerRip Torn Letícia Quinto Anne HathawayKirsten DunstNatalie Portman Sylvia Salustti Renee O'ConnorSarah Michelle GellarGwyneth PaltrowJessica AlbaMegan FoxKirsten DunstMayim BialikAmy Adams Márcio Seixas Sean ConneryMorgan FreemanCharles BronsonBud SpencerClint EastwoodLeslie NielsenRoger MooreMichael CaineTimothy DaltonCharlton HestonChristopher Walken Hércules Fernando Jet LiHugh JackmanDavid Graf Marco Ribeiro Tom HanksJim CarreyRobert Downey Jr. Guilherme Briggs Dwayne JohnsonOwen WilsonHarrison FordHenry CavillBrendan Fraser Luisa Palomanes Emma WatsonSelena GomezMiranda CosgroveAmber Heard Wendel Bezerra Robert PattinsonSean Astin Nelson Machado Robin WilliamsWesley SnipesCarlos Villagrán Manolo Rey Michael J. FoxTobey MaguireJames Marsden Júlio Chaves Rowan AtkinsonTommy Lee JonesMel GibsonJeff BridgesJeremy Irons Márcio Simões Samuel L. JacksonWill SmithKevin SpaceyLaurence FishburneRalph Fiennes Miriam Ficher Uma ThurmanRebecca Ferguson Mabel Cezar Kate WalshShannon ElizabethTisha Campbell Guilene Conte Judy GreerRosanna ArquetteTichina ArnoldThalía Sheila Dorfman Sandra BullockJamie Lee CurtisHalle BerryMelissa Leo Flora Paulita Ariana GrandeSofia Carson Apparently, for unknown reasons (probably technical), the Brazilian Portuguese dub credits from some shows or cartoons from channels from Viacom or Turner/Time Warner, are shown on Latin America (on Spanish-dubbed series).====Mexico====In Mexico, by law, films shown in theaters must be shown in their original version.", "Films in languages other than Spanish are usually subtitled.", "Only educational documentaries and movies rated for children (some shows aired on PBS or PBS Kids), as well as some movies that are expected to have a wide audience (for example, ''The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King'' or ''The Avengers'') may be dubbed, but this is not compulsory, and some animated films are shown in theaters in both dubbed and subtitled versions (for instance, some DreamWorks productions).", "Nonetheless, a recent trend in several cinemas is to offer the dubbed versions only, with a stark decrease in the showing of the original ones.Dubbing must be made in Mexico by Mexican nationals or foreigners residing in Mexico.", "Still, several programs that are shown on pay TV are dubbed in other countries like Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela.Most movies released on DVD feature neutral Spanish as a language option, and sometimes feature a specific dub for Mexican audiences (for example, ''Rio'').", "Foreign programs are dubbed on broadcast TV, while on pay TV most shows and movies are subtitled.", "In a similar way to cinemas, in the last few years many channels on pay TV have begun to broadcast programs and films only in their dubbed version.Dubbing became very popular in the 1990s with the rise in popularity of anime in Mexico.", "Some voice actors have become celebrities and are always identified with specific characters, such as Mario Castañeda (who became popular by dubbing Goku in ''Dragon Ball Z'') or Humberto Vélez (who dubbed Homer Simpson in the first 15 seasons of ''The Simpsons'').The popularity of pay TV has allowed people to view several series in their original language rather than dubbed.", "Dubbing has been criticized for the use of TV or movie stars as voice actors (such as Ricky Martin in Disney's ''Hercules'', or Eugenio Derbez in DreamWorks' ''Shrek''), or for the incorrect use of local popular culture that sometimes creates unintentional jokes or breaks the feeling of the original work (such as translating Sheldon Cooper's \"Bazinga!\"", "to \"¡Vacilón!", "\").Several video games have been dubbed into neutral Spanish, rather than European Spanish, in Mexico (such as the ''Gears of War'' series, ''Halo 3'', ''Infamous 2'' and others).", "Sony recently announced that more games (such as ''God of War: Ascension'') will be dubbed into neutral Spanish.====Peru====In Peru, all foreign series, movies, and animated programming are shown dubbed in Latin American Spanish, with dubs imported from Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Colombia and Venezuela on terrestrial and pay-television.", "Most movies intended for kids are being offered as dub-only movies, while most films aimed at older audiences are being offered dubbed and subtitled in Spanish.", "Most subtitled Pay-TV channels show both dubbed and subtitled version of every film they broadcast, being offered with a separate subtitle track and a second audio track in English.", "There is an increase of people preferring subtitle films and series rather than dubbed starting the late-2000s, as Peruvians viewers tend to get used to their original version.Peru used to not produce their own dubs since dubbing studios never existed in that country until 2016, when the company \"Big Bang Films\" started to dub movies and series; however since 2014, a group of dubbing actors created a group called \"Torre A Doblaje\", which is a group of actors that gives dubbing and localization services.====Spanish-speaking countries====For Spanish-speaking countries, all foreign-language programs, films, cartoons and documentaries shown on free-to-air TV networks are dubbed into Standard Spanish, (mainly in Mexico, Venezuela or Argentina) while broadcasts on cable and satellite pan-regional channels (i.e.", "Discovery Kids) are either dubbed or subtitled.", "In theaters, children's movies and most blockbuster films are dubbed into Standard Spanish, and are sometimes further dubbed into regional dialects of Spanish where they are released.===North America=======French-speaking Canada====In Quebec, Canada, most films and TV programs in English are dubbed into Standard French, occasionally with Quebec French idiosyncrasies.", "They speak with a mixed accent, they pronounce /ɛ̃/ with a Parisian accent, but they pronounce \"â\" and \"ê\" with a Quebec accent: ''grâce'' ɡʁɑːs and ''être'' ɛːtʁ̥.", "Occasionally, the dubbing of a series or a movie, such as ''The Simpsons'', is made using the more widely spoken ''joual'' variety of Quebec French.", "Dubbing has the advantage of making children's films and TV series more comprehensible to younger audiences.", "However, many bilingual Québécois prefer subtitling, since they would understand some or all of the original audio.", "In addition, all films are shown in English, as well in certain theaters (especially in major cities and English-speaking areas such as the West Island), and some theatres, such as the Scotiabank Cinema Montreal, show only movies in English.", "Most American television series are only available in English on DVD, or on English-language channels, but some of the more popular ones have French dubs shown on mainstream networks, and are released in French on DVD as well, sometimes separately from an English-only version.Formerly, all French-language dubbed films in Quebec were imported from France and some still are.", "Such a practice was criticized by former politician Mario Dumont after he took his children to see the Parisian French dub of ''Shrek the Third'', which Dumont found incomprehensible.", "After his complaints and a proposed bill, ''Bee Movie'', the film from DreamWorks Animation, was dubbed in Quebec, making it the studio's first animated film to have a Quebec French dub, as all DreamWorks Animation films had previously been dubbed in France.", "In terms of Disney, the first Disney animated movie to be dubbed in Quebec French was ''Oliver and Company.''", "Afterwards, all the other Disney animated movies onward after Oliver and Company including the Pixar animated movies have also been dubbed in Quebec French except for ''DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp'', ''The Rescuers Down Under'', ''Beauty and the Beast'', ''The Lion King'', ''A Goofy Movie'', and ''Luca''.In addition, because Canadian viewers usually find Quebec French more comprehensible than other dialects of the language, some older film series that had the French-language versions of previous installments dubbed in France have had later ones dubbed in Quebec, often creating inconsistencies within the French version of the series' canon.", "Lucasfilm's ''Star Wars'' and ''Indiana Jones'' series are examples.", "Both series had films released in the 1970s and 1980s, with no Québécois French dubbed versions; instead, the Parisian French versions, with altered character and object names and terms, were distributed in the province.", "However, later films in both series released 1999 and later were dubbed in Quebec, using different voice actors and \"reversing\" name changes made in France's dubbings due to the change in studio.====United States and English-speaking Canada====In the United States and English-speaking Canada, live-action foreign films are usually shown in theaters with their original languages and English subtitles.", "It is because live-action dubbed movies rarely did well in United States box office since the 1980s.", "The 1982 United States theatrical release of Wolfgang Petersen's ''Das Boot'' was the last major release to go out in both original and English-dubbed versions, and the film's original version actually grossed much higher than the English-dubbed version.", "Later on, English-dubbed versions of international hits like ''Un indien dans la ville'', ''Godzilla 2000'', ''Anatomy'', ''Pinocchio, The Return of Godzilla'' and ''High Tension'' flopped at United States box offices.", "When Miramax planned to release the English-dubbed versions of ''Shaolin Soccer'' and ''Hero'' in the United States cinemas, their English-dubbed versions scored badly in test screenings in the United States, so Miramax finally released the films in United States cinemas with their original language.Still, English-dubbed movies have much better commercial potential in ancillary market; therefore, more distributors would release live-action foreign films in theaters with their original languages (with English subtitles), then release both original versions and English-dubbed versions in ancillary market.On the other hand, anime is almost always released in English-dubbed format, regardless of its content or target age group.", "The exceptions to this practice are either when an English dub has not been produced for the program (usually in the case of feature films) or when the program is being presented by a network that places importance on presenting it in its original format (as was the case when Turner Classic Movies aired several of Hayao Miyazaki's works, which were presented both dubbed and subtitled).", "Most anime DVDs contain options for original Japanese, Japanese with subtitles, and English-dubbed, except for a handful of series that have been heavily edited or Americanized.", "In addition, Disney has a policy that makes its directors undergo stages to perfect alignment of certain lip movements so the movie looks believable.In addition, a small number of British films have been re-dubbed when released in the United States, due to the usage of dialects which Americans are not familiar with (for example, ''Kes'' and ''Trainspotting'').", "However, British children's shows (such as ''Thomas and Friends'' and ''Bob the Builder'') have historically always been re-dubbed with American voice actors in order to make the series more understandable for American children.", "This slowly fell out of practice since the late 2000s.", "With the rising popularity of British children's shows such as ''Peppa Pig'', which airs undubbed on Nick Jr. Channel, fewer and fewer British children's shows have been broadcast with American re-dubs.", "Conversely, British programs shown in Canada are typically not re-dubbed.Some live-action television shows shown in the US have Spanish dubs.", "These are accessible though the SAP (secondary audio program) function of the television unit.Many films have also been dubbed into indigenous languages of the United States and Canada.", "Disney's ''Moana'', set in Hawaii, was dubbed into the Hawaiian language in 2018.The Navajo language has also received dubs of many films, the first three being ''Star Wars: Episode IV - A New Hope'' (), ''Finding Nemo'' () and ''Fistful of Dollars'' ().", "The Navajo dubs of ''Star Wars'' and ''Finding Nemo'' are also available on Disney Plus.===Oceania=======Australia====In common with other English-speaking countries, there has traditionally been little dubbing in Australia, with foreign language television programs and films being shown (usually on SBS) with subtitles or English dubs produced in other countries.Because over 25% of Australians speak a language other than English at home, some cinemas show foreign-language films, for example in Chinese (the most spoken language in Australia other than English).", "There are also Chinese-language cinemas in Australia, such as the Hoyts Mandarin cinema in Chatswood, Sydney.However, some TV commercials from foreign countries are dubbed, even if the original commercial came from another English-speaking country.", "Moreover, the off-screen narration portions of some non-fiction programs originating from the UK or North America are re-dubbed by Australian voice talents to relay information in expressions that Australians can understand more easily.The first film to be dubbed into an Australian Aboriginal language was ''Fists of Fury'', a Hong Kong martial arts film, which was dubbed into the Nyungar language of the Perth region in 2021.The first Indigenous Australian cartoon, ''Little J and Big Cuz'', is available in English and several indigenous languages, including Gija, Nyungar, Torres Strait Creole, Palawa Kani, Warlpiri, Yolŋu, Arrernte, Pitjantjatjara and Kriol.====French Polynesia====French Polynesia almost exclusively shows films and television programs in either French or English.", "However, in 2016, Disney's ''Moana'' became the first film to be dubbed into the Tahitian language.", "However, the dub was only released in French Polynesia and is not available on any streaming services.====New Zealand====While New Zealand is an English-speaking country, a growing number of television programs and films have also been dubbed into the Māori language.Many episodes of ''SpongeBob SquarePants'' () and ''Dora the Explorer'' () were dubbed into Māori and shown on Māori Television to promote the Māori language among children.Disney has also started dubbing films into Māori.", "These films are shown in cinemas in New Zealand and some parts of Australia and then released globally on Disney Plus.", "In 2019, the film ''Moana'' was dubbed into Māori.", "In 2022, ''The Lion King'' () and ''Frozen'' were dubbed into Māori." ], [ "Alternatives", "===Subtitles===Subtitles can be used instead of dubbing, as different countries have different traditions regarding the choice between dubbing and subtitling.", "On DVDs with higher translation budgets, the option for both types will often be provided to account for individual preferences; purists often demand subtitles.", "For small markets (small language area or films for a select audience), subtitling is more suitable, because it is cheaper.", "In the case of films for small children who cannot yet read, or do not read fast enough, dubbing is necessary.In most English-speaking countries, dubbing is comparatively rare.", "In Israel, some programs need to be comprehensible to speakers of both Russian and Hebrew.", "This cannot be accomplished with dubbing, so subtitling is much more commonplace—sometimes even with subtitles in multiple languages, with the soundtrack remaining in the original language, usually English.", "The same applies to certain television shows in Finland, where Swedish and Finnish are both official languages.In the Netherlands, Flanders, Nordic countries, Estonia and Portugal, films and television programs are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only cartoons and children's movies and programs are dubbed, such as the ''Harry Potter'' series, ''Finding Nemo'', ''Shrek'', ''Charlie and the Chocolate Factory'' and others.", "Cinemas usually show both a dubbed version and one with subtitles for this kind of movie, with the subtitled version shown later in the evening.In Portugal, one terrestrial channel, TVI, dubbed U.S. series like ''Dawson's Creek'' into Portuguese.", "RTP also transmitted ''Friends'' in a dubbed version, but it was poorly received and later re-aired in a subtitled version.", "Cartoons, on the other hand, are usually dubbed, sometimes by well-known actors, even on TV.", "Animated movies are usually released to the cinemas in both subtitled and dubbed versions.In Argentina and Venezuela, terrestrial channels air films and TV series in a dubbed version, as demanded by law.", "However, those same series can be seen on cable channels at more accessible time-slots in their subtitled version and usually before they are shown on open TV.", "In contrast, the series ''The Simpsons'' is aired in its Mexican Spanish-dubbed version both on terrestrial television and on the cable station Fox, which broadcasts the series for the area.", "Although the first season of the series appeared with subtitles, this was not continued for the following seasons.===Dubbing and subtitling===In Bulgaria, television series are dubbed, but most television channels use subtitles for action and drama movies.", "AXN uses subtitles for its series, but as of 2008 emphasizes dubbing.", "Only Diema channels dub all programs.", "Movies in theaters, with the exception of films for children, use dubbing and subtitles.", "Dubbing of television programs is usually done using voiceovers, but usually, voices professional actors, while trying to give each character a different voice by using appropriate intonations.", "Dubbing with synchronized voices is rarely used, mostly for animated films.", "''Mrs.", "Doubtfire'' is a rare example of a feature film dubbed this way on BNT Channel 1, though a subtitled version is currently shown on other channels.Walt Disney Television's animated series (such as ''DuckTales'', ''Darkwing Duck'', and ''Timon & Pumbaa'') were only aired with synchronized Bulgarian voices on BNT Channel 1 until 2005, but then the Disney shows were canceled.", "When airing of Disney series resumed on Nova Television and Jetix in 2008, voiceovers were used, but Disney animated-movie translations still use synchronized voices.", "Voiceover dubbing is not used in theatrical releases.", "The Bulgarian film industry law requires all children's films to be dubbed, not subtitled.", "Nova Television dubbed and aired the ''Pokémon'' anime with synchronized voices.", "Now, the show is airing on Disney Channel, also in a synchronized form.Netflix provides both subtitles and dubbed audio with its foreign language shows, including Brazil's dystopian \"3%\" and the German thriller \"Dark\".", "Viewer testing indicates that its audience is more likely to finish watching a series if they select to view it with dubbed audio rather than translated subtitles.", "Netflix now streams its foreign language content with dubbed audio as default in an effort to increase viewer retention." ], [ "General use", "Dubbing is also used in applications and genres other than traditional film, including video games, television, and pornographic films.===Video games===Many video games originally produced in North America, Japan, and PAL countries are dubbed into foreign languages for release in areas such as Europe and Australia, especially for video games that place a heavy emphasis on dialogue.", "Because characters' mouth movements can be part of the game's code, lip sync is sometimes achieved by re-coding the mouth movements to match the dialogue in the new language.", "The Source engine automatically generates lip-sync data, making it easier for games to be localized.To achieve synchronization when animations are intended only for the source language, localized content is mostly recorded using techniques borrowed from movie dubbing (such as rythmo band) or, when images are not available, localized dubbing is done using source audios as a reference.", "Sound-synch is a method where localized audios are recorded matching the length and internal pauses of the source content.For the European version of a video game, the on-screen text of the game is available in various languages and, in many cases, the dialogue is dubbed into each respective language, as well.The North American version of any game is always available in English, with translated text and dubbed dialogue, if necessary, in other languages, especially if the North American version of the game contains the same data as the European version.", "Several Japanese games, such as those in the ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Soulcalibur'' series, are released with both the original Japanese audio and the English dub included.===Television===Dubbing is occasionally used on network television broadcasts of films that contain dialogue that the network executives or censors have decided to replace.", "This is usually done to remove profanity.", "In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty, but an actor with a similar voice reads the changes.", "The results are sometimes seamless, but, in many cases, the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue must be replaced.", "Also, often easy to notice, is the sudden absence of background sounds in the movie during the dubbed dialogue.", "Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the ''Smokey and the Bandit'' and the ''Die Hard'' film series, as shown on broadcasters such as TBS.", "In the case of ''Smokey and the Bandit'', extensive dubbing was done for the first network airing on ABC Television in 1978, especially for Jackie Gleason's character, Buford T. Justice.", "The dubbing of his phrase \"sombitch\" (son of a bitch) became \"scum bum,\" which became a catchphrase of the time.Dubbing is commonly used in science fiction television, as well.", "Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets or by actors' movements on elaborate multi-level plywood sets (for example, starship bridges or other command centers) will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable.", "''Stargate'' and ''Farscape'' are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio.Since some anime series contain profanity, the studios recording the English dubs often re-record certain lines if a series or movie is going to be broadcast on Cartoon Network, removing references to death and hell as well.", "Some companies will offer both an edited and an uncut version of the series on DVD, so that there is an edited script available in case the series is broadcast.", "Other companies also edit the full-length version of a series, meaning that even on the uncut DVD characters say things like \"Blast!\"", "and \"Darn!\"", "in place of the original dialogue's profanity.", "Bandai Entertainment's English dub of ''G Gundam'' is infamous for this, among many other things, with such lines as \"Bartender, more milk\".Dubbing has also been used for comedic purposes, replacing lines of dialogue to create comedies from footage that was originally another genre.", "Examples include the American television show ''Kung Faux'', comedically re-dubbed from 1970s kung fu films originally produced in Hong Kong, the Australian television shows ''The Olden Days'' and ''Bargearse'', re-dubbed from 1970s Australian drama and action series, respectively, the Irish show ''Soupy Norman'', re-dubbed from ''Pierwsza miłość'', a Polish soap opera, and ''Most Extreme Elimination Challenge'', a comedic dub of the Japanese game show ''Takeshi's Castle''.Dubbing into a foreign language does not always entail the deletion of the original language.", "In some countries, a performer may read the translated dialogue as a voice-over.", "This often occurs in Russia and Poland, where \"lektories\" or \"lektors\" read the translated dialogue into Russian and Polish.", "In Poland, one announcer read all text.", "However, this is done almost exclusively for the television and home video markets, while theatrical releases are usually subtitled.", "Recently, however, the number of high-quality, fully dubbed films has increased, especially for children's movies.", "If a quality dubbed version exists for a film, it is shown in theaters.", "However, some films, such as ''Harry Potter'' or ''Star Wars'', are shown in both dubbed and subtitled versions, varying with the time of the show.", "Such films are also shown on TV (although some channels drop them and do standard one-narrator translation) and VHS/DVD.", "In Russia, the reading of all lines by a single person is referred to as a Gavrilov translation, and is generally found only in illegal copies of films and on cable television.", "Professional copies always include at least two actors of opposite gender translating the dialogue.", "Some titles in Poland have been dubbed this way, too, but this method lacks public appeal, so it is very rare now.On special occasions, such as film festivals, live interpreting is often done by professionals.===Pornography===As budgets for pornographic films are often small, compared to films made by major studios, and there is an inherent need to film without interrupting filming, it is common for sex scenes to be over-dubbed.", "The audio for such over-dubbing is generally referred to as ''the Ms and Gs'', or ''the moans and groans.''" ], [ "Dubbing into varieties", "In the case of languages with large communities (such as English, Chinese, Hindi, Portuguese, Italian, German, Spanish, or French), a single translation may sound foreign to native speakers in a given region.", "Therefore, a film may be translated into a certain variety of a certain language.", "For example, the animated movie ''The Incredibles'' was translated to European Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Neutral Spanish (which is Mexican Spanish but avoids colloquialisms), and Rioplatense Spanish (although people from Chile and Uruguay noticed a strong ''porteño'' accent from most of the characters of the Rioplatense Spanish translation).", "In Spanish-speaking regions, most media is dubbed twice: into European Spanish and Neutral Spanish.Another example is the French dubbing of ''The Simpsons'', which has two entirely different versions for Quebec and for France.", "The humor is very different for each audience (see Non-English versions of ''The Simpsons'').", "Audiences in Quebec are generally critical of France's dubbing of ''The Simpsons'', which they often do not find amusing.Quebec-French dubbing of films is generally made in accent-free Standard French, but may sound peculiar to audiences in France because of the persistence of some regionally-neutral expressions and because Quebec-French performers pronounce Anglo-Saxon names with an American accent, unlike French performers.", "Occasionally, budget restraints cause American direct-to-video films, such as the 1995 film ''When the Bullet Hits the Bone'', to be released in France with a Quebec-French dubbing, sometimes resulting in what some members of French audiences perceive as unintentional humor.Portugal and Brazil also use different versions of dubbed films and series.", "Because dubbing has never been very popular in Portugal, for decades, children's films were distributed using the higher-quality Brazilian dub (unlike children's TV series, which are traditionally dubbed in European Portuguese).", "Only in the 1990s did dubbing begin to gain popularity in Portugal.", "''The Lion King'' became the first Disney feature film to be completely dubbed into European Portuguese, and subsequently all major animation films gained European-Portuguese versions.", "In recent DVD releases, most Brazilian-Portuguese-dubbed classics were released with new European-Portuguese dubs, eliminating the predominance of Brazilian-Portuguese dubs in Portugal.Similarly, in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium, cartoons are often dubbed locally by Flemish artists rather than using soundtracks produced in the Netherlands.The German-speaking region, which includes Germany, Austria, part of Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, share a common German-dubbed version of films and shows.", "Although there are some differences in the three major German varieties, all films, shows, and series are dubbed into a single Standard German version that avoids regional variations in the German-speaking audience.", "Most voice actors are primarily German or Austrian.", "Switzerland, which has four official languages (German, French, Italian, and Romansh), generally uses dubbed versions made in each respective country (except for Romansh).", "Liechtenstein uses German-dubbed versions only.Sometimes, films are also dubbed into several German dialects (Berlinerisch, Kölsch, Saxonian, Austro-Bavarian or Swiss German), especially animated films and Disney films.", "They are as an additional \"special feature\" to entice the audience into buying it.", "Popular animated films dubbed into German variety include ''Asterix'' films (in addition to its Standard German version, every film has a particular variety version), ''The Little Mermaid'', ''Shrek 2'', ''Cars'', (+ Austrian German) and ''Up'' (+ Austrian German).Some live-action films or TV series have an additional German variety dubbing: ''Babe'' and its sequel, ''Babe: Pig in the City'' (German German, Austrian German, Swiss German); and ''Rehearsal for Murder'', ''Framed'' (+ Austrian German); ''The Munsters'', ''Serpico'', ''Rumpole'' (+ Austrian German), and ''The Thorn Birds''(only Austrian German dubbing).Before German reunification, East Germany also made its own particular German version.", "For example, ''Olsen Gang'' and the Hungarian animated series ''The Mézga Family'' were dubbed in West Germany as well as East Germany.Usually, there are two dubbings produced in Serbo-Croatian: Serbian and Croatian.", "Serbian for Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina; Croatian for Croatia and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Di Fortunato E. e Paolinelli M. (a cura di), \"La Questione Doppiaggio – barriere linguistiche e circolazione delle opere audiovisive\", Roma, AIDAC, 1996 – (available on website: www.aidac.it)* Castellano A.", "(a cura di), \"Il Doppiaggio, profilo, storia e analisi di un'arte negata\", Roma, AIDAC-ARLEM, 2001* Di Fortunato E. e Paolinelli M., \"Tradurre per il doppiaggio – la trasposizione linguistica dell'audiovisivo: teoria e pratica di un'arte imperfetta\", Milano, Hoepli, 2005* ASINC online magazine on criticism of the art of dubbing* * Rose, Jay, ''Producing Great Sound for Film and Video''.", "Focal Press, fourth edition 2014 Book info." ] ]
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[ [ "Delaunay triangulation" ], [ "Introduction", "A Delaunay triangulation in the plane with circumcircles shown In mathematics and computational geometry, a '''Delaunay triangulation''' ('''DT'''), also known as a '''Delone triangulation''', for a given set of discrete points in general position is a triangulation such that no point is inside the circumcircle of any triangle in the DT.", "Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum of all the angles of the triangles in the triangulation; they tend to avoid sliver triangles.", "The triangulation is named after Boris Delaunay for his work on this topic from 1934.For a set of points on the same line there is no Delaunay triangulation (the notion of triangulation is degenerate for this case).", "For four or more points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: each of the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfies the \"Delaunay condition\", i.e., the requirement that the circumcircles of all triangles have empty interiors.By considering circumscribed spheres, the notion of Delaunay triangulation extends to three and higher dimensions.", "Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean distance.", "However, in these cases a Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique." ], [ "Relationship with the Voronoi diagram", "The Delaunay triangulation of a discrete point set in general position corresponds to the dual graph of the Voronoi diagram for .The circumcenters of Delaunay triangles are the vertices of the Voronoi diagram.In the 2D case, the Voronoi vertices are connected via edges, that can be derived from adjacency-relationships of the Delaunay triangles: If two triangles share an edge in the Delaunay triangulation, their circumcenters are to be connected with an edge in the Voronoi tesselation.Special cases where this relationship does not hold, or is ambiguous, include cases like:* Three or more collinear points, where the circumcircles are of infinite radii.", "* Four or more points on a perfect circle, where the triangulation is ambiguous and all circumcenters are trivially identical.", "*Edges of the Voronoi diagram going to infinity are not defined by this relation in case of a finite set .", "If the Delaunay triangulation is calculated using the Bowyer–Watson algorithm then the circumcenters of triangles having a common vertex with the \"super\" triangle should be ignored.", "Edges going to infinity start from a circumcenter and they are perpendicular to the common edge between the kept and ignored triangle." ], [ "''d''-dimensional Delaunay", "For a set of points in the (-dimensional) Euclidean space, a '''Delaunay triangulation''' is a triangulation such that no point in is inside the circum-hypersphere of any -simplex in .", "It is known that there exists a unique Delaunay triangulation for if is a set of points in ''general position''; that is, the affine hull of is -dimensional and no set of points in lie on the boundary of a ball whose interior does not intersect .The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in -dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the convex hull of a set of points in ()-dimensional space.", "This may be done by giving each point an extra coordinate equal to , thus turning it into a hyper-paraboloid (this is termed \"lifting\"); taking the bottom side of the convex hull (as the top end-cap faces upwards away from the origin, and must be discarded); and mapping back to -dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate.", "As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are simplices.", "Nonsimplicial facets only occur when of the original points lie on the same -hypersphere, i.e., the points are not in general position." ], [ "Properties", "Example stepsEach frame of the animation shows a Delaunay triangulation of the four points.", "Halfway through, the triangulating edge flips showing that the Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle, not the edge-length of the triangles.Let be the number of points and the number of dimensions.", "* The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points.", "* The Delaunay triangulation contains simplices.", "* In the plane (), if there are vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most triangles, plus one exterior face (see Euler characteristic).", "* If points are distributed according to a Poisson process in the plane with constant intensity, then each vertex has on average six surrounding triangles.", "More generally for the same process in dimensions the average number of neighbors is a constant depending only on .", "* In the plane, the Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle.", "Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other.", "However, the Delaunay triangulation does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle.", "The Delaunay triangulation also does not necessarily minimize the length of the edges.", "* A circle circumscribing any Delaunay triangle does not contain any other input points in its interior.", "* If a circle passing through two of the input points doesn't contain any other input points in its interior, then the segment connecting the two points is an edge of a Delaunay triangulation of the given points.", "* Each triangle of the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in -dimensional spaces corresponds to a facet of convex hull of the projection of the points onto a ()-dimensional paraboloid, and vice versa.", "* The closest neighbor to any point is on an edge in the Delaunay triangulation since the nearest neighbor graph is a subgraph of the Delaunay triangulation.", "* The Delaunay triangulation is a geometric spanner: In the plane (), the shortest path between two vertices, along Delaunay edges, is known to be no longer than 1.998 times the Euclidean distance between them." ], [ "Visual Delaunay definition: Flipping", "From the above properties an important feature arises: Looking at two triangles with the common edge (see figures), if the sum of the angles , the triangles meet the Delaunay condition.This is an important property because it allows the use of a ''flipping'' technique.", "If two triangles do not meet the Delaunay condition, switching the common edge for the common edge produces two triangles that do meet the Delaunay condition:File:Delaunay geometry.png|This triangulation does not meet the Delaunay condition (the sum of and is bigger than 180°).File:Point inside circle - Delaunay condition broken.svg|This pair of triangles does not meet the Delaunay condition (there is a point within the interior of the circumcircle).File:Edge Flip - Delaunay condition ok.svg|''Flipping'' the common edge produces a valid Delaunay triangulation for the four points.", "This operation is called a ''flip'', and can be generalised to three and higher dimensions." ], [ "Algorithms", "We need a robust and fast way to detect if point lies in the circumcircle of Many algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle's circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges.", "In two dimensions, one way to detect if point lies in the circumcircle of is to evaluate the determinant:: When are sorted in a counterclockwise order, this determinant is positive only if lies inside the circumcircle.===Flip algorithms===As mentioned above, if a triangle is non-Delaunay, we can flip one of its edges.", "This leads to a straightforward algorithm: construct any triangulation of the points, and then flip edges until no triangle is non-Delaunay.", "Unfortunately, this can take edge flips.", "While this algorithm can be generalised to three and higher dimensions, its convergence is not guaranteed in these cases, as it is conditioned to the connectedness of the underlying flip graph: this graph is connected for two-dimensional sets of points, but may be disconnected in higher dimensions.===Incremental===The most straightforward way of efficiently computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph.", "When a vertex is added, we split in three the triangle that contains , then we apply the flip algorithm.", "Done naïvely, this will take time: we search through all the triangles to find the one that contains , then we potentially flip away every triangle.", "Then the overall runtime is .If we insert vertices in random order, it turns out (by a somewhat intricate proof) that each insertion will flip, on average, only triangles – although sometimes it will flip many more.This still leaves the point location time to improve.", "We can store the history of the splits and flips performed: each triangle stores a pointer to the two or three triangles that replaced it.", "To find the triangle that contains , we start at a root triangle, and follow the pointer that points to a triangle that contains , until we find a triangle that has not yet been replaced.", "On average, this will also take time.", "Over all vertices, then, this takes time.", "While the technique extends to higher dimension (as proved by Edelsbrunner and Shah), the runtime can be exponential in the dimension even if the final Delaunay triangulation is small.The Bowyer–Watson algorithm provides another approach for incremental construction.", "It gives an alternative to edge flipping for computing the Delaunay triangles containing a newly inserted vertex.Unfortunately the flipping-based algorithms are generally hard to parallelize, since adding some certain point (e.g.", "the center point of a wagon wheel) can lead to up to consecutive flips.", "Blelloch et al.", "proposed another version of incremental algorithm based on rip-and-tent, which is practical and highly parallelized with polylogarithmic span.===Divide and conquer===A divide and conquer algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions was developed by Lee and Schachter and improved by Guibas and Stolfi and later by Dwyer.", "In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets.", "The Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line.", "Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time , so the total running time is .For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to while still maintaining worst-case performance.A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in dimensions is presented in \"DeWall: A fast divide and conquer Delaunay triangulation algorithm in E''d''\" by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno.The divide and conquer algorithm has been shown to be the fastest DT generation technique sequentially.===Sweephull===Sweephull is a hybrid technique for 2D Delaunay triangulation that uses a radially propagating sweep-hull, and a flipping algorithm.", "The sweep-hull is created sequentially by iterating a radially-sorted set of 2D points, and connecting triangles to the visible part of the convex hull, which gives a non-overlapping triangulation.", "One can build a convex hull in this manner so long as the order of points guarantees no point would fall within the triangle.", "But, radially sorting should minimize flipping by being highly Delaunay to start.", "This is then paired with a final iterative triangle flipping step." ], [ "Applications", "The Euclidean minimum spanning tree of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points, and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently.For modelling terrain or other objects given a point cloud, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model.", "In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area).", "See triangulated irregular network.Delaunay triangulations can be used to determine the density or intensity of points samplings by means of the Delaunay tessellation field estimator (DTFE).A Delaunay triangulation of a random set of 100 points in a plane.Delaunay triangulations are often used to generate meshes for space-discretised solvers such as the finite element method and the finite volume method of physics simulation, because of the angle guarantee and because fast triangulation algorithms have been developed.", "Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse simplicial complex; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using Ruppert's algorithm.The increasing popularity of finite element method and boundary element method techniques increases the incentive to improve automatic meshing algorithms.", "However, all of these algorithms can create distorted and even unusable grid elements.", "Fortunately, several techniques exist which can take an existing mesh and improve its quality.", "For example, smoothing (also referred to as mesh refinement) is one such method, which repositions nodes to minimize element distortion.", "The stretched grid method allows the generation of pseudo-regular meshes that meet the Delaunay criteria easily and quickly in a one-step solution.", "Constrained Delaunay triangulation has found applications in path planning in automated driving and topographic surveying." ], [ "See also", "* Beta skeleton* Centroidal Voronoi tessellation* Convex hull algorithms* Delaunay refinement* Delone set – also known as a Delaunay set* Disordered hyperuniformity* Farthest-first traversal – incremental Voronoi insertion* Gabriel graph* Giant's Causeway* Gradient pattern analysis* Hamming bound – sphere-packing bound* Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm* Lloyd's algorithm – Voronoi iteration * Meyer set* Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number* Pitteway triangulation* Plesiohedron* Quasicrystal* Quasitriangulation* Salem number* Steiner point (triangle)* Triangle mesh* Urquhart graph* Voronoi diagram" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Delaunay triangulation in CGAL, the Computational Geometry Algorithms Library:** Mariette Yvinec.", "2D Triangulation.", "Retrieved April 2010.", "** Pion, Sylvain; Teillaud, Monique.", "3D Triangulations.", "Retrieved April 2010.", "** Hornus, Samuel; Devillers, Olivier; Jamin, Clément.", "dD Triangulations.", "** Hert, Susan; Seel, Michael.", "dD Convex Hulls and Delaunay Triangulations.", "Retrieved April 2010.", "* \" Poly2Tri: Incremental constrained Delaunay triangulation.", "Open source C++ implementation.", "Retrieved April 2019.", "* \" Divide & Conquer Delaunay triangulation construction\".", "Open source C99 implementation.", "Retrieved April 2019.", "* \" CDT: Constrained Delaunay Triangulation in C++\".", "Open source C++ implementation.", "Retrieved August 2022." ] ]
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[ [ "Defendant" ], [ "Introduction", "Cuffed defendant before criminal court (Transportation Security Administration image)In court proceedings, a '''defendant''' is a person or object who is the party either accused of committing a crime in criminal prosecution or against whom some type of civil relief is being sought in a civil case.Terminology varies from one jurisdiction to another.", "In Scots law, the terms \"'''accused'''\" or \"'''panel'''\" are used instead in criminal proceedings and \"'''defender'''\" in civil proceedings.", "Another term in use is \"'''respondent'''\"." ], [ "Criminal defendants", "In a criminal trial, a defendant is a person accused (charged) of committing an offense (a crime; an act defined as punishable under criminal law).", "The other party to a criminal trial is usually a public prosecutor, but in some jurisdictions, private prosecutions are allowed.Criminal defendants are often taken into custody by police and brought before a court under an arrest warrant.", "Criminal defendants are usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody.", "For serious cases, such as murder, bail may be refused.", "Defendants must be present at every stage of the proceedings against them.", "(There is an exception for very minor cases such as traffic offenses in jurisdictions which treat them as crimes.", ")If more than one person is accused, the people may be referred as \"co-defendant\" or \"co-conspirator\" in British and common law courts.In some jurisdictions, vulnerable defendants may be able to get access of services of a non-registered intermediary to assist with communication at court." ], [ "Civil defendants", "In a civil lawsuit, a defendant (or a respondent) is also the accused party, although not of an offense, but of a civil wrong (a tort or a breach of contract, for instance).", "The person who starts the civil action through filing a complaint is referred to as the plaintiff (also known as the appellant).Defendants in civil actions usually make their first court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons.", "Historically, civil defendants could be taken into custody under a writ of ''caspian ad respondent''.", "Modern-day civil defendants are usually able to avoid most (if not all) court appearances if represented by a lawyer.Most often and familiarly, defendants are persons: either natural persons (actual human beings) or juridical persons (''persona fiction'') under the legal fiction of treating organizations as persons.", "But a defendant may be an object, in which case the object itself is the direct subject of the action.", "When a court has jurisdiction over an object, it is said to have jurisdiction ''in rem''.", "An example of an ''in rem'' case is ''United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola'' (1916), where the defendant was not the Coca-Cola Company itself, but rather \"Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola\".", "In current United States legal practice, ''in rem'' suits are primarily asset forfeiture cases, based on drug laws, as in ''USA v. $124,700'' (2006).Defendants can set up an account to pay for litigation costs and legal expenses.", "These legal defense funds can have large membership counts where members contribute to the fund.", "The fund can be public or private and is set up for individuals, organizations, or a particular purpose.", "These funds are often used by public officials, civil-rights organizations, and public-interest organizations." ], [ "England and Wales", "Historically, \"defendant\" was a legal term for a person prosecuted for misdemeanour.", "It was not applicable to a person prosecuted for felony." ], [ "See also", "* Asset forfeiture* Attribution (law)* Criminal procedure* Trial" ], [ "References" ] ]
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[ [ "Gnaeus Domitius Afer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Gnaeus Domitius Afer''' (died 59) was a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nîmes) in Gallia Narbonensis.", "He flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero.", "He was suffect consul in the ''nundinium'' of September to December 39 as the colleague of Aulus Didius Gallus." ], [ "Life", "Afer became praetor in 25 AD, and gained the favor of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulchra, the second cousin of Agrippina, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor, in 26 AD.", "From this time he became one of the most celebrated orators in Rome, but sacrificed his character by conducting accusations for the government.", "In the following year, 27 AD, he is again mentioned by Tacitus as the accuser of Quinctilius Varus, the son of Claudia Pulchra.", "In consequence of the accusation of Claudia Pulchra, and of some offense which he had given to Caligula, he was accused by the emperor in the senate, but by concealing his own skill in speaking, and pretending to be overpowered by the eloquence of Caligula, Afer not only escaped the danger, but was made consul suffectus in 39 AD.In his old age Afer lost much of his reputation by continuing to speak in public, when his powers were exhausted.", "During the reign of Nero he became ''curator aquarum'', or superintendent of the city's water supply, but died not long afterwards, in 59 AD, having eaten himself to death, according to Jerome in the Chronicon of Eusebius.Quintilian, when a young man, heard Afer, and frequently speaks of him as the most distinguished orator of his age.", "He says that Afer and Julius Africanus were the best orators he had heard, and that he prefers the former to the latter, Quintilian refers to a work of his ''On Testimony'', to one entitled ''Dicta'', and to some of his orations, of which those on behalf of Domitilla, or Cloantilla, and Lucius Volusenus Catulus seem to have been the most celebrated.According to Pliny the Younger, in his will Afer had made Titius Marcellus Curvius Lucanus and Titius Marcellus Curvius Tullus his heirs on the condition that they take on his name.", "He had prosecuted their father, Sextus Curvius Tullus, stripping him of his wealth and citizenship.", "Pliny comments that Afer's will had been drawn up 18 years previously, suggesting that Afer and Tullus the elder had once been friends." ], [ "See also", "* List of ancient Roman speeches* Domitia gens* Nerva–Antonine dynasty" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]
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[ [ "Dan Simmons" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dan Simmons''' (born April 4, 1948) is an American science fiction and horror writer.", "He is the author of the Hyperion Cantos and the Ilium/Olympos cycles, among other works which span the science fiction, horror, and fantasy genres, sometimes within a single novel.", "Simmons's genre-intermingling'' Song of Kali'' (1985) won the World Fantasy Award.", "He also writes mysteries and thrillers, some of which feature the continuing character Joe Kurtz." ], [ "Biography", "Born in Peoria, Illinois, Simmons received a B.A.", "in English from Wabash College in 1970 and, in 1971, a Masters in Education from Washington University in St. Louis.He soon started writing short stories, although his career did not take off until 1982, when, through Harlan Ellison's help, his short story \"The River Styx Runs Upstream\" was published and awarded first prize in a ''Twilight Zone Magazine'' story competition, and he was taken on as a client by Ellison's agent, Richard Curtis.", "Simmons's first novel, ''Song of Kali'', was released in 1985.He worked in elementary education until 1989.He lives in Longmont, Colorado ." ], [ "Horror fiction", "''Summer of Night'' (1991) recounts the childhood of a group of pre-teens who band together in the 1960s, to defeat a centuries-old evil that terrorizes their hometown of Elm Haven, Illinois.", "The novel, which was praised by Stephen King in a cover blurb, is similar to King's ''It'' (1986) in its focus on small-town life, the corruption of innocence, the return of an ancient evil, and the responsibility for others that emerges with the transition from youth to adulthood.In the sequel to ''Summer of Night'', ''A Winter Haunting'' (2002), Dale Stewart (one of the first book's protagonists and now an adult), revisits his boyhood home to come to grips with mysteries that have disrupted his adult life.Between the publication of ''Summer of Night'' (1991) and ''A Winter Haunting'' (2002), several additional characters from ''Summer of Night'' appeared in: ''Children of the Night'' (1992), a loose sequel to ''Summer of Night'', which features Mike O'Rourke, now much older and a Roman Catholic priest, who is sent on a mission to investigate bizarre events in a European city; ''Fires of Eden'' (1994), in which the adult Cordie Cooke appears; and ''Darwin's Blade'' (2000), a thriller in which Dale's younger brother, Lawrence Stewart, appears as a minor character.After ''Summer of Night'', Simmons focused on writing science fiction until the 2007 work of historical fiction and horror, ''The Terror''.", "His 2009 book ''Drood'' is based on the last years of Charles Dickens' life leading up to the writing of ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood'', which Dickens had partially completed at the time of his death." ], [ "Historical fiction", "''The Terror'' (2007) crosses the bridge between horror and historical fiction.", "It is a fictionalized account of Sir John Franklin and his expedition to find the Northwest Passage.", "The two ships, and , become icebound the first winter, and the captains and crew struggle to survive while being stalked across an Arctic landscape by a monster.", "The novel was made into a ten-part television series, ’The Terror’.", "''The Abominable'' (2013) recounts a mid-1920s attempt on Mount Everest by five climbers—two British, one French, one Sherpa, and one American (the narrator)—to recover the body of a cousin of one the British characters." ], [ "Literary references", "Many of Simmons's works have strong ties with classic literature.", "For example:* His 1989 novel ''Hyperion'', winner of Hugo and Locus Awards for the best science fiction novel, deals with a space war and is inspired in its structure by Boccaccio's ''Decameron'' and Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales''.", "* The ''Hyperion Cantos'' take their titles from poems by the British Romantic John Keats.", "* The title of ''Carrion Comfort'', as well as many of its themes, derives from the poem \"Carrion Comfort\" by Gerard Manley Hopkins.", "* ''The Hollow Man'' (1992) is a novel influenced by Dante's ''Inferno'' and T. S. Eliot* \"The Great Lover\" (1993) is a short story inspired by the World War I War Poets* Simmons's collection of short stories, ''Worlds Enough & Time'', takes its name from the first line of the poem \"To His Coy Mistress\" by English poet Andrew Marvell: \"Had we but world enough, and time\"* The detective in ''Flashback'' is named Nick Bottom after a character in Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream''" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Novels ===;''Hyperion Cantos'' series:# ''Hyperion'' (1989) – # ''The Fall of Hyperion'' (1990) – # ''Endymion'' (1996) – # ''The Rise of Endymion'' (1997) – Short stories:* \"Remembering Siri\" (1983), novelette, prequel to ''Hyperion''* \"The Death of the Centaur\" (1990), novelette* \"Orphans of the Helix\" (1999), novelette, sequel of ''The Rise of Endymion'';''Seasons of Horror'' series# ''Summer of Night'' (1991) – # ''Children of the Night'' (1992) – # ''A Winter Haunting'' (2002) – # ''Fires of Eden'' (1994) – Short stories:* ''Banished Dreams'' (1990), collects three prophetic dream sequences that were expurgated from the published edition of ''Summer of Night''*: \"Dale's Dream\", \"Kevin's Dream\", \"Mike's Dream\";''Joe Kurtz'' series:# ''Hardcase'' (2001) – # ''Hard Freeze'' (2002) – # ''Hard as Nails'' (2003) – ;''Ilium/Olympos'' series:# ''Ilium'' (2003) – # ''Olympos'' (2005) – ;Stand-alones:* ''Song of Kali'' (1985) – * ''Carrion Comfort'' (1989), expansion of the novelette published in ''Prayers to Broken Stones'' – * ''Phases of Gravity'' (1989) – * ''The Hollow Man'' (1992) – * ''The Crook Factory'' (1999) – * ''Darwin's Blade'' (2000) – * ''The Terror'' (2007) – * ''Drood'' (2009) – * ''Black Hills'' (2010) – * ''Flashback'' (2011) – * ''The Abominable'' (2013) – * ''The Fifth Heart'' (2015) – === Short stories ===Collections:* ''Prayers to Broken Stones'' (1990), collection of 6 short stories and 7 novellas/novelettes:*: \"The River Styx Runs Upstream\", \"Eyes I Dare Not Meet in Dreams\" (novelette), \"Vanni Fucci Is Alive and Well and Living in Hell\", \"Vexed to Nightmare by a Rocking Cradle\", \"Remembering Siri\" (novelette of ''Hyperion Cantos'' series), \"Metastasis\", \"The Offering\" (novelette), \"E-Ticket to 'Namland\" AKA \"E-Ticket to Namland\" (novelette), \"Iverson's Pits\" (novella), \"Shave and a Haircut, Two Bites\", \"The Death of the Centaur\" (novelette of ''Hyperion Cantos'' series), \"Two Minutes Forty-Five Seconds\", \"Carrion Comfort\" (novelette)* ''Lovedeath'' (1993), collection of 5 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Entropy's Bed at Midnight\" (novelette), \"Dying in Bangkok\" AKA \"Death in Bangkok\" (novelette), \"Sleeping with Teeth Women\" (novella), \"Flashback\" (novelette), \"The Great Lover\" (novella)* ''Worlds Enough & Time'' (2002), collection of 5 novellas/novelettes:*: \"Looking for Kelly Dahl\" (novella), \"Orphans of the Helix\" (novelette from ''Hyperion Cantos'' series), \"The Ninth of Av\" (novella), \"On K2 with Kanakaredes\" (novelette), \"The End of Gravity\" (novella)Uncollected short stories:* \"Presents of Mind\" (1986, with Edward Bryant, Steve Rasnic Tem and Connie Willis)* \"Dying Is Easy, Comedy Is Hard\" (1990, with Edward Bryant), novelette* \"The Counselor\" (1991), novelette* \"All Dracula's Children\" (1991), novelette* \"My Private Memoirs of the Hoffer Stigmata Pandemic\" (1991)* \"This Year's Class Picture\" (1992)* \"Elm Haven, IL\" (1992), novelette, from ''Freak Show'' series* \"One Small Step for Max\" (1992)* \"My Copsa Micas\" (1994), novelette* \"Madame Bovary, C'est Moi\" (2000)* \"Muse of Fire\" (2007), novella* \"The guiding nose of Ulfänt Banderōz\" (2009), novella, from ''Dying Earth'' series=== Poems ===* ''Ruby/Gem S.T.R.E.A.M.M.", "Poetry'' (2011)=== Non-fiction ===* ''Going After the Rubber Chicken'' (1991), a collection of three convention guest-of-honor speeches by Simmons* ''Summer Sketches'' (1992), Simmons reveals how his travel experiences have allowed him to instill a feeling of place in readers of his fiction* ''Negative Spaces: Two talks'' (1999), about science fiction" ], [ "Adaptations", "In January 2004, it was announced that the screenplay he wrote for his novels ''Ilium'' and ''Olympos'' would be made into a film by Digital Domain and Barnet Bain Films, with Simmons acting as executive producer.", "''Ilium'' is described as an \"epic tale that spans 5,000 years and sweeps across the entire solar system, including themes and characters from Homer's ''Iliad'' and Shakespeare's ''The Tempest''.", "\"In 2008, Guillermo del Toro was scheduled to direct a film adaptation of ''Drood'' for Universal Pictures.", "As of December 2017, the project is still listed as \"in development.", "\"In 2009, Scott Derrickson was set to direct ''Hyperion Cantos'' for Warner Bros. and Graham King, with Trevor Sands penning a script adapting ''Hyperion'' and ''The Fall of Hyperion'' into one film.", "In 2011, actor Bradley Cooper expressed interest in taking over the adaptation.", "In 2015, it was announced that TV channel Syfy would produce a mini-series based on the Hyperion Cantos with the involvement of Cooper and King.", "As of May 2017, the project was still \"in development\" at Syfy.", "On November 1, 2021, Cooper and King restarted the feature film adaptation at Warner Bros. with Tom Spezialy set to write the script.", "''The Terror'' (2007) was adapted in 2018 as an AMC 10 episode-mini-series and received generally positive reviews upon release." ], [ "Awards", "===Wins===+Year (Published)Year (Awarded)NomineeSocietyAwardCategoryResultRef19851986''Song of Kali''World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Novel19891990''Carrion Comfort''British Fantasy SocietyBritish Fantasy AwardAugust Derleth Award (Best Novel)19891990''Carrion Comfort''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novel19891990''Hyperion''World Science Fiction SocietyHugo AwardHugo Award—Novel19901991''The Fall of Hyperion''British Science Fiction AssociationBritish Science Fiction AwardBest Novel19901992''Prayers to Broken Stones''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Collection19921993\"This Year's Class Picture\"Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Short Fiction19921993\"This Year's Class Picture\"World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Short Fiction19931994\"Dying in Bangkok\"Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—NovellaLocus Award* Best Horror Novel (1990): ''Carrion Comfort''* Best Science Fiction Novel (1990): ''Hyperion''* Best Novelette (1991): \"Entropy's Bed at Midnight\"* Best Science Fiction Novel (1991): ''The Fall of Hyperion''* Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1992): ''Summer of Night''* Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1993): ''Children of the Night''* Best Novelette (1994): \"Dying in Bangkok\"* Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1995): ''Fires of Eden''* Best Science Fiction Novel (1998): ''The Rise of Endymion''* Best Novelette (2000): \"Orphans of the Helix\"* Best Science Fiction Novel (2004): ''Ilium''International Horror Guild Award* Best Novel (2003): ''A Winter Haunting''Nocte Award* Best Foreign Short Story (2010): “La foto de la clase de este año” (This Year's Class Picture).Seiun Award* Best Foreign Novel (1995): Hyperion* Best Novel (1996): ''The Fall of Hyperion'' (tied with ''Timelike Infinity'' by Stephen Baxter)* Best Foreign Short Story (1999): \"This Year's Class Picture\"===Nominations===Dan Simmons has been nominated on numerous occasions in a range of categories for his fiction, including the Arthur C. Clarke Award, Bram Stoker Award, British Fantasy Society Award, Hugo Award, Nebula Award, and World Fantasy Award.Selected nominations are listed below.+Year(Published)Year (Awarded)NomineeSocietyAwardCategoryResultRef19881989“Metastasis ”World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Short Fiction19891990''Carrion Comfort''World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Novel19891991''Hyperion''British Science Fiction AssociationBritish Science Fiction AwardBest Novel19901991''The Fall of Hyperion''World Science Fiction SocietyHugo AwardHugo Award—Novel19901991''The Fall of Hyperion''Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of AmericaNebula AwardNebula Award—Novel19901991''Prayers to Broken Stones''World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Collection19901991''Prayers to Broken Stones''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Collection19901991''Entropy's Bed at Midnight''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novella1989-19901992''Hyperion Cantos''British Science Fiction Association,Science Fiction FoundationArthur C. Clarke Award19911992''Summer of Night''British Fantasy SocietyBritish Fantasy AwardAugust Derleth Award (Best Novel)19911992''Summer of Night''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novel19921993''Children of the Night''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novel19921993“This Year's Class Picture”World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Short Fiction19931994\"Dying in Bangkok\"World Fantasy ConventionWorld Fantasy AwardWorld Fantasy Award—Short Fiction19931994''Lovedeath''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Collection19931994\"Flashback\"Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novella19981998''The Rise of Endymion''World Science Fiction SocietyHugo AwardHugo Award—Novel20032004''Ilium''World Science Fiction SocietyHugo AwardHugo Award—Novel20072008''The Terror''Horror Writers AssociationBram Stoker AwardBram Stoker Award—Novel20072008''The Terror''British Fantasy SocietyBritish Fantasy AwardAugust Derleth Award (Best Novel)20072008''The Terror''jurors at ReaderconShirley Jackson AwardBest NovelLocus nominations:''The Hollow Man'' (1992) – Locus Award nominee, 1993''The Winter Haunting'' (2002) – Locus Award nominee, 2003''Olympos'' (2005) – Locus Award shortlist, 2006" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Interview by BookBanter* Dan Simmons on Worlds Without End* * * *" ] ]
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[ [ "Denis Auguste Affre" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denis-Auguste Affre''' (27 September 179327 June 1848) was a French clergyman who served as Archbishop of Paris from 1840 to 1848.He was killed while trying to negotiate peace during the June Days uprising of 1848.His cause for beatification has commenced and he is therefore titled a Servant of God." ], [ "Life", "===Early life and career===Affre was born at Saint-Rome-de-Tarn, in the department of Aveyron.", "At the age of 14, he began to study for the priesthood at the Seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, which was under the direction of his uncle, the Abbé Denis Boyer, S.S.", "He was an excellent student, and, while still a seminarian, soon became an instructor of dogmatic theology at the seminary in Nantes.In 1818, he was ordained as a Catholic priest.", "From 1823 to 1833 he served as the Vicar General, first of the Diocese of Luçon and then of Amiens.", "In 1839, he was appointed as coadjutor bishop of the Diocese of Strasbourg.", "This post, however, he never filled, being called on to act as Vicar-Capitular of Paris, conjointly with MM.", "Auger and Morel, at the death of Archbishop Quélen.Affre was elevated to the post of Archbishop of Paris in 1840.Though opposed to the government of King Louis-Philippe I, he fully accepted the establishment of the French Second Republic in 1848; nevertheless he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to pastoral care.", "He opened new parishes in the working-class neighborhoods of the city.", "Among them were Ménilmontant, Plaisance, Petit-Montrouge, Maison-Blanche, Petit-Gentilly, Notre-Dame de la Gare, Billancourt, Gros-Caillou.Affre was passionate in his determination to improve the study of theology in order to form clergy needed in the challenges which the Catholic Church faced at the time.", "He also was insistent on education as a human right.", "He opened a new seminary in Paris, called the St. Joseph of the Carmelites Seminary, on the site of a former Carmelite priory, and a school of theology at the Sorbonne.===Death===Affre's episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close during the insurrection of June 1848.On 23 June 1848, faced with starvation due to plans by the French government to close the National Workshops it had recently created in order to provide work to the poor, a large segment of the citizenry began rioting, setting up barricades in the streets of Paris.", "The crisis led to the government's handing dictatorial powers over the nation to General Louis Eugène Cavaignac, who was determined to use all force necessary to crush the rebellion and ordered the French National Guard into Paris.", "Seeing the carnage caused among the civilian population by this campaign, Frederic Ozanam, the founder of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, begged Affre to intervene to stop the bloodshed.", "The archbishop was led to believe that by his personal involvement peace might be restored between the military and the insurgents.Accordingly, on 25 June, in spite of the warning of Cavaignac, Affre mounted the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, bearing a green branch as sign of peace, to address both sides.", "He had spoken only a few words when an exchange of fire began in which he was struck by a stray bullet.", "There have been conflicting claims as to whether the fatal bullet was fired by an insurgent or by the government forces.", "He was taken to his palace, where he died on 27 June.On the next day, the National Assembly of France issued a decree expressing its great sorrow over Affre's death, and the public funeral held on 7 July was one of the most striking public spectacles of the period.", "The crowd following his cortege was estimated to have numbered about 200,000 people.Affre was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Denis in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris.", "His heart was removed and preserved in the chapel of the Carmelite Seminary, which he had founded." ], [ "Legacy", "Denise David displayed behind Notre-Dame Cathedral.", "The archbishop's niece Marie Caroline Affre appears in the bell's inscription.The pectoral cross which he was wearing when he was shot—seen in his portrait—is preserved by the Archdiocese of Paris as a relic.In 1856, the smallest of the four \"Benjamines,\" four new bells made for Notre-Dame, was named Denise David in honor of Affre and Amédée-David de Pastoret.", "Affre's niece by marriage, Marie Caroline Affre, served as godmother to the bell during the baptism ceremony.A street in the 18th arrondissement of Paris is named in his honor." ], [ "Writings", "Affre wrote several articles for a newspaper called ''La France chrétienne''.", "Additionally he published two books to guide in the practical matters of handling Church property: '' Un Traité de l'administration temporelle des paroisses'' (Paris, 1827) and ''Un Traité de la propriété des biens ecclésiastiques'' (Paris, 1837).", "He also wrote a guide to studying the Christian faith, ''Une Introduction philosophique à l'étude du christianisme'' (Paris, 5th edition, 1846)." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Endnotes** ** * Endnotes:**********" ], [ "External links" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dione" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dione''' may refer to:" ], [ "Astronomy", "*106 Dione, a large main belt asteroid*Dione (moon), a moon of Saturn*Helene (moon), a moon of Saturn sometimes referred to as \"Dione B\"" ], [ "Mythology", "*Dione (Titaness), a Titaness in Greek mythology*Dione (mythology), a name for various women in Greek mythology" ], [ "Biology", "* ''Dione'' (alga), a genus of red algae in the family Bangiaceae* ''Dione'' (butterfly), a genus in the family Heliconiinae* ''Pitar dione'', the elegant venus clam" ], [ "Boating", "*Dione 98, a Spanish sailboat design" ], [ "Chemistry", "*Diketone (Dione), a molecule containing two ketone groups*Ethylene dione (ethylenedione, ethene dione, or ethene 1,2-dione), a hypothetical chemical compound with the formula C2O2 (O=C=C=O)" ], [ "Given name", "*Dione Lucas (1909–1971), English chef and first female graduate of Le Cordon Bleu*Dee Dee Sharp (born Dione LaRue, 1945), American R&B singer*Dione Santos (born 1979), Brazilian footballer*Dione Taylor, Canadian jazz singer" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Dione'' (play), a 1720 work by the British writer John Gay" ], [ "Popular culture", "*Dee Bliss (Dione \"Dee\" Rebecchi), from the Australian soap opera ''Neighbours''*Thanos, a villain in Marvel Comics, was originally given the name by his mother" ], [ "Surname", "*Dione (Serer surname), a West African surname among the Serer people with no connection to the French \"Dione\"*Rose Dione (1875–1936), French actress*Aura Dione, Danish singer-songwriter" ], [ "Other", "*Dione plc, a former UK-based point-of-sale equipment manufacturer, now part of VeriFone" ], [ "See also", "*Deon, given name*Deion (disambiguation)*Dion (disambiguation)*Dionne (disambiguation)*Diode" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Denis Leary" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Denis Colin Leary''' (born August 18, 1957) is an American actor and comedian.", "Born in Massachusetts, Leary first came to prominence as a stand-up comedian, especially through appearances on MTV (including the comedic song \"Asshole\") and through the stand-up specials ''No Cure for Cancer'' (1993) and ''Lock 'n Load'' (1997).", "Leary began taking roles in film and television starting in the 1990s, including substantial roles in the films ''Judgment Night'' (1993), ''Gunmen'' (1994), ''Operation Dumbo Drop'' (1995) and ''Wag the Dog'' (1997).In the 2000s, he developed and starred in the television show ''The Job'' (2001–2002) and was the star and co-creator of ''Rescue Me'' (2004–2011), for which he received two Primetime Emmy nominations, one for writing and one for acting.", "He has continued to take starring roles in films, including Captain George Stacy in ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' and Cleveland Browns head coach Vince Penn in ''Draft Day''.", "Leary has also done voice work, including Francis the ladybug in ''A Bug's Life'' and Diego the saber tooth tiger in the ''Ice Age'' franchise.", "From 2015 to 2016, Leary wrote and starred in the comedy series ''Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll'' on FX." ], [ "Early life", "Denis Colin Leary was born on August 18, 1957, in Worcester, Massachusetts, the son of Catholic immigrant parents from Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland.", "His mother, Nora (née Sullivan) (b.", "1929), was a maid, and his father, John Leary (1924–1985), was an auto mechanic.", "Leary is a citizen of both the United States and Ireland.", "Leary is a third cousin of talk show host Conan O'Brien.Leary attended Saint Peter's High School (now Saint Paul's) in Worcester and graduated from Emerson College in Boston.", "At Emerson, he met fellow comic Mario Cantone, whom Leary considers to be his closest friend.", "While a student, Leary founded the Emerson Comedy Workshop, a troupe that continues on the campus today.After graduating from Emerson in 1981, Leary taught comedy-writing classes at the school for five years.", "In May 2005 he received an honorary doctorate and spoke at his alma mater's undergraduate commencement ceremony; and is credited as Dr. Denis Leary on the cover of his 2009 book ''Why We Suck''." ], [ "Career", "Leary began working as a comedian at the Boston underground club Play It Again Sam's.", "However, his first real gig was at the Rascals Comedy Club as part of the TV show ''The Rascals Comedy Hour'', on October 18, 1990.He wrote and appeared on a local comedy series, ''Lenny Clarke's Late Show'', hosted by his friend Lenny Clarke and written by Martin Olson.", "Leary and Clarke both spoke about their early affiliations and influences in the Boston comedy scene in the documentary film ''When Standup Stood Out'' (2006).", "During Leary's time as a Boston-area stand-up comic, he developed his stage persona.Leary appeared in sketches on the MTV game show ''Remote Control'', playing characters such as Keith Richards, co-host Colin Quinn's brother and artist Andy Warhol.", "He earned fame when he ranted about R.E.M.", "in an early 1990s MTV sketch.", "Several other commercials for MTV quickly followed, in which Leary would rant at high speeds about a variety of topics, playing off the then-popular and growing alternative scene.", "One of these rants served as an introduction to the video for \"Shamrocks and Shenanigans (Boom Shalock Lock Boom)\" by House of Pain.", "Leary released two records of his comedy: ''No Cure for Cancer'' (1993) and ''Lock 'n Load'' (1997).", "In late 2004, he released the EP ''Merry F#%$in' Christmas'', which included a mix of new music, previously unreleased recordings and some tracks from ''Lock 'n Load''.", "In 1993, Leary's sardonic song about the stereotypical American male, \"Asshole\", achieved much notoriety.", "The song was voted No.", "1 in an Australian radio poll and was used in Holsten Pils ads in the UK, with Leary's participation, and with adapted lyrics criticizing a drunk driver.", "The single was a minor hit there, peaking at No.", "58 in the UK Singles Chart in January 1996.In 1995, Leary was asked by Boston Bruins legend Cam Neely to help orchestrate a Boston-based comedy benefit show for Neely's cancer charity; this became Comics Come Home, which Leary has hosted annually ever since.Leary behind Liam Neeson and Ralph Fiennes, 2005Leary has appeared in many films, including ''The Sandlot'' as Scott's stepfather Bill, ''Monument Ave.'', ''The Matchmaker'', ''The Ref'', ''Draft Day'', ''Suicide Kings'', ''Dawg'', ''Wag the Dog'', ''Demolition Man'' (as an Emmanuel Goldstein-esque revolutionary to Nigel Hawthorne's Big Brother), ''Judgment Night'', ''The Thomas Crown Affair'' and ''Operation Dumbo Drop''.", "He had a role in Oliver Stone's ''Natural Born Killers'' that was eventually cut.", "He held the lead role in two television series, ''The Job'' and ''Rescue Me'', and he co-created the latter, in which he played Tommy Gavin, a New York City firefighter dealing with alcoholism, family dysfunction and other issues in post-9/11 New York City.Leary received Emmy Award nominations in 2006 and 2007 for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series for ''Rescue Me'', and in 2008 for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for the HBO movie ''Recount''.", "Leary was offered the role of Dignam in ''The Departed'' (2006) but turned it down because of scheduling conflicts with ''Rescue Me''.", "He provided voices for characters in animated films, such as a fire-breathing dragon named Flame in the series ''The Agents'', a pugnacious ladybug named Francis in ''A Bug's Life'' and a prehistoric saber-toothed tiger named Diego in the ''Ice Age'' film series.", "He has produced numerous movies, television shows, and specials through his production company, Apostle; these include Comedy Central's ''Shorties Watchin' Shorties'', the stand-up special ''Denis Leary's Merry F#$%in' Christmas'' and the movie ''Blow''.", "As a Boston Red Sox fan, Leary narrated the official 2004 World Series film.", "In 2006, Leary and Lenny Clarke appeared on television during a Red Sox telecast and, upon realizing that Red Sox first baseman Kevin Youkilis is Jewish, delivered a criticism of Mel Gibson's antisemitic comments.", "As an ice hockey fan, Leary hosted the National Hockey League video ''NHL's Greatest Goals''.", "In 2003, he was the subject of the ''Comedy Central Roast of Denis Leary''.Leary did the TV voiceover for MLB 2K8 advertisements, using his trademark rant style in baseball terms, and ads for the 2009 Ford F-150 pickup truck.", "He has also appeared in commercials for Hulu and DirecTV's NFL Sunday Ticket package.", "Leary was a producer of the Fox series ''Canterbury's Law'', and wrote and directed its pilot episode.", "''Canterbury's Law'' aired in the spring of 2008 and was canceled after eight episodes.", "On September 9, 2008, Leary hosted the sixth annual ''Fashion Rocks'' event, which aired on CBS.", "In December of the year, he appeared in a video on funnyordie.com critiquing a list of some of his \"best\" films, titled \"Denis Leary Remembers Denis Leary Movies\".", "Also in 2008, Leary voiced a guest role as himself in ''The Simpsons'' episode \"Lost Verizon\".On March 21, 2009, Leary began the Rescue Me Comedy Tour in Atlantic City, New Jersey.", "The 11-date tour, featuring ''Rescue Me'' co-stars Lenny Clarke and Adam Ferrara, was Leary's first stand-up comedy tour in 12 years.", "The Comedy Central special ''Douchebags and Donuts'', filmed during the tour, debuted on American television on January 16, 2011, with a DVD release on January 18, 2011.Denis Leary at the BookExpo America in 2017Leary played Captain George Stacy in the movie ''The Amazing Spider-Man'', released in July 2012.He wrote the American adaptation of ''Sirens''.", "He is an executive producer of the documentary ''Burn'', which chronicles the struggles of the Detroit Fire Department.", "''Burn'' won the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival Audience Award.Leary created a television series for FX called ''Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll'', taking the starring role himself.", "A 10-episode first season was ordered by FX, with the premiere on July 16, 2015.The show ran for two seasons.In 2022, he was cast in the recurring role of Frank Donnelly, an NYPD officer on ''Law & Order: Organized Crime''.Leary has been the narrator for NESN's documentary show about the Boston Bruins called ''Behind the B'' since the show began in 2013." ], [ "Personal life", "Leary and his wife Ann Lembeck at the 2010 Tribeca Film FestivalLeary has been married to author Ann Lembeck Leary since 1989.They met when he was her instructor in an English class at Emerson College.", "They have two children, son John Joseph \"Jack\" (born 1990) and daughter Devin (born 1992).", "Ann Leary published a memoir, ''An Innocent, a Broad'', about the premature birth of their son on a visit to London.", "She has also written a novel, ''Outtakes From a Marriage'', which was published in 2008.Her second novel, ''The Good House'', was published in 2013.Her essay in a New York Times column about her marriage to Denis inspired the ''Modern Love'' series Episode 4: \"Rallying to Keep the Game Alive\".Leary is an ice hockey fan and has a backyard rink at his home in Roxbury, Connecticut, with piping installed under the ice surface to help it stay frozen.", "He is a fan of the Boston Bruins and the Boston Red Sox, as well as the Green Bay Packers.Leary describes himself as a \"Jack Kennedy Democrat\" with some conservative ideologies, including support for the military.", "Leary told Glenn Beck, \"I was a life-long Democrat, but now at my age, I've come to realize that the Democrats suck, and the Republicans suck, and basically the entire system sucks.", "But you have to go within the system to find what you want.", "\"Leary has said of his religious beliefs, \"I'm a lapsed Catholic in the best sense of the word.", "You know, I was raised with Irish parents, Irish immigrant parents.", "My parents, you know, prayed all the time, took us to Mass.", "And my father would sometimes swear in Gaelic.", "It doesn't get more religious than that.", "But, no, after a while, they taught us wrong.", "I didn't raise my kids with the fear of God.", "I raised my kids with the sense of, you know, to me, Jesus was this great guy....\"Leary is godfather to Damian Hurley, the son of actress Liz Hurley." ], [ "Leary Firefighters Foundation", "On December 3, 1999, six firefighters from Leary's hometown of Worcester were killed in the Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire.", "Among the dead were Leary's cousin Jerry Lucey and his close childhood friend, Lt. Tommy Spencer.", "In response, the comedian founded the Leary Firefighters Foundation.", "Since its creation in the year 2000, the foundation has distributed over $2.5 million (USD) to fire departments in the Worcester, Boston and New York City areas for equipment, training materials, new vehicles and new facilities.", "Leary won $125,000 for the foundation on the game show ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire''.", "He had close ties with WAAF, which in 2000 released the station album ''Survive This!''.", "Part of the proceeds from this album were donated to the Leary Firefighters Foundation.", "A separate fund run by Leary's foundation, the Fund for New York's Bravest, has distributed over $2 million to the families of the 343 firemen killed in the September 11 attacks in 2001, in addition to providing funding for necessities such as a new mobile command center, first-responder training, and a high-rise simulator for the New York City Fire Department's training campus.", "As the foundation's president, Leary has been active in all of the fundraising.", "In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, Leary donated over a dozen boats to the New Orleans Fire Department to aid in rescue efforts in future disasters.", "The foundation also rebuilt entire NOLA firehouses." ], [ "Controversies", "===Plagiarism===For many years, Leary had been friends with fellow comedian Bill Hicks.", "But when Leary's comedy album ''No Cure for Cancer'' was released, Leary was accused of stealing Hicks' act and material, ending their friendship abruptly.", "In April 1993, the ''Austin Comedy News'' remarked on the similarities of Leary's performance: \"Watching Leary is like seeing Hicks from two years ago.", "He smokes with the same mannerisms.", "(Hicks recently quit.)", "He sports the same attitude, the same clothes.", "He touches on almost all of the same themes.", "Leary even invokes Jim Fixx.\"", "When asked about this, Hicks told the magazine, \"I have a scoop for you.", "I stole his Leary's act.", "I camouflaged it with punchlines, and to really throw people off, I did it before he did\".At least three stand-up comedians have gone on the record stating they believe Leary stole Hicks' material, comedic persona and attitude.", "One similar routine was about the so-called Judas Priest \"suicide trial,\" during which Hicks says, \"I don't think we lost a cancer cure.", "\"During Leary's 2003 Comedy Central Roast, comedian Lenny Clarke, a friend of Leary's, said there was a carton of cigarettes backstage from Bill Hicks with the message, \"Wish I had gotten these to you sooner.\"", "This joke was cut from the final broadcast.The feud is also mentioned in Cynthia True's biography ''American Scream: The Bill Hicks Story'':According to the book, True said that upon hearing a tape of Leary's album ''No Cure for Cancer'', \"Bill was furious.", "All these years, aside from the occasional jibe, he had pretty much shrugged off Leary's lifting.", "Comedians borrowed, stole stuff and even bought bits from one another.", "Milton Berle and Robin Williams were famous for it.", "This was different.", "Leary had, practically line for line, taken huge chunks of Bill's act and ''recorded'' it.", "\"In a 2008 appearance on ''The Opie and Anthony Show'', comedian Louis C.K.", "claimed Leary stole his \"I'm an asshole\" routine, which was then expanded upon and turned into a hit song by Leary.", "On a later episode of the same show, Leary challenged this assertion by claiming to have co-written the song with Chris Phillips.===Autism===In his 2008 book ''Why We Suck: A Feel Good Guide to Staying Fat, Loud, Lazy and Stupid'', Leary wrote:Leary later stated that the quote was taken out of context and that in that paragraph he had been talking about what he calls the trend of \"unwarranted\" over-diagnosis of autism, which he attributed to American parents seeking an excuse for behavioral problems and under-performance.", "Later, he apologized to parents with autistic children whom he had offended." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1987''Long Walk to Forever''NewtShort film1991''Strictly Business''JakeCameo1993''''Bill''Who's the Man?", "''Sergeant Cooper''Demolition Man''Edgar Friendly''Loaded Weapon 1''Mike McCracken Cameo; performing \"You Really Got Me\"''Judgment Night''Fallon1994''''Gus''Gunmen''Armor O'Malley''Natural Born Killers''Prison InmateDirector's cut; cameo1995''Operation Dumbo Drop''CW3 David Poole''''Frank1996''Underworld''Johnny Crown/Johnny Alt''Two If by Sea''Francis \"Frank\" O'BrienAlso writer1997''Love Walked In''Jack HanawayAlso producer''Wag the Dog''Fad King''Suicide Kings''Lono Veccio''''Doug''''Nick1998''Monument Ave.''Bobby O'Grady a.k.a.", "''Snitch''Also uncredited writer''Wide Awake''Mr.", "Beal''Small Soldiers''Gil Mars''A Bug's Life''Francis (voice)1999''True Crime''Bob Findley''Jesus' Son''Wayne''Do Not Disturb''Simon''''Det.", "Michael McCann2000''Sand''Teddy''Lakeboat''The Fireman''Company Man''Officer Fry2001''Double Whammy''Det.", "Raymond PlutoAlso uncredited producer''Final''Billperforming \"Little Sister\"''Blow'' Producer2002''Dawg''Douglas \"Dawg\" Munforda.k.a.", "''Bad Boy''''Ice Age''Diego (voice)Nominated – Kids' Choice Award for Favourite Voice from an Animated Movie''''Slater2003''When Stand Up Stood Out''HimselfDocumentary''''''Reverse of the Curse of the Bambino''Documentary (sequel)2006''Ice Age: The Meltdown''Diego (voice)2009''Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs''2012''''George Stacy''Ice Age: Continental Drift''Diego (voice)2014''Draft Day''Coach Penn''The Amazing Spider-Man 2''George Stacy2015''Freaks of Nature''Rick Wilson2016''Ice Age: Collision Course''Diego (voice)2023''Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse''George StacyArchival footage from ''The Amazing Spider-Man''===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1980''Lenny Clarke's Late Show''VariousSeries regular1987–1990''Remote Control''Various rolesAll episodes1990''Afterdrive''HimselfTalk show''Rascals Comedy Hour''Stand Up1994–1995''Mike & Spike''Charles S. Baby3 episodes1995''National Lampoon's Favorite Deadly Sins''JakeTelevision film, also directed segment \"Lust\"1996''''Vinnie FrankoTelevision film1997''Subway Stories''Guy in wheelchairTelevision film, segment \"The Red Shoes\"1998''''HimselfEpisode dated April 24, 1998''Fantasy World Cup''Episode #1.15''Space Ghost Coast to Coast''Episode: \"Waiting for Edward\"2001–2002''''Guest in two episodes''''Mike McNeilAlso writer and producerAll episodes2002''Contest Searchlight''Fictionalized version of himselfAll episodes''Crank Yankers''Joe Smith (voice)Episode: 1.22004–2011''Rescue Me''Tommy Gavin93 episodes; nominated for Golden Globe and Emmyalso creator, producer and writer2006–2014''The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson''Himself12 episodes2008''The Simpsons''Himself (voice)Episode: \"Lost Verizon\"''Recount''Michael WhouleyTelevision film2011''Ice Age: A Mammoth Christmas''Diego (voice)TV special2013''Maron''Himself1 episode – \"Dead Possum\"2015''Benders'' Producer2015–2016''Sex & Drugs & Rock & Roll''Johnny Rock2 seasons (20 episodes)Also creator, producer, writer and director2016''The Late Late Show with James Corden''Bill Clinton''Ice Age: The Great Egg-Scapade''Diego (voice)TV special2018–2019, 2022''Animal Kingdom''BillyRecurring role (season 3) Guest role (Season 4, 6)2019''Family Guy''Body Shop Owner (voice)Episode: \"Girl, Internetted\"2019–2021''The Moodys''Sean Moody Sr.Main role 2022''Law & Order: Organized Crime''Frank DonnellyRecurring role===Video games=== Year Title Role Notes2006''Ice Age 2: The Meltdown''Diego 2012 ''Ice Age: Continental Drift – Arctic Games'' 2013 ''Ice Age Village''Mobile game 2015 ''Ice Age Avalanche''" ], [ "Discography", "===Albums===* ''No Cure for Cancer'' (1993)* ''Lock 'n Load'' (1997)* ''Merry F#%$in' Christmas'' (2004)===Singles===* \"Asshole\" (1993)* \"At the Rehab\" (2009)* \"Douchebag\" (2011)* \"Kiss My Ass\" (2012)" ], [ "Bibliography", "* 1992: ''No Cure for Cancer'', Anchor Books * 2007: ''Rescue Me: Uncensored: The Official Companion'', Newmarket Press * 2008: ''Why We Suck: A Feel Good Guide to Staying Fat, Loud, Lazy and Stupid'', Viking * 2010: ''Suck on This Year: LYFAO @ 140 Characters or Less'', Viking * 2012: ''Denis Leary's Merry F#%$in' Christmas'', Running Press * 2017: ''Why We Don't Suck: And How All of Us Need to Stop Being Such Partisan Little Bitches'', Crown Archetype" ], [ "Awards", " Year Result Award Category Film/Show2009Golden Globe AwardsBest Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television''Recount'' (2008)2008Emmy AwardsOutstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie''Recount'' (2008)2007Emmy AwardsOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series''Rescue Me''Satellite AwardsBest Actor in a Series, Drama''Rescue Me''Prism AwardsPerformance in a Drama Series, Multi-Episode Storyline''Rescue Me''2006Emmy AwardsOutstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series''Rescue Me''Satellite AwardsBest Actor in a Series, Drama''Rescue Me''Prism AwardsPerformance in a Drama Series, Multi-Episode Storyline''Rescue Me''2005Emmy AwardsOutstanding Writing for a Drama Series''Rescue Me''Golden Globe AwardsBest Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Drama''Rescue Me''Satellite AwardsBest Actor in a Series, Drama''Rescue Me''2003Kids' Choice AwardsFavorite Voice from an Animated Movie''Ice Age''DVD Exclusive AwardsBest Actor''Double Whammy'' (2001)2002Television Critics Association AwardsIndividual Achievement in Comedy''The Job''2000Blockbuster Entertainment AwardsFavorite Supporting Actor – Drama/Romance''The Thomas Crown Affair'' (1999)1996CableACE AwardsBest Directing: Comedy''National Lampoon's Favorite Deadly Sins'' (1995)1992Edinburgh International Arts FestivalCritic's Award''No Cure for Cancer'' (1992)BBC FestivalRecommendation Award''No Cure for Cancer'' (1992)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Recreational use of dextromethorphan" ], [ "Introduction", " Cough medicine containing dextromethorphan in gel cap form'''Dextromethorphan''', or '''DXM''', a common active ingredient found in many over-the-counter cough suppressant cold medicines, is used as a recreational drug and entheogen for its dissociative effects.", "It has almost no psychoactive effects at medically recommended doses.", "However, dextromethorphan has powerful dissociative properties when administered in doses well above those considered therapeutic for cough suppression.", "Recreational use of DXM is sometimes referred to in slang form as \"robo-tripping\", whose prefix derives from the Robitussin brand name, or \"Triple Cs\", which derives from the Coricidin brand whose tablets are printed with \"CC+C\" for \"Coricidin Cough and Cold\".", "However, this brand presents additional danger when used at recreational doses due to the presence of chlorpheniramine.In over-the-counter formulations, DXM is often combined with acetaminophen (paracetamol, APAP) to relieve pain; however, to achieve DXM's dissociative effects, the maximum daily therapeutic dose of 4000 mg of APAP is often exceeded, potentially causing acute or chronic liver failure, making abuse and subsequent tolerance of products which contain both DXM and APAP potentially fatal.An online essay first published in 1995 entitled \"The DXM FAQ\" described dextromethorphan's potential for recreational use, and classified its effects into so-called plateaus.", "Each plateau is categorized depending on how much MG of DXM is ingested, each featuring varying or more intense effects.", "The defined number of plateaus vary depending on source, but the generally agreed-upon number is 4 or 5.Owing to its recreational use, many retailers in the US have moved dextromethorphan-containing products behind the counter so that one must ask a pharmacist to receive them or be 18 years (19 in New York and Alabama, 21 in Mississippi) or older to purchase them.", "Some retailers also give out printed recommendations about the potential for abuse with the purchase of products containing dextromethorphan." ], [ "Classification", "At high doses, dextromethorphan is classified as a dissociative general anesthetic and hallucinogen, similar to the controlled substances ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP).", "Also like those drugs, dextromethorphan is an NMDA receptor antagonist.", "It generally does not produce withdrawal symptoms characteristic of physical dependence-inducing substances, but cases of both psychological dependence and physical dependence have been reported in the past, although physical dependence is usually only seen in cases of heavy abuse.", "Due to dextromethorphan's selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-like action, the sudden cessation of recreational dosing in tolerant individuals can result in mental and physical withdrawal symptoms similar to the withdrawal from SSRIs.", "These withdrawal effects can manifest as psychological effects, including depression, irritability, cravings, and as physical effects, including lethargy, body aches, and a sensation of unpleasant tingling, not unlike a mild \"electric shock\"." ], [ "Effects", "Dextromethorphan's effects have been divided into four plateaus.#The first plateau (1.5 to 2.5 mg per kg body weight) is described as having euphoria, auditory changes, and change in perception of gravity.#The second plateau (2.5 to 7.5 mg/kg) causes intense euphoria, vivid imagination, and closed-eye hallucinations.#The third and fourth plateaus (7.5 mg/kg and over) cause profound alterations in consciousness, and users often report out-of-body experiences or temporary psychosis.", "This results in a sort of flanging (speeding up and/or slowing down) of sensory input, which is another characteristic effect of recreational use.Also, a marked difference is seen between dextromethorphan hydrobromide, contained in most cough suppressant preparations, and dextromethorphan polistirex, contained in the brand name preparation Delsym.", "Polistirex is a polymer that is bonded to the dextromethorphan that requires more time for the stomach to digest it, as it requires that an ion exchange reaction take place prior to its dissolution into the blood.", "Because of this, dextromethorphan polistirex takes considerably longer to absorb, resulting in more gradual and longer lasting effects reminiscent of time-release pills.", "As a cough suppressant, the polistirex version lasts up to 12 hours.", "This duration also holds true when used recreationally.In 1981, a paper by Gosselin estimated that the lethal dose is between 50 and 500 mg/kg.", "Doses as high as 15–20 mg/kg are taken by some recreational users.", "A single case study suggests that the antidote to dextromethorphan overdose is naloxone, administered intravenously.In addition to producing PCP-like mental effects, high doses may cause a false-positive result for PCP and opiates in some drug tests." ], [ "Risks associated with use", "Dextromethorphan has not been shown to cause vacuolization in animals, also known as Olney's lesions, despite early speculation that it might, due to similarities with ketamine.", "In rats, oral administration of dextromethorphan did not cause vacuolization in laboratory tests.", "Oral administration of dextromethorphan repeatedly during adolescence, however, has been shown to impair learning in those rats during adulthood.", "The occurrence of Olney's lesions in humans, however, has not been proven or disproven.William E. White, author of the \"DXM FAQ\", has compiled informal research from correspondence with dextromethorphan users suggesting that heavy abuse may result in various deficits corresponding to the brain areas affected by Olney's lesions; these include loss of episodic memory, decline in ability to learn, abnormalities in some aspects of visual processing, and deficits of abstract language comprehension.", "In 2004, however, White retracted the article in which he made these claims.A formal survey of dextromethorphan users showed that more than half of users reported experience of these withdrawal symptoms individually for the first week after long-term/addictive dextromethorphan use: fatigue, apathy, flashbacks, and constipation.", "Over a quarter reported insomnia, nightmares, anhedonia, impaired memory, attention deficit, and decreased libido.", "Rarer side effects included panic attacks, impaired learning, tremor, jaundice, urticaria (hives), and myalgia.", "Medical DXM use has not been shown to cause the above issues.Misuse of multisymptom cold medications, rather than using a cough suppressant whose sole active ingredient is dextromethorphan, carries significant risk of fatality or serious illness.", "Multisymptom cold medicines contain other active ingredients, such as paracetamol (acetaminophen), chlorpheniramine, and phenylephrine, any of which can cause permanent bodily damage such as kidney failure, or even death, if taken on the generally accepted recreational dosing scale of dextromethorphan.", "Sorbitol, an artificial sweetener found in many cough syrups containing dextromethorphan, can also have negative side effects, including diarrhea and nausea when taken at recreational dosages of dextromethorphan.", "Guaifenesin, an expectorant commonly accompanying dextromethorphan in cough preparations, can cause unpleasant symptoms including vomiting, nausea, kidney stones, and headache.Combining dextromethorphan with other substances can compound risks.", "Central nervous system (CNS) stimulants such as amphetamine and/or cocaine can cause a dangerous rise in blood pressure and heart rate.", "CNS depressants such as ethanol (drinking alcohol) will have a combined depressant effect, which can cause a decreased respiratory rate.", "Combining dextromethorphan with other CYP2D6 substrates can cause both drugs to build to dangerous levels in the bloodstream.", "Combining dextromethorphan with other serotonergic drugs could possibly cause serotonin syndrome, an excess of serotonergic activity in the CNS and peripheral nervous system." ], [ "Pharmacology", "Dextromethorphan is primarily a sigma receptor agonist and an SNRI, and dextromethorphan's effects as a dissociative hallucinogen may be attributed partially to dextrorphan (DXO), a metabolite produced when dextromethorphan is metabolized by the body.", "Both dextrorphan and dextromethorphan are NMDA receptor antagonists, alike other dissociative hallucinogens such as ketamine and PCP.", "Although dextrorphan is more potent than its \"parent molecule\" dextromethorphan, it likely works in combination with dextromethorphan to produce hallucinogenic effects due to only a small percentage of dextromethorphan being metabolized into dextrorphan.As NMDA receptor antagonists, dextrorphan and dextromethorphan inhibit the excitatory amino acid and neurotransmitter glutamate in the brain.", "This can effectively slow, or even shut down certain neural pathways, preventing areas of the brain from communicating with each other.", "This leaves the user feeling dissociated or disconnected, experienced as brain fog or derealization." ], [ "Legality", "Antitussive preparations containing dextromethorphan are legal to purchase from pharmacies in most countries, with some exceptions being UAE, France, Sweden, Estonia, and Latvia.", "In Russia, dextromethorphan (commonly sold under the brand names Tussin+ and Glycodin) is a Schedule III controlled substance and is placed in the same list as benzodiazepines and the majority of barbiturates.=== China ===Due to potential abuse, the National Medical Products Administration reclassified all oral single-component dextromethorphan to prescription drugs in December 2021.The authorities also mandated manufacturers to remove statements like \"no addiction or tolerance with long-term use\" from their instructions.", "Despite the online sales ban, the drug can still be found on some niche e-commerce platforms in China and Twitter.===Indonesia===After previously being available over the counter, the National Agency of Drug and Food Control of Republic of Indonesia (BPOM-RI) now prohibits single-component dextromethorphan drug sales with or without prescription.", "Indonesia is the only country in the world that makes single-component dextromethorphan illegal even by prescription and violators may be prosecuted by law.", "Indonesian National Narcotic Bureau has even threatened to revoke pharmacies' and drug stores' licenses if they still stock dextromethorphan, and will notify the police for criminal prosecution.", "As a result of this regulation, 130 drugs have been withdrawn from the market, but drugs containing multicomponent dextromethorphan can be sold over the counter.", "In its official press release, the bureau also stated that dextromethorphan is often used as a substitute for marijuana, amphetamine, and heroin by drug abusers, and its use as an antitussive is less beneficial nowadays.The Director of Narcotics, Psychotropics, and Addictive Substances Control (NAPZA) BPOM-RI, Dr. Danardi Sosrosumihardjo, SpKJ, explains that dextromethorphan, morphine, and heroin are derived from the same tree, and states the effect of dextromethorphan to be equivalent to 1/100 of morphine and injected heroin.By contrast, the Deputy of Therapeutic Product and NAPZA Supervision BPOM-RI, Dra.", "Antonia Retno Tyas Utami, Apt.", "MEpid., states that dextromethorphan, being chemically similar to morphine, has a much more dangerous and direct effect to the central nervous system, thus causing mental breakdown in the user.", "She also claimed, without citing any prior scientific study or review, that unlike morphine users, dextromethorphan users cannot be rehabilitated.", "This claim is contradicted by numerous scientific studies which show that naloxone alone offers effective treatment and promising therapy results in treating dextromethorphan addiction and poisoning.", "Dra.", "Antonia Retno Tyas Utami also claimed high rates of dextromethorphan abuse - including fatalities - in Indonesia, and even more questionable, suggested that codeine, despite being a more physically addictive µ-opioid class antitussive, be made available as an alternative to dextromethorphan.=== United States ===No legal distinction currently exists in the United States between medical and recreational use, sale, or purchase.", "Some states and store chains have implemented restrictions, such as requiring signatures for DXM sale, limiting quantities allowable for purchase, and requiring that purchasers be over the age of majority in their state.", "The sale of dextromethorphan in its pure powder form may incur penalties, although no explicit law exists prohibiting its sale or possession, other than in Illinois.", "Cases of individuals being sentenced to time in prison and other penalties for selling pure dextromethorphan in this form have been reported, because of the incidental violation of more general laws for the sale of legitimate drugs – such as resale of a medication without proper warning labels.Dextromethorphan was excluded from the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) of 1970 and was specifically excluded from the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.", "As of 2010, it was still excluded from U.S.", "Schedules of Controlled Substances; however, officials have warned that it could still be added if increased abuse warrants its scheduling.", "The motivation behind its exclusion from the CSA was that under the CSA, all optical isomers of listed Schedule II opiates are automatically Schedule II substances.", "Since dextromethorphan is an optical isomer of the Schedule II opiate levomethorphan (but does not act like an opiate), an exemption was necessary to keep it an uncontrolled substance.", "The Federal Analog Act does not apply to dextromethorphan because a new drug application has been filed for it." ], [ "See also", "* Dissociative drug** Nitrous oxide* NMDA receptor antagonist* Psychedelic drug* Purple drank* Sigma agonist" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dextroverse* //www.erowid.org/chemicals/dxm/dxm_article1.shtml The Electric Cough-Syrup Acid Test by Jim Hogshire from Harper's* //www.erowid.org/chemicals/dxm/dxm.shtml Erowid Dextromethorphan Vault" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dryope" ], [ "Introduction", "In Greek mythology, '''Dryope''' (; Ancient Greek: Δρυόπη derived from δρῦς ''drys'', \"oak\"; ''dryope'' \"woodpecker\") is the name attributed to several distinct figures:*Dryope, daughter of Dryops and mother of Amphissus by Apollo.", "* Dryope, mother of Tarquitus by Faunus, the god of the woods.", "Tarquitus was slain by Aeneas.", "* Dryope, a nymph responsible for kidnapping Hylas, which she did in accord with Hera's will.", "Her name may have to do with the fact that Hylas was the son of Theiodamas, the king of the Dryopes.", "* Dryope, a Theban woman of Phoenician origin, mother of Chromis.", "She joined the Maenads disregarding her pregnancy, and went into labor when she was dragging a sacrificial bull by the horns.", "* Dryope, a Lemnian.", "* Dryope, mother of the Oenotropae by Anius." ], [ "See also", "* Dryopia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Gaius Valerius Flaccus, ''Argonautica'' translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volume 286.Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.Online version at theio.com.", "*Gaius Valerius Flaccus, ''Argonauticon.''", "Otto Kramer.", "Leipzig.", "Teubner.", "1913.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Graves, Robert, (1955) 1960.", "''The Greek Myths''.", "21.j; 26.5; 56.2; 150.b, 1.", "* * Kerenyi, Karl.", "1951.", "''The Gods of the Greeks'' 141, 173.", "* *Publius Papinius Statius'', The Thebaid'' translated by John Henry Mozley.", "Loeb Classical Library Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928.Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "*Publius Papinius Statius, ''The Thebaid.", "Vol I-II''.", "John Henry Mozley.", "London: William Heinemann; New York: G.P.", "Putnam's Sons.", "1928.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Publius Vergilius Maro, ''Aeneid.''", "Theodore C. Williams.", "trans.", "Boston.", "Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "*Publius Vergilius Maro, ''Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics''.", "J.", "B. Greenough.", "Boston.", "Ginn & Co. 1900.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873).", "\"Dry'ope\"* ''Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft'', Band V, Halbband 10, Donatio-Ephoroi (1905), s. 1746" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Doctor (title)" ], [ "Introduction", "Former Vassar College president Catharine Bond Hill wearing doctoral robes.", "She has a doctorate and can thus carry the title of \"Doctor\".", "'''Doctor''' is an academic title that originates from the Latin word of the same spelling and meaning.", "The word is originally an agentive noun of the Latin verb 'to teach'.", "It has been used as an academic title in Europe since the 13th century, when the first doctorates were awarded at the University of Bologna and the University of Paris.Having become established in European universities, this usage spread around the world.", "Contracted \"Dr\" or \"Dr.\", it is used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate (commonly a PhD/DPhil).", "In past usage, the term could be applied to any learned person.", "In many parts of the world today it is also used by medical practitioners, regardless of whether they hold a doctoral-level degree." ], [ "Origins", "An Ancient Greek Marble Consecration Relief to a Heroic Doctor The doctorate () appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach () at a medieval university.", "Its roots can be traced to the early church, when the term \"doctor\" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible.", "The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an Oath of allegiance and pay a fee.", "The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access — now largely free of charge — of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.", "This right remained a bone of contention between church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213, when it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubiquie docendi'').", "However, while the licentia continued to hold more prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was eventually positioned below the Magister and the doctorate, which became the only titles with which one could teach.The earliest doctoral degrees — in theology, law, and medicine — reflected the historical separation of university study into these three fields.", "Over time, the Doctor of Divinity has become less common, whereas studies in law and medicine have become more common.", "These areas were historically referred to as \"philosophy\" (used as a general term for academic studies, not the specific academic discipline of philosophy), but are now classified as humanities and sciences, respectively.", "The historical usage survives in the degree of Doctor of Philosophy).The Doctor of Philosophy was originally a degree granted by a university to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy (in the broad sense of the term, meaning the pursuit of knowledge).", "The appellation \"Doctor\" (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in middle age.", "It indicated a life dedicated to learning, knowledge, and the spread of knowledge.", "The PhD entered widespread use in the 19th century at Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the sciences or humanities.", "Prior to the formal degree, the contemporary doctorate (PhD), arguably, arose in Leipzig as a successor to the Master's degree in 1652 (Dr. habil).In some European countries, such as Italy and Portugal, \"Doctor\" became a title given to all or most degree holders, not just those with doctorates.As a result, the title is now used by many professionals in these countries, including those such as lawyers who are not normally granted the title elsewhere.", "The title is also used for lawyers in South America, where they have traditionally earned doctoral degrees, as well as in the former Portuguese territories of Goa in India and Macau in China.===Development in English-speaking countries===The primary meaning of ''Doctor'' in English has historically been with reference to the holder of a doctoral degree.", "These particularly referred to the ancient faculties of divinity, law and medicine, sometimes with the addition of music, which were the only doctoral degrees offered until the 19th century.", "During the 19th century, PhDs became increasingly common in Britain, although to obtain the degree it was necessary to travel to continental Europe or (from 1861) to the United States, as the degree was not awarded in the UK until 1917.However, the title, not being protected by law, was adopted by quacks.", "As a result, by the mid 19th century, it was normal in the UK to omit the title \"Dr\" when addressing letters to those holding doctoral degrees, and instead write the abbreviated form of the degree after the name, e.g., \"The Reverend Robert Phelps, D.D.", "\", \"Thomas Elliotson, Esq.", "M.D.", "\", or \"John Lindsey, Esq.", "Ph.D.\", in order to avoid classing academic doctors \"with the village apothecary and the farrier\" and various \"quacks in literature, science, or art\".", "In the US it similarly became customary to use post-nominals rather than the title of Doctor when addressing letters.", "All those with doctoral degrees continued to use the title professionally and socially.Despite being historically associated with doctorates in law, the title of ''doctor'' for lawyers has not customarily been used in English-speaking countries, where lawyers were traditionally not required to have a university degree and were trained by other lawyers by apprenticeship or in the Inns of Court.", "The exception being those areas where, up to the 19th century, civil law rather than common law was the governing tradition, including admiralty law, probate and ecclesiastical law: such cases were heard in the Doctor's Commons, and argued by advocates who held degrees either of doctor of civil law at Oxford or doctor of law at Cambridge.", "As such, lawyers practicing common law in England were not doctoral candidates and had not earned a doctorate.", "When university degrees became more common for those wanting to qualify as a lawyer in England, the degree awarded was the Bachelor of Laws (LLB).", "Similarly in the US, even though degrees became standard for lawyers much earlier, the degree was again the LLB, only becoming the Juris Doctor (JD) generally in the latter half of the 20th century.In many English-speaking countries, it is common to refer to physicians by the title of doctor, even when they do not hold a doctoral level qualification.", "The word ''Doctor'' has long had a secondary meaning in English of physician, e.g., in Johnson's Dictionary, which quotes its use with this meaning by Shakespeare.", "In the US, the medical societies established the proprietary medical colleges in the 19th century to award their own MDs, but in the UK and the British Empire, where degree granting was strictly controlled, this was not an option.", "The usage of the title to refer to medical practitioners, even when they didn't hold doctoral degrees, was common by the mid 18th century.", "However, the first official recognition of Doctor being applied as a title to medical practitioners regardless of whether they held a doctoral degree was in 1838, when the Royal College of Physicians resolved that it would \"regard in the same light, and address by the same appellation, all who have obtained its diploma, whether they have graduated elsewhere or not.", "\"The Medical Act 1858 made it illegal for anyone not qualified in medicine to use a title that implied they were.", "This led to prosecutions of people making unauthorised use of the title \"Dr\".", "However, it also called into question the use of the title by licentiates of the Colleges of Physicians – all of whom were, under the new act, allowed to practice throughout the UK.", "In 1859, the London College reversed its earlier decision, resolving \"That the title of Doctor shall not be given in any official document issued from this College to any person who is not possessed of the Degree of Doctor of Medicine\".", "This was followed up in 1860 by new bylaws that stated \"No Fellow, Member, or Licentiate of the College shall assume the title of Doctor of Medicine, or use any other name, title, designation or distinction implying that he is a Graduate in Medicine of an University, unless he be a Graduate in Medicine of an University\".", "In Ireland, the question of whether the license of the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland granted the title of Doctor of Medicine led to a court case in 1861, with the conclusion that it did not.", "The ''British Medical Journal'' (''BMJ'') observed, however, that anyone wanting the right to the title of \"Doctor\" could gain it \"with a five-shilling degree of Doctor of Philosophy\" from abroad, or could simply assume the title, as only \"Doctor of Medicine\" was actually protected.", "Debate continued as to the use of \"Doctor\" as a courtesy title by those who did not use it by right as holders of doctoral degrees, with the ''BMJ'' noting in 1876 that \"We have again a sort of flood of letters for and against the use of the title of Doctor by physicians\" and in 1882 that \"There is not any other subject which appears to excite so wide spread an interest as this\".", "In February 1876, a report recommended that the Royal College of Physicians should use the courtesy title of Doctor for all fellows and members, but this was rejected.", "Then in April of the same year, the college amended its bylaws to forbid any fellow, member, extra-licentiate or licentiate from using the title of Doctor unless they had a doctorate in medicine from a recognised university – closing the loophole the ''BMJ'' had identified.", "It was not until the early 20th century that this was reversed.", "In 1905 the Royal College of Surgeons passed a motion instructing their council \"to take the necessary steps in conjunction with the Royal College of Physicians to ensure that all persons who pass the Conjoint examination shall be legally entitled to call themselves Doctors\".", "The council of the surgeons' College felt it to be impractical to secure the legal right to the title as this would mean gaining the right to award MDs, but noted that the title had been used by the public to refer to medics for generations and was used without any legal right by Bachelors of Medicine – the only obstacle to licentiates of both colleges doing the same was the prohibition in the physicians' bylaws.", "On this occasion the College of Physicians refused to act, but they did finally relent in 1912, removing the clause forbidding the assumption of the title of Doctor.", "This was described in the American press as \"the British apostles of red-tape have been forced to bow to the popular will\".Regulation of the medical profession also took place in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century, preventing quacks from using the title of Doctor.", "However, medical usage of the title was far from exclusive, with it being acknowledged that other doctorate holders could use the title and that dentists and veterinarians frequently did.", "''The Etiquette of To-day'', published in 1913, recommended addressing letters to physicians \"(full name), M.D.\"", "and those to other people holding doctorates \"Dr. (full name)\", although both were \"Dr.\" in the salutation and only physicians were explicitly said to include their title on their visiting card.", "By the 1920s there were a great variety of doctorates in the US, many of them taking entrants directly from high school, and ranging from the Doctor of Chiropractic (DC), which (at the time) required only two or three years of college-level education, up to the PhD.", "All doctoral degree holders, with the exception of the JD, were customarily addressed as \"Doctor\", but the title was also regularly used, without doctoral degrees, by pharmacists, ministers of religion, teachers and chiropodists, and sometimes by other professions such as beauty practitioners, patent medicine manufacturers, etc.By the 1940s, the widespread usage of the title in the US was under threat.", "A 1944 article claimed that \"the Ph.D. has immediate and far-reaching value of social as well as economic nature\" due to America's \"national fondness for the tinsel of titles\", but went on to note that some universities were moving away from using the title, concluding that \"it is ungracious in most environments not to render unto the Doctor of Philosophy his 'Doctor' title\".", "The same writer noted in a letter to the ''Journal of Higher Education'' in 1948 that Alfred University had banned the use of the title for faculty (while retaining it for the president and deans) \"in a strange move professedly designed to uphold and promote 'democracy' and 'Americanism.", "However, it was noted in 1959 that professors with PhDs were now generally addressed as \"Doctor\", with the title of \"Professor\" sometimes being substituted for those without doctorates, leading to a decline in the perceived value of that title.In the 1960s the inconsistent usage at American universities and colleges was mentioned in the ''New York Times Book Review'' and the editor of ''Science'' noted that: \"In some universities, administrators call all Ph.D.'s 'Mister,' but students and colleagues call them 'Doctor.'", "Often, but not always, Ph.D.'s are 'Misters' socially.", "In industry and government, both socially and professionally, they are 'Doctors,' as they are also in the pages of the ''New Yorker'', ''Time'', the ''Saturday Review'', and the New York ''Times''.\"", "In 1965, the League of Women Voters designated medical doctors \"Dr.\" and PhDs \"Mr.\" at a hustings in Princeton, leading to a letter of protest in ''Science''; it was reported that the League believed PhDs would be embarrassed by the title, and that etiquette writers differed in whether PhDs used the title.", "In 1970, reverse snobbism in the face of the rising number of \"discount doctorates\" was linked to professors at prestigious universities wanting to be called \"mister\".In the late 1960s the rising number of American law schools awarding Juris Doctor (JD) degrees led to debate over whether lawyers could ethically use the title \"Doctor\".", "Initial informal ethics opinions, based on the Canons of Professional Ethics then in force, came down against this.", "These were then reinforced with a full ethics opinion that maintained the ban on using the title in legal practice as a form of self-laudation (except when dealing with countries where the use of \"Doctor\" by lawyers was standard practice), but allowed the use of the title in academia \"if the school of graduation thinks of the J.D.", "degree as a doctor's degree\".", "These opinions led to further debate.", "The introduction of the new Code of Professional Responsibility in 1969 seemed to settle the question – in states where this was adopted – in favour of allowing the use of the title.", "There was some dispute over whether only the PhD-level Doctor of Juridical Science should properly be seen as granting the title, but ethics opinions made it clear that the new Code allowed JD-holders to be called \"Doctor\", while reaffirming that the older Canons did not.", "As not all state bars adopted the new Code, and some omitted the clause permitting the use of the title, confusion over whether lawyers could ethically use the title \"Doctor\" continued.", "The introduction of further professional doctorates in the US at ISCED level 7, the same as the MD and JD, has led to continuing debate about the use of the title by holders of such degrees, particularly in medical contexts.In 2018, a decision by ''The Globe and Mail'' newspaper in Canada to update its style guide so as to restrict the use of the title Doctor to medics led to a backlash on Twitter, particularly by women with PhDs, using the #ImmodestWomen hashtag.", "This was widely reported on internationally and led to ''The Globe and Mail'' reverting to its earlier style of using Doctor for both physicians and PhD holders.", "The Canadian University of Calgary also announced that it would adopt the use of Doctor for those with doctoral degrees, breaking with the style recommended by the Canadian Press." ], [ "Doctor as a noun", "Throughout much of the academic world, the term ''Doctor'' refers to someone who has earned a doctoral degree (highest degree) from a university.", "This is normally the Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated PhD (sometimes Ph.D. in North America) from the Latin ''Philosophiae Doctor'' or DPhil from its English name, or equivalent research doctorates at level 8 of the International Standard Classification of Education 2011 classifications (ISCED 2011) or level 6 of the ISCED 1997 classifications.", "Beyond academia (but specifically in the anglophone world, Italy, and France), ''Doctor'' as a noun normally refers to a medical practitioner, who would usually hold a qualification at level 7 of ISCED 2011/level 5 of ISCED 1997 such as the British MBBS or the American MD or DO." ], [ "Forms of address", "When addressing several people, each of whom holds a doctoral title, one may use the plural contraction \"Drs\" (or \"Drs.\"", "in American English) – or in some languages (for example, German) \"Dres.\"", "(from the Latin doctores) may be used – for example, instead of Dr. Miller and Dr. Rubinstein: Drs.", "Miller and Rubinstein.", "When referring to relatives with the same surname the form \"The Doctors Smith\" can be used.", "The abbreviation Drs.", "can also refer to doctorandus, a Dutch academic title that was replaced with the master title with the introduction of the master system.In English, Dr is not usually combined with other titles, except for The Reverend in \"The Revd Dr\" before the surname of a minister of religion, e.g., \"The Revd Dr Smith\" or \"The Revd John Smith, DD\", and similarly \"Rabbi Dr\".", "In Caribbean English, the usage \"Dr. the Honourable\" is common for politicians holding doctoral degrees.", "Usage in many other languages is similar to English but some, notably German, allow for the stacking of titles." ], [ "Usage by medical practitioners in the UK and culturally-related countries", "In the United Kingdom, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Trinidad and Tobago, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Ghana, and other countries whose cultures were recently linked to the UK, the title ''Dr'' is generally used both for those who hold doctoral degrees and for registered medical practitioners.", "History has dictated the use of the courtesy title ''Dr'' by physicians and general practitioners.", "However, surgeons do not use the title of ''Dr'' and, due to the origins of surgery with the barber surgeons, instead use ''Mr, Mrs, Ms, Miss'', etc.", "This custom applies to surgeons of any grade who have passed the appropriate exams and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons.", "In recent times, other surgically orientated specialists, such as gynaecologists, have also adopted these prefixes.", "A surgeon who is also a professor is usually known as \"Professor\" and, similarly, a surgeon who has been ennobled, knighted, created a baronet or appointed a dame uses the corresponding title (Lord, Sir, Dame).", "Physicians, on the other hand, when they pass their \"MRCP(UK)\" examinations, or equivalent, do not drop ''Dr'' but retain it, even as consultants.", "The status and rank of consultant surgeons, addressed as \"Mister\" or \"Ms.\", and consultant physicians, addressed as \"Doctor\", is equivalent." ], [ "Worldwide usage", "A doctor receiving her PhD degree during a graduation ceremony.===Asia=======Bangladesh====In Bangladesh, use of the title of Doctor (Dr.) is permitted for PhD degree holders and registered medical practitioners.", "According to an amendment, universities are allowed to approve or reject any subject proposed for a thesis by a candidate for the degree of \"Doctor\" in any subject.", "For registered medical practitioners, only MBBS and BDS degree holders are allowed to use the title \"Dr.\" and be called \"Medical Doctors\".", "Registered veterinary practitioners may use the title \"Dr.\" after earning the \"Doctor of Veterinary Medicine\" (DVM) degree.", "However, Registered Homeopath practitioners also use the title \"Dr.\" even though, according to Homeopathic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, they are only permitted to use \"Homeopath\".", "Currently, Physiotherapy has no separate council and no authorized act at present permits the use of the prefix \"Dr.\" for physiotherapist.", "According to Bangladesh Unani & Ayurvedic Practitioners Ordinance 1983, practitioners of the Unani system are called \"Tabib\" or \"Hakim\" and are strictly prohibited from using the title \"Dr.\"; similarly, practitioners of Ayurvedic system are called \"Vaid\" or \"Kabiraj\" and are also strictly prohibited from using \"Dr.\".", "Currently, medical practitioners having MBBS degree or dental surgeons having BDS are legally permitted to use \"Dr.\" prefix.", "Using \"Dr.\" for other medical practitioners remains controversial.==== Hong Kong ====Hong Kong follows British practice in calling physicians \"Doctor\" even though many of them hold only a degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS or MBChB).", "An attempt by their professional body to prevent chiropractors from calling themselves \"Doctor\" failed in the courts, in part because it was pointed out that practicing chiropractors may hold an academic doctorate in their discipline, and it would be anomalous to prevent them using the title when holders of doctorates in non-medical disciplines faced no such restriction.====India====In India, the title is used by qualified professional medical practitioners in the fields of allopathic medicine (MBBS), and dentistry(BDS) as well as by other practitioners like Siddha (BSMS), Yoga and Naturopathy (BNYS), Ayurveda (BAMS), Unani (BUMS) and Homeopathy(BHMS), Veterinarians (BVSc) and holders of doctoral degrees, including PhDs and pharmacists with PharmDs.", "Physiotherapists (BPT) use 'Doctor' as a suffix accompanied by the prefix PT.", "The usage by pharmacists is legally disputed, while the Supreme Court of India has ruled against the use of the title as a prefix by physiotherapists.====Indonesia====The Indonesian titles \"dr.\" is used in front of the name of medical doctor who holds a specification as general practitioner, also when the doctor already holds his specialization to ___, such as \"Sp.THT\" or \"Spesialis Telinga, Hidung, Tenggorokan\" (ENT or Ear, Nose, and Throat Specialist).Dr.", "is used in front of the name as the title \"Doktor\" for doctorate title, the same level as PhD title.====Pakistan====In Pakistan, the title of Doctor (Dr.) can be used by PhD degree holders as well as medical, dental, optometry and veterinary doctors with MBBS, BDS, OD and DVM degrees respectively.", "Usage by physiotherapists DPT degree respectively is disputed, with the Pakistan Medical and Dental Council saying they should not use the title, but the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan (the regulatory body for pharmacists) and the Higher Education Commission permitting and encouraging its use.====Philippines====In the Philippines, titles and names of occupations usually follow Spanish naming conventions which utilize gender-specific terms.", "\"''Doktór''\" is the masculine form, which retains the abbreviation ''Dr.", "''; the feminine form is \"''Doktóra''\", and is abbreviated usually as \"''Dra.", "''\"; others, however, some being Anglophones who wish to sound modern and Westernised (or were raised in an almost exclusively English-speaking family environment), or some who advocate gender equality, would dispense with the distinction altogether.", "There does exist in Filipino an equivalent, gender-neutral term for the professional that carries the more general notion of \"healer\", traditional (for example, an ''albuláryo'') or otherwise: ''manggagámot''.", "Contracted \"Dr\" or \"Dr.\", it is also used as a designation for a person who has obtained a doctorate degree (e.g.", "PhD, EdD, DPA).====Sri Lanka====In Sri Lanka the title doctor \"Dr.\" is used for PhD holders and medical practitioner such as physicians, surgeons, dental surgeons and veterinarians.", "However, when addressing in native Sinhalese a medical practitioner is addressed as \"Vaidya\" (වෛද්ය) or \"Dosthara\" (දොස්තර) while a PhD holder is addressed as \"Aacharya\" (ආචාර්ය).", "It is a common practice for married female medical practitioners to use the title \"Dr (Mrs)\" in a both professional and social capacity.====Thailand====The usage of Doctor (ดอกเตอร์) or Dr (ดร.)", "has been borrowed from English.", "It can be seen as a title in academic circles and in the mass media.", "In contrast to other academic titles (Professor, Associate Professor and assistant professor), the use of Doctor as a title has not been recognized by the Royal Institute of Thailand.", "Therefore, this title, in theory, cannot be used officially.", "For example, in court of justice where strictly formal Thai language is used, Dr cannot be mentioned as a person's title.===The Americas=======Brazil====The 'doctor' title is used by individuals holding a PhD degree.", "'Doctor' is also used as a deferential title in Brazilian Portuguese.", "The title “Doctor” can also be used in Brazil to address medics and lawyers by the law since the imperial times.", "The law was enacted by the second Brazilian emperor, Dom Pedro II, to attract more medics and lawyers from other countries in imperial times when there was very few practitioners of both professions in the country for the crescent population of that time.", "The law still is enacted.====Canada====Canada lies somewhere between British and American usage of the degree and terminology of \"doctor\".", "Holders of research doctorates – PhDs and similar degrees – commonly use the title \"doctor\".", "A number of regulated healthcare professionals can also use the title \"doctor\"; in Ontario these are limited by law (in the provision of health care) to physicians, dentists, optometrists, chiropractors, doctorate-level psychologists and social workers who are members of the relevant Ontario college.", "In Alberta, Registered Nurses or Nurse Practitioners with an earned doctoral degree may use the title \"doctor\" in conjunction with professional practice.", "Some professionals earn degrees with the title of doctor but which are considered, despite their name, to be at bachelor's-level, e.g.", "DDS, MD, JD.", "In Ontario, registered naturopathic doctors may only use the title \"doctor\" in written format if they also use the phrase, \"naturopathic doctor\" immediately following their name, while a 2006 amendment that would allow practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine to use the title has not, , entered into force.", "As of 2022, in Alberta, Doctors of Acupuncture may use the doctor title.", "=====Quebec=====The usage of the French ''Docteur'' and ''Docteure'', and their abbreviated forms ''Dr'', ''Dre'', ''D'' and ''D'', is controlled by the ''Code des professions''.", "As a pre-nominal title it can be used without any further explication by physicians, veterinarians, and dentists.", "It can also be used prenominally, when accompanied by the name of the profession immediately after the name, by professionals who require a doctorate for their professional licence, such as psychology, and chiropractic, e.g.", "''Dr X, psychologue'' or ''Dr Y, chiropraticien''.", "Academic doctors, where the doctorate is not required to practice, bear the title only after their name; this is not abbreviated, e.g.", "''M.", "Z, docteur en philosophie'' not ''M.", "Z, PhD''====United States====In the United States, the use of the title \"Doctor\" is dependent upon the setting.", "The title is commonly used socially by physicians and those holding doctoral degrees; however, there was formerly a division between Letitia Baldrige and Miss Manners on its social usage by those who are not physicians.", "Baldrige saw this usage as acceptable, while in contrast, Miss Manners wrote that \"only people of the medical profession correctly use the title of doctor socially,\" but supports those who wish to use it in social contexts in the spirit of addressing people according to their wishes.", "Miss Manners has since softened her approach, noting in her ''The Washington Post'' column that there are two approaches: \"having been earned, it should be used\" and \"that level of education being assumed, it need not be expressly mentioned\"; while she maintains that everyone should be addressed according to their wishes, she no longer states that only medical professionals use the title correctly but instead acknowledges that the title has been earned by those with PhDs.", "The Emily Post Institute similarly advises that \"Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles.", "People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use \"Dr.\" both professionally and socially.\"", "Other advice columns have also noted that \"it has become common to see someone with a Ph.D. addressed on the envelope as Dr., and as a consequence, deviation from convention has become acceptable.\"", "The 2017 book ''Etiquette Rules!''", "gives identical forms for addressing a \"doctor of medicine (MD), dental surgery (DDS), veterinary medicine (DVM), etc.", "\", and the holder of a PhD, advising in both cases the use of initials after the name for formal correspondence and Dr. before the name for social correspondence.", "Although the usage of the title by Ph.D. graduates has become common, its use socially by holders of professional doctorates (other than those noted) is neither explicitly endorsed nor explicitly discouraged by writers on etiquette.", "Miss Manners has, however, stated that a physician who has had their license revoked should be addressed by their former preferred honorific (i.e.", "not according to their MD degree).", "It is unusual for those who hold honorary doctorates to use the title \"Doctor\".Publications from the office of the President of the United States of America also refer to PhD holders as Dr. Soandso,and Jill Biden, who holds an EdD, used the style \"Dr. Jill Biden\" as second lady and has continued to do so as first lady.", "For addresses (defined as \"the conventional forms of address as determined by social and official custom\"), NASA uses \"Dr. (full name)\" in addresses for PhD holders while for physicians it uses \"(full name), MD\", although both are addressed as \"Dr. (surname)\" in the salutation (which is described as \"informal\").", "The National Institutes of Health similarly use \"Dr. (surname)\" in salutations for people with an MD, PhD or DDS.", "They advise using full name followed by degrees in addresses, explicitly stating not to use the title \"Dr.\", although an example in the following paragraph does use the title rather than giving degrees.Most newspapers in the US follow the AP Stylebook and reserve the title for physicians in their house styles; notable exceptions include ''The New York Times'', which follows the preference of the individual when referring to PhD holders (although the title is not used for those with honorary doctorates),and ''The Wall Street Journal'', which similarly prefers \"Dr.\" for PhD holders and physicians (if this is the person's choice) while stating explicitly that the title is not used for lawyers with JDs or people with honorary doctorates.", "Until 1989, The Washington Post used the title for \"practitioners of the healing arts (including chiropractors and osteopaths) but not for holders of PhDs or honorary degrees\", after which it dropped its use entirely.", "Some sources state that AP style allows the use of Dr. for holders of non-medical doctoral degrees as long as their speciality is given.The expansion of professional doctorates in clinical fields in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has led to disputes between physicians and other medical professions over who can use the title in a clinical context.", "This has been interpreted by some as part of larger battles within medicine, such as who gets to treat patients first and who has prescribing authority.", "The American Medical Association calls for non-physicians (those not holding an MD or DO) who use the title \"Doctor\" and are in direct contact with patients to clarify that they are not physicians and to \"define the nature of their doctorate degree\", while the American Osteopathic Association opposes the use of the title by non-physicians in clinical settings absolutely as (in their view) \"such use deceives the public\".", "Contrary to this, the Emergency Nurses Association has adopted as a position statement that \"1.Nurses are entitled to have their educational degrees recognized and acknowledged in the same manner as other professions.", "2.The proper title protection and use of accurate credentials is appropriate in the clinical setting.", "3.When being addressed or introduced as doctor in the clinical environment, it is responsible practice for all healthcare providers to clarify their professional role.", "4.Patients, families and the general public have a right and expectation to be informed regarding the credentials of their caregivers, including the use of the title \"doctor\".", "\"The American Medical Association launched a campaign in 2011 for states to adopt \"truth in advertising\" legislation.", "As a result, many states now have laws in place that protect the title of doctor when offering medical services.", "In some jurisdictions, the use of the title in health care is limited to those who have both a doctorate and are licensed to practice medicine, and there is a requirement that the field of the doctorate be disclosed.", "Some other jurisdictions require the practitioner to hold a doctorate and to disclose the field, but make no stipulations as to licensing.", "Some states require name badges to be worn in medical facilities giving first name, licensure status, and staff position, although these laws may not explicitly address the use of the title \"Doctor\".Although lawyers in the United States do not customarily use the title, the law degree in that country is the Juris Doctor, a professional doctorate.", "Some JD holders in the United States use the title of doctor in professional situations, although ethics board decisions have varied on whether this is permissible or might mislead the public into believing the lawyer was medically qualified or had a PhD.", "It is also sometimes used by JD holders in academic situations.", "In 2011, ''Mother Jones'' published an article claiming that Michele Bachmann was misrepresenting her qualifications by using the \"bogus\" title Dr. based on her JD.", "The article was later amended to note that the use of the title by lawyers \"is a (begrudgingly) accepted practice in some states and not in others\", although they maintained that it was rarely used as it \"suggests that you're a medical doctor or a Ph.D.—and therefore conveys a false level of expertise\".Ecclesiastical seminaries and entitled churches award their own doctorates in the United States, e.g.", "the ''Doctor of Religious Science'' (Dr. sc.", "rel.", "), the ''Doctor of Divinity'' (DD), the ''Doctor of Biblical Studies'' (DBS) or the ''Doctor of Metaphysics'' (Dr.", "mph.).", "These titles are most commonly awarded to meritorious clerics for their outstanding work or another achievement in the field of religious and biblical studies.American professional doctorates are not generally considered doctoral level degrees internationally, instead being classified as bachelor's or master's level.", "The ISCED mapping for these degrees, developed collaboratively between the US and UNESCO, places them at master's level.", "As a result, holders of MD, JD, PharmD, etc.", "may not be permitted to use the title of Doctor in countries such as Germany where this is strictly controlled.===Europe===In the European Union, the title of ''doctor'' refers primarily to holders of post-graduate research doctorates, such as the PhD.", "In many European languages the term ''doctor'' is distinct from a medical practitioner, which can be referred to as e.g.", "''läkare'' in Swedish, ''Arzt'' in German, ''dokter'' or ''arts'' in Dutch, or ''lääkäri'' in Finnish.Standardisation of degrees into the three cycles of bachelor's–master's–doctorate across the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) is being carried out through the Bologna process, although not all EHEA member states have fully conformed to the 1999 Bologna declaration in favour of their own historic customs.", "With respect to the title \"doctor\", the Bologna process makes no prescriptions regarding the names of degrees nor the titles they may confer.", "However, under the Lisbon Recognition Convention, recognition of a foreign degree allows \"the use of an academic title, subject to the laws and regulations of the country in which recognition is sought\".", "According to the ''Explanatory report'', this means that: \"The competent authorities of the Parties may grant the right to use the title in the exact form in which it was awarded in the Party concerned or in any other form.", "They may alternatively grant the right to use the corresponding title of the country in which recognition is sought.", "\"====Austria====In Austria, the degree ''Doktor'' is granted to holders of research degrees (ISCED 8) with a denoting Latin particle being added (''Dr.", "techn.", "'', ''Dr.", "phil.", "'', ''Dr.", "rer.", "nat.", "'', ''Dr.iur.", "'', ''Dr.theol.''", "etc.).", "Newer study programmes award a PhD, but these exist alongside the older degrees since many prefer obtaining a ''Dr.''", "to a PhD.", "These degrees take 3–4 years full-time and are organised in doctoral schools.In addition, the academic degree ''Doktor'' (ISCED 7) is granted to physicians (Dr. med.", "univ.)", "and dentists (Dr. med.", "dent.", "), who since 2002 do not obtain doctoral degrees (ISCED 8) but instead follow a master's level six-year training (360 ECTS) programme, similar to an American MD or DDS.", "For these degrees, students have to write a ''Diplomarbeit'' thesis of 50-100 pages.", "Research doctorates in medicine (Dr. scient.", "med.", "or PhD) can also be obtained after a three year full-time post-graduate study programme at a medical university.All doctors may be addressed as \"Doktor _____\"; the title is usually contracted to \"Dr. _____\", oftentimes they are just addressed as \"Herr/Frau Doktor\" (Mr/Ms Doctor), omitting the family name unless they are being introduced to someone.Contrary to popular belief in the country, the title \"Dr.\" is not part of a person's name or a specific honour but simply a degree like BSc/BA, ''Mag'' (MA/MSc) or ''Dipl.-Ing.''", "(MEng).", "It is not mandatory to use it, although it may be added to official documents (e.g.", "driver's licence, passport), if desired====Finland====In Finland, the title of ''tohtori'' or ''doktor'' denotes holder of a research doctorate comparable to a PhD.", "Getting the doctorate requires advanced studies after the master's degree, writing a thesis, nowadays often a thesis by publication, and publicly defending the thesis.", "Customary doctorates do not exist even in the field of medicine: physicians hold the degree of ''lääketieteen lisensiaatti'' (Licentiate of Medicine), and are referred to simply as ''lääkäri'' (physician); \"tohtori\" would be rustic or old-fashioned.", "A research doctorate in medicine, ''lääketieteen tohtori'', requires further research work and a separate doctoral thesis, and is not taken by all medical graduates.", "Regardless, in Finnish usage, the use of titles is uncommon and restricted to only the most formal of contexts.====France====In France, the title of ''Docteur'' is only used generally for physicians (''médecin'') but can also be used by holders of research doctorates.", "Medical professionals do not normally hold a doctorate, which in France always refers to a research doctorate, but a \"State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine\" (''Diplôme d'État de docteur en médecine'').The law in France allows the title of Dr to be used professionally by holders of research doctorates, with the field of their speciality being mentioned after the name.", "The courts have ruled that stating the specialisation is not necessary except in circumstances specifically related to professional practice; at other times the title alone may be used.", "The courts have also determined that questioning the right of the holder of a research doctorate to use the title Dr is a form of libel.", "The National Union of Hospital Scientists (''Syndicat National des Scientifiques Hospitaliers'') launched a campaign in 2015 to raise awareness of the right of scientists to use the title.====Germany====In German language-speaking countries, the word ''Doktor'' refers to a doctorate awardee in formal language (similar to a PhD).", "It is distinct from ''Arzt'', since a doctoral degree is not a requirement for medical practitioners, though colloquial use of the word ''Doktor'' for physician is common and ordinary people often incorrectly assume that only Doktors may practice medicine.", "For this reason, 80% of all students in medicine write \"doctoral\" dissertations, often comparable to a master's thesis in science, alongside their undergraduate studies to obtain a Dr. med.", "degree.", "The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those Dr. med.", "doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.In Germany, the most common doctoral degrees are ''Dr.", "med.''", "(medicine), ''Dr.", "med.", "dent.''", "(dentistry), ''Dr.", "med.", "vet.''", "(veterinary medicine), ''Dr.", "rer.", "nat.''", "(natural sciences), ''Dr.", "phil.''", "(humanities), ''Dr.", "iur.''", "(law), ''Dr.", "rer.", "pol.''", "(economic and political sciences, also as Dr. rer.", "oec.", "in Switzerland), ''Dr.-Ing.''", "(engineering), and ''Dr.", "theol.''", "(theology).", "All holders of doctoral degrees are appropriately addressed as \"Herr/Frau Dr. _____\" in all social situations.In Germany, double doctorates are indicated in the title by ''\"Dr. Dr.\"'' or ''\"DDr.\"''", "and triple doctorates as ''\"Dr. Dr. Dr.\"'' or ''\"DDDr.\"''", "More doctorates are indicated by the addition of ''\"mult.", "\"'', such as ''\"Dr.", "mult.\"''", "Honorary titles are shown with the addition of ''\"h.c.\"'', which stands for ''\"honoris causa\"''.", "Example: ''\"Dr. h.c.", "mult.\"''", "Some honorary titles are shown by addition of German equivalents of ''\"h.c.\"'', like ''\"e.h.\"'', ''\"E.h.\"'', or ''\"eh.", "\"'', which stand for ''\"ehrenhalber\"'' (honorary).", "Example: ''\"Dr. e.h.", "mult.", "\"''All people holding a doctorate from an EU member state are, since 2001, entitled to use \"Doctor\" or \"Dr.\" in all formal, legal and published communications without any further addenda.", "For academics with doctorates from non-EU member states, the qualification must be recognised formally (\"validated\") by the Federal Educational Ministry in Bonn.", "The recognition process can be done by the employer or employee and may be part of the official bureaucracy for confirming professional status and is dependent on individual bilateral agreements between Germany and other countries and, since 2007, the Lisbon Recognition Convention.", "An example of mutual recognition of Doctor titles among EU countries is the \"Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994\", signed between Germany and Spain (prior to the general recognition of EU doctorates).In 2008, The Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany extended their 2001 decision to recognise EU PhDs to cover PhDs that were awarded in Australia, Israel, Japan, Canada, and some American universities.", "It was announced in 2012 that this would be further extended to cover PhDs awarded in New Zealand.", "PhDs that were awarded in the United States are recognized if the awarding institution is classified by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a \"Research University (high research activity)\" or as a \"Research University (very high research activity).\"", "Permission to use the title covers only scientific research degrees and does not extend to professional degrees such as the MD or JD.====Greece====In Greece, doctor \"Διδάκτωρ\" (''didáktor'') is indicated in the title as Δρ and it is used for holders of doctoral degrees.", "Other alternative names are also used, namely «δόκτωρ» and «δόκτορας», derived from the French \"docteur\".", "The term \"Ιατρός\" (''iatrós'') indicates medical practitioners.====Hungary====In Hungary, graduates of six-year medical schools (''dr.", "med.", "''), five-year dentistry schools (''dr.", "med.", "dent.", "''), five-year law schools (''dr.", "jur.'')", "and five-year veterinary medical schools (''dr.", "vet.'')", "receive the title of a ''doctor'' at the end of their studies, after completing and successfully defending their thesis; their undergraduate studies must have lasted for a minimum of three years.", "Completing a PhD research programme (or DLA in arts and music) also leads to the doctor title.", "Since 2008, also those who graduated of five-year pharmacy schools have the right to use the title \"dr\" (''dr.", "pharm.", "'').A large part of Hungarians with doctor titles received their titles for research in the old academic system before PhD was introduced in Hungary.", "Since the introduction of PhD title (1993), the ''dr.", "univ'' title (given before 1993).", "The CSc ''Candidate of Science'' title was a scientific title in the old academic system and is now treated as an equivalent of PhD.", "CSc titles were awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.The highest level doctoral degree in Hungary is DSc ''Doctor of Sciences'', awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.", "It is also called ''Doctor of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences''.The title of doctor used to become a part of the name and was added as such to personal identity documents.", "This practice is still common and graduates after receiving their diploma would usually change their personal documents in order to officially indicate the achievement.====Ireland====Usage in Ireland is similar to that in the UK.", "The title of doctor is used for holders of doctoral degrees as well as for medical practitioners (except surgeons), dentists, and vets.", "The title is also used in Ireland for Catholic bishops, who are styled \"The Most Reverend Dr X, Bishop of Y\" on envelopes.====Italy====The first university of Western civilization, the University of Bologna, is located in Italy, where until modern times the only degree granted was that of the doctorate, and all other Italian universities followed that model.", "During the 20th century Italian universities introduced more advanced research degrees, such as the PhD, and now that it is part of the EU Bologna Process, a new three-year first degree, or \"laurea\" (equivalent to a BA of other countries, EQF & ISCED 2011 Level 6), has been introduced.", "The old-style \"laurea\" is now known as \"laurea magistrale/specialistica\" (Bologna Process second cycle/EQF & ISCED 2011 Level 7).", "For historical reasons, even to this day, the title of \"dottore/dottoressa\" (abbrev.", "both as dott/dott.ssa or as dr./dr.ssa ) is awarded even to those who have studied for a \"laurea\"(EQF & ISCED 2011 Level 6).", "Upper levels of degree are anyway shown in the title, as those who obtain a master's degree can be referred to as \"dottore/dottoressa magistrale\" (''masterly doctor'', EQF & ISCED 2011 Level 7) while those who achieve the relatively new program of \"dottorato di ricerca\" (research doctorate, equivalent of a ''PhD'' in English-speaking or ''Doktor'' (''Dr.'')", "in German-speaking Countries, EQF & ISCED 2011 Level 8), carry the title of \"dottore/dottoressa di ricerca\" (research doctor), which can be abbreviated as \"Dott.", "Ric.\"", "or \"Ph.D.\"====Malta====In Malta, the title of Doctor is used by academic doctors (with PhDs), medical practitioners, dentists and lawyers.", "Its use by lawyers is due to the qualifying degree for practicing law having been the LLD until reforms in 2014, and has been described as \"historical baggage\" by the Dean of the University of Malta's law school.", "Lawyers do not generally use the title when practicing outside of Malta.====Netherlands====In the Dutch language the word \"dokter\" refers to a physician, whereas \"doctor\" refers to the academic title.", "The doctor title is abbreviated as dr. placed before the holders name (note the lowercase).To enter a Dutch doctoral defense, the candidate must hold a validated master's degree (a master's degree of an acknowledged university, or a master equivalent degree validated on a case-by-case basis by the Dutch government).", "In some cases the candidate can be granted special dispensation if no master's degree is held.There is no specific notation of the discipline in which the doctorate is obtained.", "Once the doctorate is obtained the preceding master's degree is generally no longer reported.", "Exceptions only exist for the disciplines with specific master titles of engineering \"ir.\"", "(\"ingenieur\", i.e.", "Engineer) and law \"mr.\" (\"meester\", i.e.", "Master of Law) where the title dr. is added to the original master title.", "For these disciplines, the original master's degree abbreviation is combined with the dr. abbreviation thus resulting in for example \"dr. ir.", "Familyman\".", "The dr. title is always placed in front of the ir.", "title.", "In the case of a PhD in law, the original mr. title is placed before the dr. title (mr. dr., see e.g.", "Jan Peter Balkenende).", "For a person having a law master's degree, but holding a PhD in another field than law the mr. title is placed after the dr. title (dr. mr.).", "No specific notation or title for the medical disciplines exists in the Netherlands.", "Although a physician is usually referred to as \"dokter\" (note the spelling difference) this does not necessarily imply the physician holds a doctoral degree; nor does it give the physician a title equivalent to that of PhD.Confusion can be caused by the original Dutch Master level title \"drs.\"", "(for all non-engineering and non-law master's degrees).", "This abbreviation stands for the Dutch title doctorandus Latin for \"he who should become a doctor\" (female form is \"doctoranda\").", "Dutch drs.", "should not be confused with the plural 'doctorates': having multiple PhDs.", "Once a doctorate is achieved the doctorandus is promoted to doctor, and no longer uses the drs.", "abbreviation.Stacking of multiples titles of the same level, as seen in countries like for example Germany (Dr. Dr. Dr. Musterfrau) is highly uncommon in the Netherlands (although stacking of titles with different levels is common: prof. dr. ir.", "Appelmans).", "Those who have multiple doctor titles may use dr.mult.", "before their name, although this is rarely used.After obtaining a doctorate successfully, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D (rarely in practice) behind their name, but not both simultaneously.", "In the Netherlands, Academic titles are used exclusively within academia.", "Holding a doctorate has become a standard requirement for a university career.", "The doctor title has little to no meaning or implications for public life outside academia.", "It cannot be added to documentation (e.g.", "passport, drivers licence), and is used infrequently in daily practice.Historically, the Netherlands used their own academic degree nomenclature, but for many years now have recognised and implemented the Bologna declaration.", "In everyday practice, the Anglo Saxon titles (e.g.", "PhD) are frequently used.", "Dutch academic titles and degrees are legally protected, and as of 2021 the traditional ’dr.’ and the PhD are legally equivalent and can be used interchangeably.", "Doctoral degrees (PhD degrees) can only be granted by recognised (research) universities.", "Illegal use of the title is considered a misdemeanour and subject to legal prosecution.====Portugal====In Portugal, up to recent times after the completion of an undergraduate degree – except in architecture and engineering – a person was referred to as ''doutor (Dr.) – male'' or ''doutora (Dra.)", "– female''.", "The architects and engineers were referred by their professional titles: ''arquitecto'' (Arq.)", "and ''engenheiro'' (Eng.).", "Nurses are also referred to as \"nurse\", ''enfermeiro'' (male) or ''enfermeira'' (female), the title being ''Enf.''", "for both.Nowadays Portugal is a signatory to the Bologna process and according to the current legislation the title of Doctor (''doutor, doutora'') is reserved for graduate holders of an academic doctorate.", "Professions such as physicians, attorneys, pharmacists, veterinarians, and few others are usually referred to by the title Dr. (doutor) even if they have not been awarded a doctoral degree.However, custom gives the legislation little strength and most graduates use the Dr. title in its abbreviated form, although use of the full ''Doutor'' is normally restricted to those with doctorates.", "Those who are both holders of an academic doctorate and Professors at a college level are generally referred to as ''Professor Doutor''.====Spain====The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only PhD holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.PhD Degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (RD 1393–2007), ''Real Decreto'' (in Spanish).", "They are granted by the university on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document.", "The Ministry of Science keeps a national database of doctoral theses called TESEO.", "Any person who uses the Spanish title of ''doctor/doctora'' (or ''Dr./Dra.'')", "without being included in this Government database can be prosecuted for fraud.", "However, the Spanish Royal Academy recognises that it is used colloquially to describe physicians, even without doctoral degrees, as well as (in the feminine form, ''doctora'', abbreviated ''Dra.'')", "the wives of doctors (i.e.", "holders of doctoral degrees) and medics, as well as \"women who shine with wisdom and understanding\".Unlike other countries, until recently Spain has registered a comparatively small number of Doctor degree holders, but the tendency is changing.", "According to the Spanish Statistical Office (INE), less than 5% of MSc degree holders are admitted to PhD programs.", "This reinforces the prestige that Doctors have historically enjoyed in Spain's society.====United Kingdom====Doctor is commonly used in the United Kingdom as the title for a person who has received a doctoral degree or, as courtesy title, for a qualified medical practitioner or dentist who does not have a doctorate.", "There are no restrictions on the use of the title \"Doctor\" in the United Kingdom, except where, in commercial advertising, it might imply that the user holds a general medical qualification.", "The UK government allows medical doctors and holders of doctorates to have the title recorded on the observations page of their UK passport.", "The lack of legal restrictions was confirmed in Parliament in 1996 by health minister Gerald Malone, who noted that the title doctor had never been restricted by law to either medical practitioners or those with doctoral degrees in the UK, although the titles \"physician, doctor of medicine, licentiate in medicine and surgery, bachelor of medicine, surgeon, general practitioner and apothecary\" were protected.According to the etiquette guide, Debrett's, holders of doctoral degrees and medical doctors (but not surgeons) should be addressed as \"Doctor\".", "For medical doctors, \"Doctor\" is a professional title rather than an academic one: it is due to their being a medical practitioner rather than their having gained a doctoral degree.", "The Quality Assurance Agency states that \"The use of the title 'Dr' by medical doctors is a historical abbreviation for the profession; it does not indicate a qualification at doctoral level\".", "On guest lists and seating plans for formal events, holders of academic doctorates (but not medical doctors or other people using the title as a courtesy title) are listed either as \"Dr John Smith\" or \"John Smith, Esq, PhD\", while untitled men (other than those holding doctorates) are shown as either \"Mr John Smith\" or \"John Smith, Esq\" (as appropriate to ensure the styling remains consistent).", "The title \"Dr\" is also used on visiting cards.Medical students in the UK normally complete a course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, BMBS or MBChB).", "The MD degree is not a qualifying degree in the UK, but can be either a professional doctorate (at the same academic level as a PhD), a doctorate by thesis, or a higher doctorate, depending on the university.", "To be eligible for an MD degree in the UK one must already hold an entry level medical degree (for example, MBBS, MBChB, BMed, or a North American MD degree) and usually must have had at least 5 years of postgraduate training and experience.", "Trainee doctors are permitted to use the title Doctor once they have started their post-graduation \"Foundation Programme\".Debrett's states that medical doctors (except surgeons) should be addressed on envelopes as \"Dr (full name), (medical qualifications)\", e.g.", "\"Dr John Smith, MD\", \"Dr Anne Jones, MB BS, FRCP\", \"Dr David Evans, MB ChB\", contrary to the normal rule of not mixing titles and post-nominals.", "Surgeons (and dentists, if not holding a doctoral degree) should be \"(full name), Esq, (medical/dental qualifications)\", e.g.", "\"John Smith, Esq, MS, FRCS\", \"David Evans, Esq., BDS\", but \"Dr Anne Jones, DDS, FDS RCS\",.", "By contrast, those holding (non medical or dental) doctoral degrees, if not surgeons, should be \"Dr (full name)\" without post-nominals on envelopes, e.g.", "\"Dr John Smith\".A & C Black's ''Titles and Forms of Address'' diverges from Debrett's on how to address envelopes to medical doctors, omitting the pre-nominal title of Dr (e.g.", "John Smith, Esq, MD; John Smith, MD; John Smith, MB) except in Scotland and for general practitioners, where the post-nominals are instead usually omitted (e.g.", "Dr John Smith).", "Black's also state that it is down to individual choice whether non-medical doctors are addressed on envelopes as \"Dr John Smith\" or \"John Smith, Esq, PhD\" (or appropriate letters for the doctorate held), with the exception of doctors of divinity, who would be \"The Rev.", "J. Smith, DD\" on the envelope and \"Reverend Sir\" in a formal salutation (informally in the salutation \"Dear Dr Smith\", and \"Dr Smith\" in speech).The custom of not referring to surgeons (members and fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons) as Dr has been commented on in the ''British Medical Journal'' and may stem from the historical origins of the profession such as that some barbers also used to function as surgeons.", "In 2005, the then-president of the Royal College of Surgeons called upon surgeons to use the title of Dr, saying that the use of Mr or Miss was confusing to patients.", "Black's note that gynaecologists are addressed as surgeons in England and Wales but as doctors elsewhere.In a similar manner to the medical MBBS, dentists qualify with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) and vets with a Bachelor of Veterinary Science (BVSc), Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine (BVetMed) or Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (BVMS).", "All of these are, like the MBBS, master's level qualifications that bear bachelor's designations for historical reasons.Dentists have traditionally (as dental surgeons) been referred to in the same way as surgeons, but since 1995 the General Dental Council have permitted dentists to use the title \"Doctor\", though many do not choose to do this, thereby stressing their surgeon status.", "However, Debrett's continues to advises that dentists are normally addressed as surgeons and that the title \"Doctor\" is usually only used for dentists who have a doctoral degree.On 5 March 2015 the council of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS) voted to permit its members to use the courtesy title of \"Doctor\".", "Guidance from the RCVS says the title should be used either with the description \"veterinary surgeon\" or the postnominals \"MRCVS\" to ensure there is no confusion with doctors of human medicine or holders of doctoral degrees.Optometrists are not permitted to use the title \"Doctor\" based on their initial qualification (BOptom or BSc (Optom)).", "Optometrists can earn PhDs or Doctor of Optometry degrees (in the UK a PhD-level qualification for qualified optometrists with experience in practice).", "Ophthalmologists are fully qualified medical doctors.", "However, ophthalmology is considered a branch of surgery, thus ophthalmologists, like other surgeons in the UK, do not use the title \"Doctor\".The General Chiropractic Council permits registered chiropractors to use the title \"Doctor\", although it advises chiropractors to avoid using the title in advertising or, if they do, to spell out that they are \"Doctors of Chiropractic\".", "The Committee of Advertising Practice advises, however, that \"references to 'DC' or 'doctor of chiropractic' are unlikely to dispel that misleading impression of being a medical practitioner, when used in conjunction with unqualified references to the prefix 'Dr, saying that the use of the title by chiropractors may be acceptable in advertising if \"clearly and prominently qualified with additional text which makes clear it is a courtesy title and that the practitioner does not hold a general medical qualification\".The Advertising Standards Authority has ruled that practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine should not use the title doctor in adverts unless they hold a general medical qualification and are registered with the General Medical Council.", "It similarly advises that osteopaths should not use the title unless holding a general medical qualification.", "There have also been rulings that an advert for an osteomyologist which referred to him as a doctor was misleading, as was an advert which used the title \"Dr\" and the post-nominals \"PhD\" on the basis of a PhD from an unaccredited university.Holders of honorary doctorates in the UK have the right, in most cases, to use the title of Doctor, although holders are encouraged to refrain from doing so.", "Black's says that \"The same rules apply as to other holders\", although notes that the post-nominals would not normally be used.In some circumstances, \"doctor\" may be used on its own as a form of address rather than as a title before a name.", "This is limited to when the person is being addressed by their job title and so is only used for medical doctors.=====Wales=====Wales follows UK usage in English.", "In Welsh, the holder of a doctoral degree is ''doethur'' while a medical doctor is ''doctor'' or ''meddyg''.", "The title \"''y Doethur''\" is used by those holding doctorates, e.g.", "\"y Doethur Brinley Jones\", \"y Doethur John Elfed Jones\", which can be abbreviated \"Dr\".", "Medical doctors use, as in English, the title \"Doctor\", also abbreviated \"Dr\".====Former Yugoslavia====In countries that were formerly Yugoslavian republics, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia the title formally belongs to holders of academic doctoral degree such as doctor of science (dr.", "sc.)", "or doctor of arts (dr.", "art.)", "degree.", "There is no \"Ph.D.\" in any of those countries, even though when holders are translating their dr. sc.", "degree to English, they nevertheless use \"Ph.D.\", even though it should be \"D.Sc.\"", "or \"Sc.D.", "\".Informally, the title, in both its full and abbreviated form (i.e.", "\"dr.\") is used honorifically to address medical doctors even in more formal environment like in lectored media texts, however officially it is reserved only for the holders of academic degrees.", "Formally the professional title for medical doctor is \"lijekar\" in Bosnian and Montenegrin, \"liječnik\" in Croatian, \"lekar/лекар\" in Macedonian and Serbian and \"zdravnik\" in Slovenian and they can hold different academic degrees, as well as additional honorific title of ''Primarius'' that is given to distinguished specialists with exemplary reputation and achievements.===Oceania=======Australia====With the introduction of National Health Practitioner registration legislation on 1 July 2010, the title \"doctor\" is not restricted in any Australian state.", "The title \"medical practitioner\" is restricted for use by registered medical practitioners, while the title \"doctor\" is not restricted by law.", "Despite this, the Medical Board of Australia advises that practitioners who are not medical practitioners who choose to use the title 'Doctor' (or 'Dr') should clearly state their profession in advertisements, even if they hold a PhD or another doctoral degree, e.g.", "'Dr Smith (Dentist)' or 'Dr Jones (Chiropodist)'.", "The Psychology Board of Australia prohibits psychologists from using the title, to avoid confusion with psychiatrists, unless they hold a doctoral degree, in which case they must make it clear that they are not a medical practitioner or psychiatrist, e.g.", "by putting '(Psychologist)' after their name.", "The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) defines doctoral degrees as being at Level 10 of the framework; it specifies that: \"Individuals who have been awarded a Doctoral Degree at Level 10 on the AQF are entitled to use the title 'Doctor'.", "The title 'Doctor' will not be used by those who hold an honorary award.\"", "The name 'Doctor' is also used in the name of some extended master's degrees at Level 9 (e.g.", "Juris Doctor and Doctor of Medicine); these are not considered doctoral degrees." ], [ "Abbreviation", "Doctor is abbreviated \"Dr\" in British English and \"Dr.\" in North American English.", "The plural abbreviation is \"Drs\".===British usage===In British English it is not necessary to indicate an abbreviation with a full stop after the abbreviation, when the first and last letters of the abbreviation are the same as for the unabbreviated word, i.e.", "the abbreviation is a contraction, as in the case for \"'''D'''octo'''r'''\".In the United Kingdom, it is normal also to omit stops from postnominal letters, thus the usual abbreviation for \"Doctor of Philosophy\" is \"PhD\" (or \"DPhil\", where this is used).", "The fully punctuated \"Ph.D.\" or \"D.Phil.\"", "is anachronistic and, where the abbreviated form of the degree is defined by regulation rather than custom (e.g.", "Oxford), may be technically incorrect.===American usage===American English makes no distinction between abbreviations that are contractions and abbreviations that are not.", "A period is used: the abbreviation of Doctor is usually written as \"Dr.\" in North America.", "However, the US Postal Service prefers punctuation to be omitted from addresses." ], [ "Honorary doctorates", "An honorary doctorate is a doctoral degree awarded for service to the institution or the wider community.", "It may also be awarded for outstanding achievement in a particular field.", "This service or achievement does not need to be academic in nature.", "Often, the same set of degrees is used for higher doctorates, but they are distinguished as being ''honoris causa'': in comprehensive lists, the lettering used to indicate the possession of a higher doctorate is often adjusted to indicate this, for example, \"Hon ScD\", as opposed to the earned research doctorate \"ScD\".", "The degrees of Doctor of the University (DUniv) and Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL), however, are only awarded as honorary degrees.By convention, recipients of honorary doctorates do not use the title \"Dr\" in general correspondence, although in formal correspondence from the university issuing the honorary degree it is normal to address the recipient by the title.", "However, this social convention is not always scrupulously observed; notable people who defied social convention and used the honorary prefix include:* Benjamin Franklin, who received honorary master's degrees from Harvard and Yale in 1753, and from The College of William and Mary in 1756, and doctorates from the University of St Andrews in 1759 and the University of Oxford in 1762 for his scientific accomplishments.", "He thereafter referred to himself as \"Doctor Franklin\".", "* Maya Angelou, who held many honorary doctorates, called herself and was referred to by many as \"Dr. Angelou\" despite holding no undergraduate or advanced (non-honorary) degree.", "* Booker T. Washington was often referred to as \"Dr. Washington\" after receiving an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College.", "* Sukarno, President of Indonesia, was awarded twenty-six honorary doctorates from various international universities including Columbia University, the University of Michigan, the University of Berlin, the Al-Azhar University, the University of Belgrade, the Lomonosov University and many more.", "And also from domestic universities including the Universitas Gadjah Mada, the Universitas Indonesia, the Bandung Institute of Technology, and the Universitas Padjadjaran.", "He had often been referred to by Indonesian Government at the time as 'Dr.", "Ir.", "Sukarno', combined with his degree in architecture (Ir.)", "from Bandung Institute of Technology.", "Sukarno is the president with the highest number of honorary doctorates in the world.", "* Author and lexicographer Samuel Johnson, who had some years earlier been unable (due to financial considerations) to complete his undergraduate studies at Pembroke College, Oxford, was awarded the degree of Master of Arts by diploma in 1755, in recognition of his scholarly achievements.", "In 1765, Trinity College Dublin awarded him the degree of Doctor of Laws and in 1775 Oxford bestowed upon him the degree of Doctor of Civil Law by diploma.", "He never referred to himself as \"Dr. Johnson\", even though a degree by diploma is distinct from an honorary degree, but it was used by his contemporaries and in his biography by James Boswell." ], [ "Other uses of \"doctor\"", "* In some regions, such as the Southern United States, \"Doctor\" is traditionally added to the first name of people holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address.", "* \"Doc\" is a common nickname for someone with a doctoral degree, in real life and in fiction — for example, the gunfighter Doc Holliday, the Australian politician H.V.", "\"Doc\" Evatt, the character \"Doc\" in ''Gunsmoke'', and pulp hero Doc Savage.", "* In Roman Catholicism and several other Christian denominations, a Doctor of the Church is an eminent theologian (for example, Saint Thomas Aquinas, also known as the Angelic Doctor) from whose teachings the whole Church is held to have derived great advantage.", "* African leaders often refer to themselves as \"Doctor\" as part of their title upon assuming office." ], [ "See also", "* Ijazah* Postdoc" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The Use of Dr. in British Columbia law for Optometrists* Indiana usage of Dr. title SECTION 1.IC 24-5-0.5–12 IS* use of Dr. title in names in Hungary* Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West by George Makdisi." ] ]
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[ [ "Domnall mac Ailpín" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Domnall mac Ailpín''' (Modern Gaelic: ''Dòmhnall mac Ailpein''), anglicised sometimes as '''Donald MacAlpin''' and known in most modern regnal lists as '''Donald I''' (812 – 13 April 862), was King of the Picts from 858 to 862.He followed his brother Kenneth I to the Pictish throne." ], [ "Reign", "The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says that Domnall reigned for four years, matching the notices in the Annals of Ulster of his brother's death in February 858 and his own in April 862.The Chronicle notes:The laws of Áed Find are entirely lost, but it has been assumed that, like the laws attributed to Giric and Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda), these related to the church and in particular to granting the privileges and immunities common elsewhere.", "The significance of Forteviot as the site of this law-making, along with Kenneth's death there and Constantine's later gathering at nearby Scone, may point to this as being the heartland of the sons of Alpín's support.The Chronicle of Melrose says of Domnall, \"in war he was a vigorous soldier ... he is said to have been assassinated at Scone.\"", "No other source reports Domnall's death by violence.The Prophecy of Berchán may refer to Domnall in stanzas 123–124:Although Domnall is generally supposed to have been childless, it has been suggested that Giric was a son of Domnall, reading his patronym as ''mac Domnaill'' rather than the commonly supposed ''mac Dúngail''.", "This, however, is not widely accepted.Domnall died, either at the palace of Cinnbelachoir (location unknown), or at ''Rathinveralmond'' (also unknown, and may be the same place, presumed to be near the junction of the Almond and the Tay, near Scone).", "He was buried on Iona." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "*Kingdom of Alba*Origins of the Kingdom of Alba" ], [ "References", "* Anderson, Alan Orr, ''Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286'', volume 1.Reprinted with corrections.", "Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990.", "* Duncan, A.", "A. M., ''The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence.''", "Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002.", "* Smyth, Alfred P., ''Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000.''", "Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 1984." ], [ "External links", "* Annals of Ulster, part 1, at CELT* The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba* Donald I at the official website of the British monarchy" ] ]
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[ [ "Danse Macabre" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Dance of Death'' (1493) by Michael Wolgemut, from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'' of Hartmann SchedelThe '''''Danse Macabre''''' (; ) (from the French language), also called the '''Dance of Death''', is an artistic genre of allegory from the Late Middle Ages on the universality of death.The ''Danse Macabre'' consists of the dead, or a personification of death, summoning representatives from all walks of life to dance along to the grave, typically with a pope, emperor, king, child, and labourer.", "The effect is both frivolous and terrifying, beseeching its audience to react emotionally.", "It was produced as ''memento mori'', to remind people of the fragility of their lives and how vain are the glories of earthly life.", "Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts; the earliest recorded visual scheme was a now-lost mural at Holy Innocents' Cemetery in Paris dating from 1424 to 1425." ], [ "Background", "Historian Francis Rapp (1926–2020) writes thatChristians were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on his mother's knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron saints reassured them by their presence.", "But, all the while, the danse macabre urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things.This ''Danse Macabre'' was enacted at village pageants and at court masques, with people \"''dressing up as corpses from various strata of society''\", and may have been the origin of costumes worn during Allhallowtide.In her thesis, ''The Black Death and its Effect on 14th and 15th Century Art'', Anna Louise Des Ormeaux describes the effect of the Black Death on art, mentioning the ''Danse Macabre'' as she does so:Some plague art contains gruesome imagery that was directly influenced by the mortality of the plague or by the medieval fascination with the macabre and awareness of death that were augmented by the plague.", "Some plague art documents psychosocial responses to the fear that plague aroused in its victims.", "Other plague art is of a subject that directly responds to people's reliance on religion to give them hope.", "The cultural impact of mass outbreaks of disease are not fleeting or temporary.", "The effect can endure past the initial stages of outbreak, in its deep etching upon the culture and society.", "This can be seen in the artworks and motifs of ''Danse Macabre'' as people attempted to cope with the death surrounding them." ], [ "Paintings", "Charnel house at Holy Innocents' Cemetery, Paris, with mural of a ''Danse Macabre'' (1424–25)What is often considered to be the earliest recorded visual example is the lost mural on the South wall of the Cemetery of the Holy Innocents in Paris.", "It was painted in 1424–25 during the regency of John, Duke of Bedford (1389–1435).", "It features an emphatic inclusion of a dead crowned king at a time when France did not have a crowned king.", "The mural may well have had a political subtext.", "However, some have argued that 14th century Triumph of Death paintings such as the fresco by Francesco Traini are also examples of danse macabre.There were also painted schemes in Basel (the earliest dating from ); a series of paintings on canvas by Bernt Notke (1440–1509) in Lübeck (1463); the initial fragment of the original Bernt Notke painting ''Danse Macabre'' (accomplished at the end of the 15th century) in the St Nicholas' Church, Tallinn, Estonia; the painting at the back wall of the chapel of Sv.", "Marija na Škrilinama in the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav; the painting in the Holy Trinity Church of Hrastovlje, Istria by John of Kastav (1490).An abbot and a bailiff, dancing the Dance Macabre, miniature from a 1486 book, printed by Guy Marchant in ParisA notable example was painted on the cemetery walls of the Dominican Abbey, in Bern, by Niklaus Manuel Deutsch (1484–1530) in 1516/7.This work of art was destroyed when the wall was torn down in 1660, but a 1649 copy by Albrecht Kauw (1621–1681) is extant.", "There was also a ''Dance of Death'' painted around 1430 and displayed on the walls of Pardon Churchyard at Old St Paul's Cathedral, London, with texts by John Lydgate (1370–1451) known as the 'Dance of (St) Poulys', which was destroyed in 1549.The deathly horrors of the 14th century such as recurring famines, the Hundred Years' War in France, and, most of all, the Black Death, were culturally assimilated throughout Europe.", "The omnipresent possibility of sudden and painful death increased the religious desire for penance, but it also evoked a hysterical desire for amusement while still possible; a last dance as cold comfort.", "The ''Danse Macabre'' combines both desires: in many ways similar to the medieval mystery plays, the dance-with-death allegory was originally a didactic dialogue poem to remind people of the inevitability of death and to advise them strongly to be prepared at all times for death (see ''memento mori'' and ).Short verse dialogues between Death and each of its victims, which could have been performed as plays, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany and in Spain (where it was known as the ''Totentanz'' and ''la Danza de la Muerte'', respectively).The French term ''Danse Macabre'' may derive from the Latin ''Chorea Machabæorum'', literally \"dance of the Maccabees.\"", "In 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described and was a well-known medieval subject.", "It is possible that the Maccabean Martyrs were commemorated in some early French plays, or that people just associated the book's vivid descriptions of the martyrdom with the interaction between Death and its prey.An alternative explanation is that the term entered France via Spain, the , ''maqabir'' (pl., \"cemeteries\") being the root of the word.", "Both the dialogues and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential lessons that even illiterate people (who were the overwhelming majority) could understand." ], [ "Mural paintings", "Simon Marmion: Right wing (inside) of the former high altar of the abbey church of St-Bertin in St-Omer (1455–1459) with the depiction of a dance of death fresco in the cloister galleryFrescoes and murals dealing with death had a long tradition, and were widespread.", "For example, the legend of the ''Three Living and the Three Dead.''", "On a ride or hunt, three young gentlemen meet three cadavers (sometimes described as their ancestors) who warn them, ''Quod fuimus, estis; quod sumus, vos eritis'' (\"What we were, you are; what we are, you will be\").", "Numerous mural versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived (for instance, in the Hospital Church of Wismar or the residential Longthorpe Tower outside Peterborough).", "Since they showed pictorial sequences of men and corpses covered with shrouds, those paintings are sometimes regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre.A ''Danse Macabre'' painting may show a round dance headed by Death or, more usually, a chain of alternating dead and live dancers.", "From the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy (usually pope and emperor) descending to its lowest (beggar, peasant, and child), each mortal's hand is taken by an animated skeleton or cadaver.", "The famous ''Totentanz'' by Bernt Notke in St. Mary's Church, Lübeck (destroyed during the Allied bombing of Lübeck in World War II), presented the dead dancers as very lively and agile, making the impression that they were actually dancing, whereas their living dancing partners looked clumsy and passive.", "The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, so that a sociocritical element is subtly inherent to the whole genre.", "The ''Totentanz'' of Metnitz, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his tiara is being led into Hell by Death.Usually, a short dialogue is attached to each pair of dancers, in which Death is summoning him (or, more rarely, her) to dance and the summoned is moaning about impending death.", "In the first printed ''Totentanz'' textbook (Anon.", ": ''Vierzeiliger oberdeutscher Totentanz'', Heidelberger Blockbuch, ), Death addresses, for example, the emperor:At the lower end of the ''Totentanz'', Death calls, for example, the peasant to dance, who answers:Various examples of ''Danse Macabre'' in Slovenia and Croatia below: File:Totentanz Maria im Fels Beram.JPG|The fresco at the back wall of the Church of St. Mary of the Rocks in the Istrian town of Beram (1474), painted by Vincent of Kastav, CroatiaFile:Hrastovlje Dans3.jpg|John of Kastav: Detail of the ''Dance Macabre fresco'' (1490) in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje, SloveniaFile:Dance of Death (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia).jpg|''Dance of Death'' (replica of 15th century fresco; National Gallery of Slovenia)File:Totentanz in Hrastovlje.JPG|The famous ''Danse Macabre'' in Hrastovlje in the Holy Trinity ChurchFile:Trionfo della morte - Chiesa S. Maria Annunciata - Bienno (ph Luca Giarelli).jpg|''Danse Macabre'' in St Maria in Bienno, 16th century" ], [ "Hans Holbein's woodcuts", "Renowned for his ''Dance of Death'' series, the famous designs by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) were drawn in 1526 while he was in Basel.", "They were cut in wood by the accomplished Formschneider (block cutter) Hans Lützelburger.William Ivins (quoting W. J. Linton) writes of Lützelburger's work wrote:\"''Nothing indeed, by knife or by graver, is of higher quality than this man's doing.'", "For by common acclaim the originals are technically the most marvelous woodcuts ever made''.\"", "These woodcuts soon appeared in proofs with titles in German.", "The first book edition, containing forty-one woodcuts, was published at Lyons by the Treschsel brothers in 1538.The popularity of the work, and the currency of its message, are underscored by the fact that there were eleven editions before 1562, and over the sixteenth century perhaps as many as a hundred unauthorized editions and imitations.", "Ten further designs were added in later editions.The ''Dance of Death'' (1523–26) refashions the late-medieval allegory of the ''Danse Macabre'' as a reformist satire, and one can see the beginnings of a gradual shift from traditional to reformed Christianity.", "That shift had many permutations however, and in a study Natalie Zemon Davis has shown that the contemporary reception and afterlife of Holbein's designs lent themselves to neither purely Catholic or Protestant doctrine, but could be outfitted with different surrounding prefaces and sermons as printers and writers of different political and religious leanings took them up.", "Most importantly, \"''The pictures and the Bible quotations above them were the main attractions … Both Catholics and Protestants wished, through the pictures, to turn men's thoughts to a Christian preparation for death.", "''\".The 1538 edition which contained Latin quotations from the Bible above Holbein's designs, and a French quatrain below composed by Gilles Corrozet (1510–1568) actually did not credit Holbein as the artist.", "It bore the title: Les simulachres & / HISTORIEES FACES / DE LA MORT, AUTANT ELE/gammēt pourtraictes, que artifi/ciellement imaginées.", "/ A Lyon.", "/ Soubz l'escu de COLOIGNE.", "/ M.D.", "XXXVIII.", "(\"Images and Illustrated facets of Death, as elegantly depicted as they are artfully conceived.\")", "These images and workings of death as captured in the phrase \"histories faces\" of the title \"are the particular exemplification of the way death works, the individual scenes in which the lessons of mortality are brought home to people of every station.", "\"From Holbein's ''Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte'' (in Lyone Appresso Giovan Frellone, 1549)The Abbess from Holbein's ''Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte'', 1549In his preface to the work Jean de Vauzèle, the Prior of Montrosier, addresses Jehanne de Tourzelle, the Abbess of the Convent at St. Peter at Lyons, and names Holbein's attempts to capture the ever-present, but never directly seen, abstract images of death \"simulachres.\"", "He writes: \"''… simulachres les dis ie vrayement, pour ce que simulachre vient de simuler, & faindre ce que n'est point.''\"", "(\"Simulachres they are most correctly called, for simulachre derives from the verb to simulate and to feign that which is not really there.\")", "He next employs a trope from the memento mori (remember we all must die) tradition and a metaphor from printing which well captures the undertakings of Death, the artist, and the printed book before us in which these simulachres of death barge in on the living: ''\"Et pourtant qu'on n'a peu trouver chose plus approchante a la similitude de Mort, que la personne morte, on d'icelle effigie simulachres, & faces de Mort, pour en nos pensees imprimer la memoire de Mort plus au vis, que ne pourroient toutes les rhetoriques descriptiones de orateurs.\"''", "(\"And yet we cannot discover any one thing more near the likeness of Death than the dead themselves, whence come these simulated effigies and images of Death's affairs, which imprint the memory of Death with more force than all the rhetorical descriptions of the orators ever could.", "\").The Plowman from Holbein's ''Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte'', 1549The Pedlar from Holbein's ''Simolachri, Historie, e Figure de la Morte'' (in Lyone Appresso Giovan Frellone, 1549)Holbein's series shows the figure of \"Death\" in many disguises, confronting individuals from all walks of life.", "None escape Death's skeletal clutches, not even the pious.", "As Davis writes, \"Holbein's pictures are independent dramas in which Death comes upon his victim in the midst of the latter's own surroundings and activities.", "This is perhaps nowhere more strikingly captured than in the wonderful blocks showing the plowman earning his bread by the sweat of his brow only to have his horses speed him to his end by Death.", "The Latin from the 1549 Italian edition pictured here reads: \"In sudore vultus tui, vesceris pane tuo.\"", "(\"Through the sweat of thy brow you shall eat your bread\"), quoting Genesis 3.19.The Italian verses below translate: (\"Miserable in the sweat of your brow,/ It is necessary that you acquire the bread you need eat,/ But, may it not displease you to come with me,/ If you are desirous of rest.\").", "Or there is the nice balance in composition Holbein achieves between the heavy-laden traveling salesman insisting that he must still go to market while Death tugs at his sleeve to put down his wares once and for all: \"Venite ad me, qui onerati estis.\"", "(\"Come to me, all ye who labour and are heavy laden\"), quoting Matthew 11.28.The Italian here translates: \"Come with me, wretch, who are weighed down / Since I am the dame who rules the whole world:/ Come and hear my advice / Because I wish to lighten you of this load.\"St.", "Peter and St. Paul church, Vilnius" ], [ "Musical settings", "Musical settings of the motif include:* ''Mattasin oder Toden Tanz'', 1598, by August Nörmiger* ''Totentanz.", "Paraphrase on \"Dies irae.\"''", "by Franz Liszt, 1849, a set of variations based on the plainsong melody \"Dies Irae\".", "* ''Danse Macabre'' by Camille Saint-Saëns, 1874* ''Songs and Dances of Death'', 1875–77, by Modest Mussorgsky* ''Symphony No.", "4'', 2nd Movement, 1901, by Gustav Mahler* ''Totentanz der Prinzipien'', 1914, by Arnold Schönberg* ''The Green Table'', 1932, ballet by Kurt Jooss* ''Totentanz'', 1934, by Hugo Distler, inspired by the ''Lübecker Totentanz''* \"Scherzo (Dance of Death),\" in Op.", "14 ''Ballad of Heroes'', 1939, by Benjamin Britten* ''Piano Trio No.", "2 in E minor'', Op.", "67, 4th movement, \"Dance of Death,\" 1944, by Dmitri Shostakovich* ''Der Kaiser von Atlantis, oder Die Tod-Verweigerung'', 1944, by Viktor Ullmann and Peter Kien* ''Le Grand Macabre'', opera written by György Ligeti (Stockholm 1978)* ''Danse Macabre'', song, 1984, by Celtic Frost, Swiss extreme metal band* ''Dance of Death'', 2003, an album and a song by Iron Maiden, heavy metal band* ''Cortège & Danse Macabre'' from the symphonic suite ''Cantabile'', 2009, by Frederik Magle* ''Totentanz (Adès)'' by Thomas Adès, 2013, a piece for voices and orchestra based on the 15th century text.", "* ''La Danse Macabre'', song on the Shovel Knight soundtrack, 2014, by Jake Kaufman* ''Dance Macabre'', 2018, by Ghost (Swedish band), Swedish heavy metal band* La danse macabre, song, 2019, by Clément Belio, French multi-instrumentalist* ''Danse Macabre'' by Jörg Widmann, 2022* ''Danse Macabre'', song and album, 2023, by Duran Duran, English new wave band* ''Danse Macabre'' by Prach Boondiskulchok, 2023" ], [ "Textual examples of the Danse Macabre", "The ''Danse Macabre'' was a frequent motif in poetry, drama and other written literature in the Middle Ages in several areas of western Europe.", "There is a Spanish , a French , and a German with various Latin manuscripts written during the 14th century.", "Printed editions of books began appearing in the 15th century, such as the ones produced by Guy Marchant of Paris.", "Similarly to the musical or artistic representations, the texts describe living and dead persons being called to dance or form a procession with Death.", "''Danse Macabre'' texts were often, though not always, illustrated with illuminations and woodcuts.There is one danse macabre text devoted entirely to women: ''The Danse Macabre of Women''.", "This work survives in five manuscripts, and two printed editions.", "In it, 36 women of various ages, in Paris, are called from their daily lives and occupations to join the Dance with Death.", "An English translation of the French manuscript was published by Ann Tukey Harrison in 1994.John Lydgate's ''Dance of Death'' is a Middle English poem written in the early 15th century.", "It is a translation of a French poem of the same name, and it is one of the most popular examples of the Danse Macabre genre.The poem is a moral allegory in which Death leads a procession of people from all walks of life to their graves.", "The poem includes a variety of characters, including the emperor, the pope, the cardinal, the bishop, the abbot, the prioress, the monk, the nun, the doctor, the lawyer, the merchant, the knight, the plowman, the beggar, and the child.The poem is a reminder that death is inevitable for everyone, regardless of their social status or wealth.", "It is also a warning against the dangers of pride and greed.In The Graveyard Book, a young adult fiction written by Neil Gaiman, there is a chapter fully dedicated to The Danse Macabre (Chapter 5).", "In this chapter, we see Nobody Owens noticing something strange and restlessness in the inhabitants of the Graveyard.", "Eventually later in the midnight, he discovers that all the dead inhabitants of the graveyard leaves the place and come to dance with the living folk.", "Later, it is stated that the living people who dances the Danse Macabre always forget that they have danced with the dead.", "Here is an extract from that chapter:\"Josiah Worthington was standing beside him.Bod said, 'You began the dance.", "With the Mayoress.", "You danced with her.", "'Josiah Worthington looked at him and said nothing.", "'You did,' said Bod.Josiah Worthington said, 'The dead and the living do not mingle, boy.", "We are no longer part of their world, they are no part of ours.", "If it happened that we danced the danse macabre with them, the dance of death, then we would not speak of it, and we certainly would not to speak of it to the living.'", "The poem is written in rhyme royal, a seven-line stanzaic form that was popular in the Middle Ages." ], [ "See also", "* Dancing mania* Dancing Pallbearers* ''La Calavera Catrina''* Medieval dance* ''Memento mori''* ''The Skeleton Dance''* ''Vanitas''* ''Michael Jackson's Thriller (music video)''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Bätschmann, Oskar, & Pascal Griener (1997), ''Hans Holbein.''", "London: Reaktion Books.", "* Israil Bercovici (1998) ''O sută de ani de teatru evriesc în România'' (\"One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania\"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă.", "Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest.", ".", "* James M. Clark (1947), ''The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein'', London.", "* James M. Clark (1950) ''The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and Renaissance''.", "* André Corvisier (1998) ''Les danses macabres'', Presses Universitaires de France.", ".", "* Natalie Zemon Davis (1956), \"Holbein's Pictures of Death and the Reformation at Lyons,\" ''Studies in the Renaissance'', vol.", "3 (1956), pp. 97–130.", "* Rolf Paul Dreier (2010) ''Der Totentanz – ein Motiv der kirchlichen Kunst als Projektionsfläche für profane Botschaften (1425–1650)'', Leiden, with CD-ROM: Verzeichnis der Totentänze* Werner L. Gundersheimer (1971), ''The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein the Younger: A Complete Facsimile of the Original 1538 Edition of Les simulachres et histoirees faces de la Mort''.", "New york: Dover Publications, Inc.* William M. Ivins Jr. (1919), \"Hans Holbein's Dance of Death,\" ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', vol.", "14, no.", "11 (Nov. 1919).", "pp. 231–235.", "* Landau, David, & Peter Parshall (1996), ''The Renaissance Print'', New Haven (CT): Yale, 1996.", "* Francesc Massip & Lenke Kovács (2004), ''El baile: conjuro ante la muerte.", "Presencia de lo macabro en la danza y la fiesta popular''.", "Ciudad Real, CIOFF-INAEM, 2004.", "* Sophie Oosterwijk (2008), 'Of dead kings, dukes and constables.", "The historical context of the Danse Macabre in late-medieval Paris', ''Journal of the British Archaeological Association'', 161, 131–62.", "* Sophie Oosterwijk and Stefanie Knoell (2011), ''Mixed Metaphors.", "The Danse Macabre in Medieval and Early Modern Europe'', Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.", ".", "* Romania, National Library of ... – Illustrated Latin translation of the'' Danse Macabre'', late 15th century.", "treasure 4* Meinolf Schumacher (2001), \"Ein Kranz für den Tanz und ein Strich durch die Rechnung.", "Zu Oswald von Wolkenstein 'Ich spür ain tier' (Kl 6)\", ''Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur'', vol.", "123 (2001), pp. 253–273.", "* Ann Tukey Harrison (1994), with a chapter by Sandra L. Hindman, ''The Danse Macabre of Women: Ms.fr.", "995 of the Bibliothèque Nationale'', Kent State University Press.", ".", "*Wilson, Derek (2006) ''Hans Holbein: Portrait of an Unknown Man.''", "London: Pimlico, Revised Edition." ], [ "Further reading", "* Henri Stegemeier (1939) ''The Dance of Death in Folksong, with an Introduction on the History of the Dance of Death.''", "University of Chicago.", "* Henri Stegemeier (1949) Goethe and the \"Totentanz\" ''The Journal of English and Germanic Philology'' 48:4 Goethe Bicentennial Issue 1749–1949.48:4, 582–587.", "* Hans Georg Wehrens (2012) ''Der Totentanz im alemannischen Sprachraum.", "\"Muos ich doch dran – und weis nit wan\"''.", "Schnell & Steiner, Regensburg .", "* Elina Gertsman (2010), The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages.", "Image, Text, Performance.", "''Studies in the Visual Cultures of the Middle Ages'', 3.Turnhout, Brepols Publishers.", "*Sophie Oosterwijk (2004), ' Of corpses, constables and kings: the Danse Macabre in late-medieval and renaissance culture', ''The Journal of the British Archaeological Association'', 157, 61–90.", "* Sophie Oosterwijk (2006), '\" Muoz ich tanzen und kan nit gân?\"", "Death and the infant in the medieval Danse Macabre', ''Word & Image'', 22:2, 146–64.", "* Sophie Oosterwijk (2008), '\" For no man mai fro dethes stroke fle\".", "Death and Danse Macabre iconography in memorial art', ''Church Monuments'', 23, 62–87, 166–68* Sophie Oosterwijk and Stefanie Knoell (2011), '' Mixed Metaphors.", "The Danse Macabre in Medieval and Early Modern Europe''.", "Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.", ".", "* Marek Żukow-Karczewski (1989), \"Taniec śmierci (Dance macabre\"), Życie Literackie (''Literary Life'' – literary review magazine), 43, 4.", "* Maricarmen Gómez Muntané (2017), ''El Llibre Vermell.", "Cantos y danzas de fines del Medioevo'', Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Económica, (chapter \"Ad mortem festinamus' y la Danza de la Muerte\")." ], [ "External links", "* A collection of historical images of the Danse Macabre at Cornell's ''The Fantastic in Art and Fiction''* The Danse Macabre of Hrastovlje, Slovenia* Holbein's Totentanz* ''Les simulachres & historiees faces de la mort: commonly called \"The dance of death'''' – 1869 photographic reproduction of original by Holbein Society with woodcuts, plus English translations and a biography of Holbein.", "* * Images of ''Danse Macabre'' (2001) Conceptual performance by Antonia Svobodová and Mirek Vodrážka in Čajovna Pod Stromem Čajovým in Prague 22 May 2001'.", "* * Dance of Death, Chorea, ab eximio Macabro versibus Alemanicis edita et a Petro Desrey ... nuper emendata.", "Paris, Gui Marchand, for Geoffroy de Marnef, 15 Oct (Id.", "Oct.) 1490.From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress* An introduction to the Dance of Death, Art & Design Library, Central Library, Edinburgh" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "David Abercromby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''David Abercromby''' was a 17th-century Scottish physician and writer, thought to have died in 1702.Brought up at Douai as a Roman Catholic by Jesuit priests, he was converted to Protestantism in 1682 and came to abjure popery, and published ''Protestancy proved Safer than Popery'' (1686)." ], [ "Works", "His medical reputation was based on his ''Tuta ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus'' (1684) which was translated into French, Dutch and German.", "Two other works by him were ''De Pulsus Variatione'' (1685), and ''Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore'' (1688); his ''Opuscula'' were collected in 1687.These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in Albrecht von Haller, ''Bibliotheca Medicinae Practicae'' (1779).", "According to Haller he was alive early in the 18th century.He also wrote some books in theology and philosophy, controversial in their time but little remembered today.", "But the most noticeable of his productions is ''A Discourse of Wit'' (1685), which contains some of the most characteristic metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense.", "It was followed by ''Academia Scientiarum'' (1687), and by ''A Moral Discourse of the Power of Interest'' (1690), dedicated to Robert Boyle, Abercromby's patron in the 1680s.", "He later wrote ''Reasons Why A Protestant Should not Turn Papist'' (1687), which has often wrongly been attributed to Boyle.", "''A Short Account of Scots Divines'', by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James Maidment." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Works of David Abercromby at Early English Books Online" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Deconstruction" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Deconstruction''' is a loosely-defined set of approaches to understanding the relationship between text and meaning.", "The concept of deconstruction was introduced by the philosopher Jacques Derrida, who described it as a turn away from Platonism's ideas of \"true\" forms and essences which are valued above appearances.", "Since the 1980s, these proposals of language's fluidity instead of being ideally static and discernible have inspired a range of studies in the humanities, including the disciplines of law, anthropology, historiography, linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychoanalysis, LGBT studies, and feminism.", "Deconstruction also inspired deconstructivism in architecture and remains important within art, music, and literary criticism." ], [ "Overview", "Jacques Derrida's 1967 book ''Of Grammatology'' introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction.", "Derrida published a number of other works directly relevant to the concept of deconstruction, such as ''Différance'', ''Speech and Phenomena'', and ''Writing and Difference''.To Derrida,According to Derrida, and taking inspiration from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, language as a system of signs and words only has meaning because of the contrast between these signs.", "As Richard Rorty contends, \"words have meaning only because of contrast-effects with other words ... no word can acquire meaning in the way in which philosophers from Aristotle to Bertrand Russell have hoped it might—by being the unmediated expression of something non-linguistic (e.g., an emotion, a sensed observation, a physical object, an idea, a Platonic Form)\".", "As a consequence, meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs.", "Derrida refers to the—in his view, mistaken—belief that there is a self-sufficient, non-deferred meaning as metaphysics of presence.", "Rather, according to Derrida, a concept must be understood in the context of its opposite: for example, the word ''being'' does not have meaning without contrast with the word ''nothing''.Further, Derrida contends that \"in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the peaceful coexistence of a vis-a-vis, but rather with a violent hierarchy.", "One of the two terms governs the other (axiologically, logically, etc.", "), or has the upper hand\": signified over signifier; intelligible over sensible; speech over writing; activity over passivity, etc.", "The first task of deconstruction is, according to Derrida, to find and overturn these oppositions inside text(s); but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense: the oppositions simply cannot be suspended once and for all, as the hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself (because it is necessary to meaning).", "Deconstruction, Derrida says, only points to the necessity of an unending analysis that can make explicit the decisions and hierarchies intrinsic to all texts.Derrida further argues that it is not enough to expose and deconstruct the way oppositions work and then stop there in a nihilistic or cynical position, \"thereby preventing any means of intervening in the field effectively\".", "To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition, but to mark their difference and eternal interplay.", "This explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but from the necessity of analysis.", "Derrida called these undecidables—that is, unities of simulacrum—\"false\" verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition.", "Instead, they inhabit philosophical oppositions—resisting and organizing them—without ever constituting a third term or leaving room for a solution in the form of a Hegelian dialectic (e.g., , archi-writing, pharmakon, supplement, hymen, gram, spacing)." ], [ "Influences", "Derrida's theories on deconstruction were themselves influenced by the work of linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure (whose writings on semiotics also became a cornerstone of structuralism in the mid-20th century) and literary theorists such as Roland Barthes (whose works were an investigation of the logical ends of structuralist thought).", "Derrida's views on deconstruction stood in opposition to the theories of structuralists such as psychoanalytic theorist Jacques Lacan, and anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss.", "However, Derrida resisted attempts to label his work as \"post-structuralist\".===Influence of Nietzsche===Friedrich NietzscheDerrida's motivation for developing deconstructive criticism, suggesting the fluidity of language over static forms, was largely inspired by Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy, beginning with his interpretation of Trophonius.", "In ''Daybreak'', Nietzsche announces that \"All things that live long are gradually so saturated with reason that their origin in unreason thereby becomes improbable.", "Does not almost every precise history of an origination impress our feelings as paradoxical and wantonly offensive?", "Does the good historian not, at bottom, constantly contradict?", "\".Nietzsche's point in ''Daybreak'' is that standing at the end of modern history, modern thinkers know too much to continue to be deceived by an illusory grasp of satisfactorily complete reason.", "Mere proposals of heightened reasoning, logic, philosophizing and science are no longer solely sufficient as the royal roads to truth.", "Nietzsche disregards Platonism to revisualize the history of the West as the self-perpetuating history of a series of political moves, that is, a manifestation of the will to power, that at bottom have no greater or lesser claim to truth in any noumenal (absolute) sense.", "By calling attention to the fact that he has assumed the role of a subterranean Trophonius, in dialectical opposition to Plato, Nietzsche hopes to sensitize readers to the political and cultural context, and the political influences that impact authorship.Where Nietzsche did not achieve deconstruction, as Derrida sees it, is that he missed the opportunity to further explore the will to power as more than a manifestation of the sociopolitically effective operation of writing that Plato characterized, stepping beyond Nietzsche's penultimate revaluation of all Western values, to the ultimate, which is the emphasis on \"the role of writing in the production of knowledge\".===Influence of Saussure===Derrida approaches all texts as constructed around elemental oppositions which all discourse has to articulate if it intends to make any sense whatsoever.", "This is so because identity is viewed in non-essentialist terms as a construct, and because constructs only produce meaning through the interplay of difference inside a \"system of distinct signs\".", "This approach to text is influenced by the semiology of Ferdinand de Saussure.Saussure is considered one of the fathers of structuralism when he explained that terms get their meaning in reciprocal determination with other terms inside language:In language there are only differences.", "Even more important: a difference generally implies positive terms between which the difference is set up; but in language there are only differences without positive terms.", "Whether we take the signified or the signifier, language has neither ideas nor sounds that existed before the linguistic system, but only conceptual and phonic differences that have issued from the system.", "The idea or phonic substance that a sign contains is of less importance than the other signs that surround it.", "... A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas; but the pairing of a certain number of acoustical signs with as many cuts made from the mass thought engenders a system of values.Saussure explicitly suggested that linguistics was only a branch of a more general semiology, a science of signs in general, human codes being only one part.", "Nevertheless, in the end, as Derrida pointed out, Saussure made linguistics \"the regulatory model\", and \"for essential, and essentially metaphysical, reasons had to privilege speech, and everything that links the sign to phone\".", "Derrida will prefer to follow the more \"fruitful paths (formalization)\" of a general semiotics without falling into what he considered \"a hierarchizing teleology\" privileging linguistics, and to speak of \"mark\" rather than of language, not as something restricted to mankind, but as prelinguistic, as the pure possibility of language, working everywhere there is a relation to something else." ], [ "Deconstruction according to Derrida", "===Etymology===Derrida's original use of the word ''deconstruction'' was a translation of ''Destruktion'', a concept from the work of Martin Heidegger that Derrida sought to apply to textual reading.", "Heidegger's term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them.===Basic philosophical concerns===Derrida's concerns flow from a consideration of several issues:* A desire to contribute to the re-evaluation of all Western values, a re-evaluation built on the 18th-century Kantian critique of pure reason, and carried forward to the 19th century, in its more radical implications, by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche.", "* An assertion that texts outlive their authors, and become part of a set of cultural habits equal to, if not surpassing, the importance of authorial intent.", "* A re-valuation of certain classic western dialectics: poetry vs. philosophy, reason vs. revelation, structure vs. creativity, episteme vs. techne, etc.To this end, Derrida follows a long line of modern philosophers, who look backwards to Plato and his influence on the Western metaphysical tradition.", "Like Nietzsche, Derrida suspects Plato of dissimulation in the service of a political project, namely the education, through critical reflections, of a class of citizens more strategically positioned to influence the polis.", "However, like Nietzsche, Derrida is not satisfied merely with such a political interpretation of Plato, because of the particular dilemma modern humans find themselves in.", "His Platonic reflections are inseparably part of his critique of modernity, hence the attempt to be something beyond the modern, because of this Nietzschean sense that the modern has lost its way and become mired in nihilism.=== === is the observation that the meanings of words come from their synchrony with other words within the language and their diachrony between contemporary and historical definitions of a word.", "Understanding language, according to Derrida, requires an understanding of both viewpoints of linguistic analysis.", "The focus on diachrony has led to accusations against Derrida of engaging in the etymological fallacy.There is one statement by Derrida—in an essay on Rousseau in ''Of Grammatology''—which has been of great interest to his opponents.", "It is the assertion that \"there is no outside-text\" (), which is often mistranslated as \"there is nothing outside of the text\".", "The mistranslation is often used to suggest Derrida believes that nothing exists but words.", "Michel Foucault, for instance, famously misattributed to Derrida the very different phrase for this purpose.", "According to Derrida, his statement simply refers to the unavoidability of context that is at the heart of .For example, the word ''house'' derives its meaning more as a function of how it differs from ''shed'', ''mansion'', ''hotel'', ''building'', etc.", "(form of content, which Louis Hjelmslev distinguished from form of expression) than how the word ''house'' may be tied to a certain image of a traditional house (i.e., the relationship between signified and signifier), with each term being established in reciprocal determination with the other terms than by an ostensive description or definition: when can one talk about a ''house'' or a ''mansion'' or a ''shed''?", "The same can be said about verbs in all languages: when should one stop saying ''walk'' and start saying ''run''?", "The same happens, of course, with adjectives: when must one stop saying ''yellow'' and start saying ''orange'', or exchange ''past'' for ''present''?", "Not only are the topological differences between the words relevant here, but the differentials between what is signified is also covered by .Thus, complete meaning is always \"differential\" and ''postponed'' in language; there is never a moment when meaning is complete and total.", "A simple example would consist of looking up a given word in a dictionary, then proceeding to look up the words found in that word's definition, etc., also comparing with older dictionaries.", "Such a process would never end.===Metaphysics of presence===Derrida describes the task of deconstruction as the identification of metaphysics of presence, or ''logocentrism'' in western philosophy.", "Metaphysics of presence is the desire for immediate access to meaning, the privileging of presence over absence.", "This means that there is an assumed bias in certain binary oppositions where one side is placed in a position over another, such as good over bad, speech over the written word, male over female.", "Derrida writes,To Derrida, the central bias of logocentrism was the now being placed as more important than the future or past.", "This argument is largely based on the earlier work of Heidegger, who, in ''Being and Time'', claimed that the theoretical attitude of pure presence is parasitical upon a more originary involvement with the world in concepts such as ready-to-hand and being-with.===Deconstruction and dialectics===In the deconstruction procedure, one of the main concerns of Derrida is to not collapse into Hegel's dialectic, where these oppositions would be reduced to contradictions in a dialectic that has the purpose of resolving it into a synthesis.", "The presence of Hegelian dialectics was enormous in the intellectual life of France during the second half of the 20th century, with the influence of Kojève and Hyppolite, but also with the impact of dialectics based on contradiction developed by Marxists, and including the existentialism of Sartre, etc.", "This explains Derrida's concern to always distinguish his procedure from Hegel's, since Hegelianism believes binary oppositions would produce a synthesis, while Derrida saw binary oppositions as incapable of collapsing into a synthesis free from the original contradiction." ], [ "Difficulty of definition", "There have been problems defining deconstruction.", "Derrida claimed that all of his essays were attempts to define what deconstruction is, and that deconstruction is necessarily complicated and difficult to explain since it actively criticises the very language needed to explain it.===Derrida's \"negative\" descriptions===Derrida has been more forthcoming with negative (apophatic) than with positive descriptions of deconstruction.", "When asked by Toshihiko Izutsu some preliminary considerations on how to translate ''deconstruction'' in Japanese, in order to at least prevent using a Japanese term contrary to ''deconstruction'''s actual meaning, Derrida began his response by saying that such a question amounts to \"what deconstruction is not, or rather ''ought'' not to be\".Derrida states that deconstruction is not an analysis, a critique, or a method in the traditional sense that philosophy understands these terms.", "In these negative descriptions of deconstruction, Derrida is seeking to \"multiply the cautionary indicators and put aside all the traditional philosophical concepts\".", "This does not mean that deconstruction has absolutely nothing in common with an analysis, a critique, or a method, because while Derrida distances deconstruction from these terms, he reaffirms \"the necessity of returning to them, at least under erasure\".", "Derrida's necessity of returning to a term under erasure means that even though these terms are problematic, they must be used until they can be effectively reformulated or replaced.", "The relevance of the tradition of negative theology to Derrida's preference for negative descriptions of deconstruction is the notion that a positive description of deconstruction would over-determine the idea of deconstruction and would close off the openness that Derrida wishes to preserve for deconstruction.", "If Derrida were to positively define deconstruction—as, for example, a critique—then this would make the concept of critique immune to itself being deconstructed.", "Some new philosophy beyond deconstruction would then be required in order to encompass the notion of critique.====Not a method====Derrida states that \"Deconstruction is not a method, and cannot be transformed into one\".", "This is because deconstruction is not a mechanical operation.", "Derrida warns against considering deconstruction as a mechanical operation, when he states that \"It is true that in certain circles (university or cultural, especially in the United States) the technical and methodological \"metaphor\" that seems necessarily attached to the very word 'deconstruction' has been able to seduce or lead astray\".", "Commentator Richard Beardsworth explains that:Derrida is careful to avoid this term method because it carries connotations of a procedural form of judgement.", "A thinker with a method has already decided ''how'' to proceed, is unable to give him or herself up to the matter of thought in hand, is a functionary of the criteria which structure his or her conceptual gestures.", "For Derrida ... this is irresponsibility itself.", "Thus, to talk of a method in relation to deconstruction, especially regarding its ethico-political implications, would appear to go directly against the current of Derrida's philosophical adventure.Beardsworth here explains that it would be irresponsible to undertake a deconstruction with a complete set of rules that need only be applied as a method to the object of deconstruction, because this understanding would reduce deconstruction to a thesis of the reader that the text is then made to fit.", "This would be an irresponsible act of reading, because it becomes a prejudicial procedure that only finds what it sets out to find.====Not a critique====Derrida states that deconstruction is not a critique in the Kantian sense.", "This is because Kant defines the term ''critique'' as the opposite of dogmatism.", "For Derrida, it is not possible to escape the dogmatic baggage of the language used in order to perform a pure critique in the Kantian sense.", "Language is dogmatic because it is inescapably metaphysical.", "Derrida argues that language is inescapably metaphysical because it is made up of signifiers that only refer to that which transcends them—the signified.", "In addition, Derrida asks rhetorically \"Is not the idea of knowledge and of the acquisition of knowledge in itself metaphysical?\"", "By this, Derrida means that all claims to know something necessarily involve an assertion of the metaphysical type that something ''is'' the case somewhere.", "For Derrida the concept of neutrality is suspect and dogmatism is therefore involved in everything to a certain degree.", "Deconstruction can challenge a particular dogmatism and hence de-sediment dogmatism in general, but it cannot escape all dogmatism all at once.====Not an analysis====Derrida states that deconstruction is not an analysis in the traditional sense.", "This is because the possibility of analysis is predicated on the possibility of breaking up the text being analysed into elemental component parts.", "Derrida argues that there are no self-sufficient units of meaning in a text, because individual words or sentences in a text can only be properly understood in terms of how they fit into the larger structure of the text and language itself.", "For more on Derrida's theory of meaning see the article on .====Not post-structuralist====Derrida states that his use of the word deconstruction first took place in a context in which \"structuralism was dominant\" and deconstruction's meaning is within this context.", "Derrida states that deconstruction is an \"antistructuralist gesture\" because \"structures were to be undone, decomposed, desedimented\".", "At the same time, deconstruction is also a \"structuralist gesture\" because it is concerned with the structure of texts.", "So, deconstruction involves \"a certain attention to structures\" and tries to \"understand how an 'ensemble' was constituted\".", "As both a structuralist and an antistructuralist gesture, deconstruction is tied up with what Derrida calls the \"structural problematic\".", "The structural problematic for Derrida is the tension between genesis, that which is \"in the essential mode of creation or movement\", and structure: \"systems, or complexes, or static configurations\".", "An example of genesis would be the sensory ideas from which knowledge is then derived in the empirical epistemology.", "An example of structure would be a binary opposition such as good and evil where the meaning of each element is established, at least partly, through its relationship to the other element.It is for this reason that Derrida distances his use of the term deconstruction from post-structuralism, a term that would suggest that philosophy could simply go beyond structuralism.", "Derrida states that \"the motif of deconstruction has been associated with 'post-structuralism, but that this term was \"a word unknown in France until its 'return' from the United States\".", "In his deconstruction of Edmund Husserl, Derrida actually argues the contamination of pure origins by the structures of language and temporality.", "Manfred Frank has even referred to Derrida's work as \"neostructuralism\", identifying a \"distaste for the metaphysical concepts of domination and system\".===Alternative definitions===The popularity of the term deconstruction, combined with the technical difficulty of Derrida's primary material on deconstruction and his reluctance to elaborate his understanding of the term, has meant that many secondary sources have attempted to give a more straightforward explanation than Derrida himself ever attempted.", "Secondary definitions are therefore an interpretation of deconstruction by the person offering them rather than a summary of Derrida's actual position.", "* Paul de Man was a member of the Yale School and a prominent practitioner of deconstruction as he understood it.", "His definition of deconstruction is that, \"it's possible, within text, to frame a question or undo assertions made in the text, by means of elements which are in the text, which frequently would be precisely structures that play off the rhetorical against grammatical elements.", "\"* Richard Rorty was a prominent interpreter of Derrida's philosophy.", "His definition of deconstruction is that, \"the term 'deconstruction' refers in the first instance to the way in which the 'accidental' features of a text can be seen as betraying, subverting, its purportedly 'essential' message.", "\"* According to John D. Caputo, the very meaning and mission of deconstruction is:\"to show that things-texts, institutions, traditions, societies, beliefs, and practices of whatever size and sort you need - do not have definable meanings and determinable missions, that they are always more than any mission would impose, that they exceed the boundaries they currently occupy\"* Niall Lucy points to the impossibility of defining the term at all, stating: \"While in a sense it ''is'' impossibly difficult to define, the impossibility has less to do with the adoption of a position or the assertion of a choice on deconstruction's part than with the impossibility of every 'is' as such.", "Deconstruction begins, as it were, from a refusal of the authority or determining power of every 'is', or simply from a refusal of authority in general.", "While such refusal may indeed count as a position, it is not the case that deconstruction holds this as a sort of 'preference' \".", "* David B. Allison, an early translator of Derrida, states in the introduction to his translation of ''Speech and Phenomena'': Deconstruction signifies a project of critical thought whose task is to locate and 'take apart' those concepts which serve as the axioms or rules for a period of thought, those concepts which command the unfolding of an entire epoch of metaphysics.", "'Deconstruction' is somewhat less negative than the Heideggerian or Nietzschean terms 'destruction' or 'reversal'; it suggests that certain foundational concepts of metaphysics will never be entirely eliminated...There is no simple 'overcoming' of metaphysics or the language of metaphysics.", "* Paul Ricœur defines deconstruction as a way of uncovering the questions behind the answers of a text or tradition.===Popular definitions===A survey of the secondary literature reveals a wide range of heterogeneous arguments.", "Particularly problematic are the attempts to give neat introductions to deconstruction by people trained in literary criticism who sometimes have little or no expertise in the relevant areas of philosophy in which Derrida is working.", "These secondary works (e.g.", "''Deconstruction for Beginners'' and ''Deconstructions: A User's Guide'') have attempted to explain deconstruction while being academically criticized for being too far removed from the original texts and Derrida's actual position.", "''Cambridge Dictionary'' states that ''deconstruction'' is \"the act of breaking something down into its separate parts in order to understand its meaning, especially when this is different from how it was previously understood\".", "The Merriam-Webster dictionary states that ''deconstruction'' is \"the analytic examination of something (such as a theory) often in order to reveal its inadequacy\"." ], [ "Application", "Derrida's observations have greatly influenced literary criticism and post-structuralism.===Literary criticism===Derrida's method consisted of demonstrating all the forms and varieties of the originary complexity of semiotics, and their multiple consequences in many fields.", "His way of achieving this was by conducting thorough, careful, sensitive, and yet transformational readings of philosophical and literary texts, with an ear to what in those texts runs counter to their apparent systematicity (structural unity) or intended sense (authorial genesis).", "By demonstrating the aporias and ellipses of thought, Derrida hoped to show the infinitely subtle ways that this originary complexity, which by definition cannot ever be completely known, works its structuring and destructuring effects.Deconstruction denotes the pursuing of the meaning of a text to the point of exposing the supposed contradictions and internal oppositions upon which it is founded—supposedly showing that those foundations are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible.", "It is an approach that may be deployed in philosophy, in literary analysis, and even in the analysis of scientific writings.", "Deconstruction generally tries to demonstrate that any text is not a discrete whole but contains several irreconcilable and contradictory meanings; that any text therefore has more than one interpretation; that the text itself links these interpretations inextricably; that the incompatibility of these interpretations is irreducible; and thus that an interpretative reading cannot go beyond a certain point.", "Derrida refers to this point as an \"aporia\" in the text; thus, deconstructive reading is termed \"aporetic\".", "He insists that meaning is made possible by the relations of a word to other words within the network of structures that language is.Derrida initially resisted granting to his approach the overarching name ''deconstruction'', on the grounds that it was a precise technical term that could not be used to characterize his work generally.", "Nevertheless, he eventually accepted that the term had come into common use to refer to his textual approach, and Derrida himself increasingly began to use the term in this more general way.Derrida's deconstruction strategy is also used by postmodernists to locate meaning in a text rather than discover meaning due to the position that it has multiple readings.", "There is a focus on the deconstruction that denotes the tearing apart of a text to find arbitrary hierarchies and presuppositions for the purpose of tracing contradictions that shadow a text's coherence.", "Here, the meaning of a text does not reside with the author or the author's intentions because it is dependent on the interaction between reader and text.", "Even the process of translation is also seen as transformative since it \"modifies the original even as it modifies the translating language\".===Critique of structuralism===Derrida's lecture at Johns Hopkins University, \"Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences\", often appears in collections as a manifesto against structuralism.", "Derrida's essay was one of the earliest to propose some theoretical limitations to structuralism, and to attempt to theorize on terms that were clearly no longer structuralist.", "Structuralism viewed language as a number of signs, composed of a signified (the meaning) and a signifier (the word itself).", "Derrida proposed that signs always referred to other signs, existing only in relation to each other, and there was therefore no ultimate foundation or centre.", "This is the basis of ." ], [ "Development after Derrida", "===The Yale School===Between the late 1960s and the early 1980s, many thinkers were influenced by deconstruction, including Paul de Man, Geoffrey Hartman, and J. Hillis Miller.", "This group came to be known as the Yale school and was especially influential in literary criticism.", "Derrida and Hillis Miller were subsequently affiliated with the University of California, Irvine.Miller has described deconstruction this way: \"Deconstruction is not a dismantling of the structure of a text, but a demonstration that it has already dismantled itself.", "Its apparently solid ground is no rock, but thin air.", "\"===Critical legal studies movement===Arguing that law and politics cannot be separated, the founders of the Critical Legal Studies movement found it necessary to criticize the absence of the recognition of this inseparability at the level of theory.", "To demonstrate the indeterminacy of legal doctrine, these scholars often adopt a method, such as structuralism in linguistics, or deconstruction in Continental philosophy, to make explicit the deep structure of categories and tensions at work in legal texts and talk.", "The aim was to deconstruct the tensions and procedures by which they are constructed, expressed, and deployed.For example, Duncan Kennedy, in explicit reference to semiotics and deconstruction procedures, maintains that various legal doctrines are constructed around the binary pairs of opposed concepts, each of which has a claim upon intuitive and formal forms of reasoning that must be made explicit in their meaning and relative value, and criticized.", "Self and other, private and public, subjective and objective, freedom and control are examples of such pairs demonstrating the influence of opposing concepts on the development of legal doctrines throughout history.===''Deconstructing History''===Deconstructive readings of history and sources have changed the entire discipline of history.", "In ''Deconstructing History'', Alun Munslow examines history in what he argues is a postmodern age.", "He provides an introduction to the debates and issues of postmodernist history.", "He also surveys the latest research into the relationship between the past, history, and historical practice, as well as articulating his own theoretical challenges.===''The Inoperative Community''===Jean-Luc Nancy argues, in his 1982 book ''The Inoperative Community'', for an understanding of community and society that is undeconstructable because it is prior to conceptualisation.", "Nancy's work is an important development of deconstruction because it takes the challenge of deconstruction seriously and attempts to develop an understanding of political terms that is undeconstructable and therefore suitable for a philosophy after Derrida.", "Nancy’s work produced a critique of deconstruction by making the possibility for a relation to the other.", "This relation to the other is called “anastasis” in Nancy’s work.===''The Ethics of Deconstruction''===Simon Critchley argues, in his 1992 book ''The Ethics of Deconstruction'', that Derrida's deconstruction is an intrinsically ethical practice.", "Critchley argues that deconstruction involves an openness to the Other that makes it ethical in the Levinasian understanding of the term.===''Derrida and the Political''===Judith ButlerJacques Derrida has had a great influence on contemporary political theory and political philosophy.", "Derrida's thinking has inspired Slavoj Zizek, Richard Rorty, Ernesto Laclau, Judith Butler and many more contemporary theorists who have developed a deconstructive approach to politics.", "Because deconstruction examines the internal logic of any given text or discourse it has helped many authors to analyse the contradictions inherent in all schools of thought; and, as such, it has proved revolutionary in political analysis, particularly ideology critiques.Richard Beardsworth, developing from Critchley's ''Ethics of Deconstruction'', argues, in his 1996 ''Derrida and the Political'', that deconstruction is an intrinsically political practice.", "He further argues that the future of deconstruction faces a perhaps undecidable choice between a theological approach and a technological approach, represented first of all by the work of Bernard Stiegler.===American Evangelical Christianity===In American Evangelical Christianity in the 2020s, the term \"deconstructing faith\" came to designate a process of critically examining one's own religious beliefs with the possibility of rejecting them.", "Author David Hayward said he \"co-opted the term\" ''deconstruction'' because he was reading the work of Derrida at the time his religious beliefs came into question." ], [ "Criticisms", "Derrida was involved in a number of high-profile disagreements with prominent philosophers, including Michel Foucault, John Searle, Willard Van Orman Quine, Peter Kreeft, and Jürgen Habermas.", "Most of the criticism of deconstruction were first articulated by these philosophers then repeated elsewhere.===John Searle===In the early 1970s, Searle had a brief exchange with Jacques Derrida regarding speech-act theory.", "The exchange was characterized by a degree of mutual hostility between the philosophers, each of whom accused the other of having misunderstood his basic points.", "Searle was particularly hostile to Derrida's deconstructionist framework and much later refused to let his response to Derrida be printed along with Derrida's papers in the 1988 collection ''Limited Inc''.", "Searle did not consider Derrida's approach to be legitimate philosophy, or even intelligible writing, and argued that he did not want to legitimize the deconstructionist point of view by paying any attention to it.", "Consequently, some critics have considered the exchange to be a series of elaborate misunderstandings rather than a debate, while others have seen either Derrida or Searle gaining the upper hand.The debate began in 1972, when, in his paper \"Signature Event Context\", Derrida analyzed J. L. Austin's theory of the illocutionary act.", "While sympathetic to Austin's departure from a purely denotational account of language to one that includes \"force\", Derrida was sceptical of the framework of normativity employed by Austin.", "Derrida argued that Austin had missed the fact that any speech event is framed by a \"structure of absence\" (the words that are left unsaid due to contextual constraints) and by \"iterability\" (the constraints on what can be said, imposed by what has been said in the past).", "Derrida argued that the focus on intentionality in speech-act theory was misguided because intentionality is restricted to that which is already established as a possible intention.", "He also took issue with the way Austin had excluded the study of fiction, non-serious, or \"parasitic\" speech, wondering whether this exclusion was because Austin had considered these speech genres as governed by different structures of meaning, or had not considered them due to a lack of interest.", "In his brief reply to Derrida, \"Reiterating the Differences: A Reply to Derrida\", Searle argued that Derrida's critique was unwarranted because it assumed that Austin's theory attempted to give a full account of language and meaning when its aim was much narrower.", "Searle considered the omission of parasitic discourse forms to be justified by the narrow scope of Austin's inquiry.", "Searle agreed with Derrida's proposal that intentionality presupposes iterability, but did not apply the same concept of intentionality used by Derrida, being unable or unwilling to engage with the continental conceptual apparatus.", "This, in turn, caused Derrida to criticize Searle for not being sufficiently familiar with phenomenological perspectives on intentionality.", "Some critics have suggested that Searle, by being so grounded in the analytical tradition that he was unable to engage with Derrida's continental phenomenological tradition, was at fault for the unsuccessful nature of the exchange, however Searle also argued that Derrida's disagreement with Austin turned on Derrida's having misunderstood Austin's type–token distinction and having failed to understand Austin's concept of failure in relation to performativity.Derrida, in his response to Searle ( in ''Limited Inc''), ridiculed Searle's positions.", "Claiming that a clear sender of Searle's message could not be established, Derrida suggested that Searle had formed with Austin a (a \"limited liability company\") due to the ways in which the ambiguities of authorship within Searle's reply circumvented the very speech act of his reply.", "Searle did not reply.", "Later in 1988, Derrida tried to review his position and his critiques of Austin and Searle, reiterating that he found the constant appeal to \"normality\" in the analytical tradition to be problematic.===Jürgen Habermas===In ''The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity'', Jürgen Habermas criticized what he considered Derrida's opposition to rational discourse.", "Further, in an essay on religion and religious language, Habermas criticized what he saw as Derrida's emphasis on etymology and philology (see ''Etymological fallacy'').===Walter A. Davis===The American philosopher Walter A. Davis, in ''Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity in/and Hegel, Heidegger, Marx and Freud'', argues that both deconstruction and structuralism are prematurely arrested moments of a dialectical movement that issues from Hegelian \"unhappy consciousness\".===In popular media===Popular criticism of deconstruction intensified following the Sokal affair, which many people took as an indicator of the quality of deconstruction as a whole, despite the absence of Derrida from Sokal's follow-up book ''Impostures intellectuelles''.Chip Morningstar holds a view critical of deconstruction, believing it to be \"epistemologically challenged\".", "He claims the humanities are subject to isolation and genetic drift due to their unaccountability to the world outside academia.", "During the Second International Conference on Cyberspace (Santa Cruz, California, 1991), he reportedly heckled deconstructionists off the stage.", "He subsequently presented his views in the article \"How to Deconstruct Almost Anything\", where he stated, \"Contrary to the report given in the 'Hype List' column of issue #1 of Wired ('Po-Mo Gets Tek-No', page 87), we did not shout down the postmodernists.", "We made fun of them.\"" ], [ "See also", "**List of deconstructionists** Deconstructivism (architecture)* Deconstruction (fashion)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Derrida, Jacques.", "''Positions''.", "Trans.", "Alan Bass.", "Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1981.", "*Derrida 1980, ''The time of a thesis: punctuations'', first published in: Derrida 1990, ''Eyes of the University: Right to Philosophy 2'', pp. 113–128.", "*Breckman, Warren.", "\"Times of Theory: On Writing the History of French Theory,\" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', vol.", "71, no.", "3 (July 2010), 339–361 ( online).", "*Culler, Jonathan.", "''On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism'', Cornell University Press, 1982..*Eagleton, Terry.", "''Literary Theory: An Introduction'', University of Minnesota Press, 1996.", "*Ellis, John M. ''Against Deconstruction'', Princeton: Princeton UP, 1989..*Johnson, Barbara.", "''The Critical Difference: Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading''.", "Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.", "*Montefiore, Alan (ed., 1983), ''Philosophy in France Today'' Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp.", "34–50*Reynolds, Simon.", "''Rip It Up and Start Again'', New York: Penguin, 2006, pp. 316..", "(Source for the information about Green Gartside, Scritti Politti, and deconstructionism.", ")*Stocker, Barry.", "''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Derrida on Deconstruction'', Routledge, 2006.", "*Wortham, Simon Morgan.", "''The Derrida Dictionary'', Continuum, 2010." ], [ "External links", "* * * Video of Jacques Derrida beginning a definition of Deconstruction* \"Deconstruction\" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy* \"Deconstruction\" in Stanford Presidential Lectures in the Humanities and Arts* \"Deconstruction\" in Encyclopædia Britannica\"* \"Deconstruction\" in \"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\"* \"German Law Journal special number about Derrida and Deconstruction\" * \"Deconstruction: Some Assumptions\" by John Lye* A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology by José Ángel García Landa (Deconstruction found under: Authors & Schools - Critics & Schools - Poststructuralism - On Deconstruction)* Ten ways of thinking about deconstruction by Willy Maley* Archive of the international conference \"Deconstructing Mimesis - Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe\" about the work of Lacoue-Labarthe and his mimetic version of deconstruction, held at the Sorbonne in January 2006* Jacques Derrida: The Perchance of a Coming of the Otherwoman.", "The Deconstruction of Phallogocentrism from Duel to Duo by Carole Dely, English translation by Wilson Baldridge, at ''Sens Public''* Ellen Lupton on deconstruction in Graphic Design* Deconstruction of fashion; La moda en la posmodernidad by Adolfo Vasquez Rocca* Derrida: Deconstrucción, différance y diseminación; una historia de parásitos, huellas y espectros Academia.Edu" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Direct product" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, one can often define a '''direct product''' of objects already known, giving a new one.", "This induces a structure on the Cartesian product of the underlying sets from that of the contributing objects.", "More abstractly, one talks about the product in category theory, which formalizes these notions.Examples are the product of sets, groups (described below), rings, and other algebraic structures.", "The product of topological spaces is another instance.There is also the direct sum – in some areas this is used interchangeably, while in others it is a different concept." ], [ "Examples", "* If we think of as the set of real numbers without further structure, then the direct product is just the Cartesian product * If we think of as the group of real numbers under addition, then the direct product still has as its underlying set.", "The difference between this and the preceding example is that is now a group, and so we have to also say how to add their elements.", "This is done by defining * If we think of as the ring of real numbers, then the direct product again has as its underlying set.", "The ring structure consists of addition defined by and multiplication defined by * Although the ring is a field, is not, because the nonzero element does not have a multiplicative inverse.In a similar manner, we can talk about the direct product of finitely many algebraic structures, for example, This relies on the direct product being associative up to isomorphism.", "That is, for any algebraic structures and of the same kind.", "The direct product is also commutative up to isomorphism, that is, for any algebraic structures and of the same kind.", "We can even talk about the direct product of infinitely many algebraic structures; for example we can take the direct product of countably many copies of which we write as" ], [ "Direct product of groups", "In group theory one can define the direct product of two groups and denoted by For abelian groups that are written additively, it may also be called the direct sum of two groups, denoted by It is defined as follows:* the set of the elements of the new group is the ''Cartesian product'' of the sets of elements of that is * on these elements put an operation, defined element-wise: Note that may be the same as This construction gives a new group.", "It has a normal subgroup isomorphic to (given by the elements of the form ), and one isomorphic to (comprising the elements ).The reverse also holds.", "There is the following recognition theorem: If a group contains two normal subgroups such that and the intersection of contains only the identity, then is isomorphic to A relaxation of these conditions, requiring only one subgroup to be normal, gives the semidirect product.As an example, take as two copies of the unique (up to isomorphisms) group of order 2, say Then with the operation element by element.", "For instance, andWith a direct product, we get some natural group homomorphisms for free: the projection maps defined byare called the '''coordinate functions'''.Also, every homomorphism to the direct product is totally determined by its component functions For any group and any integer repeated application of the direct product gives the group of all -tuples (for this is the trivial group), for example and" ], [ "Direct product of modules", "The direct product for modules (not to be confused with the tensor product) is very similar to the one defined for groups above, using the Cartesian product with the operation of addition being componentwise, and the scalar multiplication just distributing over all the components.", "Starting from we get Euclidean space the prototypical example of a real -dimensional vector space.", "The direct product of and is Note that a direct product for a finite index is canonically isomorphic to the direct sum The direct sum and direct product are not isomorphic for infinite indices, where the elements of a direct sum are zero for all but for a finite number of entries.", "They are dual in the sense of category theory: the direct sum is the coproduct, while the direct product is the product.For example, consider and the infinite direct product and direct sum of the real numbers.", "Only sequences with a finite number of non-zero elements are in For example, is in but is not.", "Both of these sequences are in the direct product in fact, is a proper subset of (that is, )." ], [ "Topological space direct product", "The direct product for a collection of topological spaces for in some index set, once again makes use of the Cartesian productDefining the topology is a little tricky.", "For finitely many factors, this is the obvious and natural thing to do: simply take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all Cartesian products of open subsets from each factor:This topology is called the product topology.", "For example, directly defining the product topology on by the open sets of (disjoint unions of open intervals), the basis for this topology would consist of all disjoint unions of open rectangles in the plane (as it turns out, it coincides with the usual metric topology).The product topology for infinite products has a twist, and this has to do with being able to make all the projection maps continuous and to make all functions into the product continuous if and only if all its component functions are continuous (that is, to satisfy the categorical definition of product: the morphisms here are continuous functions): we take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all Cartesian products of open subsets from each factor, as before, with the proviso that all but finitely many of the open subsets are the entire factor:The more natural-sounding topology would be, in this case, to take products of infinitely many open subsets as before, and this does yield a somewhat interesting topology, the box topology.", "However it is not too difficult to find an example of bunch of continuous component functions whose product function is not continuous (see the separate entry box topology for an example and more).", "The problem that makes the twist necessary is ultimately rooted in the fact that the intersection of open sets is only guaranteed to be open for finitely many sets in the definition of topology.Products (with the product topology) are nice with respect to preserving properties of their factors; for example, the product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff; the product of connected spaces is connected, and the product of compact spaces is compact.", "That last one, called Tychonoff's theorem, is yet another equivalence to the axiom of choice.For more properties and equivalent formulations, see the separate entry product topology." ], [ "Direct product of binary relations", "On the Cartesian product of two sets with binary relations define as If are both reflexive, irreflexive, transitive, symmetric, or antisymmetric, then will be also.", "Similarly, totality of is inherited from Combining properties it follows that this also applies for being a preorder and being an equivalence relation.", "However, if are connected relations, need not be connected; for example, the direct product of on with itself does not relate" ], [ "Direct product in universal algebra", "If is a fixed signature, is an arbitrary (possibly infinite) index set, and is an indexed family of algebras, the '''direct product''' is a algebra defined as follows:* The universe set of is the Cartesian product of the universe sets of formally: * For each and each -ary operation symbol its interpretation in is defined componentwise, formally: for all and each the th component of is defined as For each the th projection is defined by It is a surjective homomorphism between the algebras As a special case, if the index set the direct product of two algebras is obtained, written as If just contains one binary operation the above definition of the direct product of groups is obtained, using the notation Similarly, the definition of the direct product of modules is subsumed here." ], [ "Categorical product", "The direct product can be abstracted to an arbitrary category.", "In a category, given a collection of objects indexed by a set , a '''product''' of these objects is an object together with morphisms for all , such that if is any other object with morphisms for all , there exists a unique morphism whose composition with equals for every .", "Such and do not always exist.", "If they do exist, then is unique up to isomorphism, and is denoted .In the special case of the category of groups, a product always exists: the underlying set of is the Cartesian product of the underlying sets of the , the group operation is componentwise multiplication, and the (homo)morphism is the projection sending each tuple to its th coordinate." ], [ "Internal and external direct product", "Some authors draw a distinction between an '''internal direct product''' and an '''external direct product.'''", "If and then we say that is an ''internal'' direct product of while if are not subobjects then we say that this is an ''external'' direct product." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Déjà vu" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Déjà vu''''' ( , ; \"already seen\") is the phenomenon of feeling as though one has lived through the present situation before.", "It is an illusion of memory whereby—despite a strong sense of recollection—the time, place, and context of the \"previous\" experience are uncertain or impossible.", "Approximately two-thirds of surveyed populations report experiencing ''déjà vu'' at least one time in their lives.", "The phenomenon manifests occasionally as a symptom of seizure auras, and some researchers have associated chronic/frequent \"pathological\" ''déjà vu'' with neurological or psychiatric illness.", "Experiencing ''déjà vu'' has been correlated with higher socioeconomic status, better educational attainment, and lower ages.", "People who travel often, frequently watch films, or frequently remember their dreams are also more likely to experience ''déjà vu'' than others." ], [ "History", "Image of Émile BoiracThe phrase \"déjà vu\" is borrowed from French and means \"already seen\".", "Déjà vu occurs when someone perceives they have already experienced a situation before, and their body experiences familiarity with the experience and confusion.", "This term was first used by Émile Boirac in the year 1876.Boirac was a French philosopher who wrote a book that included the sensation of déjà vu in his writings, titled \"The Psychology of the Future\" (LiveScience, Ede).", "Déjà vu has been presented as a reminiscence of memories, \"These experiments have led scientists to suspect that déjà vu is a memory phenomenon.", "We encounter a situation that is similar to an actual memory but we can’t fully recall that memory\".", "This evidence, found by Émile Boirac, helps the public understand what déjà vu can entail on the average brain.", "It was also stated, \".", ".", ".", "Our brain recognizes the similarities between our current experience and one in the past .", ".", ".", "left with a feeling of familiarity that we can’t quite place\" (Scientific American, Stierwalt).", "Throughout history, there have been many theories on what causes déjà vu.", "This phenomenon has displayed its difficulty to be tested due to its random occurrence in people." ], [ "Medical disorders", "''Déjà vu'' is associated with temporal lobe epilepsy.", "This experience is a neurological anomaly related to epileptic electrical discharge in the brain, creating a strong sensation that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past.Migraines with aura are also associated with ''déjà vu''.Early researchers tried to establish a link between ''déjà vu'' and mental disorders such as anxiety, dissociative identity disorder and schizophrenia but failed to find correlations of any diagnostic value.", "No special association has been found between ''déjà vu'' and schizophrenia.", "A 2008 study found that ''déjà vu'' experiences are unlikely to be pathological dissociative experiences.Some research has looked into genetics when considering ''déjà vu''.", "Although there is not currently a gene associated with ''déjà vu'', the LGI1 gene on chromosome 10 is being studied for a possible link.", "Certain forms of the gene are associated with a mild form of epilepsy, and, though by no means a certainty, ''déjà vu'', along with ''jamais vu'', occurs often enough during seizures (such as simple partial seizures) that researchers have reason to suspect a link." ], [ "Pharmacology", "Certain combinations of medical drugs have been reported to increase the chances of ''déjà vu'' occurring in the user.", "Taiminen and Jääskeläinen (2001) explored the case of an otherwise healthy person who started experiencing intense and recurrent sensations of ''déjà vu'' upon taking the drugs amantadine and phenylpropanolamine together to relieve flu symptoms.", "Because of the dopaminergic action of the drugs and previous findings from electrode stimulation of the brain (e.g.", "Bancaud, Brunet-Bourgin, Chauvel, & Halgren, 1994), Tamminen and Jääskeläinen speculated that ''déjà vu'' occurs as a result of hyperdopaminergic action in the medial temporal areas of the brain.", "A similar case study by Karla, Chancellor, and Zeman (2007) suggests a link between ''déjà vu'' and the serotonergic system, after an otherwise healthy woman began experiencing similar symptoms while taking a combination of 5-hydroxytryptophan and carbidopa." ], [ "Explanations", "=== Split perception explanation ===Déjà vu may happen if a person experienced the current sensory experience twice successively.", "The first input experience is brief, degraded, occluded, or distracted.", "Immediately following that, the second perception might be familiar because the person naturally related it to the first input.", "One possibility behind this mechanism is that the first input experience involves shallow processing, which means that only some superficial physical attributes are extracted from the stimulus.=== Memory-based explanation =======Implicit memory====Research has associated ''déjà vu'' experiences with good memory functions, particularly long-term implicit memory.", "Recognition memory enables people to realize the event or activity that they are experiencing has happened before.", "When people experience déjà vu, they may have their recognition memory triggered by certain situations which they have never encountered.The similarity between a déjà-vu-eliciting stimulus and an existing, or non-existing but different, memory trace may lead to the sensation that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past.", "Thus, encountering something that evokes the implicit associations of an experience or sensation that cannot be remembered may lead to déjà vu.", "In an effort to reproduce the sensation experimentally, Banister and Zangwill (1941) used hypnosis to give participants posthypnotic amnesia for material they had already seen.", "When this was later re-encountered, the restricted activation caused thereafter by the posthypnotic amnesia resulted in three of the 10 participants reporting what the authors termed \"paramnesias\".Two approaches are used by researchers to study feelings of previous experience, with the process of recollection and familiarity.", "Recollection-based recognition refers to an ostensible realization that the current situation has occurred before.", "Familiarity-based recognition refers to the feeling of familiarity with the current situation without being able to identify any specific memory or previous event that could be associated with the sensation.In 2010, O'Connor, Moulin, and Conway developed another laboratory analog of ''déjà vu'' based on two contrast groups of carefully selected participants, a group under posthypnotic amnesia condition (PHA) and a group under posthypnotic familiarity condition (PHF).", "The idea of PHA group was based on the work done by Banister and Zangwill (1941), and the PHF group was built on the research results of O'Connor, Moulin, and Conway (2007).", "They applied the same puzzle game for both groups, \"Railroad Rush Hour\", a game in which one aims to slide a red car through the exit by rearranging and shifting other blocking trucks and cars on the road.", "After completing the puzzle, each participant in the PHA group received a posthypnotic amnesia suggestion to forget the game in the hypnosis.", "Then, each participant in the PHF group was not given the puzzle but received a posthypnotic familiarity suggestion that they would feel familiar with this game during the hypnosis.", "After the hypnosis, all participants were asked to play the puzzle (the second time for PHA group) and reported the feelings of playing.In the PHA condition, if a participant reported no memory of completing the puzzle game during hypnosis, researchers scored the participant as passing the suggestion.", "In the PHF condition, if participants reported that the puzzle game felt familiar, researchers scored the participant as passing the suggestion.", "It turned out that, both in the PHA and PHF conditions, five participants passed the suggestion and one did not, which is 83.33% of the total sample.", "More participants in PHF group felt a strong sense of familiarity, for instance, comments like \"I think I have done this several years ago.\"", "Furthermore, more participants in PHF group experienced a strong ''déjà vu'', for example, \"I think I have done the exact puzzle before.\"", "Three out of six participants in the PHA group felt a sense of déjà vu, and none of them experienced a strong sense of it.", "These figures are consistent with Banister and Zangwill's findings.", "Some participants in PHA group related the familiarity when completing the puzzle with an exact event that happened before, which is more likely to be a phenomenon of source amnesia.", "Other participants started to realize that they may have completed the puzzle game during hypnosis, which is more akin to the phenomenon of breaching.", "In contrast, participants in the PHF group reported that they felt confused about the strong familiarity of this puzzle, with the feeling of playing it just sliding across their minds.", "Overall, the experiences of participants in the PHF group is more likely to be the ''déjà vu'' in life, while the experiences of participants in the PHA group is unlikely to be real déjà vu.A 2012 study in the journal ''Consciousness and Cognition'', that used virtual reality technology to study reported ''déjà vu'' experiences, supported this idea.", "This virtual reality investigation suggested that similarity between a new scene's spatial layout and the layout of a previously experienced scene in memory (but which fails to be recalled) may contribute to the ''déjà vu'' experience.", "When the previously experienced scene fails to come to mind in response to viewing the new scene, that previously experienced scene in memory can still exert an effect—that effect may be a feeling of familiarity with the new scene that is subjectively experienced as a feeling that an event or experience currently being experienced has already been experienced in the past, or of having been there before despite knowing otherwise.An example of an fMRI brain scan.In 2018 a study examined volunteers' brains under experimentally induced déjà vu through the use of fMRI brain scans.", "The induced \"deja vu\" state was created by getting them to look at a series of logically related and unrelated words.", "The researchers would then ask the participants how many words starting with a specific letter they saw.", "With related words such as \"door, shutter, screen, breeze\", the participants would be asked if they saw any words that started with \"W\" (i.e.", "Window, a term that was not presented to the participants).", "If they did note that they thought they saw a word that wasn't presented to them, then déjà vu was induced.", "The researchers would then examine the volunteers' brains at the moment of induced déjà vu.", "From these scans, they noticed that there was visible activity in regions of the brain associated with mnemonic conflict.", "This finding suggests that more research regarding memory conflict may be important in better understanding déjà vu.====Cryptomnesia====Another possible explanation for the phenomenon of ''déjà vu'' is the occurrence of cryptomnesia, which is where information learned is forgotten but nevertheless stored in the brain, and similar occurrences invoke the contained knowledge, leading to a feeling of familiarity because the event or experience being experienced has already been experienced in the past, known as \"déjà vu\".", "Some experts suggest that memory is a process of reconstruction, rather than a recollection of fixed, established events.", "This reconstruction comes from stored components, involving emotions, distortions, and omissions.", "Each successive recall of an event is merely a recall of the last reconstruction.", "The proposed sense of recognition (déjà vu) involves achieving a good match between the present experience and the stored data.", "This reconstruction, however, may now differ so much from the original event it is as though it had never been experienced before, even though it seems similar.====Dual neurological processing====In 1965, Robert Efron of Boston's Veterans Hospital proposed that ''déjà vu'' is caused by dual neurological processing caused by delayed signals.", "Efron found that the brain's sorting of incoming signals is done in the temporal lobe of the brain's left hemisphere.", "However, signals enter the temporal lobe twice before processing, once from each hemisphere of the brain, normally with a slight delay of milliseconds between them.", "Efron proposed that if the two signals were occasionally not synchronized properly, then they would be processed as two separate experiences, with the second seeming to be a re-living of the first.===Dream-based explanation===Dreams can also be used to explain the experience of déjà vu, and they are related in three different aspects.", "Firstly, some ''déjà vu'' experiences duplicate the situation in dreams instead of waking conditions, according to the survey done by Brown (2004).", "Twenty percent of the respondents reported their ''déjà vu'' experiences were from dreams and 40% of the respondents reported from both reality and dreams.", "Secondly, people may experience ''déjà vu'' because some elements in their remembered dreams were shown.", "Research done by Zuger (1966) supported this idea by investigating the relationship between remembered dreams and ''déjà vu'' experiences, and suggested that there is a strong correlation.", "Thirdly, people may experience ''déjà vu'' during a dream state, which links ''déjà vu'' with dream frequency." ], [ "Related terms", "===''Jamais vu''===''Jamais vu'' (from French, meaning \"never seen\") is any familiar situation which is not recognized by the observer.Often described as the opposite of déjà vu, ''jamais vu'' involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that they have been in the situation before.", "''Jamais vu'' is most commonly experienced when a person momentarily does not recognize a word, person or place that they already know.", "''Jamais vu'' is sometimes associated with certain types of aphasia, amnesia, and epilepsy.Theoretically, a ''jamais vu'' feeling in someone with a delirious disorder or intoxication could result in a delirious explanation of it, such as in the Capgras delusion, in which the patient takes a known person for a false double or impostor.", "If the impostor is himself, the clinical setting would be the same as the one described as depersonalization, hence ''jamais vus'' of oneself or of the \"reality of reality\", are termed depersonalization (or surreality) feelings.The feeling has been evoked through semantic satiation.", "Chris Moulin of the University of Leeds asked 95 volunteers to write the word \"door\" 30 times in 60 seconds.", "Sixty-eight percent of the subjects reported symptoms of ''jamais vu'', with some beginning to doubt that \"door\" was a real word.The experience has also been named \"''vuja de''\" and \"''véjà du''\".=== ''Déjà vécu'' ===''Déjà vécu'' (from French, meaning \"already lived\") is an intense, but false, feeling of having already lived through the present situation.", "Recently, it has been considered a pathological form of déjà vu.", "However, unlike déjà vu, ''déjà vécu'' has behavioral consequences.", "Patients with déjà vécu often cannot tell that this feeling of familiarity is not real.", "Because of the intense feeling of familiarity, patients experiencing ''déjà vécu'' may withdraw from their current events or activities.", "Patients may justify their feelings of familiarity with beliefs bordering on delusion.===''Presque vu''===''Presque vu'' (, from French, meaning \"almost seen\") is the intense feeling of being on the very brink of a powerful epiphany, insight, or revelation, without actually achieving the revelation.", "The feeling is often therefore associated with a frustrating, tantalizing sense of incompleteness or near-completeness.===''Déjà rêvé''===''Déjà rêvé'' (from French, meaning \"already dreamed\") is the feeling of having already dreamed something that is currently being experienced.===''Déjà entendu''===''Déjà entendu'' (literally \"already heard\") is the experience of feeling sure about having already heard something, even though the exact details are uncertain or were perhaps imagined." ], [ "See also", "* Intuition (knowledge)* Repression (psychology)* Scientific skepticism* Screen memory* Uncanny" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * *Neppe, Vernon.", "(1983).", "''The Psychology of Déjà vu: Have We Been Here Before?''.", "Witwatersrand University Press." ], [ "External links", "* * Anne Cleary discussing a virtual reality investigation of déjà vu* * Dream Déjà Vu - ''Psychology Today'' * Chronic ''déjà vu'' - quirks and quarks episode (mp3)* ''Déjà vu'' - ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''* How Déjà Vu Works — a Howstuffworks article* Déjà Experience Research — a website dedicated to providing déjà experience information and research* Nikhil Swaminathan, ''Think You've Previously Read About This?", "'', ''Scientific American'', June 8, 2007* Deberoh Halber, ''Research Deciphers Deju-Vu Brain Mechanics'', MIT Report, June 7, 2007" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Dionysius Thrax" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Dionysius Thrax''' ( ''Dionýsios ho Thrâix'', 170–90 BC) was a Greek grammarian and a pupil of Aristarchus of Samothrace.", "He was long considered to be the author of the earliest grammatical text on the Greek language, one that was used as a standard manual for perhaps some 1,500 years, and which was until recently regarded as the groundwork of the entire Western grammatical tradition." ], [ "Life", "His place of origin was not Thrace as the epithet \"Thrax\" denotes, but probably Alexandria.", "His Thracian background was inferred from the name of his father Tērēs (Τήρης), which is considered to be a Thracian name.", "One of his co-students during his studies in Alexandria under Aristarchus was Apollodorus of Athens, who also became a distinguished grammarian.", "Rudolf Pfeiffer dates his shift to the isle of Rhodes to around 144/143 BC, when political upheavals associated with the policies of Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II are thought to have led to his exile.", "According to a report in Athenaeus' Deipnosophistae (11,489a, b), his Rhodian pupils, grateful for his learning, gathered enough silver to enable him to fashion a cup whose shape aspired to recreate that of Nestor mentioned in the Iliad ( Book 11, lines 632–637).Dionysius was primarily a Homeric scholar, which was integral to his training under Aristarchus in Alexandria.", "His work shows some influence of earlier Stoic grammatical theory, particularly on word classes.", "He is also reported by Varro to have been an erudite analyst of Greek lyric poetry, perhaps referring to his linguistic and prosodic use of that material.", "He wrote prolifically in three genres: philological questions (γραμματικά); running commentaries (ὑπομνήματα) and treatises (συνταγματικά).", "Of the last genre, he wrote a polemical monograph criticizing the Homeric interpretations of Krates.", "Another work he is said to have written was the Περὶ ποσοτήτων (On quantities).", "From the scholia preserved from the critical works of Aristonicus and Didymus who excerpted Dionysius' work it is clear that he was decidedly independent in his textual judgements on the Homeric corpus, since he frequently contradicts his master's known readings.", "His teaching may have exercised a formative impact on the rise of Roman grammatical studies if as an entry in the Suda suggests, the elder Tyrannion was one of his pupils.", "The founder of classical scholarship in Rome, L. Aelius Stilo may have profited from Dionysius' instruction, since he accompanied to Rhodes Q. Metellus Numidicus when the latter went into voluntary exile, and while Dionysius was still teaching there." ], [ "Tékhnē grammatikē", "Dionysius Thrax was credited traditionally as the author of the first extant grammar of Greek, ''Art of Grammar'' (, ''Tékhnē grammatikē'').", "The Greek text, in August Immanuel Bekker's edition, runs to fifty pages.", "Its importance in Byzantine scholarship is attested by the fact that commentaries on it by Byzantine scholiasts run to some 600 pages.", "The text itself was thought to be the unique extant example of a work by Hellenistic scholars.", "This general consensus began to break down when examinations of grammatical texts datable to a later period emerged among the finds of the Oxyrhynchus Papyri which, until relatively late, showed no awareness of key elements in the text attributed to Dionysius Thrax.", "It concerns itself primarily with a morphological description of Greek, lacking any treatment of syntax.", "The work was translated into Armenian sometime around the 5th to 6th centuries AD, and into Syriac by Joseph Huzaya around that same period.Dionysius defines grammar at the beginning of the ''Tékhnē'' as \"the empirical knowledge of what is for the most part being said by poets and prose writers\".", "He states that ''grammatikē'', what we might nowadays call \"literary criticism\", comprises six parts:''Grammatikḗ''* (a) '''ἀνάγνωσις ἐντριβὴς κατὰ προσῳδίαν''' (''anagnōsis...''): reading aloud with correct pronunciation, accent and punctuation.", "* (b) '''ἐξήγησις κατὰ τοὺς ἐνυπάρχοντας ποιητικοὺς τρόπους''' (''exēgēsis...''): exposition of the tropes/τρόποι, the figurative language of texts.", "* (c) '''ἀπόδοσις πρόχειρος γλωσσῶν τε καὶ ἰστοριῶν''' (''apodosis...''): common exposition of obsolete words and subject matter.", "* (d) '''εὕρεσις ἐτυμολογίας''' (''heuresis...''): finding the correct meaning of words according to their origin (etymology).", "* (e) '''ἐκλογισμὸς ἀναλογίας''' (''eklogismos...''): setting forth or considering analogies.", "* (f) '''κρίσις ποιημάτων''' (''krisis...''): critical judgement of the works examined.Paragraph 6 outlines the στοιχεῖα (''stoikheia'') or letters of the alphabet, together with the divisions into vowels, diphthongs and consonants.Paragraphs 7–10 deal with syllables, long (μακραὶ συλλαβαί), short (βραχεῖαι συλλαβαί) and ''anceps'' (κοιναὶ συλλαβαί).Paragraph 11 treats the eight-word classes, though strong doubts exist as to whether or not this division goes back to Dionysius Thrax, since ancient testimonies assert that he conflated proper nouns and appellatives, and classified the article together with pronouns.", "In the text attributed to Dionysius, the eight classes.", "which Di Benedetto and others argue was probably developed by Tryphon several decades after Dionysius, are as follows:* (a) the 'name' ('''ὄνομα''' ''ónoma''), translated as noun: a part of speech inflected for case.", "Its three genders: masculine ('''ἀρσενικόν'''), feminine ('''θηλυκόν''') and neutral ('''οὐδέτερον''') are distinguished, together with the five case endings.", "He also notes however that two other terms are also in use: '''κοινόν''' (common) designating those words whose gender varies depending on the sex of the creature, such as ἵππος (''hippos'' 'horse') and '''ἐπίκοινον''' (epicene) used to define words whose gender is stable, but which can refer to either sex, instancing χελιδών (''khelidōn'' 'swallow').", "The ''name'' includes various ''species'' like nouns, adjectives, proper nouns, appellatives, collectives, ordinals, numerals and more.", "** For example, the appellative (προσηγορία), which he considers a species (εἶδος) of the proper noun, not a distinct part of speech.", "* (b) the verb ('''ῥῆμα''') with its tenses.", "* (c) the participle ('''μετοχή''')* (d) the article ('''ἄρθρον''')* (e) the pronoun ('''ἀντωνυμία''')* (f) the preposition ('''πρόθεσις''')* (g) the adverb ('''ἐπίρρημα''')* (h) the conjunction ('''σύνδεσμος''')Paragraphs 12-20 then elaborate successively on the parts of speech." ], [ "Authorship", "Modern scepticism over the attribution is associated with the pioneering work of Vincenzo Di Benedetto in particular, though as early as 1822 Karl Wilhelm Göttling, by analyzing the scholia on the text that had recently been collected and published by A. I. Bekker, concluded that the text as we have it was to be dated, not to the Hellenistic period but rather to the Byzantine period.", "Göttling's thesis convinced neither Moritz Schmidt nor Gustav Uhlig, and disappeared from view.", "In 1958/1959, Di Benedetto revived doubts by comparing the received text with ancient grammatical papyri that had since come to light.", "He argued that before the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, no papyri on Greek grammar reveal material structured in a way similar to the exposition we have in Dionysius's treatise, that the surviving witnesses for the period before that late date, namely authors such as Sextus Empiricus, Aelius Herodianus, Apollonius Dyscolus and Quintilian, fail to cite him, and that Dionysius's work only begins to receive explicit mention in the works written from the 5th century onwards by such scholars as Timotheus of Gaza, Ammonius Hermiae and Priscian.", "Di Benedetto concluded that only the first five paragraphs of the treatise came from Dionysius' hand.Though initially rebuffed by scholars of the calibre of Pfeiffer and Hartmut Erbse, Di Benedetto's argument today has found general acceptance among specialists." ], [ "Notes", "===Citations===" ], [ "Sources", "*********************" ], [ "External links", "*** .", "*" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "December 29" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===*1170 – Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, is assassinated inside Canterbury Cathedral by followers of King Henry II; he subsequently becomes a saint and martyr in the Anglican Communion and the Catholic Church.", "*1503 – The Battle of Garigliano was fought between a Spanish army under Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba and a French army commanded by Ludovico II, Marquess of Saluzzo.===1601–1900===*1607 – According to John Smith, Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan leader Wahunsenacawh, successfully pleads for his life after tribal leaders attempt to execute him.", "*1778 – American Revolutionary War: Three thousand British soldiers under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell capture Savannah, Georgia.", "*1812 – , under the command of Captain William Bainbridge, captures off the coast of Brazil after a three-hour battle.", "*1835 – The Treaty of New Echota is signed, ceding all the lands of the Cherokee east of the Mississippi River to the United States.", "*1845 – The United States annexes the Republic of Texas and admits it as the 28th state.", "*1860 – The launch of , with her combination of screw propeller, iron hull and iron armour, renders all previous warships obsolete.", "*1874 – The military coup of Gen. Martinez Campos in Sagunto ends the failed First Spanish Republic and the monarchy is restored as Prince Alfonso is proclaimed King of Spain.", "*1876 – The Ashtabula River railroad disaster occurs, leaving 64 injured and 92 dead at Ashtabula, Ohio.", "*1890 – On Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, 300 Lakota are killed by the United States 7th Cavalry Regiment.===1901–present===*1911 – Mongolia gains independence from the Qing dynasty, enthroning 8th Jebtsundamba Khutughtu as Khagan of Mongolia.", "*1913 – Cecil B. DeMille starts filming Hollywood's first feature film, ''The Squaw Man''.", "*1930 – Sir Muhammad Iqbal's presidential address in Allahabad introduces the two-nation theory and outlines a vision for the creation of Pakistan.", "*1934 – Japan renounces the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and the London Naval Treaty of 1930.", "*1937 – The Irish Free State is replaced by a new state called Ireland with the adoption of a new constitution.", "*1940 – In the Second Great Fire of London, the Luftwaffe fire-bombs London, England, killing almost 200 civilians during World War II.", "*1972 – Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 (a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar) crashes in the Florida Everglades on approach to Miami International Airport, Florida, killing 101 of the 176 people on board.", "*1975 – A bomb explodes at LaGuardia Airport in New York City, killing 11 people and injuring more than 75.", "*1989 – Czech writer, philosopher and dissident Václav Havel is elected the first post-communist President of Czechoslovakia.", "* 1989 – The Nikkei 225 for the Tokyo Stock Exchange hits its all-time intra-day high of 38,957.44 and closing high at 38,915.87, serving as the apex of the Japanese asset price bubble.", "*1992 – Fernando Collor de Mello, president of Brazil, tries to resign amidst corruption charges, but is then impeached.", "*1994 – Turkish Airlines Flight 278 (a Boeing 737-400) crashes on approach to Van Ferit Melen Airport in Van, Turkey, killing 57 of the 76 people on board.", "*1996 – Guatemala and leaders of Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity sign a peace accord ending a 36-year civil war.", "*1998 – Leaders of the Khmer Rouge apologize for the Cambodian genocide that claimed over one million lives.", "*2003 – The last known speaker of Akkala Sami dies, rendering the language extinct.", "*2006 – The UK settles its Anglo-American loan, post-WWII loan debt.", "*2012 – A Tupolev Tu-204 airliner crashes in a ditch between the airport fence and the M3 highway after overshooting a runway at Vnukovo International Airport in Moscow, Russia, killing five people and leaving three others critically injured.", "*2013 – A suicide bomb attack at the Volgograd-1 railway station in the southern Russian city of Volgograd kills at least 18 people and wounds 40 others.", "* 2013 – Seven-time Formula One champion Michael Schumacher suffers a massive head injury while skiing in the French Alps.", "*2020 – A large explosion at the airport in the southern Yemeni city of Aden kills at least 22 people and wounds 50.", "* 2020 – A magnitude 6.4 earthquake hits near the town of Petrinja in Sisak-Moslavina County, Croatia, killing seven people." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===*1536 – Henry VI, German nobleman (d. 1572)*1550 – García de Silva Figueroa, Spanish diplomat and traveller (d. 1624)===1601–1900===*1633 – Johannes Zollikofer, Swiss vicar (d. 1692)*1721 – Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (d. 1764)*1746 – Saverio Cassar, Maltese priest and rebel leader (d. 1805)*1766 – Charles Macintosh, Scottish chemist and the inventor of waterproof fabric (d. 1843)*1788 – Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, Danish antiquarian (d. 1865)*1796 – Johann Christian Poggendorff, German physicist and journalist (d. 1877)*1800 – Charles Goodyear, American chemist and engineer (d. 1860)*1804 – John Langdon Sibley, American librarian (d. 1885)*1808 – Andrew Johnson, American general and politician, 17th President of the United States (d. 1875)*1809 – William Ewart Gladstone, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1898)*1811 – Francisco Palau, Catalan Discalced Carmelite friar and priest (d. 1872)*1816 – Carl Ludwig, German physician and physiologist (d. 1895)*1844 – Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, Indian barrister and first president of Indian National Congress (d. 1906)*1855 – August Kitzberg, Estonian author and poet (d. 1927)*1856 – Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch-French mathematician and academic (d. 1894)*1857 – Sydney Young, English chemist (d. 1937)*1859 – Venustiano Carranza, Mexican soldier and politician, 37th President of Mexico (d. 1920)*1870 – Earl Gregg Swem, American historian, bibliographer and librarian (d. 1965)*1876 – Pablo Casals, Catalan cellist and conductor (d. 1973)* 1876 – Lionel Tertis, English violist (d. 1975)*1879 – Billy Mitchell, American general and pilot (d. 1936)*1881 – Jess Willard, American boxer (d. 1968)*1886 – Georg Hermann Struve, German astronomer (d. 1933)*1894 – J. Lister Hill, American politician (d. 1984)*1896 – David Alfaro Siqueiros, Mexican painter (d. 1974)===1901–present===*1903 – Candido Portinari, Brazilian painter (d. 1962)*1904 – Kuvempu, Indian author and poet (d. 1994)*1908 – Helmut Gollwitzer, German theologian and author (d. 1993)* 1908 – Magnus Pyke, English scientist and author (d. 1992)*1910 – Ronald Coase, English-American economist, author, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)*1911 – Klaus Fuchs, German physicist and spy (d. 1988)*1914 – Zainul Abedin, Bangladeshi painter and academic (d. 1976)* 1914 – Billy Tipton, American pianist and saxophonist (d. 1989)* 1914 – Albert Tucker, Australian painter and illustrator (d. 1999)*1915 – Robert Ruark, American hunter and author (d. 1965)* 1915 – Jo Van Fleet, American actress (d. 1996)*1917 – Tom Bradley, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 38th Mayor of Los Angeles (d. 1998)* 1917 – Ramanand Sagar, Indian director and producer (d. 2005)*1919 – Alfred de Grazia, American political scientist and author (d. 2014)* 1919 – Roman Vlad, Italian pianist and composer (d. 2013)*1920 – Viveca Lindfors, Swedish-American actress, singer and poet (d. 1995)*1921 – Dobrica Ćosić, Serbian politician, 1st President of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (d. 2014)* 1921 – Michael Horne, English structural engineer, scientist and academic (d. 2000)*1922 – Little Joe Cook, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014)* 1922 – William Gaddis, American author and academic (d. 1998)*1923 – Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegalese historian, anthropologist, and physicist (d. 1986)* 1923 – Morton Estrin, American pianist and educator (d. 2017)* 1923 – Dina Merrill, American actress, game show panelist, socialite, heiress, and businesswoman (d. 2017)* 1923 – Shlomo Venezia, Greek-Italian author and Holocaust survivor (d. 2012)*1924 – Joe Allbritton, American businessman and publisher, founded the Allbritton Communications Company (d. 2012)* 1924 – Kim Song-ae, Korean politician (d. 2014)*1925 – Pete Dye, American golfer and architect (d. 2020)*1928 – Bernard Cribbins, British actor (d. 2022)*1932 – Inga Swenson, American actress and singer (d. 2023)*1933 – Samuel Brittan, English journalist and author (d. 2020)*1934 – Ed Flanders, American actor (d. 1995)*1936 – Mary Tyler Moore, American actress and producer (d. 2017)* 1936 – Ray Nitschke, American football player (d. 1998)*1937 – Wayne Huizenga, American businessman, founded AutoNation (d. 2018)*1938 – Jon Voight, American actor and producer*1939 – Ed Bruce, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2021)*1941 – Ray Thomas, English singer-songwriter and flute player (d. 2018)*1942 – Rajesh Khanna, Indian actor (d. 2012)*1943 – Bill Aucoin, American talent manager (d. 2010)* 1943 – Molly Bang, American author and illustrator* 1943 – Rick Danko, Canadian singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (d. 1999)*1944 – Gerard Windsor, Australian author and literary critic*1945 – Keith Milow, British artist*1946 – Marianne Faithfull, English singer-songwriter and actress* 1946 – Paul Trible, American attorney, politician and academic administrator*1947 – Richard Crandall, American physicist and computer scientist (d. 2012)* 1947 – Ted Danson, American actor and producer* 1947 – Leonhard Lapin, Estonian architect and poet* 1947 – Cozy Powell, English drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 1998)* 1947 – Vincent Winter, Scottish actor, director, and production manager (d. 1998)*1948 – Jacky Clark Chisholm, American gospel singer* 1948 – Peter Robinson, Northern Irish politician, 3rd First Minister of Northern Ireland*1949 – David Topliss, English rugby league player and coach (d. 2008)*1950 – Jon Polito, American actor (d. 2016)*1951 – Willem de Blécourt, Dutch historical anthropologist* 1951 – Yvonne Elliman, American singer-songwriter and actress*1952 – Gelsey Kirkland, American ballerina and choreographer*1953 – Alan Rusbridger, Zambian-English journalist and academic* 1953 – Stanley Williams, American gang leader, co-founded the Crips (d. 2005)*1955 – Chris Goodall, English businessman and author* 1955 – Donald D. Hoffman, American quantitative psychologist and author*1956 – Zaki Chehab, Lebanese-British journalist* 1956 – Katy Munger, American writer*1957 – Brad Grey, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2017)* 1957 – Paul Rudnick, American author, playwright, and screenwriter*1958 – Tyrone Benskin, English-Canadian actor, theatre director and politician* 1958 – Nancy J. Currie-Gregg, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut*1959 – Patricia Clarkson, American actress* 1959 – Ann Demeulemeester, Belgian fashion designer* 1959 – Paula Poundstone, American comedian and author*1960 – Brian A. Hopkins, American author* 1960 – David Boon, Australian cricketer* 1960 – Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Congolese militia leader, founded the Union of Congolese Patriots* 1960 – Michael James Pappas, American politician*1961 – Kevin Granata, American engineer and academic (d. 2007)*1962 – Leza Lowitz, American author* 1962 – Carles Puigdemont, Catalan politician and journalist, former president*1963 – Sean Payton, American football player and coach* 1963 – Ulf Kristersson, Swedish politician, Leader of the Swedish Moderate Party and 35th Prime Minister of Sweden*1964 – Michael Cudlitz, American actor*1965 – Dexter Holland, American musician, singer, songwriter, and biologist* 1965 – John Newton, American actor*1966 – Jason Gould, American actor and singer* 1966 – Christian Kracht, Swiss author*1967 – Lilly Wachowski, American director, screenwriter and producer*1968 – James Mouton, American baseball player*1969 – Jason Cook, English footballer* 1969 – Jennifer Ehle, American actress* 1969 – Scott Patterson, American financial journalist and author*1970 – Kevin Weisman, American actor*1971 – Mike Pesca, American radio journalist and podcaster*1972 – Andreas Dackell, Swedish ice hockey player* 1972 – Jude Law, English actor*1973 – Theo Epstein, American businessman* 1973 – Jenny Lawson, American journalist and author*1974 – Maria Dizzia, American actress* 1974 – Twinkle Khanna, Indian actress and writer* 1974 – Mahal, Filipino actress, comedian and vlogger (d. 2021)* 1974 – Mekhi Phifer, American actor* 1974 – Ryan Shore, Canadian composer and producer*1975 – Shawn Hatosy, American actor*1976 – Filip Kuba, Czech ice hockey player* 1976 – Danny McBride, American actor, producer and screenwriter* 1976 – Katherine Moennig, American actress*1978 – Kieron Dyer, English footballer and coach* 1978 – Danny Higginbotham, English footballer and journalist*1979 – Diego Luna, Mexican actor, director and producer* 1979 – Reihan Salam, American political commentator, columnist and author*1981 – Shizuka Arakawa, Japanese figure skater and sportscaster* 1981 – Janice Lynn Mather, Bahamian-Canadian author* 1981 – Anna Woltz, Dutch author*1982 – Alison Brie, American actress* 1982 – Julia Wertz, American cartoonist, writer and urban explorer*1983 – Jessica Andrews, American singer and songwriter*1984 – Branden Jacobs-Jenkins, American playwright*1985 – Alexa Ray Joel, American singer-songwriter*1986 – Derek Ryan, American ice hockey player*1987 – Iain De Caestecker, Scottish actor*1988 – Eric Berry, American football player* 1988 – Christen Press, American footballer* 1988 – Ágnes Szávay, Hungarian tennis player*1989 – Jane Levy, American actress* 1989 – Kei Nishikori, Japanese tennis player* 1989 – Harri Säteri, Finnish ice hockey player*1991 – Steven Caulker, English footballer*1993 – Gabby May, Canadian artistic gymnast*1995 – Myles Garrett, American football player* 1995 – Ross Lynch, American singer and actor*1996 – Sana Minatozaki, Japanese singer* 1996 – Dylan Minnette, American actor, musician and singer*1998 – Seamus Davey-Fitzpatrick, American actor*2000 – Julio Rodríguez, Dominican baseball player" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===*1170 – Thomas Becket, English archbishop and saint (b.", "1118)*1208 – Emperor Zhangzong of Jin, (b.", "1168)*1380 – Elizabeth of Poland, queen consort of Hungary (b.", "1305)*1550 – Bhuvanaikabahu VII, King of Kotte (b.", "1468)*1563 – Sebastian Castellio, French preacher and theologian (b.", "1515)===1601–1900===*1606 – Stephen Bocskai, Prince of Transylvania (b.", "1557)*1661 – Antoine Girard de Saint-Amant, French poet (b.", "1594)*1689 – Thomas Sydenham, English physician and author (b.", "1624)*1720 – Maria Margaretha Kirch, German astronomer and educator (b.", "1670)*1731 – Brook Taylor, English mathematician and theorist (b.", "1685)*1785 – Johann Heinrich Rolle, German composer (b.", "1716)* 1785 – Johan Herman Wessel, Norwegian-Danish poet and playwright (b.", "1742)*1807 – Diogo de Carvalho e Sampayo, Portuguese diplomat and scientist (b.", "1750)*1825 – Jacques-Louis David, French painter and illustrator (b.", "1748)*1890 – Spotted Elk, American tribal leader (b.", "1826)* 1890 – Octave Feuillet, French novelist and dramatist (b.", "1821)*1891 – Leopold Kronecker, Polish-German mathematician and academic (b.", "1823)*1894 – Christina Rossetti, English poet and hymn-writer (b.", "1830)*1897 – William James Linton, English-American painter, author, and activist (b.", "1812)*1900 – John Henry Leech, English entomologist (b.", "1862)===1901–present===*1905 – Charles Yerkes, American financier (b.", "1837)*1910 – Samuel Butcher, Anglo-Irish classical scholar and politician (b.", "1850)* 1910 – Reginald Doherty, English tennis player (b.", "1872)*1911 – Rosamund Marriott Watson, English poet, author and critic (b.", "1860)*1918 – Abby Leach, American educator (b.", "1855)*1919 – William Osler, Canadian physician and professor (b.", "1849)*1921 – Hermann Paul, German philologist, linguist and lexicographer (b.", "1846)*1924 – Carl Spitteler, Swiss poet and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1845)*1925 – Félix Vallotton, Swiss-French painter (b.", "1865)*1926 – Rainer Maria Rilke, Austrian poet and author (b.", "1875)*1929 – Wilhelm Maybach, German engineer and businessman, founded Maybach (b.", "1846)* 1929 – Edward Christopher Williams, American librarian (b.", "1871)*1937 – Don Marquis, American journalist, author, and playwright (b.", "1878)*1939 – Kelly Miller, American mathematician, sociologist, essayist, newspaper columnist and author (b.", "1863)* 1939 – Madeleine Pelletier, French psychiatrist, feminist and political activist (b.", "1874)*1940 – Stephen Birch, American businessman (b.", "1873)*1941 – Louis Eilshemius, American painter (b.", "1864)* 1941 – Tullio Levi-Civita, Italian mathematician and scholar (b.", "1873)*1943 – Art Young, American cartoonist and writer (b.", "1866)*1944 – Khasan Israilov, Chechen rebel (b.", "1910)*1945 – Beulah Dark Cloud, American actress (b.", "1887)*1946 – Camillo Schumann, German composer and organist (b.", "1872)*1948 – Harry Farjeon, British composer and music teacher (b.", "1878)*1949 – Tyler Dennett, American historian and author (b.", "1883)*1952 – Fletcher Henderson, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b.", "1897)* 1952 – Beryl Rubinstein, American pianist, composer and teacher (b.", "1898)*1954 – William Merriam Burton, American chemist (b.", "1865)*1956 – Miles Vandahurst Lynk, American physician and author (b.", "1871)*1958 – Doris Humphrey, American dancer and choreographer (b.", "1895)*1959 – Robin Milford, English soldier and composer (b.", "1903)*1960 – Eden Phillpotts, English author and poet (b.", "1862)*1965 – Frank Nugent, American screenwriter, journalist and film reviewer (b.", "1908)* 1965 – Kōsaku Yamada, Japanese composer and conductor (b.", "1886)*1967 – Paul Whiteman, American violinist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1890)*1968 – Austin Farrer, English theologian and philosopher (b.", "1904)*1970 – William King Gregory, American zoologist and anatomist (b.", "1876)* 1970 – Marie Menken, American director and painter (b.", "1909)*1971 – John Marshall Harlan II, American lawyer and jurist (b.", "1899)*1972 – Joseph Cornell, American sculptor and director (b.", "1903)*1975 – Euell Gibbons, American author and naturalist (b.", "1911)*1976 – Ivo Van Damme, Belgian runner (b.", "1954)*1979 – F. Edward Hébert, American journalist and politician (b.", "1901)* 1979 – Richard Tecwyn Williams, Welsh biochemist (b.", "1909)*1980 – Nadezhda Mandelstam, Russian author and educator (b.", "1899)* 1980 – Irvin F. Westheimer, American businessman and social reformer (b.", "1879)*1981 – Philip Handler, American nutritionist, and biochemist (b.", "1917)* 1981 – Miroslav Krleža, Croatian author, poet, and playwright (b.", "1893)*1984 – P. H. Polk, American photographer (b.", "1898)* 1984 – Leo Robin, American composer, lyricist and songwriter (b.", "1900)*1986 – Harold Macmillan, English captain and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b.", "1894)* 1986 – Andrei Tarkovsky, Russian director and screenwriter (b.", "1932)*1987 – Jun Ishikawa, Japanese author (b.", "1899)* 1987 – Wilbert E. Moore, American sociologist (b.", "1914)*1988 – Mike Beuttler, Egyptian race car driver (b.", "1940)* 1988 – Ieuan Maddock, Welsh scientist and nuclear researcher (b.", "1917)*1992 – Vivienne Segal, American actress and singer (b.", "1897)*1994 – Frank Thring, Australian actor (b.", "1926)*1995 – Hans Henkemans, Dutch pianist, composer and psychiatrist (b.", "1913)*1996 – Pennar Davies, Welsh clergyman and author (b.", "1911)* 1996 – Mireille Hartuch, French singer-songwriter and actress (b.", "1906)* 1996 – Peggy Herbison, Scottish politician (b.", "1907)*1998 – Ralph Siu, American scholar, military and civil servant, and author (b.", "1917)* 1998 – Don Taylor, American actor and film director (b.", "1920)*1999 – Leon Radzinowicz, Polish-English criminologist and academic (b.", "1906)*2001 – Takashi Asahina, Japanese conductor (b.", "1908)* 2001 – György Kepes, Hungarian painter, photographer, designer, educator and art theorist (b.", "1906)*2002 – Lloyd Barbee, American lawyer and politician (b.", "1925)*2003 – Dinsdale Landen, English actor (b.", "1932)* 2003 – Bob Monkhouse, English comedian, actor, and game show host (b.", "1928)*2004 – Julius Axelrod, American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1912)* 2004 – Peter Davison, American poet, essayist, teacher, lecturer, editor and publisher (b.", "1928)*2005 – Cyril Philips, British historian and academic director (b.", "1912)* 2005 – Basil William Robinson, British art scholar and author (b.", "1912)*2007 – Phil O'Donnell, Scottish footballer (b.", "1972)* 2007 – Phil Dusenberry, American advertising executive (b.", "1936)*2008 – Freddie Hubbard, American trumpet player and composer (b.", "1938)* 2008 – Victor H. Krulak, American soldier (b.", "1913)*2009 – Janina Bauman, Polish journalist and writer (b.", "1926)* 2009 – David Levine, American artist and illustrator (b.", "1926)*2010 – Avi Cohen, Israeli footballer and manager (b.", "1956)* 2010 – Bill Erwin, American actor and cartoonist (b.", "1914)*2011 – Constance Bartlett Hieatt, American scholar (b.", "1928)*2012 – Tony Greig, South African-Australian cricketer and sportscaster (b.", "1946)* 2012 – William Rees-Mogg, British newspaper journalist (b.", "1928)*2013 – C. T. Hsia, Chinese-American critic and scholar (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Benjamin Curtis, American guitarist, drummer, and songwriter (b.", "1978)* 2013 – Connie Dierking, American basketball player (b.", "1936)* 2013 – Wojciech Kilar, Polish classical and film music composer (b.", "1932)*2014 – Hari Harilela, Indian-Hong Kong businessman and philanthropist (b.", "1922)* 2014 – Juanito Remulla, Sr., Filipino lawyer and politician, Governor of Cavite (b.", "1933)*2015 – Om Prakash Malhotra, Indian general and politician, 25th Governor of Punjab (b.", "1922)* 2015 – Pavel Srníček, Czech footballer and coach (b.", "1968)*2016 – Keion Carpenter, American football defensive back (b.", "1977)* 2016 – LaVell Edwards, American football head coach (b.", "1930)*2017 – Peggy Cummins, Irish actress (b.", "1925)* 2017 – John C. Portman Jr., American neofuturistic architect and real estate developer (b.", "1924)*2018 – Brian Garfield, American novelist, historian and screenwriter (b.", "1939)* 2018 – Rosenda Monteros, Mexican actress (b.", "1935)*2019 – Alasdair Gray, Scottish writer and artist (b.", "1934)* 2019 – Neil Innes, English writer, comedian and musician (b.", "1944)*2020 – Pierre Cardin, Italian-French fashion designer (b.", "1922)* 2020 – Joe Louis Clark, American educator (b.", "1937)*2021 – Peter Klatzow, South African composer (b.", "1945)*2022 – Pelé, Brazilian footballer (b.", "1940)* 2022 – Edgar Savisaar, Estonian politician, Estonian Minister of the Interior (b.", "1950)* 2022 – Vivienne Westwood, English fashion designer (b.", "1941)* 2023 – Gil de Ferran, French-born Brazilian racing driver, CART champion (2000, 2001), 2003 Indianapolis 500 winner (b.", "1967)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "* Christian feast day:** Ebrulf** Jonathan, Prince of Israel and David's friend.", "** Thomas Becket** Trophimus of Arles** December 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)* Constitution Day (Ireland)* Independence Day (Mongolia)* The fifth day of Christmas (Western Christianity)* The fourth day of Kwanzaa (United States)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on December 29" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Despina" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Despina''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Despina Achladiotou, the Lady of Ro (c1890–1982), Greek patriot* Despina Chatzivassiliou-Tsovilis (born 1967), Secretary General of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE)* Despina Delios, American beauty pageant contestant* Despina Georgiadou (born 1991), Greek fencer* Mary Despina Lekas (1928–2023), American surgeon* Debbie Matenopolous, born Despina Matenopoulos (born 1974), American television host* Despina Montagas (born 1961), Greek wrestler* Despina Olympiou (born 1975), Greek-Cypriot singer* Despina Papadopoulou (born 1979), Greek footballer* Despina Papamichail (born 1993), Greek tennis player* Despina Stokou (born 1978), Greek artist based in Los Angeles* Despina Storch (1894 or 1895–1918), Greek woman suspected of spying for Germany in World War I* Despina Stratigakos (born 1963), Canadian-born architectural historian and academic* Despina Vandi (born 1969), Greek singer* Despoina Vavatsi (born 1978), Greek athlete* Olivera Despina ( – after 1444), Serbian princess and Ottoman queen consort* Milica Despina of Wallachia ( – 1554), Princess consort of Wallachia" ], [ "Other uses", "* Despoina, a figure in Greek mythology* ''Despina'' (moth), a genus of moth* Despina (moon), a moon of Neptune* Despina, a character in Mozart's opera ''Così fan tutte''* \"Despoina\", a song by Nikos Karvelas" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Discrimination" ], [ "Introduction", "African-American man drinking from a racially segregated water cooler marked \"Colored\", in Oklahoma City |alt='''Discrimination''' is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on the groups, classes, or other categories to which they belong or are perceived to belong, such as race, gender, age, religion, physical attractiveness or sexual orientation.", "Discrimination typically leads to groups being unfairly treated on the basis of perceived statues based on ethnic, racial, gender or religious categories.", "It involves depriving members of one group of opportunities or privileges that are available to members of another group.Discriminatory traditions, policies, ideas, practices and laws exist in many countries and institutions in all parts of the world, including some where such discrimination is generally decried.", "In some places, countervailing measures such as quotas have been used to redress the balance in favor of those who are believed to be current or past victims of discrimination.", "These attempts have often been met with controversy, and sometimes been called reverse discrimination." ], [ "Etymology", "The term ''discriminate'' appeared in the early 17th century in the English language.", "It is from the Latin ''discriminat-'' 'distinguished between', from the verb ''discriminare'', from ''discrimen'' 'distinction', from the verb ''discernere'' (corresponding to \"to discern\").", "Since the American Civil War the term \"discrimination\" generally evolved in American English usage as an understanding of prejudicial treatment of an individual based solely on their race, later generalized as membership in a certain socially undesirable group or social category.", "Before this sense of the word became almost universal, it was a synonym for discernment, tact and culture as in \"taste and discrimination\", generally a laudable attribute; to \"discriminate against\" being commonly disparaged." ], [ "Definitions", "Moral philosophers have defined discrimination using a moralized definition.", "Under this approach, discrimination is defined as acts, practices, or policies that wrongfully impose a relative disadvantage or deprivation on persons based on their membership in a salient social group.", "This is a comparative definition.", "An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against.", "He or she just needs to be treated ''worse'' than others for some arbitrary reason.", "If someone decides to donate to help orphan children, but decides to donate less, say, to children of a particular race out of a racist attitude, he or she will be acting in a discriminatory way even if he or she actually benefits the people he discriminates against by donating some money to them.", "Discrimination also develops into a source of oppression, the action of recognizing someone as 'different' so much that they are treated inhumanly and degraded.This moralized definition of discrimination is distinct from a non-moralized definition - in the former, discrimination is wrong by definition, whereas in the latter, this is not the case.The United Nations stance on discrimination includes the statement: \"Discriminatory behaviors take many forms, but they all involve some form of exclusion or rejection.\"", "The United Nations Human Rights Council and other international bodies work towards helping ending discrimination around the world." ], [ "Types", "===Age===Ageism or age discrimination is discrimination and stereotyping based on the grounds of someone's age.", "It is a set of beliefs, norms, and values which used to justify discrimination or subordination based on a person's age.", "Ageism is most often directed toward elderly people, or adolescents and children.Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States.", "Joanna Lahey, professor at The Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M, found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a young adult job applicant than an older job applicant.", "In Europe, Stijn Baert, Jennifer Norga, Yannick Thuy and Marieke Van Hecke, researchers at Ghent University, measured comparable ratios in Belgium.", "They found that age discrimination is heterogeneous by the activity older candidates undertook during their additional post-educational years.", "In Belgium, they are only discriminated if they have more years of inactivity or irrelevant employment.In a survey for the University of Kent, England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination.", "This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination.", "Dominic Abrams, social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population.===Caste===According to UNICEF and Human Rights Watch, caste discrimination affects an estimated 250 million people worldwide and is mainly prevalent in parts of Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Japan) and Africa.", ", there were 200 million Dalits or Scheduled Castes (formerly known as \"untouchables\") in India.===Disability===Discrimination against people with disabilities in favor of people who are not is called ableism or disablism.", "Disability discrimination, which treats non-disabled individuals as the standard of 'normal living', results in public and private places and services, educational settings, and social services that are built to serve 'standard' people, thereby excluding those with various disabilities.", "Studies have shown that disabled people not only need employment in order to be provided with the opportunity to earn a living but they also need employment in order to sustain their mental health and well-being.", "Work fulfils a number of basic needs for an individual such as collective purpose, social contact, status, and activity.", "A person with a disability is often found to be socially isolated and work is one way to reduce his or her isolation.In the United States, the Americans with Disabilities Act mandates the provision of equality of access to both buildings and services and is paralleled by similar acts in other countries, such as the Equality Act 2010 in the UK.===Language===Nationalists in Corsica sometimes spray-paint or shoot traffic signs in French.===Name===Discrimination based on a person's name may also occur, with researchers suggesting that this form of discrimination is present based on a name's meaning, its pronunciation, its uniqueness, its gender affiliation, and its racial affiliation.", "Research has further shown that real world recruiters spend an average of just six seconds reviewing each résumé before making their initial \"fit/no fit\" screen-out decision and that a person's name is one of the six things they focus on most.", "France has made it illegal to view a person's name on a résumé when screening for the initial list of most qualified candidates.", "Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands have also experimented with name-blind summary processes.", "Some apparent discrimination may be explained by other factors such as name frequency.", "The effects of name discrimination based on a name's fluency is subtle, small and subject to significantly changing norms.===Nationality===Discrimination on the basis of nationality is usually included in employment laws (see above section for employment discrimination specifically).", "It is sometimes referred to as bound together with racial discrimination although it can be separate.", "It may vary from laws that stop refusals of hiring based on nationality, asking questions regarding origin, to prohibitions of firing, forced retirement, compensation and pay, etc., based on nationality.Discrimination on the basis of nationality may show as a \"level of acceptance\" in a sport or work team regarding new team members and employees who differ from the nationality of the majority of team members.In the GCC states, in the workplace, preferential treatment is given to full citizens, even though many of them lack experience or motivation to do the job.", "State benefits are also generally available for citizens only.", "Westerners might also get paid more than other expatriates.===Race or ethnicity===Anti-Arab sign in Pattaya Beach, ThailandGerman warning in German-occupied Poland 1939 – \"No entrance for Poles!", "\"|leftAntisemitic graffiti in Lithuania.", "The words read ''Juden raus'' (German for ''Jews out'') and ''Hasse'' (presumably a misspelling of ''Hass'', German for ''hate'').An African-American child at a segregated drinking fountain on a courthouse lawn, North Carolina, US 1938Racial and ethnic discrimination differentiates individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial and ethnic differences and leads to various forms of the ethnic penalty.", "It can also refer to the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to physical appearance and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another.", "It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity.", "Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples.", "These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.", "It has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa during the apartheid era.", "Discriminatory policies towards ethnic minorities include the race-based discrimination against ethnic Indians and Chinese in Malaysia After the Vietnam War, many Vietnamese refugees moved to Australia and the United States, where they face discrimination.===Region===Regional or geographic discrimination is a form of discrimination that is based on the region in which a person lives or the region in which a person was born.", "It differs from national discrimination because it may not be based on national borders or the country in which the victim lives, instead, it is based on prejudices against a specific region of one or more countries.", "Examples include discrimination against Chinese people who were born in regions of the countryside that are far away from cities that are located within China, and discrimination against Americans who are from the southern or northern regions of the United States.", "It is often accompanied by discrimination that is based on accent, dialect, or cultural differences.===Religious beliefs===expelled its Hindu population or forced it to leave the country in order to preserve Bhutan's Buddhist culture and identity.Religious discrimination is valuing or treating people or groups differently because of what they do or do not believe in or because of their feelings towards a given religion.", "For instance, the Jewish population of Germany, and indeed a large portion of Europe, was subjected to discrimination under Adolf Hitler and his Nazi party between 1933 and 1945.They were forced to live in ghettos, wear an identifying star of David on their clothes, and sent to concentration and death camps in rural Germany and Poland, where they were to be tortured and killed, all because of their Jewish religion.", "Many laws (most prominently the Nuremberg Laws of 1935) separated those of Jewish faith as supposedly inferior to the Christian population.Restrictions on the types of occupations that Jewish people could hold were imposed by Christian authorities.", "Local rulers and church officials closed many professions to religious Jews, pushing them into marginal roles that were considered socially inferior, such as tax and rent collecting and moneylending, occupations that were only tolerated as a \"necessary evil\".", "The number of Jews who were permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in ghettos and banned from owning land.", "In Saudi Arabia, non-Muslims are not allowed to publicly practice their religions and they cannot enter Mecca and Medina.", "Furthermore, private non-Muslim religious gatherings might be raided by the religious police.", "In Maldives, non-Muslims living and visiting the country are prohibited from openly expressing their religious beliefs, holding public congregations to conduct religious activities, or involving Maldivians in such activities.", "Those expressing religious beliefs other than Islam may face imprisonment of up to five years or house arrest, fines ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 rufiyaa ($320 to $1,300), and deportation.In a 1979 consultation on the issue, the United States commission on civil rights defined religious discrimination in relation to the civil rights which are guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.", "Whereas religious civil liberties, such as the right to hold or not to hold a religious belief, are essential for Freedom of Religion (in the United States as secured by the First Amendment), religious discrimination occurs when someone is denied \"equal protection under the law, equality of status under the law, equal treatment in the administration of justice, and equality of opportunity and access to employment, education, housing, public services and facilities, and public accommodation because of their exercise of their right to religious freedom\".===Sex, sex characteristics, gender, and gender identity ===Sexism is a form of discrimination based on a person's sex or gender.", "It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.", "Extreme sexism may foster sexual harassment, rape, and other forms of sexual violence.", "Gender discrimination may encompass sexism and is discrimination toward people based on their gender identity or their gender or sex differences.", "Gender discrimination is especially defined in terms of workplace inequality.", "It may arise from social or cultural customs and norms.Intersex persons experience discrimination due to innate, atypical sex characteristics.", "Multiple jurisdictions now protect individuals on grounds of ''intersex status'' or ''sex characteristics''.", "South Africa was the first country to explicitly add intersex to legislation, as part of the attribute of 'sex'.", "Australia was the first country to add an independent attribute, of 'intersex status'.", "Malta was the first to adopt a broader framework of 'sex characteristics', through legislation that also ended modifications to the sex characteristics of minors undertaken for social and cultural reasons.", "Global efforts such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 is also aimed at ending all forms of discrimination on the basis of gender and sex.===Sexual orientation===LGBT activists at Cologne Pride carrying a banner with the flags of over 70 countries where homosexuality is illegalUganda's Anti-Homosexuality BillOne's sexual orientation is a \"predilection for homosexuality, heterosexuality, or bisexuality\".", "Like most minority groups, homosexuals and bisexuals are vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination from the majority group.", "They may experience hatred from others because of their sexuality; a term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is often called homophobia.", "Many continue to hold negative feelings towards those with non-heterosexual orientations and will discriminate against people who have them or are thought to have them.", "People of other uncommon sexual orientations also experience discrimination.", "One study found its sample of heterosexuals to be more prejudiced against asexual people than against homosexual or bisexual people.Employment discrimination based on sexual orientation varies by country.", "Revealing a lesbian sexual orientation (by means of mentioning an engagement in a rainbow organisation or by mentioning one's partner name) lowers employment opportunities in Cyprus and Greece but overall, it has no negative effect in Sweden and Belgium.", "In the latter country, even a positive effect of revealing a lesbian sexual orientation is found for women at their fertile ages.Besides these academic studies, in 2009, ILGA published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden.", "This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country.", "In the report, this is described as \"State sponsored homophobia\".", "This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority.", "On February 5, 2005, the IRIN issued a reported titled \"Iraq: Male homosexuality still a taboo\".", "The article stated, among other things that honor killings by Iraqis against a gay family member are common and given some legal protection.", "In August 2009, Human Rights Watch published an extensive report detailing torture of men accused of being gay in Iraq, including the blocking of men's anuses with glue and then giving the men laxatives.", "Although gay marriage has been legal in South Africa since 2006, same-sex unions are often condemned as \"un-African\".", "Research conducted in 2009 shows 86% of black lesbians from the Western Cape live in fear of sexual assault.A number of countries, especially those in the Western world, have passed measures to alleviate discrimination against sexual minorities, including laws against anti-gay hate crimes and workplace discrimination.", "Some have also legalized same-sex marriage or civil unions in order to grant same-sex couples the same protections and benefits as opposite-sex couples.", "In 2011, the United Nations passed its first resolution recognizing LGBT rights.===Reverse discrimination===Students protesting against racial quotas in Brazil: \"''Quer uma vaga?", "Passe no vestibular!''\"", "(\"Do you want a spot?", "Pass the entrance exam!", "\")Reverse discrimination is discrimination against members of a dominant or majority group, in favor of members of a minority or historically disadvantaged group.", "Groups may be defined in terms of disability, ethnicity, family status, gender identity, nationality, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation, or other factors.This discrimination may seek to redress social inequalities under which minority groups have had less access to privileges enjoyed by the majority group.", "In such cases it is intended to remove discrimination that minority groups may already face.", "Reverse discrimination can be defined as the unequal treatment of members of the majority groups resulting from preferential policies, as in college admissions or employment, intended to remedy earlier discrimination against minorities.Conceptualizing affirmative action as reverse discrimination became popular in the early- to mid-1970s, a time period that focused on under-representation and action policies intended to remedy the effects of past discrimination in both government and the business world." ], [ "Anti-discrimination legislation", "=== Australia ===* Racial Discrimination Act 1975* Sex Discrimination Act 1984* Disability Discrimination Act 1992* Age Discrimination Act 2004=== Canada ===* Ontario Human Rights Code 1962* Canadian Human Rights Act 1977 === Hong Kong ===* Sex Discrimination Ordinance (1996) === India ===Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, religion, sex, race or place of birth etc.", "Similarly, the Constitution of India guarantees several rights to all citizens irrespective of gender, such as right to equality under Article 14, right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Section 153 A) - Criminalises the use of language that promotes discrimination or violence against people on the basis of race, caste, sex, place of birth, religion, gender identity, sexual orientation or any other category.=== Israel ===* Prohibition of Discrimination in Products, Services and Entry into Places of Entertainment and Public Places Law, 2000* Employment (Equal Opportunities) Law, 1988* Law of Equal Rights for Persons with Disabilities, 1998=== Netherlands ===* Article 137c, part 1 of Wetboek van Strafrecht prohibits insults towards a group because of its race, religion, sexual orientation (straight or gay), handicap (somatically, mental or psychiatric) in public or by speech, by writing or by a picture.", "Maximum imprisonment one year of imprisonment or a fine of the third category.", "* Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to two years and the maximum fine category to 4, when the crime is committed as a habit or is committed by two or more persons.", "* Article 137d prohibits provoking to discrimination or hate against the group described above.", "Same penalties apply as in article 137c.", "* Article 137e part 1 prohibits publishing a discriminatory statement, other than in formal message, or hands over an object (that contains discriminatory information) otherwise than on his request.", "Maximum imprisonment is 6 months or a fine of the third category.", "* Part 2 increases the maximum imprisonment to one year and the maximum fine category to 4, when the crime is committed as a habit or committed by two or more persons.", "* Article 137f prohibits supporting discriminatory activities by giving money or goods.", "Maximum imprisonment is 3 months or a fine of the second category.=== United Kingdom ===* Equal Pay Act 1970 – provides for equal pay for comparable work.", "* Sex Discrimination Act 1975 – makes discrimination against women or men, including discrimination on the grounds of marital status, illegal in the workplace.", "* Human Rights Act 1998 – provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances.", "*Equality Act 2010 – consolidates, updates and supplements the prior Acts and Regulations that formed the basis of anti-discrimination law.=== United States ===* Equal Pay Act of 1963 – (part of the Fair Labor Standards Act) – prohibits wage discrimination by employers and labor organizations based on sex.", "* Civil Rights Act of 1964 – many provisions, including broadly prohibiting discrimination in the workplace including hiring, firing, workforce reduction, benefits, and sexually harassing conduct.", "* Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in the sale or rental of housing based on race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, or disability.", "The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with administering and enforcing the Act.", "* Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which amended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 – covers discrimination based upon pregnancy in the workplace.", "* Violence Against Women Act of 1994* Racism still occurs in a widespread manner in real estate.===United Nations documents===Important UN documents addressing discrimination include:* The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948.It states that:\" ''Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.", "''\"* The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) is a United Nations convention.", "The Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination.", "The convention was adopted and opened for signature by the United Nations General Assembly on December 21, 1965, and entered into force on January 4, 1969.", "* The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly.", "Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on September 3, 1981.", "* The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international human rights instrument treaty of the United Nations.", "Parties to the convention are required to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities and ensure that they enjoy full equality under the law.", "The text was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 13, 2006, and opened for signature on March 30, 2007.Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on May 3, 2008." ], [ "International cooperation", "* Global Forum against Racism and Discrimination* The International Coalition of Inclusive and Sustainable Cities (ICCAR) launched by UNESCO in 2004* Routes of Enslaved Peoples project" ], [ "Theories and philosophy", "Social theories such as egalitarianism assert that social equality should prevail.", "In some societies, including most developed countries, each individual's civil rights include the right to be free from government sponsored social discrimination.", "Due to a belief in the capacity to perceive pain or suffering shared by all animals, abolitionist or vegan egalitarianism maintains that the interests of every individual (regardless of their species), warrant equal consideration with the interests of humans, and that not doing so is speciesist.Philosophers have debated as to how inclusive the definition of discrimination should be.", "Some philosophers have argued that discrimination should only refer to wrongful or disadvantageous treatment in the context of a socially salient group (such as race, gender, sexuality etc.)", "within a given context.", "Under this view, failure to limit the concept of discrimination would lead to it being overinclusive; for example, since most murders occur because of some perceived difference between the perpetrator and the victim, many murders would constitute discrimination if the social salience requirement is not included.", "Thus this view argues that making the definition of discrimination overinclusive renders it meaningless.", "Conversely, other philosophers argue that discrimination should simply refer to wrongful disadvantageous treatment regardless of the social salience of the group, arguing that limiting the concept only to socially salient groups is arbitrary, as well as raising issues of determining which groups would count as socially salient.", "The issue of which groups should count has caused many political and social debates.Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination:# ''Realistic competition'' is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self).# ''Social competition'' is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favoring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group).# ''Consensual discrimination'' is driven by the need for accuracy and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favoring a high-status in-group because it is high status).===Labeling theory===Auschwitz Jewish Center, Poland, 2019Discrimination, in labeling theory, takes form as mental categorization of minorities and the use of stereotype.", "This theory describes difference as deviance from the norm, which results in internal devaluation and social stigma that may be seen as discrimination.", "It is started by describing a \"natural\" social order.", "It is distinguished between the fundamental principle of fascism and social democracy.", "The Nazis in 1930s-era Germany and the pre-1990 Apartheid government of South Africa used racially discriminatory agendas for their political ends.", "This practice continues with some present day governments.===Game theory===Economist Yanis Varoufakis (2013) argues that \"discrimination based on utterly arbitrary characteristics evolves quickly and systematically in the experimental laboratory\", and that neither classical game theory nor neoclassical economics can explain this.In 2002, Varoufakis and Shaun Hargreaves-Heap ran an experiment where volunteers played a computer-mediated, multiround hawk-dove game.", "At the start of each session, each participant was assigned a color at random, either red or blue.", "At each round, each player learned the color assigned to his or her opponent, but nothing else about the opponent.", "Hargreaves-Heap and Varoufakis found that the players' behavior within a session frequently developed a discriminatory convention, giving a Nash equilibrium where players of one color (the \"advantaged\" color) consistently played the aggressive \"hawk\" strategy against players of the other, \"disadvantaged\" color, who played the acquiescent \"dove\" strategy against the advantaged color.", "Players of both colors used a mixed strategy when playing against players assigned the same color as their own.", "The experimenters then added a cooperation option to the game, and found that disadvantaged players usually cooperated with each other, while advantaged players usually did not.", "They state that while the equilibria reached in the original hawk-dove game are predicted by evolutionary game theory, game theory does not explain the emergence of cooperation in the disadvantaged group.", "Citing earlier psychological work of Matthew Rabin, they hypothesize that a norm of differing entitlements emerges across the two groups, and that this norm could define a \"fairness\" equilibrium within the disadvantaged group." ], [ "See also", "* Adultism* Afrophobia* Allport's Scale* Anti-Arabism* Anti-Catholicism* Anti-intellectualism* Anti-Iranian sentiment* Anti-Mormonism* Anti-Protestantism* Antisemitism* Antiziganism* Aporophobia* Apostasy* Apostasy in Islam* Atlantic slave trade* Bias* Bumiputera (Malaysia)* Civil and political rights* Classicide* Cultural appropriation* Cultural assimilation* Cultural genocide* Dehumanization* Dignity* Discrimination against asexual people* Discrimination against atheists* Discrimination against drug addicts* Discrimination against members of the armed forces in the United Kingdom* Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS* Discrimination based on skin color* Discrimination of excellence* Economic discrimination* Equal opportunity* Equal rights* Ethnic cleansing* Ethnocentrism* Figleaf* Genetic discrimination* Genocide* Hate group* Heightism* Hispanophobia* Homophobia * Identicide* In-group favoritism* Ingroups and outgroups* Institutional discrimination* Institutional racism* Intersectionality* Intersex human rights* Islamophobia* Jim Crow laws* List of countries by discrimination and violence against minorities* Lookism* Microaggression* Nativism (politics)* Oppression* Persecution* Politicide* Psychological impact of discrimination on health* Paradox of tolerance* Racial segregation* Religious intolerance* Religious persecution* Religious segregation* Second-class citizen* Sizeism* Slavery* Stigma management* Structural discrimination* Structural violence* Supremacism* Taste-based discrimination* Xenophobia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Topics.law.cornell.edu* Legal definitions** Australia** Canada** Russia** US* Discrimination Laws in Europe* Behavioral Biology and Racism" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Double-ended queue" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, a '''double-ended queue''' (abbreviated to '''deque''', pronounced ''deck'', like \"cheque\") is an abstract data type that generalizes a queue, for which elements can be added to or removed from either the front (head) or back (tail).", "It is also often called a '''head-tail linked list''', though properly this refers to a specific data structure ''implementation'' of a deque (see below)." ], [ "Naming conventions", "''Deque'' is sometimes written ''dequeue'', but this use is generally deprecated in technical literature or technical writing because ''dequeue'' is also a verb meaning \"to remove from a queue\".", "Nevertheless, several libraries and some writers, such as Aho, Hopcroft, and Ullman in their textbook ''Data Structures and Algorithms'', spell it ''dequeue''.", "John Mitchell, author of ''Concepts in Programming Languages,'' also uses this terminology." ], [ "Distinctions and sub-types", "This differs from the queue abstract data type or ''first in first out'' list (FIFO), where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other.", "This general data class has some possible sub-types:*An input-restricted deque is one where deletion can be made from both ends, but insertion can be made at one end only.", "*An output-restricted deque is one where insertion can be made at both ends, but deletion can be made from one end only.Both the basic and most common list types in computing, queues and stacks can be considered specializations of deques, and can be implemented using deques." ], [ "Operations", "UML class diagram of a double-ended queueThe basic operations on a deque are ''enqueue'' and ''dequeue'' on either end.", "Also generally implemented are ''peek'' operations, which return the value at that end without dequeuing it.Names vary between languages; major implementations include: operation common name(s) Ada C++Java Perl PHP Python Ruby RustJavaScript insert element at back inject, snoc, push Append push_back offerLast push array_push append push push_backpush insert element at front push, cons Prepend push_front offerFirst unshift array_unshift appendleft unshift push_frontunshift remove last element eject Delete_Last pop_back pollLast pop array_pop pop pop pop_backpop remove first element pop Delete_First pop_front pollFirst shift array_shift popleft shift pop_frontshift examine last element peek Last_Element back peekLast $array-1 end -1 last back.at(-1) examine first element First_Element front peekFirst $array0 reset 0 first front0" ], [ "Implementations", "There are at least two common ways to efficiently implement a deque: with a modified dynamic array or with a doubly linked list.The dynamic array approach uses a variant of a dynamic array that can grow from both ends, sometimes called '''array deques'''.", "These array deques have all the properties of a dynamic array, such as constant-time random access, good locality of reference, and inefficient insertion/removal in the middle, with the addition of amortized constant-time insertion/removal at both ends, instead of just one end.", "Three common implementations include:* Storing deque contents in a circular buffer, and only resizing when the buffer becomes full.", "This decreases the frequency of resizings.", "* Allocating deque contents from the center of the underlying array, and resizing the underlying array when either end is reached.", "This approach may require more frequent resizings and waste more space, particularly when elements are only inserted at one end.", "* Storing contents in multiple smaller arrays, allocating additional arrays at the beginning or end as needed.", "Indexing is implemented by keeping a dynamic array containing pointers to each of the smaller arrays.===Purely functional implementation===Double-ended queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure.", "Two versions of the implementation exist.", "The first one, called '''real-time deque'', is presented below.", "It allows the queue to be persistent with operations in worst-case time, but requires lazy lists with memoization.", "The second one, with no lazy lists nor memoization is presented at the end of the sections.", "Its amortized time is if the persistency is not used; but the worst-time complexity of an operation is where is the number of elements in the double-ended queue.Let us recall that, for a list l, |l| denotes its length, that NIL represents an empty list and CONS(h, t) represents the list whose head is h and whose tail is t. The functions drop(i, l) and take(i, l) return the list l without its first i elements, and the first i elements of l, respectively.", "Or, if |l| , they return the empty list and l respectively.==== Real-time deques via lazy rebuilding and scheduling ====A double-ended queue is represented as a sextuple (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear) where front is a linked list which contains the front of the queue of length len_front.", "Similarly, rear is a linked list which represents the reverse of the rear of the queue, of length len_rear.", "Furthermore, it is assured that |front| ≤ 2|rear|+1 and |rear| ≤ 2|front|+1 - intuitively, it means that both the front and the rear contains between a third minus one and two thirds plus one of the elements.", "Finally, tail_front and tail_rear are tails of front and of rear, they allow scheduling the moment where some lazy operations are forced.", "Note that, when a double-ended queue contains n elements in the front list and n elements in the rear list, then the inequality invariant remains satisfied after i insertions and d deletions when (i+d) &leq; n/2.That is, at most n/2 operations can happen between each rebalancing.Let us first give an implementation of the various operations that affect the front of the deque - cons, head and tail.", "Those implementation do not necessarily respect the invariant.", "In a second time we'll explain how to modify a deque which does not satisfy the invariant into one which satisfy it.", "However, they use the invariant, in that if the front is empty then the rear has at most one element.", "The operations affecting the rear of the list are defined similarly by symmetry.", "empty = (0, NIL, NIL, 0, NIL, NIL)fun insert'(x, (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front+1, CONS(x, front), drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear))fun head((_, CONS(h, _), _, _, _, _)) = hfun head((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = hfun tail'((len_front, CONS(head_front, front), tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = (len_front - 1, front, drop(2, tail_front), len_rear, rear, drop(2, tail_rear))fun tail'((_, NIL, _, _, CONS(h, NIL), _)) = empty It remains to explain how to define a method balance that rebalance the deque if insert' or tail broke the invariant.", "The method insert and tail can be defined by first applying insert' and tail' and then applying balance.fun balance(q as (len_front, front, tail_front, len_rear, rear, tail_rear)) = let floor_half_len = (len_front + len_rear) / 2 in let ceil_half_len = len_front + len_rear - floor_half_len in if len_front > 2*len_rear+1 then let val front' = take(ceil_half_len, front) val rear' = rotateDrop(rear, floor_half_len, front) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else if len_front > 2*len_rear+1 then let val rear' = take(floor_half_len, rear) val front' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear) in (ceil_half_len, front', front', floor_half_len, rear', rear') else qwhere rotateDrop(front, i, rear)) return the concatenation of front and of drop(i, rear).", "That isfront' = rotateDrop(front, ceil_half_len, rear) put into front' the content of front and the content of rear that is not already in rear'.", "Since dropping n elements takes time, we use laziness to ensure that elements are dropped two by two, with two drops being done during each tail' and each insert' operation.", "fun rotateDrop(front, i, rear) = if i where rotateRev(front, middle, rear) is a function that returns the front, followed by the middle reversed, followed by the rear.", "This function is also defined using laziness to ensure that it can be computed step by step, with one step executed during each insert' and tail' and taking a constant time.", "This function uses the invariant that |rear|-2|front| is 2 or 3.fun rotateRev(NIL, rear, a) = reverse(rear)++afun rotateRev(CONS(x, front), rear, a) = CONS(x, rotateRev(front, drop(2, rear), reverse(take(2, rear))++a))where ++ is the function concatenating two lists.==== Implementation without laziness ====Note that, without the lazy part of the implementation, this would be a non-persistent implementation of queue in amortized time.", "In this case, the lists tail_front and tail_rear could be removed from the representation of the double-ended queue." ], [ "Language support", "Ada's containers provides the generic packages Ada.Containers.Vectors and Ada.Containers.Doubly_Linked_Lists, for the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively.C++'s Standard Template Library provides the class templates std::deque and std::list, for the multiple array and linked list implementations, respectively.As of Java 6, Java's Collections Framework provides a new interface that provides the functionality of insertion and removal at both ends.", "It is implemented by classes such as (also new in Java 6) and , providing the dynamic array and linked list implementations, respectively.", "However, the ArrayDeque, contrary to its name, does not support random access.Javascript's Array prototype & Perl's arrays have native support for both removing ( shift and pop) and adding ( unshift and push) elements on both ends.Python 2.4 introduced the collections module with support for deque objects.", "It is implemented using a doubly linked list of fixed-length subarrays.As of PHP 5.3, PHP's SPL extension contains the 'SplDoublyLinkedList' class that can be used to implement Deque datastructures.", "Previously to make a Deque structure the array functions array_shift/unshift/pop/push had to be used instead.GHC's Data.Sequence module implements an efficient, functional deque structure in Haskell.", "The implementation uses 2–3 finger trees annotated with sizes.", "There are other (fast) possibilities to implement purely functional (thus also persistent) double queues (most using heavily lazy evaluation).", "Kaplan and Tarjan were the first to implement optimal confluently persistent catenable deques.", "Their implementation was strictly purely functional in the sense that it did not use lazy evaluation.", "Okasaki simplified the data structure by using lazy evaluation with a bootstrapped data structure and degrading the performance bounds from worst-case to amortized.", "Kaplan, Okasaki, and Tarjan produced a simpler, non-bootstrapped, amortized version that can be implemented either using lazy evaluation or more efficiently using mutation in a broader but still restricted fashion.", "Mihaescu and Tarjan created a simpler (but still highly complex) strictly purely functional implementation of catenable deques, and also a much simpler implementation of strictly purely functional non-catenable deques, both of which have optimal worst-case bounds.Rust's std::collections includes VecDeque which implements a double-ended queue using a growable ring buffer." ], [ "Complexity", "* In a doubly-linked list implementation and assuming no allocation/deallocation overhead, the time complexity of all deque operations is O(1).", "Additionally, the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle, given an iterator, is O(1); however, the time complexity of random access by index is O(n).", "* In a growing array, the amortized time complexity of all deque operations is O(1).", "Additionally, the time complexity of random access by index is O(1); but the time complexity of insertion or deletion in the middle is O(n)." ], [ "Applications", "browsing history: new websites are added to the end of the queue, while the oldest entries will be deleted when the history is too large.", "When a user asks to clear the browsing history for the past hour, the most recently added entries are removed.One example where a deque can be used is the work stealing algorithm.", "This algorithm implements task scheduling for several processors.", "A separate deque with threads to be executed is maintained for each processor.", "To execute the next thread, the processor gets the first element from the deque (using the \"remove first element\" deque operation).", "If the current thread forks, it is put back to the front of the deque (\"insert element at front\") and a new thread is executed.", "When one of the processors finishes execution of its own threads (i.e.", "its deque is empty), it can \"steal\" a thread from another processor: it gets the last element from the deque of another processor (\"remove last element\") and executes it.", "The work stealing algorithm is used by Intel's Threading Building Blocks (TBB) library for parallel programming." ], [ "See also", "*Pipe*Queue*Priority queue" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Type-safe open source deque implementation at Comprehensive C Archive Network* SGI STL Documentation: deque* Code Project: An In-Depth Study of the STL Deque Container* Deque implementation in C * VBScript implementation of stack, queue, deque, and Red-Black Tree* Multiple implementations of non-catenable deques in Haskell" ] ]
wikipedia
[ [ "Diene" ], [ "Introduction", "1,3-butadieneIn organic chemistry, a '''diene''' ( ); also '''diolefin''', ) or '''alkadiene''') is a covalent compound that contains two double bonds, usually among carbon atoms.", "They thus contain two alk''ene'' units, with the standard prefix ''di'' of systematic nomenclature.", "As a subunit of more complex molecules, dienes occur in naturally occurring and synthetic chemicals and are used in organic synthesis.", "Conjugated dienes are widely used as monomers in the polymer industry.", "Polyunsaturated fats are of interest to nutrition." ], [ "Classes", "Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds:#'''Cumulated dienes''' have the double bonds sharing a common atom.", "The result is more specifically called an allene.#'''Conjugated dienes''' have conjugated double bonds separated by one single bond.", "Conjugated dienes are more stable than other dienes because of resonance.#'''Unconjugated dienes''' have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds.", "They are usually less stable than isomeric conjugated dienes.", "This can also be known as an '''isolated''' diene.Some dienes: '''A''': 1,2-Propadiene, also known as allene, is the simplest cumulated diene.", "'''B''': Isoprene, also known as 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, the precursor to natural rubber.", "'''C''': 1,3-Butadiene, a precursor to synthetic polymers.", "'''D''': 1,5-Cyclooctadiene, an unconjugated diene (notice that each double bond is two carbons away from the other).", "'''E''': Norbornadiene, a strained bicyclic and unconjugated diene.", "'''F''': Dicyclopentadiene.According to the ''Gold Book'' definition, a \"diene\" could include one or more heteroatoms which replace unsaturated carbon atoms, giving structures that could more specifically be called ''heterodienes''.Compounds that contain more than two double bonds are called polyenes.", "Polyenes and dienes share many properties." ], [ "Synthesis of dienes", "On an industrial scale, butadiene is prepared by thermal cracking of butanes.", "In a similarly non-selective process, dicyclopentadiene is obtained from coal tars.In the laboratory, more directed and more delicate processes are employed such as dehydrohalogenations and condensations.", "Myriad methods have been developed, such as the Whiting reaction.", "Families of nonconjugated dienes are derived from the oligomerization and dimerization of conjugated dienes.", "For example, 1,5-cyclooctadiene and vinylcyclohexene are produced by dimerization of 1,3-butadiene.Diene-containing fatty acids are biosynthesized from acetyl CoA.α,ω-Dienes have the formula (CH2)n(CH=CH2)2.They are prepared industrially by ethenolysis of cyclic dienes.", "For example, 1,5-hexadiene and 1,9-decadiene, useful crosslinking agents and synthetic intermediates, are produced from 1,5-cyclooctadiene and cyclooctene, respectively.", "The catalyst is derived from Re2O7 on alumina." ], [ "Reactivity and uses", "===Polymerization===The most heavily practiced reaction of alkenes, dienes included, is polymerization.", "1,3-Butadiene is a precursor to rubber used in tires, and isoprene is the precursor to natural rubber.", "Chloroprene is related but it is a synthetic monomer.===Cycloadditions===An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels–Alder reaction.", "Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products (e.g., Danishefsky's diene).===Other addition reactions===Conjugated dienes add reagents such as bromine and hydrogen by both 1,2-addition and 1,4-addition pathways.", "Addition of polar reagents can generate complex architectures:::Image:CODSCl2.png|450px|2,6-Dichloro-9-thiabicyclo3.3.1nonane, synthesis and reactions===Metathesis reactions===Nonconjugated dienes are substrates for ring-closing metathesis reactions.", "These reactions require a metal catalyst:c::520px===Acidity===The position adjacent to a double bond is acidic because the resulting allyl anion is stabilized by resonance.", "This effect becomes more pronounced as more alkenes are involved to create greater stability.", "For example, deprotonation at position 3 of a 1,4-diene or position 5 of a 1,3-diene give a pentadienyl anion.", "An even greater effect is seen if the anion is aromatic, for example, deprotonation of cyclopentadiene to give the cyclopentadienyl anion.C2-symmetric diene ligand used in asymmetric catalysis.===As ligands===Dienes are widely used chelating ligands in organometallic chemistry.", "In some cases they serve as placeholder ligands, being removed during a catalytic cycle.", "For example, the cyclooctadiene (\"cod\") ligands in bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) are labile.", "In some cases, dienes are spectator ligands, remaining coordinated throughout a catalytic cycle and influencing the product distributions.", "Chiral dienes have also been described.", "Other diene complexes include (butadiene)iron tricarbonyl, cyclobutadieneiron tricarbonyl, and cyclooctadiene rhodium chloride dimer." ], [ "References" ] ]
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